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The term "political modernization" is of late encountered with increasing frequency in the literature of political science. Its antecedents are somewhat diffuse. In the most general sense, it seems to represent a specialized adaptation of scholars' long-standing concern with the question of whether the process of social change is determinate or variable, random or patterned, continuous or episodic, cyclic or evolutionary. Within this tradition "political modernization" is a concept opposed in tendency to the relativistic character of much modern scholarship in the field of politics. It would seem to be oriented more in the direction of a patterned and evolutionary—although not necessarily determinate or value-laden—interpretation of social change.

As used in sociol & anthrop, the conceptual characteristics of the term `culture' stress its inclusiveness, its abstractness, its patterned character, & its function as a regulative component of behavior. As a technical concept, the term 'pol'al culture' appears to date from 1956, when it was defined by G. Almond as a 'particular pattern of orientations to pol'al action.' Almond also made use of Parsonian pattern-variables in describing various cultures, though this seems to contradict his thesis re cultural dualism. S. Beer defines pol'al cultures as `values, beliefs & emotional att's' re pol'al action, a classification that appears identical with that of Parsons & Shils. An understanding of the relation of orientation to `situation' appears to be lacking in the definitions of both Almond & Beer. Beer also introduces a consensus/dissensus dichotomy as an element of pol'al culture, believing that an increase in consensus decreases the likelihood that pol'al culture will be stated explicitly. Analytical problems arise from the difficulty of determining the degree of consensus at varying levels of pol'al action. R. Macridis has advanced 3 `descriptive' categories of a pol'al system: pol'al culture, soc configuration, deliberation-decision. His definition of pol'al culture (shared goals & rules `of individual & group interaction') establishes an unsatisfactory equation between culture & goals & norms. Definitions of pol'al culture should include variant as well as dominant components. IPSA.

The primary method of supporting the national independence & liberation movements in Asia, Africa & Latin America envisaged by Mao Tse-Tung, is through the example of his own victory in China. Resting on a multi-class basis & armed with nationalist appeal, the concept of a new democracy may appeal to the traditionally anti-Communist classes as well as to all who are willing to collaborate for various considerations. The inclusion of the bourgeoisie in such a multi-class alliance is a very important point in Mao's scheme, while the appeal to the peasantry is based on a promise of agrarian reform & that to the workers on the vision of increased soc, econ & pol'al status. Objective conditions prevailing in countries on the verge of modern industrial culture leave them susceptible to a Communist offensive regardless of the present numerical strength of the Communist parties, & because of similarities between China & these countries, Maoism can be a serviceable model of action for communists & anti- gradualists to follow. IPSA.

The authors interviewed over 5,000 citizens in Germany, Italy, Mexico, Great Britain, and the U.S. to learn political attitudes in modem democratic states. Originally published in 1963. The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback and hardcover editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905.

The study of human action may be conducted from many points of view, depending on the scientist's special purpose. In analyzing political action a special group theory must be devised. The criteria for defining political groups must be directly related to the process of political action. These categories must include only persons whose political behavior is essentially similar. The units of political action are: (1) pressure groups, (2) political parties, (3) political classes, (4) nations (or comparable groups), (5) military bands, (6) individual persons. A political pressure group is derived directly from an interest group but is not identical with it. A political party is an organized association attempting to place some of its leaders in gov. office and secure certain ends on behalf of its members and supporters. A political class is a large numl3er of persons who act alike in politics over a long period of time, the essential bond of which is myth or factors which synthesize the various moral purposes of the different members. Nations are comprised of geographically contiguous people with unit allegiance, national consciousness and solidary political action resulting from common faith in inspiring myths. A military band may be large or small, is formally organized and usually tightly disciplined. The concrete individual is an important unit of political action when he acts independently of membership in any particular political group. Research is needed to determine if there are correlations among the prevalence of particular types of pressure groups, particular economic and social institutions, and particular political institutions. E. Scott.

All politicking is done by `interested' persons &the term `interest group' involves a truism, not a pathological condition. Interest groups are essential pol'al aggregates whose form, functions & power depend upon stated SP conditions. Interest groups have intrapersonal & interpersonal dimensions. Group leaders usually possess the intensive perspectives of their group, whereas the rank & file usually have signif'ly varied & split involvements in their groups. The `individual' interest can be conceived in group theory terms, so can the `national interest.' A strong anitgroup ideology is found in 19th cent democratic & socialist movemements, which tended to fluctuate between semianarchism & executive dictatorship. Group theory pictures the developing society more accurately in many ways than such other theories, while simultaneously interest groups are still treated as pests or threats to democracy. Pol'al philosophy should seek to reconcile fact & value in this situation & has a variety of theories from the past to utilize. Interest groups, broadly regarded as instruments of pluralism & localism, are an especially American practical alternative to the program of communist centralism in ideology & gov. AA.

Vague words are f'ly used in describing the goals of developing countries. It is f'ly assumed that such terms have specific meaning to the culture where they are found. An analysis of rank order preferences in 2 contexts shows that Middle Easterners have great difficulty attaching diff meanings to 2 such terms when asked to do so. AA.

An analysis of the actual diff's in voting behavior & other types of pol'al participation, as among Ru/Ur areas, & groups with diff soc characteristics, indicate that the high average turn-out in national & local elections in Japan is not associated with a rising level of pol'al consciousness. Based on samples taken in industrial Osaka & around the Ru area of Izumo, it was found that Ur Japanese patticipate less in the formal act of voting, but engage more actively in other types of pol'al action, than their Ru neighbors. Ru/Ur voting diff's appear to be partly explicable in terms of pol'al optimism & related SE factors of the Japanese countryside, where there is a strong sense of voting duty without a corresponding degree of pol'al awareness. The data collected suggest that the lower voting record of the cities is related to the widespread pessimism about the efficacy of legal pol'al action, which is particularly marked in Ur areas. IPSA.