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Since late antiquity and till Early Modern time tyranny had been an issue of a great importance for any set of ideological concepts as well as for any system of political philosophy. During this millennium-long period theories of tyrannical rule had stimulated the development of political philosophies and caused paradigmatic shifts of political and legal reasoning in general. In its initial point (i.e. since IV AD)a conventional understanding of tyranny had framed itself within a Platonist(Patristic) description of a tyrant as a degenerated person who subjected his own reason and will to perverted passions. So to prevent tyranny a ruler ought to re-subject his passions and carnal impulses to the reason embodied in divine and human laws. The earlier versions of this theory (e. g. presented by Alcuin or Agobard of Lyons) had focused on the need for spiritual perfection of rulers while the later ones (e. g. those of John of Salisbury and Aquinas) noted the legal aspects of anissue first of all. The development of this so to say normative paradigm of theorizing had reached its peak in writings of John of Salisbury and Thomas Aquinas on the right of subjects to resist tyranny. A set of inner antinomies had prevented a successful accommodation of those theories to legal & political practice while the need for such an accommodation increased. A shift to a new paradigm of political thought had begun in the theories of state of Bartolo da Sassoferrato and Azzo and continued in the political philosophy of Italian civic humanists and Machiavelli. According to them a tyranny emerges from a conflict between the needs of political systems & rulers and the lack of available resources (both natural and societal) rather than from a moral perversion of the ruling persons. An adequate analysis of a tyrannical – and vice versa of a good – government thus required empirical circumstances (not just eternal laws) to be taken into account.

Tatar philosophy has a long history and dates back to the ancestors of the Tatars, i. e. the Volga Bulgars, who fi rst laid the foundations of philosophical knowledge in the Middle Ages in the X century. Medieval Tatar literature of the X — third quarter of the XVIII centuries is one of the foundations of Tatar social and philosophical thought (A. Yasavi (XII century), Qul- Gali (XIII century), Qutb (XIV century), S. Sarai (XIV century), Muhammadyar (XVI century)). Most of the works of Tatar thinkers of the X–XVIII centuries are syncretic. Works at the same time were both a literary source, and a book on ethics, and an essay that reveals the philosophical views of Tatar thinkers.

"The Middle Ages come to life in this latest installment in the hit Weird But True Know-It-All series, featuring stories of legendary rulers, epic castles, menacing weaponry, and more!Vikings are known for being fierce warriors. But did you know that they used tug-of-war to train for battle-and that the losing team got pulled into a pit of fire? Europe was ravaged by the plague during the Middle Ages. But did you know that one proposed cure from Medieval doctors was a concoction with a special secret ingredient: "dragons' blood"! Go beyond the Middle Ages of Europe to explore great empires around the globe, including Ottoman, Shona, Aztec, and the Song Dynasty. From Joan of Arc to Genghis Khan, incredible inventions to eyebrow-raising Medieval medicines, you'll know it all by the time you finish this book. Packed with important historical information along with the wackiest and weirdest facts ever about the Middle Ages!"--

Frontmatter --Contents --Preface --1. Boethius and the Rise of Europe --2. Gregory the Great and the New Power of the Franks --3. Charlemagne and the First Renewal of the Roman Empire --4. Consolidation of the Kingdoms --5. The End of Days Draws Menacingly Close --6. "The True Emperor Is the Pope" --7. The Long Century of Papal Schisms --8. The Vicar of God --9. The Triumph of Jurisprudence --10. The Light of Reason --11. The Monarchy --12. Waiting for Judgment Day and the Renaissance --Epilogue: The Dark Middle Ages? --Abbreviations --Notes --Selected Bibliography --Index.

New research into medieval women from the Anglo-Saxon to the late medieval period demonstrates their energy, defiance and wit. The phenomenon of medieval women's middle age is a stage in the lifecycle that has been frequently overlooked in preference for the examination of female youth and old age. The essays collected here, ranging from the Anglo-Saxon to the late medieval period, and drawing variously from literary studies, history, law, art and theology, address this lacuna. Taking a variety of critical approaches, the contributors consider medieval definitions, paradigms andexperiences of female middle age, analysing how the middle-aged woman perceived herself subjectively, as well as how she was perceived by others. They seek to challenge the received wisdom that in the middle ages, at forty, womenwere deemed "old" and, from that point onwards, their thoughts should be focused on preparing for death. On the contrary, this collection demonstrates their energy, defiance and wit. Sue Niebrzydowski is Lecturer in English, Bangor University, Wales. Contributors: Jane Geddes, Clare A. Lees, Carol M. Meale, Anneke B. Mulder-Bakker, Sue Niebrzydowski, Raluca L. Radulescu, Sara Elin Roberts, Corinne Saunders, Diane Watt.