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City life in the Italy of the communes was a unique experience in the Middle Ages, "another world" from that of the countryside in terms of the customs, beliefs and practices that conditioned the attitudes of a complex society. In order to verify Lopez' definition of the city as a "frame of mind", the issues addressed include the perception and memory of time (both real and mythical), the elaboration of models of behaviour (that of chivalry), and the conditioning of the urban ambience through to the creation of an "acoustic landscape" of the city. The significance of what it meant to be a citizen in mediaeval Italy emerges tangibly from the evidence of contemporaries. - L'esperienza cittadina nell'Italia comunale costituisce per il medioevo un fatto unico: un 'altro mondo' rispetto alle campagne per l'insieme di consuetudini, di credenze, di usi che condizionarono gli atteggiamenti di una società complessa. Per verificare la definizione di Lopez di città come "stato d'animo", vengono considerati temi quali la percezione e la memoria del tempo (tanto reale quanto mitico), l'elaborazione di modelli di comportamento (quello cavalleresco), il condizionamento dell'ambiente urbano fino alla creazione di un "paesaggio sonoro" della città. Nella concretezza delle testimonianze dei contemporanei emerge il significato di "essere cittadini" nel medioevo italiano.

The Italian cities of the last centuries of the Middle Ages continued to witness – alongside a progressive crystallisation of the social hierarchies – the economic and social ascent of individuals belonging to the 'middle class'. These were homines novi who, without resorting to dynastic connections and often rejecting the associative model of the guilds, managed to build fortunes and dignity through trade, enterprise, the exploitation of the land, the solidarity of district and parish and the management of welfare. Emblematic of such careers is the figure of an economic agent originating from the rural district, Donato Ferrario da Pantigliate, who in 1429 founded in Milan a devotional and welfare institute, the Scuola della Divinità. The book reconstructs the social, economic and spiritual conduct of Donato, placing it within the urban context of Milan in the first half of the fifteenth century. - Le città italiane degli ultimi secoli del Medioevo videro ancora, accanto a un progressivo irrigidirsi delle gerarchie sociali, l'ascesa economica e sociale di individui appartenenti al 'ceto medio': homines novi che, senza ricorrere a legami di casata e spesso rifiutando il modello associazionistico delle corporazioni, riuscirono a costruirsi fortuna e dignità grazie al commercio, all'imprenditoria, allo sfruttamento della terra, alle solidarietà di quartiere e di parrocchia, alla gestione dell'assistenza. Emblematica di questi percorsi di affermazione è la figura di un operatore economico originario del contado, Donato Ferrario da Pantigliate, fondatore nel 1429 a Milano di un ente devozionale e assistenziale, la Scuola della Divinità, personaggio del quale si vanno qui a ricostruire i comportamenti sociali, economici e spirituali inserendoli nel contesto urbano milanese della prima metà del Quattrocento.

The PhD course in Mediaeval History of the University of Florence is one of the oldest in the Italian university circuit. Founded in 1983 by Girolamo Arnaldi, Elio Conti and Raoul Manselli, all the cycles of the courses were launched, achieving results of the greatest significance in the sphere of research. Over the years, about sixty young students and a couple of dozen teachers have given shape to a human and intellectual experience based on exchange and the acceptance of different points of view. Traced out in this book is a brief history of the first twenty years, rendering account of the activities fostered and the research carried out, and providing the scientific and bibliographic profiles of each member. - Il Dottorato di ricerca in Storia medievale dell'Università di Firenze è uno dei più antichi dell'università italiana. Fondato nel 1983 da Girolamo Arnaldi, Elio Conti e Raoul Manselli, ha attivato tutti i cicli dei corsi, conseguendo risultati di rilievo nell'attività di ricerca. Nel corso del tempo una sessantina di giovani studiosi e una ventina di docenti hanno dato corpo a un'esperienza umana e intellettuale basata sul confronto e sull'accettazione di punti di vista diversi. Ne è qui ripercorsa, in forma sintetica, la storia dei primi vent'anni, dando conto delle attività promosse e delle ricerche condotte, e raccogliendo i profili scientifici e la bibliografia di ciascun membro.

The book collects the interventions at the seminar "Images of Italy and Europe in literature and travel documentation in the 18th and 19th centuries", held at the Department of Historical and Geographical Studies of the University of Florence in 1999-2001. It addresses the problem of the creation of borders (political, administrative, linguistic, religious) in Europe and in Brazil from the Middle Ages to the beginning of the 20th century, with particular regard to the period between the 17th and 18th centuries. The theme of the constitution of borders is a classic of the relationship between history and geography and involves the entire range of human sciences, enabling the comparison with international research results.

The article shows an overview of the history of Polish librarianship. Beginning form the early Middle Ages up to the present times (the interwar period, the socialist times, the period of political system transformation) the most important facts from the history of Polish librarianship were indicated. The current legal situation of Polish libraries was discussed. The computerization condition and digitalization and document delivery programmes were presented. Finally, the undertakings connected with the accessibility of electronic periodicals and building of digital libraries were presented. The situation of Polish libraries at the beginning of the XXI century and on the eve of entering the European Union is undoubtedly worse than that of the western European and American ones in many respects. Although Polish libraries own relatively rich resources of old prints and manuscripts (e.g. the University Library in Poznañ owns the richest in Europe collection Masonic books and pamphlets), however the contemporary collections are not so impressive. There is a shortage of financial resources to buy them. Librarians' salaries are not high either. A great disadvantage of Polish librarianship is the lack of the tradition of cooperation. Only now, the first library consortia are created – like the one operating since 1996 Poznañ Foundation of Scientific Libraries (http://www.pfsl.poznan.pl/), Consortium of Wroclaw Libraries or Górnoslaskie Consortium of University Libraries. Despite all those difficulties, libraries quickly change their appearance and prepare themselves more and more flexibly to the new reality. ; The article shows an overview of the history of Polish librarianship. Beginning form the early Middle Ages up to the present times (the interwar period, the socialist times, the period of political system transformation) the most important facts from the history of Polish librarianship were indicated. The current legal situation of Polish libraries was discussed. The computerization condition and digitalization and document delivery programmes were presented. Finally, the undertakings connected with the accessibility of electronic periodicals and building of digital libraries were presented. The situation of Polish libraries at the beginning of the XXI century and on the eve of entering the European Union is undoubtedly worse than that of the western European and American ones in many respects. Although Polish libraries own relatively rich resources of old prints and manuscripts (e.g. the University Library in Poznañ owns the richest in Europe collection Masonic books and pamphlets), however the contemporary collections are not so impressive. There is a shortage of financial resources to buy them. Librarians' salaries are not high either. A great disadvantage of Polish librarianship is the lack of the tradition of cooperation. Only now, the first library consortia are created – like the one operating since 1996 Poznañ Foundation of Scientific Libraries (http://www.pfsl.poznan.pl/), Consortium of Wroclaw Libraries or Górnoslaskie Consortium of University Libraries. Despite all those difficulties, libraries quickly change their appearance and prepare themselves more and more flexibly to the new reality.

In this paper I discuss Davide Sparti's book Wittgenstein politico and I examine the possibility to read Wittgenstein's later works from an ethical and political point of view. I defend the following thesis: we can understand the political interest of Wittgenstein's philosophy only if we analyse its ethical value. I pay attention especially to the main themes presented in Sparti's book, and I sketch an analysis of the relationship between Philosophische Untersuchungen's ethical meaning and the ethical meaning of the whole wittgensteinian approach to philosophy. Moreover, I argue against the tendency currently shown by philosophy of politics to judge Wittgenstein's thought a conservative one.

Throughout Dante's work, and especially in the Convivio and in the Monarchia, the interlacing of political philosophy and ethical reflection is guided essentially by a secular conception new to the medieval thought. Philosophy, in Dante's opinion, is not an ancilla theologiae , but a necessary and sufficient way to worldly happiness, which is one of the duo ultima of human life. For this very reason Dante chooses as vertex of the scientific pyramid ethics and not metaphysics, thus maintaining a pre - eminence of practical reason in apparent contrast to the traditional superiority of contemplation on action: he highlights what may be called a "useful" kind of science. Dante therefore does not simply create, as Ruedi Imbach states, a "philosophy for laymen", new interlocutors of philosophy; he actually creates a "secular philosophy" within the ambit of ethical and political reflection, with special reference to the problems which the following terms cause, problems which are treated with means of a strictly rational and syllogistic methodology: happiness, freedom, justice and power. The result of this study is a philosophical profile which perfectly justifies the intention expressed in the prologue to the Monarchia: not to re-propose already heard of notions, as in the Convivio, but to demonstrate intemptatae veritates. Within these new truths the most important one is the affirmation of the dualism of powers (secular and spiritual), as the metaphor of the "two suns" which is a clear example of the complex but steady balance of Dante's secular conception.

During the seminar 'Time and Death penalty', which took place on November 14th 2000 in Triest's Department of Philosophy, Jacques Derrida presented a summary of his lectures of Paris and Irvine: 'Responsibility Problems. Forgiveness, Perjury and Death Penalty'. In Derrida's opinion the philosophical thought has never been - historically - against death penalty. Philosophy has either shown agreement towards its principle or it has remained silent. The aim of deconstruction is to confute the philosophical principles in favour of death penalty (in partucular the concept of sovereignity), therefore producing a philosophically relevant thought capable of facing such a complex and delicate ethical-political situation. For this purpose Derrida relates the issue of reason to the issue of a 'supernatural world', in which the philosophical responsibility of a different form of reasoning is located. The obvious and immediate comparison is with Kant's position, whose inner contradictions are closely analysed by Derrida. The second reference is the psychoanalytical tradition, which Derrida profusely uses in order to show the equivocal nature of concepts such as 'cruelty' and 'exception' that characterise the juridical and political discourse on death penalty; opaque concepts which constitute its hidden foundation.

The author analyses the development of the teaching profession in a European tradition, examining two ideal types that are connected in various ways: the teacher as an "intellectual" who is loyal to the national tradition and the teacher as a "representative of a future vision". The freedom of teaching and the function of a "people's educator" are closely connected to a perspective that also allows the teacher to be a "promoter of an opportunity" and to engage in ethnic- political questions that are emancipatory in nature. The development of schooling itself, with the increase in the numbers of teachers and the progressive bureaucratization of the teaching profession seems to imply serious problems as a new European perspective tries to combine and to guarantee the foundations of the training of future teachers. The inseparable interdependence of the development of schooling and the fundamental idea of citizenship that constitutes the spirit of Western culture requires a new philosophy of education within teacher-training programs that goes beyond the control of parameters and training standards. In this newly founded philosophy it will be possible to combine the (still problematic) idea of a multiculture with tenable aims of education for future generations. In this sense the article contains directions for pedagogical work instead of hypothetical solutions only. (DIPF/orig.)

Con riferimenti specifici alla pianura padana, si esamina in particolare il problema della sicurezza degli itinerari stradali nel tardo medioevo, che si pone in modo diverso per le diverse categorie di fruitori prese in esame (mercanti, pellegrini, militari). ; This essay examines the issue of security in the late Middle Age road system, which had different implications for its diverse users (merchants, pilgrims, soldiers), with special reference to the Po Valley.

Scholars of aristotelian political philosophy generally agree that the project of the ideal polis of Politics VII – VIII is strictly linked to Ethics. They disagree however on the nature of the constitution outlined. It is broadly accepted that it is a "polity". In this paper I deal with the topic of aristocracy in aristotelian political thought and I show that, throughout Politics, Aristotle never swerved from the idea of aristocracy as the optimal constitution, where the truly virtuous rule. Finally I argue that the ideal polis of Politics VII – VIII, though it is never explicitly thus termed, is an aristocracy.

The book, which is a redrafting of the doctoral thesis, represents a retrospective on modern philosophical anthropology through two of its major exponents. More specifically, it shows how mythology, the history of philosophy and language and Vico's conception of man have had as a constant yardstick the Cartesian approach of the psychology of Malebranche. - Il volume, frutto della rielaborazione della tesi di dottorato, costituisce una retrospettiva sull'antropologia filosofica moderna attraverso due dei suoi massimi esponenti. Più specificamente mostra come la mitologia, la filosofia della storia e del linguaggio, la concezione vichiana dell'uomo abbiano avuto come costante punto di riferimento la psicologia d'impostazione cartesiana di Malebranche.

International audience ; The unit of time used in demography is thirty years, the period of one generation. Demographic phenomena unfold slowly over time and therefore there is a time lag for public opinion to perceive and understand them. The expression "demographic implosion" must therefore be handled with care because, while it is true that in Europe there is a decrease in the proportion of youth, this decline will produce its effects very slowly: Population ageing and a decrease in natural growth. The analysis of the implosion allows one to dis- tinguish between two phenomena that often mistaken for each other. On the one side, the proportion of elderly persons grows because life expectancy at birth has increased and mortality has declined. This growth of the elderly is therefore the result of better living conditions, particularly medical advances. On the other side, the fall of fertility implies ageing from the base which reflects the lack of population replacement. One must therefore be careful to distinguish between two kinds of ageing: From the top, which reflects the many benefits of progress for men and women, and ageing from the base, which reflects estrangement regarding life. ; [L'unité de temps utilisée en démographie est de trente ans, la durée entre deux générations. Les phénomènes démographiques se déroulent lentement avec le temps et, donc, il y a un décalage dans la possibilité de l'opinion publique de percevoir et de comprendre. L'expression «implosion démographique» doit donc être manipulé avec soin, car, s'il est vrai qu'en Europe, il y a une diminution de la proportion de jeunes, cette baisse va produire ses effets lentement : vieillissement de la population et diminution de la croissance naturelle. L'analyse de l'implosion permet de distinguer deux phénomènes souvent confondus. D'un côté, la proportion de personnes âgées augmente parce que l'espérance de vie à la naissance a augmenté et la mortalité a diminué. Cette croissance des personnes âgées est donc le résultat de meilleures ...

Spinoza dedicates two remarkable, though brief, paragraphs of his Political Treatise to Machiavelli's thought: in the first one he investigates the political meaning of the writings of the Florentine secretary, whereas in the second one he summarizes and discusses more closely the different political theories. Spinoza's interest in Machiavelli is clearly centred on the latter's political views, however another relevant issue can be traced in Spinoza's work, an issue that legitimates the theoretical frame of Machiavelli's political philosophy: plural temporality and contingency. In this sense Machiavelli's concept of chance becomes central to Spinoza's interpretation, however distant from the Dutch philosopher's ontology this concept may appear, an ontology which has been defined (especially in the German ambit) as governed by a "logical", "blind", "absolute" necessity.