Evidence from progressive deterioration of the urban building stock is well known. This brings about a large social and economic impact due to maintenance costs and associated personal hazards. This thesis explores ways to tackle these phenomena by means of predictive methodologies from a big urban areas point of view. To this end, we propose a predictive system about the deterioration of urban building areas. In this thesis we contribute to the existing theories of durability and life cycle analysis by introducing survival analysis prediction techniques in the durability analysis of the urban building stock. The dissertation is divided into three parts. In Part I, we present a literature review regarding the theoretical and legislative framework. After that, we address the following issues: a) classification of the observed phenomena, b) architectonical typologies emerging from the study, c) their location in the urban network, d) their relationship with climatological phenomena and pollution and finally, e) identification of the causes of deterioration and related structural damages, creating a classification according to its extent and its severity. Part II covers the methodology of inspections, the statistical analysis and the implementation of a SIG application. The template file for façade inspections has been revised by experts and it has been optimized by using multicriteria methods. We study as well the reliability of the inspection teams. In Chapter 5 we describe the survival analysis techniques employed in the nonparametric modeling for interval-censored data. The Turnbull estimator has been used as an alternative to parametric analysis due to the structure of the information available. This is a novel approach compared to the state of the art in prediction modeling. The inspection methodology and survival analysis have been integrated in a SIG management framework. The statistical application in QGIS allows for an exploration of the urban building stock analyzing the landscape, the morphology and the damages using the R libraries. The plugin, programmed in Python, is a relevant contribution as a tool for decision-making, as it allows making inferences about the deterioration process of the building stock. Then we apply the proposed prediction methodology to the analysis of a case study. The city that has been chosen for the study is L¿Hospitalet de Llobregat. In part III we describe the inspections conducted in order to select the neighborhoods that allow for maximum data coverage. The research has avoided parametric assumptions and it has been focused on the topics that are more interesting from the point of view of the data collected in terms of orientation, territorial impact, percentage of damages in the representative parts of the façade and percentages of different types of damages. These descriptive statistics of the sample guide the sample selection in the following stages of the survival analysis study. Specifically, we propose and describe non-parametric techniques for the determination of the significant variables in the process of façade deterioration. Results from the case study show how to draw relevant information in order to conduct an effective prevention management. We conclude showing the validity of the predictive system for the prevention of the building stock deterioration. The final chapter also suggests advice for the improvement of inspections, such as ICT and inspector¿s training, and for incorporating dynamic data about the landscape exploiting the QGIS tool and the statistical analysis of the FAD plugin. The PhD candidate postulates that such initiatives require a supporting infrastructure from institutions and he advocates the creation of a commission to implement predictive systems that improve the management of the urban building stock. ; És contrastable l'evidència de l'envelliment progressiu del parc edificat de les ciutats, al costat del fort impacte social i repercussió econòmica en termes de manteniment que aquest representa, així com el risc per a les persones que porta associat. En aquest context, la Tesi Doctoral explora vies per intercedir davant aquests fenòmens mitjançant metodologies predictives que abordin la problemàtica sota una perspectiva de grans àrees urbanes. Per aconseguir aquest objectiu, la recerca proposa un sistema predictiu a multiescala de la degradació dels fronts urbans edificats de la ciutat. La Tesi Doctoral planteja incorporar a les teories existents de durabilitat, cicle de vida i anàlisi del cicle de vida una aportació innovadora fonamentada en la introducció de tècniques d'anàlisi de supervivència predictives, al llarg del temps, en els estudis de durabilitat a les façanes del front urbà. La recerca, per tal d'abastar tota la problemàtica, s'ha estructurat en tres parts en què es contribueix de manera específica i directa a la investigació principal. A la Part I, Introducció al marc teòric i al laboratori urbà, s'exposen les conclusions a les que ens ha portat la revisió de la bibliografia científica i de la legislació existent, sobre els temes que han suscitat interès per al progrés de la investigació. Un cop presentat el Laboratori Urbà, es justifica i defineix com estructurar els elements objecte d'observació, quines tipologies arquitectòniques resulten de l'estudi, com se situen dins d'una trama urbana, quines relacions s'estableixen amb els fenòmens climàtics i de contaminació mediambientals, quins són els principals agents de degradació i a quin tipus de lesions corresponen, incloent una escala de representació i de gravetat. Amb això definim l'element unitari d'estudi amb les seves característiques morfològiques, d'entorn i d'afectació deixant introduïts els elements bàsics per a la realització d'estudis de seguiment de grans àrees urbanes. La metodologia d'inspecció, les tècniques d'anàlisi estadística i la implementació d'un aplicatiu en SIG s'investiguen i proposen a la Part II de la Tesi. Pel que fa al model de fitxes per a realitzar les inspeccions de façanes, el document proposat ha estat revisat per experts i optimitzat via mètodes comparatius multicriteri. També s'ha estudiat la fiabilitat dels equips d'inspecció que ha conduït a propostes concretes d'actuació, així com a futures línies d'investigació. Al Capítol 5 es descriuen les tècniques emprades dins el model d'anàlisi estadística de supervivència aplicant models no paramètrics per a dades amb censura en un interval. S'introdueix l'estimador de Turnbull per a aquest tipus d'anàlisi, com a alternativa a les anàlisis paramètriques. La raó del model respon al tipus d'informació disponible i que aquesta sempre es troba censurada en un rang temporal molt ampli. Les tècniques presentades són fonamentals pel que representen un canvi de paradigma en les estratègies de modelització preventiva La metodologia d'inspecció i d'anàlisi de supervivència que es proposen s'han integrat en un entorn de gestió SIG. Per això s'ha implementat un aplicatiu estadístic en QGIS que permet l'exploració territorial, morfològica i de lesions del front urbà i el modelatge dels temps fins a la lesió fent ús de llibreries de R. L'aplicatiu s'ha elaborat en col·laboració amb el Dr. Jacek Rapinski de l'Institut de Geodèsia de la Facultat de Geodèsia i Enginyeria de la Universitat de Warmia and Mazury a Olsztyn (Polònia), el Laboratori d'Edificació i l'IEMAE de l'EPSEB, i ha estat programat en llenguatge Python. Aquesta integració representa una rellevant aportació com a eina de suport a la presa de decisions sobre el parc edificat, quant al coneixement que s'infereix sobre el procés de deteriorament dels fronts urbans. Amb la metodologia del sistema predictiu disponible s'ha procedit a l'exploració i obtenció de resultats sobre un cas d'estudi. La ciutat escollida ha estat la de L'Hospitalet de Llobregat. A la Part III es descriuen les diferents campanyes d'inspecció que s'han realitzat per tal de millorar la informació disponible i quins barris han estat seleccionats. La investigació ha relaxat hipòtesis prèvies de manera que ha permès que siguin les dades que marquin els focus d'interès més significatius arran de consultar el mòdul d'anàlisi que permet mostrar orientacions, impactes territorials, percentatges d'afectació sobre les parts més representatives de la façana i percentatges basats en els tipus de lesió. Aquests resultats descriptius de l'estat general de la mostra estudiada, són la base de la selecció per a les anàlisis de supervivència i modelització posteriors. En particular, també es proposen i il·lustren tècniques de modelització no paramètriques per determinar quines variables intervenen de forma significativa en el procés d'aparició de les lesions sobre les façanes. Els resultats parcials del cas d'estudi demostren com es pot disposar d'informació rellevant per a una gestió preventiva eficaç. Les conclusions de la Tesi Doctoral reafirmen la validesa del sistema predictiu plantejat i que es postula com un model eficaç per a la prevenció en la degradació dels fronts urbans. El capítol final també incorpora aspectes de millora de les inspeccions com els mitjans TIC i la formació dels inspectors, i al seu torn apunta propostes per a incorporar dades dinàmiques sobre el territori aprofitant el potencial de QGIS i dotar de més anàlisi estadística a l'aplicatiu FAD. El doctorand argumenta que aquest tipus d'iniciatives requereixen un suport de les institucions encarregades de vetllar per la sostenibilitat del que s'ha construït i proposa la creació de comissions per a la implantació futura de sistemes predictius que millorin i optimitzin la gestió del parc urbà. ; Es contrastable la evidencia del envejecimiento progresivo del parque edificado de las ciudades, junto al fuerte impacto social y repercusión económica en términos de mantenimiento que éste representa, así como el riesgo para las personas que lleva asociado. En este contexto, la Tesis Doctoral explora vías para interceder ante estos fenómenos mediante metodologías predictivas que abordan la problemática bajo una perspectiva de grandes áreas urbanas. Para conseguir este objetivo la investigación propone un sistema predictivo a multiescala de la degradación de los frentes urbanos edificados de la ciudad. La Tesis Doctoral plantea incorporar a las teorías existentes de durabilidad, ciclo de vida y análisis del ciclo de vida una aportación innovadora fundamentada en la introducción de técnicas de análisis de supervivencia predictivas. Para ello la investigación se ha estructurado en tres partes que contribuien al objetivo principal. En la Parte I, Introducción al marco teórico y al laboratorio urbano, se exponen las conclusiones a las que nos ha llevado la revisión de la bibliografía científica y de la legislación existente. Una vez presentado el Laboratorio Urbano, se justifica y define cómo estructurar los elementos objeto de observación, qué tipologías arquitectónicas resultan, la sitúan dentro de la trama urbana, qué relaciones se establecen con los fenómenos medioambientales, principales agentes de degradación y a qué tipo de lesiones corresponden. La metodología de inspección, las técnicas de análisis estadístico y la implementación de un aplicativo en SIG se investigan y proponen en la Parte II. En cuanto al modelo de fichas para realizar las inspecciones de fachadas, el documento propuesto ha sido revisado por expertos, optimizado vía métodos comparativos multicriterio, y estudiado la fiabilidad de los equipos de inspección. En el Capítulo 5 se describen las técnicas empleadas dentro del modelo de análisis estadístico de supervivencia aplicando modelos no paramétricos para datos con censura en un intervalo. Se introduce el estimador de Turnbull para este tipo de análisis, como alternativa a los análisis paramétricos. Las técnicas presentadas son fundamentales en cuanto representan un cambio de paradigma en las estrategias de modelización preventiva. La metodología de inspección y de análisis de supervivencia propuestos se ha integrado en un entorno de gestión SIG. Por ello se ha implementado un aplicativo estadístico en QGIS que permite la exploración territorial, morfológica y de lesiones del frente urbano y el modelado de los tiempos hasta la lesión haciendo uso de librerías de R. El aplicativo ha sido programado en lenguaje Python y representa una relevante aportación como herramienta de soporte a la toma de decisiones sobre el parque edificado, en cuanto al conocimiento que infiere sobre el proceso de deterioro de los frentes urbanos. Con la metodología del sistema predictivo disponible se procede a la exploración y obtención de resultados sobre un caso de estudio. La ciudad escogida ha sido la de L'Hospitalet de Llobregat. En la Parte III se hallan descritas las distintas campañas de inspección. La investigación ha relajado hipótesis previas de manera que ha permitido que sean los datos quienes marquen los focos de interés más significativos. También se proponen e ilustran técnicas de modelización no paramétricas para determinar qué variables intervienen en el proceso de aparición de las lesiones sobre las fachadas. Las conclusiones de la Tesis Doctoral reafirman la validez del sistema predictivo planteado y que se postula como un modelo eficaz para la prevención en la degradación de los frentes urbanos. El capítulo final incorpora aspectos de mejora de las inspecciones y la formación de los inspectores, y apunta propuestas para incorporar datos dinámicos sobre el territorio y dotar de mayor análisis estadístico al aplicativo FAD. ; Postprint (published version)
Evidence from progressive deterioration of the urban building stock is well known. This brings about a large social and economic impact due to maintenance costs and associated personal hazards. This thesis explores ways to tackle these phenomena by means of predictive methodologies from a big urban areas point of view. To this end, we propose a predictive system about the deterioration of urban building areas. In this thesis we contribute to the existing theories of durability and life cycle analysis by introducing survival analysis prediction techniques in the durability analysis of the urban building stock. The dissertation is divided into three parts. In Part I, we present a literature review regarding the theoretical and legislative framework. After that, we address the following issues: a) classification of the observed phenomena, b) architectonical typologies emerging from the study, c) their location in the urban network, d) their relationship with climatological phenomena and pollution and finally, e) identification of the causes of deterioration and related structural damages, creating a classification according to its extent and its severity. Part II covers the methodology of inspections, the statistical analysis and the implementation of a SIG application. The template file for façade inspections has been revised by experts and it has been optimized by using multicriteria methods. We study as well the reliability of the inspection teams. In Chapter 5 we describe the survival analysis techniques employed in the nonparametric modeling for interval-censored data. The Turnbull estimator has been used as an alternative to parametric analysis due to the structure of the information available. This is a novel approach compared to the state of the art in prediction modeling. The inspection methodology and survival analysis have been integrated in a SIG management framework. The statistical application in QGIS allows for an exploration of the urban building stock analyzing the landscape, the morphology and the damages using the R libraries. The plugin, programmed in Python, is a relevant contribution as a tool for decision-making, as it allows making inferences about the deterioration process of the building stock. Then we apply the proposed prediction methodology to the analysis of a case study. The city that has been chosen for the study is L¿Hospitalet de Llobregat. In part III we describe the inspections conducted in order to select the neighborhoods that allow for maximum data coverage. The research has avoided parametric assumptions and it has been focused on the topics that are more interesting from the point of view of the data collected in terms of orientation, territorial impact, percentage of damages in the representative parts of the façade and percentages of different types of damages. These descriptive statistics of the sample guide the sample selection in the following stages of the survival analysis study. Specifically, we propose and describe non-parametric techniques for the determination of the significant variables in the process of façade deterioration. Results from the case study show how to draw relevant information in order to conduct an effective prevention management. We conclude showing the validity of the predictive system for the prevention of the building stock deterioration. The final chapter also suggests advice for the improvement of inspections, such as ICT and inspector¿s training, and for incorporating dynamic data about the landscape exploiting the QGIS tool and the statistical analysis of the FAD plugin. The PhD candidate postulates that such initiatives require a supporting infrastructure from institutions and he advocates the creation of a commission to implement predictive systems that improve the management of the urban building stock. ; És contrastable l'evidència de l'envelliment progressiu del parc edificat de les ciutats, al costat del fort impacte social i repercussió econòmica en termes de manteniment que aquest representa, així com el risc per a les persones que porta associat. En aquest context, la Tesi Doctoral explora vies per intercedir davant aquests fenòmens mitjançant metodologies predictives que abordin la problemàtica sota una perspectiva de grans àrees urbanes. Per aconseguir aquest objectiu, la recerca proposa un sistema predictiu a multiescala de la degradació dels fronts urbans edificats de la ciutat. La Tesi Doctoral planteja incorporar a les teories existents de durabilitat, cicle de vida i anàlisi del cicle de vida una aportació innovadora fonamentada en la introducció de tècniques d'anàlisi de supervivència predictives, al llarg del temps, en els estudis de durabilitat a les façanes del front urbà. La recerca, per tal d'abastar tota la problemàtica, s'ha estructurat en tres parts en què es contribueix de manera específica i directa a la investigació principal. A la Part I, Introducció al marc teòric i al laboratori urbà, s'exposen les conclusions a les que ens ha portat la revisió de la bibliografia científica i de la legislació existent, sobre els temes que han suscitat interès per al progrés de la investigació. Un cop presentat el Laboratori Urbà, es justifica i defineix com estructurar els elements objecte d'observació, quines tipologies arquitectòniques resulten de l'estudi, com se situen dins d'una trama urbana, quines relacions s'estableixen amb els fenòmens climàtics i de contaminació mediambientals, quins són els principals agents de degradació i a quin tipus de lesions corresponen, incloent una escala de representació i de gravetat. Amb això definim l'element unitari d'estudi amb les seves característiques morfològiques, d'entorn i d'afectació deixant introduïts els elements bàsics per a la realització d'estudis de seguiment de grans àrees urbanes. La metodologia d'inspecció, les tècniques d'anàlisi estadística i la implementació d'un aplicatiu en SIG s'investiguen i proposen a la Part II de la Tesi. Pel que fa al model de fitxes per a realitzar les inspeccions de façanes, el document proposat ha estat revisat per experts i optimitzat via mètodes comparatius multicriteri. També s'ha estudiat la fiabilitat dels equips d'inspecció que ha conduït a propostes concretes d'actuació, així com a futures línies d'investigació. Al Capítol 5 es descriuen les tècniques emprades dins el model d'anàlisi estadística de supervivència aplicant models no paramètrics per a dades amb censura en un interval. S'introdueix l'estimador de Turnbull per a aquest tipus d'anàlisi, com a alternativa a les anàlisis paramètriques. La raó del model respon al tipus d'informació disponible i que aquesta sempre es troba censurada en un rang temporal molt ampli. Les tècniques presentades són fonamentals pel que representen un canvi de paradigma en les estratègies de modelització preventiva La metodologia d'inspecció i d'anàlisi de supervivència que es proposen s'han integrat en un entorn de gestió SIG. Per això s'ha implementat un aplicatiu estadístic en QGIS que permet l'exploració territorial, morfològica i de lesions del front urbà i el modelatge dels temps fins a la lesió fent ús de llibreries de R. L'aplicatiu s'ha elaborat en col·laboració amb el Dr. Jacek Rapinski de l'Institut de Geodèsia de la Facultat de Geodèsia i Enginyeria de la Universitat de Warmia and Mazury a Olsztyn (Polònia), el Laboratori d'Edificació i l'IEMAE de l'EPSEB, i ha estat programat en llenguatge Python. Aquesta integració representa una rellevant aportació com a eina de suport a la presa de decisions sobre el parc edificat, quant al coneixement que s'infereix sobre el procés de deteriorament dels fronts urbans. Amb la metodologia del sistema predictiu disponible s'ha procedit a l'exploració i obtenció de resultats sobre un cas d'estudi. La ciutat escollida ha estat la de L'Hospitalet de Llobregat. A la Part III es descriuen les diferents campanyes d'inspecció que s'han realitzat per tal de millorar la informació disponible i quins barris han estat seleccionats. La investigació ha relaxat hipòtesis prèvies de manera que ha permès que siguin les dades que marquin els focus d'interès més significatius arran de consultar el mòdul d'anàlisi que permet mostrar orientacions, impactes territorials, percentatges d'afectació sobre les parts més representatives de la façana i percentatges basats en els tipus de lesió. Aquests resultats descriptius de l'estat general de la mostra estudiada, són la base de la selecció per a les anàlisis de supervivència i modelització posteriors. En particular, també es proposen i il·lustren tècniques de modelització no paramètriques per determinar quines variables intervenen de forma significativa en el procés d'aparició de les lesions sobre les façanes. Els resultats parcials del cas d'estudi demostren com es pot disposar d'informació rellevant per a una gestió preventiva eficaç. Les conclusions de la Tesi Doctoral reafirmen la validesa del sistema predictiu plantejat i que es postula com un model eficaç per a la prevenció en la degradació dels fronts urbans. El capítol final també incorpora aspectes de millora de les inspeccions com els mitjans TIC i la formació dels inspectors, i al seu torn apunta propostes per a incorporar dades dinàmiques sobre el territori aprofitant el potencial de QGIS i dotar de més anàlisi estadística a l'aplicatiu FAD. El doctorand argumenta que aquest tipus d'iniciatives requereixen un suport de les institucions encarregades de vetllar per la sostenibilitat del que s'ha construït i proposa la creació de comissions per a la implantació futura de sistemes predictius que millorin i optimitzin la gestió del parc urbà. ; Es contrastable la evidencia del envejecimiento progresivo del parque edificado de las ciudades, junto al fuerte impacto social y repercusión económica en términos de mantenimiento que éste representa, así como el riesgo para las personas que lleva asociado. En este contexto, la Tesis Doctoral explora vías para interceder ante estos fenómenos mediante metodologías predictivas que abordan la problemática bajo una perspectiva de grandes áreas urbanas. Para conseguir este objetivo la investigación propone un sistema predictivo a multiescala de la degradación de los frentes urbanos edificados de la ciudad. La Tesis Doctoral plantea incorporar a las teorías existentes de durabilidad, ciclo de vida y análisis del ciclo de vida una aportación innovadora fundamentada en la introducción de técnicas de análisis de supervivencia predictivas. Para ello la investigación se ha estructurado en tres partes que contribuien al objetivo principal. En la Parte I, Introducción al marco teórico y al laboratorio urbano, se exponen las conclusiones a las que nos ha llevado la revisión de la bibliografía científica y de la legislación existente. Una vez presentado el Laboratorio Urbano, se justifica y define cómo estructurar los elementos objeto de observación, qué tipologías arquitectónicas resultan, la sitúan dentro de la trama urbana, qué relaciones se establecen con los fenómenos medioambientales, principales agentes de degradación y a qué tipo de lesiones corresponden. La metodología de inspección, las técnicas de análisis estadístico y la implementación de un aplicativo en SIG se investigan y proponen en la Parte II. En cuanto al modelo de fichas para realizar las inspecciones de fachadas, el documento propuesto ha sido revisado por expertos, optimizado vía métodos comparativos multicriterio, y estudiado la fiabilidad de los equipos de inspección. En el Capítulo 5 se describen las técnicas empleadas dentro del modelo de análisis estadístico de supervivencia aplicando modelos no paramétricos para datos con censura en un intervalo. Se introduce el estimador de Turnbull para este tipo de análisis, como alternativa a los análisis paramétricos. Las técnicas presentadas son fundamentales en cuanto representan un cambio de paradigma en las estrategias de modelización preventiva. La metodología de inspección y de análisis de supervivencia propuestos se ha integrado en un entorno de gestión SIG. Por ello se ha implementado un aplicativo estadístico en QGIS que permite la exploración territorial, morfológica y de lesiones del frente urbano y el modelado de los tiempos hasta la lesión haciendo uso de librerías de R. El aplicativo ha sido programado en lenguaje Python y representa una relevante aportación como herramienta de soporte a la toma de decisiones sobre el parque edificado, en cuanto al conocimiento que infiere sobre el proceso de deterioro de los frentes urbanos. Con la metodología del sistema predictivo disponible se procede a la exploración y obtención de resultados sobre un caso de estudio. La ciudad escogida ha sido la de L'Hospitalet de Llobregat. En la Parte III se hallan descritas las distintas campañas de inspección. La investigación ha relajado hipótesis previas de manera que ha permitido que sean los datos quienes marquen los focos de interés más significativos. También se proponen e ilustran técnicas de modelización no paramétricas para determinar qué variables intervienen en el proceso de aparición de las lesiones sobre las fachadas. Las conclusiones de la Tesis Doctoral reafirman la validez del sistema predictivo planteado y que se postula como un modelo eficaz para la prevención en la degradación de los frentes urbanos. El capítulo final incorpora aspectos de mejora de las inspecciones y la formación de los inspectores, y apunta propuestas para incorporar datos dinámicos sobre el territorio y dotar de mayor análisis estadístico al aplicativo FAD. ; Postprint (published version)
n the last centuries, Humankind has lived sourced by fossil fuels and under a linear economic perspective based on extractive activities, environmental depletion and lack of circularity. Ironically, what goes around, comes around. The prevailing paradigm of production-consumption-waste (take-make-dispose) that excluded the environmental perspective was wrong. How production and consumption patterns are settled nowadays, have repercussions in all the spheres (economy, society and the environment). Consequently, the world is currently facing significant challenges that affect all the people: Climate Change, energy security, increasing electricity demand, economic growth and employment creation are among the top concerns today. They are present in the national agendas as reflected in the Sustainability Development Goals (SDGs) to achieve sustainability resilience and, ultimately, welfare. The economy and energy systems strongly condition these goals. Regarding the former, production processes now are more distant due to globalisation, information and communication technologies (ICT), offshoring and the international trade growth, and have made that production and consumption develop through complex global value chains (GVC) with different countries that produce different parts of a final product that is eventually consumed elsewhere. The Covid19's pandemic is a recent example of how the GVC phenomenon has propagated the economic shocks across sectors and countries (via lockdowns, upstream bottlenecks, dependencies and transportation problems). Understanding how GVC behave is fundamental to describing the dependencies and networks that define today's world economy. Hence, GVC become the backbone of this thesis. Concerning the later, energy coming from fossil fuels is still mainstream. This fact hinders the efforts to fight against Climate Change, which implies meeting the Paris Agreement goals. Countries are committed to reducing their greenhouse gases emissions for the year 2030. The strategy to achieve the mitigation goals needs a low carbon economy and energy transition path, so countries worldwide have launched national policy packages to increase renewable energy sources (RES). However, two main issues arise: on the one hand, these green investments planned are insufficient. On the other side, the required energy transition may impact other aspects of sustainability and resilience that imply both synergies and trade-offs between SDGs and social and economic spheres of sustainability that should be assessed. Furthermore, world energy demand is expected to increase. In developing countries, growth is dramatic. For example, the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region grew at a rate of 6-8% per year in the past years. It is expected to triple by 2030. Developing countries face the same challenges as developed ones, departing from a disadvantaged position (in terms of technology, labour skills and capital endowments, institutional robustness, and political priorities). In this context, an energy transition towards decarbonisation, focused on developing regions, plays cardinal importance in the thesis. Renewable electricity ensures climate protection and energy security, as well as employment opportunities, economic growth and human welfare. It becomes part of the solution to today's problems to achieve sustainability. With Covid19, the future of energy and the global value chains is uncertain. The debate about the virtues GVC and the dependencies in the production process obviously affect the citizens' health and safety and have implications for international trade and investment (renewables included). Policymakers responsible for taking today's critical investment decisions need complete analysis and evidence of their choices' broad impacts. This is the main objective of the thesis. Aiming to depict the current functioning of the production processes focused on RES deployment, this document covers the insertion of developing regions in GVC (their role, insertion and implications), through socioeconomic and environmental indicators, and policy recommendations. The present thesis, entitled "Sustainability assessment of green investments on the path to the energy transition and the decarbonisation of the economy. The importance of global value chains", is structured in six chapters: Chapter 1 introduces the two intertwined concepts present in the whole document: energy and the global value chains. Chapters 3 to 5 deal with these two concepts at different levels (regional, national and local, respectively). It also presents the main research questions and lists the work performed up to the present date. Chapter 2 links RES deployment and value chains through a common methodological framework: the input-output analysis. It is a widely used way to measure GVC and sustainability impacts related to investments such as renewables. One of the main advantages of this method is its ability to account for a wide range of dimensions in the three spheres of sustainability along with detailed full inclusion of the GVC, including both direct and indirect effects. However, one of the main shortcomings of this methodology is the lack of data available for developing regions: many countries are not covered in the main multi-regional input-output (MRIO) databases, hindering the measurement of GVC in regions like South America or Africa. Chapter 3 addresses data shortcomings by using a regional input-output table (RIOT). Chapter 3 analyses South America's role in GVC through the Koopman, Wang and Wei (KWW) decomposition. The KWW scheme is extended to explain the limitations when using a RIOT. A novel adaptation of the KWW gross exports decomposition scheme, suitable for any RIOT, is created to this end. The implications of using a RIOT are assessed. Besides, the results are complemented with those obtained using a Multiregional Input-Output (MRIO) table. It is confirmed the low insertion of South America in GVC and its upstream position as a provider of intermediate goods and services: imported content in South American exports comes primarily from outside the region, and only Uruguay is vertically integrated. Finally, using a RIOT is not recommended for a complete sustainability analysis when MRIO tables are available. In chapter 4, Mexico's green investments for the period 2018-2030 are assessed in terms of value added, employment, materials, land use, water and CO2eq emissions in a multiregional input-output framework. These green investments are expected to account for nearly an increase of 1%, both GDP and employment, in Mexico and scheduled mitigation of around 63 Mt CO2eq, once the new facilities are fully deployed. Nevertheless, the deployment and operation, and maintenance phases will increase the emissions (0.82%), the water and material footprint (0.19 and 0.9%, respectively) and the land use (0.19%) with a substantial share of the positive and negative effects leaked outside the country borders. We compare the results with the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) proposal, aligned with the COP21 goals. If additional RES to meet the Paris Agreement is deployed in Mexico, GDP and employment are estimated to almost triple concerning the national package assessed. Chapter 5 presents a sustainability assessment of concentrated solar power (CSP) hybridisation with biomass technology to be installed in Tunisia. Environmental impacts have been assessed by Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). For socioeconomic impacts, an MRIO analysis was used to estimate the production of goods and services, value added and employment creation. Regarding the results, the system reports 22 gCO2eq per kWh. The most critical component in terms of emissions is the gasifier system, due to biomass transport. Socioeconomic results show significant impacts on Tunisia's employment creation, coming essentially from the operation and maintenance (O&M) phase. The multiplier effect of the direct investment in producing goods and services amounts to 2.4 (3.5 accounting induced impacts). Domestic value added in investment is low, only 28.9% of the overall value added created. Thus, increasing the national content of the investment stage would bring additional local benefits. Using extended MRIO, CO2 emissions have also been calculated, and the CO2 emission differences with both methodologies are discussed. This thesis concludes with some final remarks regarding the importance of RES deployment in achieving the Paris Agreement and some of the Agenda 2030 goals while identifying how GVC affect these green investments, especially in developing countries. GVC potential weaknesses and the benefits of fostering local RES components niches should be considered to create policy actions. Finally, brief comments on current and future research lines include exploring other technologies such as carbon capture, storage and use (CCUS), capital endogenisation and methodological hybridisations to contribute to identifying the benefits of green investments in the way to sustainability.
The historical tensions between Chile and Bolivia are a regular topic on the international politics agenda of both countries and all South America. On October 1st of 2018, the International Court of Justice ruled in favor of Chile in the maritime lawsuit proclaiming that this country had no obligation to negotiate a sovereign exit to the sea for Bolivia. This litigation derived from the loss of access to the coasts and territories after the War of the Pacific (1879–1883). However, this was not the only water related conflict between the two countries. Following the ending of the Bolivian lawsuit Chile presented a case against Bolivia which will be the central topic of this article. This is a case for the spring's waters located in the Andean highlands at the height of the Chilean city of Antofagasta, known by the name of Silala. These waters arise from a series of springs born in Bolivia that transit by force of gravity, towards Chile. The case, which has been a recurrent subject for more than a century in the border relationship between Chile and Bolivia, was a source of interest amid the Bolivian lawsuit previously presented. Before the litigation was ended, Chile decided to present a lawsuit against Bolivia for the Silala waters conflicts to clarify the obligations of each state upstream (Bolivia) and downstream (Chile). To date the matter is still in court pending a ruling but it seems appropriate to make it known. This research is sustained from the social sciences because it analyzes an untold case in the studies of international relations in all South America. Despite all the advances in technology currently available, it has not been settled a typification of the nature of these waters that arise in the middle of the Andes. Another point to be made it is that beyond the outcome of the lawsuit, the definition by the International Court of Justice will set a precedent on the matter at a regional level regarding shared water resources. It is important to remember that this is not a lawsuit on borders but on shared resources. Consequently, the result could eventually act as an incentive or deterrent of future litigation in other South American territories. In that context, freshwater lawsuits in South America take a course of analysis and relevant focus. States are not capable of reaching an agreement. The problem lies less in a field related to water governance and more in a context of a foreign policy dispute. Technically the feud has been raised by Chile before the Court under this latter approach. However, the International Court of Justice could well fail based on the former. Among the objectives of this work is to confirm that the conflict over the use of the Silala waters expresses the absence of effective mechanisms for the resolution of controversies in the South American region. The argument presented by Karen Mingst sustain that the pressures on water are causing increasing conflicts in the States, which increasingly acquire international dimensions (pp. 484–485). A second objective is to recognize how the increasing judicialization of conflicts between Latin American countries in recent decades exposes a greater problem among States. The failure of integration processes or at least the partial uselessness of multilateralism in the foreign policy of the States requires a deep institutional consideration. Focusing on the object of study, it is necessary to emphasize that Chile has carried out a foreign policy approach based on respect for international treaties, non–interference in matters of other States and respect for International Law. In this framework Chile has reiterated that the waters of the Silala constitute a river, therefore, an international water resource shared with Bolivia in a basin, which is essential for the supply of some towns but especially for large–scale mining. Meanwhile Bolivia has gone through a quite different path in the international policy measures. On one hand, and since the rise of Evo Morales to power in 2006, it was insisted based on an independent study by the Bolivian engineer Antonio Bazoberry called 'The Myth of Silala' that these waters were a set of spring eyes in which case Bolivia would correspond the 100% of its usufruct even with retroactive effect. From this source the Bolivian Foreign Ministry declare that the Silala constituted a strategic natural resource which means that Chile has used these waters incorrectly. Based on this conclusion Bolivia would have the right to suspend the flow to Chile because the waters are not a river and the Chilean nation would be misusing them. Additionally, in the commemoration of the Day of the Sea on March 23rd of 2016, Bolivia authorities claimed that they would considering suing Chile in a second trial before the International Court of Justice. These acts were considered a threat by Chile, who in June of the same year presented the case at the Court the lawsuit to judge the nature and use of resource. The article exposes the scope and context that surrounds a conflict that has little scientific literature written in recent years. In this regard, and from the hypothesis that arises, the research shows that the use of freshwater, particularly of the Silala's waters, an aquifer that joins Chile and Bolivia, transcends water governance. This conflict is mainly related to the handling of the critical historical relationship between Chile and Bolivia, a relation that does not have these waters as the main pillar but rather the ancient maritime claim. This case is a judicialization of foreign policy as a means of conflict resolution. A mechanism that does not contribute to alliances between countries, instead is an evasive alternative due to the absence of relations that in the case of Chile and Bolivia have been interrupted since 1978. It will be addresses the origin of the conflict, the characteristics of these shared resources, the role of International Organizations, the presence of bilateral tensions and conflicts during the government of Evo Morales and the implications that these waters represent for both countries in this political–strategic territory. In this framework, the research is based on studies of the flow of slopes, aspects of the speeches that surround the dispute based on the press media appearances of both countries, official statements of the governments and complementary bibliography. ; Las tensiones históricas entre Chile y Bolivia son un tema constante en la agenda de la política internacional de ambos países y por cierto de América del Sur. El 1 de octubre de 2018, la Corte Internacional de Justicia falló a favor de Chile en el caso de la demanda marítima y declaró que este país no tenía obligación alguna de negociar una salida soberana al mar para Bolivia, derivado de la pérdida de acceso a las costas y territorios tras la Guerra del Pacífico (1879–1883). Sin embargo, este no era el único pleito por aguas entre los dos países. Detrás de la demanda boliviana, se produjo un pleito sucesivo, pero esta vez, una demanda de Chile contra Bolivia el año 2016. Se trata de las aguas de unos manantiales en el altiplano andino a la altura de la ciudad de Antofagasta de Chile, conocidas con el nombre del Silala, aguas que surgen en Bolivia y que transitan hacia Chile. La investigación demuestra que el uso de las aguas dulces, y en particular las del Silala, acuífero que une a Chile y Bolivia en la zona del Departamento de Potosí y la Región de Antofagasta en Chile, trasciende la gobernanza del agua y se relaciona con el manejo de la crítica relación histórica entre Chile y Bolivia. El texto explora el origen del conflicto, las características de estos recursos compartidos, el rol de los organismos internacionales, la presencia de las tensiones y conflictos bilaterales durante el gobierno de Evo Morales, y las implicancias que estas aguas representan para ambos países en el área político–estratégica.
El concepto de responsabilidad atraviesa centralmente la obra de Hannah Arendt. La agudeza de sus análisis y sus juicios para abordar su significado problemático resulta particularmente valiosa para la hermenéutica de los acontecimientos de su tiempo y también de los años posteriores hasta nuestros días, por tratarse de una de las claves de comprensión y un asunto central de la esfera de los asuntos humanos. El objetivo de este trabajo es comprender el significado problemático de la responsabilidad a partir de la incidencia que tienen sobre este concepto las variaciones de perspectivas y de énfasis que presentan los distintos momentos del pensamiento de Hannah Arendt respecto de la acción, el pensamiento, la voluntad y el juicio. En este sentido la pregunta-problema de esta tesis se puede plantear de la siguiente manera: ¿De qué modo comprende Hannah Arendt el significado problemático de la responsabilidad en los distintos momentos de su pensamiento?La hipótesis planteada sostiene que: para Hannah Arendt la responsabilidad es ineludible, inalienable, compleja y paradojal. Estos rasgos constantes están atravesados por las tensiones, las perspectivas y los énfasis de los significados político, personal, moral y jurídico de la responsabilidad que caracterizan los distintos momentos de su pensamiento. Los principales estudios sobre el pensamiento arendtiano coinciden en que el proceso a Eichmann y la posterior publicación de las reflexiones sobre lo acontecido en este juicio, constituyen un punto de inflexión en el pensamiento arendtiano. Villa, sostiene que a fines de los 60 y tempranos 70, Arendt pasa de enfatizar las características básicas de la vida activa a centrarse en la importancia del pensamiento, la voluntad y el juicio en la vida activa de la mente, giro plasmado de manera inconclusa en La vida del espíritu. Es un cambio de perspectiva que tiene implicancias en la comprensión del significado de la responsabilidad y que justifica una investigación que posea un enfoque abarcativo, comparativo e integrador de los distintos momentos de la obra de Arendt, tal como se propone este proyecto. Las investigaciones existentes sobre el tema, están focalizadas en algún período o aspecto particular de la responsabilidad. La presente tesis se diferencia de las interpretaciones parciales y polemiza con ellas. El aporte original de la tesis consistirá en el análisis integral del problema de la responsabilidad, de las paradojas, de los cambios de énfasis y de acentos que se presentan en los distintos momentos de la obra de Arendt. La indagación aquí propuesta, pondrá de relieve las articulaciones y tensiones del problema de la responsabilidad, presentes en las obras anteriores y posteriores a Eichmann en Jerusalén. La investigación realizada en la Tesis de Maestría abordó el vínculo entre la responsabilidad y la acción en Los Orígenes del Totalitarismo, La Condición Humana y otras2obras anteriores a Eichmann en Jerusalén. En esta tesis doctoral se ampliará y profundizará el tema de investigación en todas las etapas de la obra arendtiana, y, a partir de las conclusiones obtenidas previamente, se indagará de manera particular sobre la incidencia de la imagen de un yo interior no coherente sino múltiple, constituido por tres facultades diferentes y enfrentadas entre sí (pensamiento, voluntad y juicio), en la comprensión del significado de la responsabilidad. Sin embargo, el análisis que se realizará no será historiográfico, sino que consistirá en una exégesis relacional que pondrá en diálogo estas obras para identificar los momentos de aparición, tensión y mutación de la concepción arendtiana de la responsabilidad. El criterio que guía la división de capítulos, no se corresponde con las cuatro obras a trabajar como corpus central. Responde a una identificación de problemas más que a la exégesis unidireccional de cada obra seleccionada. Esta modalidad habilita a usar otros textos de la obra arendtiana de manera tangencial y en la medida en que contribuyan a comprender el problema que esta tesis quiere desentrañar. ; The concept of responsibility is central to the work by Hannah Arendt. The acuteness of her analysis and judgment in dealing with its problematic meaning is particularly valuable in the hermeneutics of the events of the time and also of the subsequent years till our present days, as it is key in the understanding and a central issue in the sphere of human affairs. The aim of this work is to understand the problematic meaning of the concept of responsibility with basis on the incidence that the variations in perspective and emphasis in different moments of the thought of Hannah Arendt bear on the concept, as regards action, thought, will and judgment. In this sense, the question-problem of this thesis could be formulated as follows: In which way does Hannah Arendt understand the problematic concept of responsibility along the different moments of her thought? The postulated hypothesis supports the idea that for Hannah Arendt responsibility is unavoidable, inalienable, complex and paradoxical. These constant characteristics are marked through by the tensions, the perspectives and the emphasis of the political, personal, moral and juridical meanings of responsibility that characterize the different moments of her thought. The main studies of arendtian thought coincide on the idea that the Eichmann process and the ulterior publishing of the reflections on what took place along the trial constitute a turning point in her thought. Villa supports that towards the late 60s and the early 70s, Arendt goes from emphasizing the basic characteristics of active life to focusing on the importance of thought, will and judgment in the active life of the mind, a turn incompletely reflected in The Life of the Mind. It is a change of perspective that has implications in the understanding of the meaning of responsibility and that justifies research with an all encompassing, comparative and integrative view of the different moments of Arendt's work as proposed by this project. The current research on the topic focuses on a particular period or aspect of responsibility. The present thesis aims at differentiating from the partial interpretations and at arguing with them. The original contribution of the thesis will reside in the integral analysis of the problem of responsibility, and of the paradoxes, the changes in emphasis and stress that the different moments in the work of Arendt present. The current exploration will highlight the articulations and tensions of the problem of responsibility present in the works prior and posterior to Eichmann in Jerusalem. The research carried out in the Master's Thesis dealt with the link between responsibility and action in The Origins of Totalitarianism, The Human Condition and other works prior to Eichmann in Jerusalem. The present doctoral thesis will amplify and deepen the research theme along all the stages of arendtian work, and, with base on the conclusions previously formulated, it will particularly explore the incidence of the image of a non coherent interior self but a multiple one, constituted by three differentiated and confronted faculties (thought, will and judgment) in the understanding of the meaning of responsibility. The analysis will nevertheless not be historiographic, but rather a relational exegesis that will set these works in dialogue in order to identify the moments of appearance, tension and mutation of the arendtian concept of responsibility. The guiding criterion of the division of the chapters does not correspond to the four works that constitute the central corpus of the exploration. It rather responds to the identification of problems than to the unidirectional exegesis of each of the chosen works. This modality enables the tangential use of other arendtian texts as long as they contribute to the understanding of the problem that this thesis aims at unravelling. ; Fil: Cantero, María de Los Angeles. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe; Argentina. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales; Argentina
Profundizar en el concepto de aula supone desvelar el papel que este contexto desempeña en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje. El aula es el punto de mira de la institución educativa, descrita como el lugar deseable en el que se produce conocimiento. Hemos de decir que de su concepto se extraen diferentes "lentes" para entender los procesos que ocurren en ella, así como las características que mejor la definen. El aula, como espado en el que se ha de reconocer, valorar y respetar a todos los escolares, supone prestar atención a lo que se enseña y al modo de enseñarlo, a la forma de "llegar" al alumnado. Al mismo tiempo, ha de atender a la estructura espacial y material, a la configuración de los tiempos y al tipo de relaciones personales mantenidas. El aula, como espacio de intercambio e interacción entre todos los agentes implicados en la educación (familia, estudiantes, profesorado, asociaciones.), ha de plantear estrategias y acciones donde todos se sientan miembros y partícipes de ese escenario, de ahí, que el aula es algo más que el espacio físico. Por tanto, al definirla en base a criterios de interacción, de relaciones sociales, nos está abriendo el camino hacia la construcción de un aula como espacio de diálogo, democrático y social. Espacio, en definitiva, abierto al mundo, a la realidad social y cultural de un determinado contexto. Por tanto, la finalidad de la tesis doctoral se centra en analizar y comprender las variables que intervienen en ¡a acción educativa en el aula, desde un enfoque interactivo y sistemático, encaminado a la formulación de propuestas que favorezcan la mejora de la cíase, mediante planteamientos innovadores, acordes y adaptados a una sociedad que evoluciona avivadamente, así como a las demandas que la infancia de hoy reclama La estructura del trabajo se presenta siguiendo el esquema clásico para las investigaciones del corpus educativo. La primera parte de la Tesis Doctora!, Marco Teórico, ha desempeñado la función de establecer las bases teórico- conceptuales sobre las que se asienta la Tesis Doctoral, y el Estudio Empírico (Capítulos 1-5). La segunda parte profundiza en el estudio empírico (Capítulos 6-12), en el que se presenta la investigación realizada en torno al análisis que intervienen en la acción educativa, desde una perspectiva integrada. En el primer capítulo, denominado, ¿Qué es eso que llamamos aula? Análisis desde el punto de vista conceptual. Tiene como finalidad abordar el campo semántico-etimológico del concepto "aula". Desde este marco referencial, seleccionamos y señalamos algunas acepciones que nos aportan diversos autores a io largo de las últimas décadas. Remarcamos las características más significativas de cada una de ellas, estableciendo, a su vez, comparaciones que nos guíen hacia una clasificación conceptual sujeta a diversas categorías: desde el aula como espacio físico, como grupo humano, como un lugar donde el estudiante aprende a ser y a vivir, entre otros. En último lugar, y en base a las diferentes aportaciones analizadas, indicaremos qué es para nosotros el "aula". El segundo capítulo, Desafíos y Encrucijadas en el contexto del aula en la sociedad actual, selecciona e identifica algunos de los desafíos y encrucijadas que, a nuestro juicio, contribuyen al debate de los nuevos enfoques a adoptar con el fin de transformar y mejorar la acción educativa en el aula, en la sociedad actual. Entre los retos que registramos destacan la revalorización del trabajo coiaborativo entre profesionales desde la perspectiva del liderazgo compartido o distribuido, las competencias clave y saberes fundamentales en la educación del siglo XXI (icurrículum integrado), el impacto de las TIC en el ámbito escolar, otorgando un carácter significativo al papel del estudiante y del docente, a las características que subyacen en los nuevos entornos comunicativos y las estrategias y herramientas que permiten formar personas cada vez más autónomas para el aprendizaje permanente en colaboración. Por otra parte, nos centramos en un nuevo concepto de infancia, en la participación de la comunidad educativa y, finalmente, la diversidad en el aula desde la filosofía de la inclusión escolar (voz de los estudiantes). El tercer capítulo hace referencia a la perspectiva del cambio educativo y su incidencia en las aulas: dónde el cambio no llega, dónde el cambio se vive y se siente. Analizamos, en este capítulo, la perspectiva del cambio educativo y su incidencia en las aulas. Desde un marco general, profundizamos en el significado de la gramática del cambio educativo, sentando las bases para esclarecer su conceptualización, así como algunas consideraciones relevantes a tener en cuenta. A tenor de las transformaciones emergentes en una sociedad compleja, se necesitan nuevas respuestas en la práctica educativa, así optamos por reflexionar y cuestionar los elementos que favorecen otra educación posible y necesaria, desde las últimas investigaciones acaecidas en el panorama educativo, presentando algunas experiencias de éxito a nivel nacional e internacional. En la otra cara de la moneda, vislumbrarnos la visión más estática del cambio y la mejora educativa, profundizando en las barreras que frenan y obstaculizan la sostenibilidad de ias experiencias innovadoras. Para, finalmente, detenernos en uno de los principales agentes del cambio para la mejora de la clase, los docentes. Estrategias como la Formación en Centros y las Comunidades Profesionales de Aprendizaje constituyen una vía y camino adecuado para el diagnóstico, análisis, reflexión, valoración de las necesidades y reorientación de las prácticas profesionales que inciden de manera directa en la posibilidad del cambio educacional desde el propio centro. En el cuarto capítulo, describiendo los elementos que conforman un paisaje llamado aula: "estructura académica". Nos detenemos en la estructura académica como elemento relevante y significativo para el análisis de la acción educativa. En él abordamos dos cuestiones clave: ¿qué enseñar? y ¿cómo enseñar? de manera interrelacionada. En primer lugar, nos planteamos la revisión/estudio del Currículum desde un enfoque o perspectiva integrada. Desechamos la ¡dea de la enseñanza de unos contenidos inconexos y alejados de las transformaciones emergentes en la sociedad, transmitidos oralmente y presentados en compartimentos estancos, apostando por la integración curricular en torno a una "perspectiva democrática". Se requiere que el currículum se plasme en un texto que contemple la complejidad de los fines de la educación y desarrollar una acción holística capaz de despertar en los escolares procesos que sean propicios para alcanzar esa finalidad. Desde esta idea presentamos algunas experiencias educativas que plantean el abordaje de los contenidos de modo innovador; entre ellos se encuentran: partir de lo que sabe el escolar, globalización curricular, fomentar el trabajo en equipo o aprendizaje cooperativo, la creación de espacios de diálogo, la inclusión de talleres, rincones y grupos interactivos. En segundo lugar, damos respuesta a la segunda cuestión, ¿cómo enseñar?, o lo que es lo mismo, profundizamos en la dinámica de enseñanza. La revisión de la literatura se concentra en estudiar las actividades de enseñanza-aprendizaje y, finalmente, en la evaluación formativa. El último capítulo que da forma al cuerpo teórico, lleva por nombre ¿Cómo nos organizamos? Configuración del espacio, del tiempo escolar y la planificación de los recursos en las aulas. En primer lugar, realizamos un balance normativo-legislativo que versará sobre la importancia adquirida a lo largo de la historia de la educación la configuración de los espacios en los centros escolares, como un elemento y eje fundamental en el aprendizaje del alumnado, posteriormente, indagaremos en su relevancia para la educación, así como el marco semántico- conceptual por el cual movernos, sin olvidarnos de algunas recomendaciones para una organización espacial integrada en los retos y desafíos de la educación del siglo XXI, en la línea de conseguir el cambio educativo. En segundo lugar, abordamos su organización, en base a un breve análisis en torno a los materiales curriculares. Partiremos de su definición, marcaremos sus fundones dentro del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje, posteriormente, justificaremos su importancia, para finalizar con algunos criterios para el empleo de los materiales en el aula. En último lugar, profundizaremos en la problemática del tiempo escolar, una variable muy presente en la vida de las personas y que de algún modo nos incita a plantear otra forma de organizar el mismo. Tras el análisis bibliográfico, fase del trabajo en la que se ha incidido en las variables que intervienen en la dinámica del aula, con una exploración de su campo semántico, así como en cuestiones que atañen al concepto de cambio educativo, con el análisis de experiencias de innovación singulares en el panorama nacional e internacional, cuya mejora de la acción educativa es una realidad, entre otros asuntos, proseguimos al planteamiento de este capítulo: Diseño General de la Investigación: Estudio Integrado. En esta investigación se ha perseguido alcanzar los propósitos mediante la puesta en práctica de un estudio combinado-integrado de las dos metodologías, cuantitativa y cualitativa. La obtención de datos y de información a través de la combinación de ambas metodologías ha permitido fomentar la riqueza de los resultados. Inicialmente, en este capítulo profundizamos en las razones y el origen de la investigación, seguidamente, detallamos los problemas, la finalidad, así como los objetivos del estudio, sintetizados y organizados en una tabla de categorías. A su vez, incidimos en la opción metodológica escogida que otorga sentido al estudio integrado, combinando los paradigmas cuantitativo y cualitativo, en los tres estudios que componen el mismo. El primero de ellos, el extensivo, analiza las concepciones que diversos docentes de la provincia de Huelva tienen sobre las diferentes categorías que forman parte del cuestionario administrado. El segundo, nos centramos y sumergimos en la cotidianeidad del aula de dos centros educativos. A través de dos estudios de caso conocemos cómo funciona el aula desde planteamientos que se pueden considerar como innovadores. Finalmente, el último estudio, denominado biográfico, nos permite observar, mediante la voz de dos docentes, cómo viven y sienten el aula, remitiéndonos a la narración de sus propias historias de vida. Estos estudios se abordan paralelamente en capítulos posteriores, desde aquí tan sólo señalamos algunas cuestiones teóricas clave que nos permiten comprender cada uno de ellos. Finalmente, deparamos en los principios (triangulación, enfoque progresivo, confidencialidad y revisión por los interesados) que acompañan al estudio y en las cuestiones éticas para ei desarrollo de ¡a investigación, desde un enfoque general y particular para cada uno de los estudios. El siguiente capítulo, se centra en la descripción del Diseño General delEstudio Extensivo. Para su diseño, en primer lugar, recogemos el marco conceptual y terminológico del cuestionario. Asimismo, una vez consideradas sus características más representativas, especificamos la población y la muestra del estudio extensivo. En tercer lugar, ahondamos en el proceso de elaboración del cuestionario, ligado a este apartado, aunque en diferentes secciones, nos encontramos los pasos esenciales para su elaboración: formato y estructura del cuestionario, elección de las preguntas del cuestionario y descripción de las preguntas del cuestionario. Ya construido el instrumento, el siguiente paso consiste en la presentación y administración del cuestionario. En este espacio, especificamos el proceso que seguimos desde su elaboración hasta la recogida de los cuestionarios en los centros educativos. Finalmente, concluimos con el análisis y tratamiento de la información; a la par que con unas consideraciones finales. El corazón de nuestra investigación palpita con la necesidad de encontrar estímulos y mecanismos que nos permitan conocerlo y describirlo para seguir su propio biorritmo. La razón de ser del estudio intensivo radica en comprender una determinada realidad social, cultural, educativa, sumergirnos y abrir los entresijos del microcosmos educativo. La acción educativa sólo es posible estudiarla si tenemos acceso a su campo y, por ello, recurrimos al estudio de casos, un método con raíces asentadas dentro del corpus de la investigación educativa. El capítulo del Diseño Genera! del Estudio Intensivo, se inicia con una revisión conceptual del estudio de casos dentro del enfoque de investigación cualitativa, conduciéndonos, de una forma exhaustiva, a la justificación metodológica de nuestro estudio. En segundo lugar, describimos el proceso seguido en el estudio de casos, con el desarrollo de cada una de sus fases. Basándonos en las aportaciones de Martínez Bonafé (1988:46), determinamos que las fases de nuestro estudio fueran: (a) fase inicia! o preactiva, en la que especificamos los criterios de elección de los casos y el papel de la investigadora, (b) fase interactiva, en la que describimos cómo se llevó a cabo el acceso al campo y el proceso de negociación, así como la estructura conceptual del estudio y ios instrumentos de recogida de información, (c) fase fina! o postactiva, en la que señalamos cómo se realizó el análisis de los datos y la redacción y elaboración del informe final. Finalmente, el capítulo concluye con un epílogo en el que se señalan los aspectos más representativos del estudio. Probablemente el interés por develar aspectos no visibles que atañen a la práctica educativa en el aula, nos suscitó la posibilidad de anexar en nuestro estudio las Historias de vida para conocer, investigar y analizar diferentes categorías de las experiencias de vida de las personas, hechos, acontecimientos, así como períodos históricos, que han asumido un importante peso en la trayectoria escolar, formativa y personal, de las docentes participantes en el estudio. En este capítulo, dedicado al Diseño Genera! del Estudio Subjetivo, tratamos de aproximarnos de manera epidérmica, en primer lugar a cuestiones que atañen a lo puramente conceptual, una aproximación a la investigación biográfico-narrativa y, como técnica insignia a la Historia de vida (campo semántico, relevancia en el campo de la educación a través de historias de maestros y de maestras, entre otras). En segundo lugar, exponemos la selección y representación de las mismas en nuestra investigación, otorgando espacio a las consideraciones teórico-metodológicas, marcando el trabajo de campo que se llevó a cabo (desde la recogida de evidencias y datos biográficos, centrándonos en la entrevista biográfica, así como en otras cuestiones de suma importancia). Rnalmente, dibujamos el rostro de la protagonista para marcar el inicio y la antesala de su propia Historia de vida como eje para entender su práctica cotidiana en el aula, incluyendo la construcción de Biogramas y la detección de incidentes críticos que ilustran un antes y un después en la forma de ser docente. Los capítulos siguientes se destinan al análisis de los resultados de los tres estudios que componen la investigación. Así, el capítulo noveno describe los resultados del Estudio Extensivo, de carácter exploratorio y enfocado a indagar en las concepciones de los docentes respecto a las variables que forman parte de la acción educativa. El capítulo décimo, describe el segundo estudio de la investigación, consistente en dos estudios de caso en la etapa de Educación Infantil y Educación Primaria de docentes que promueven una enseñanza alternativa e innovadora. Finalmente, el capítulo onceavo, muestra los resultados del tercer estudio, dedicado a la reconstrucción de la Historia de Vida de la docente del caso 1, como forma de comprender como mayor profundidad la acción educativa desde la exploración de la trayectoria personal y profesional de la docente. Cada capítulo finaliza con una serie de conclusiones parciales respecto al análisis abordado y en torno a las categorías y propósitos de ia investigación. Seguidamente, el capítulo doce, recoge las conclusiones de la investigación, además de detallar los límites y las perspectivas de investigación. ; To deepen the concept of classroom supposed to reveal the role that context plays in the teaching-learning process. The classroom is the focus of the school, described as a desirable place in which knowledge is produced. We must say that from its concept are extracted different "lenses" to understand the processes occurring in it, and the characteristics that best define it.The classroom, as a space wherescholastic must be recognized, valued and respected, presume to pay attention to what is taught and how to teach it. At the same time, it must meet the spatial structure and material, the time distribution and the type of relationships maintained. The classroom as a forum for exchange and interaction between all those involved in education (family, students, faculty, associations .), must propose strategies and actions where all feel members and participants of that scenario, hence, the classroom is more than a physical space. Therefore, when it is defined based on criteria of interaction, social relations, we are paving the way for the construction of a classroom as a space for dialogue, democratic and social. The aim of the thesis is to analyze and understand the variables involved in the educational activities in the classroom, from an interactive and systematic approach, focused in formulating proposals that promote the improvement of the class, through innovative approaches, suitable and adapted to a changing society as well as to the claims that children today claim. The structure of the work is presented following the classic pattern for the educational research corpus. The first part of the doctoral thesis, Theoretical Framework, has played the role of setting up theoretical concepts on which the doctoral thesis is based and also the empirical study (Chapters 1-5). The second part explores the empirical study (Chapters 6-12), where the research about the analysis involved in educational activities, an integrated perspective is presented. In the first chapter, entitled, What is this thing called class? Analysis from the conceptual point of view,it aims to address the semantic and etymological field of the "class" concept. From this frame of reference, we select and point out some meanings that give us many authors over the last few decades. We emphasize the most significant of each characteristics, by providing, in turn, comparisons to guide us toward a conceptual classification linked to several categories: from the classroom as a physical space , as a human group , as a place where students learn to be and to live among others. Finally, and based on the different contributions analyzed, we will indicate what is for us the "classroom". The second chapter, Challenges and Crossroads in the classroom context in today's society, selects and identifies some of the challenges and crossroads, that, in our view, contribute to the discussion of new approaches to adopt in order to transform and improve the action education in the classroom, in today's society. Among the challenges we include,stand out the reevaluation of collaborative work among professionals from the perspective of shared or distributed leadership, the key skills and fundamental knowledge in the XXI century education (curriculum integrated), the impact of ICT in schools, giving a significant character to the role of students and teachers, the characteristics underlying the new communication environments and strategies and tools thatallow to preparepeople able to self-learn in collaboration with others. Moreover, we focus on a new concept of childhood, in the participation of the educational community and, finally, in the diversity in the classroom from the philosophy of the school inclusion (voiced by students). The third chapter refers to the perspective of educational change and its impact in the classroom: where the change does not arrive, where the change is lived and felt. We analyze in this chapter the perspective of educational change and its impact in the classroom. From a general framework, we deepen in the meaning of the grammar of educational change, laying the groundwork to clarify its conceptualization, as well as some important considerations to keep in mind. Under the emerging transformations in a complex society, new answers in educational practice are needed, so we chose to reflect and question the elements favoring another possible and necessary education from the latest research occurred in the educational landscape, presenting some experiences success at national and international level. On the other side of the coin, we catch sight of the static vision of change and educational improvement, deepening the barriers that hinder and hamper the sustainability of innovative experiences. To finally stop at one of the main agents of the change to improve the class, the teachers. Strategies such as Training Centers and Professional Learning Communities are a way and proper way for diagnosis, analysis, reflection, needs assessment and reorientation of professional practices that have a direct impact on the ability of educational change from the own center. In the fourth chapter, describing the elements of a landscapecalled class: "academic structure". We stop at the academic structure as relevant and meaningful for the analysis of educational action item. In it we address two key issues: what to teach? And how to teach? in an interrelated way. First, we consider the revision / study of the curriculum from an integrated perspective. We reject the idea of a disjointed teaching content and away from emerging transformations in society, orally transmitted and presented in silos, betting on the curricular integration around a "democratic perspective". It requires that the curriculum is translated into a text that addresses the complexity of the purposes of education and to develop a holistic action capable of awakening in school processes that are conducive to achieve that purpose. From this idea we present some educational experiences that address the content in innovative ways; among them they are: Starting point should be the knowledge of the scholastic, curriculum globalization, promoting teamwork and cooperative learning, creating spaces for dialogue, including workshops, nooks and interactive groups. Secondly, we respond to the second question, how to teach? or what is the same, we delve into the dynamics of teaching. The review of the literature focuses on studying the teaching-learning activities and, finally, in the formative evaluation. The last chapter that forms the theoretical body, is called How do we organize? Layout of the space and time of the school and the resources planning in the classroom. First, we perform a regulatory-legislative balance that will focus on the importance gained over the history of education settings spaces in schools, and as a cornerstone element in student learning, then we will investigate its relevance for education and semantic- conceptual framework by which to move, not forgetting some recommendations for one special organization integrated in the challenges of education in the XXI century, in the line to get the educational change. Secondly, we address its organization, based on a brief analysis on the curricular materials. We will depart from its definition, we will mark their functions within the teaching-learning process, later we willjustify its importance, ending with some criteria for the use of materials in the classroom. Lastly, we will delve into the issue of school time, a variable present in the lives of people and that somehow encourages us to propose another way of organizing it. After the bibliographical analysis, phase of work which has stressed the variables involved in the dynamics of the classroom, with an exploration of the semantic field as well as on matters pertaining to the concept of educational change, with the analysis of experiences in singular innovation in the national and international scene, which improvement of educational action is a reality, among other issues, we continue to approach this chapter: Genera! Research Design: Integrated Study. In this research it has been pursued to achieve the purposes by the implementation of one study, integrated-combined of the two methodologies, quantitative and qualitative. Obtaining data and information through the combination of the two methodologies has helped to foster the wealth of results. Initially, in this chapter we delve into the reasons and the origin of the research, then, we detail the problems, the purpose and objectives of the study, summarized and organized in a table of categories. At the same time, we stress the methodological option chosen that gives meaning to the integrated study, combining quantitative and qualitative paradigms, in all three studies that comprise it. The first one, the extensive one analyzes the conceptions that various teachers in the province of Huelva have on the different categories that are part of the administered questionnaire. Second, we focus and dive into the everyday classroom of two schools. Through two case studies classroom we know how it works from approaches that can be considered as innovative. Finally, the last study, called biographical, allows us to see, through the voices of two teachers, how they live and feel the classroom, by referring to the narrative of their own life stories. These studies are discussed in parallel in later chapters, we note here only some key theoretical issues that help us to understand each one. Finally, we came across on the principles (triangulation, progressive approach, confidentiality and review by the envolved) accompanying the study and ethical issues for the development of research, from a general and particular for each of the studies focus. The next chapter focuses on the description of Design General of extensive study. For its design, first, we collect the conceptual framework and terminology of the questionnaire. Also, once are considered the most representative features, we specify the population and sample of the extensive study. Third, we delve into the process of developing the questionnaire, linked to this section, although in different sections, we find the essential steps for processing: format and structure of the questionnaire, choice of the questionnaire and describing questions of the questionnaire. Oncethe instrument is built, the following step is the filing and administration of the questionnaire. In this area, we specify the process we follow from development to the collection of the questionnaires in schools. Finally, we conclude with the analysis and processing of information; on par with some final considerations. Chapter General Intensive Design Studio, begins with a conceptual review of case studies within the qualitative research approach, leading, in a comprehensive way, the methodological justification of our study. Second, we describe the process followed in the case study, with the development of each of its phases. Based on input from Bonafé Martinez (1988:46), we determined that the phases of our study were: (a) initial or pre-active phase, which specify the criteria for selection of cases and the role of the researcher, (b) interactive phase in which we describe how you carried out the access to the field and the negotiation process and the conceptual structure of the study and the instruments for collecting information, (c) final stage or postactive, in which we noted how the data analysis and drafting and the final report was made. Finally, the chapter concludes with an epilogue in which the most representative aspects of the study are indicated. Probably the interest in revealing visible aspects regarding educational practice in the classroom, raised the possibility of annexing in our study life stories to know, investigate and analyze different categories of the life experiences of people, facts, events and historical periods, that have assumed an important role in the school, training and personal career of the teachers participating in the study. In this chapter, dedicated to Genera! Subjective Design Studio, we try to approach epidermal way, firstly to matters pertaining to the purely conceptual, an approach to the biographical-narrative research and technical badge as a life history (semantic field, relevant in the field of education through stories of teachers and teachers, among others). Secondly, we present the selection and representation of these in our research, giving space to the theoretical and methodological considerations, marking the fieldwork that took place (from the collection of evidence and biographical data, focusing on the biographical interview as well as other critical issues). Finally, we draw the face of the protagonist to mark the beginning and the prelude to his own life story as a hub to understand their daily practice in the classroom, including the construction of Biograms and detection of critical incidents that illustrate a before and after in the way of being a teacher. The following chapters are devoted to the analysis of the results of the three studies that make up the research. Thus, the ninth chapter describes the results of the extensive study, exploratory and focused to investigate the teachers' conceptions about the variables that are part of the educational action. The tenth chapter describes the second research study consisting of two case studies in pre-primary and primary education teachers that promote alternative and innovative teaching. Finally, the eleventh chapter shows the results of the third study, devoted to the reconstruction of the Life History of the teaching of case 1, as a way to further understand how the educational action through the exploration of personal and professional trajectory of the teacher. Each chapter ends with a series of partial conclusions regarding the analysis and addressed around categories and research purposes. Next, chapter twelve, contains the findings of the investigation, as well as detailing the limits and research perspectives.
La arquitectura de la vivienda bioclimática hace referencia a la relación que tiene el clima con la vida humana, a su vez el humano con la vivienda, lo anterior se tiene como pilar fundamental de la explicación del título de la investigación. De igual forma se tiene como pauta principal el clima en función del bienestar del habitar del ser humano como tal dentro de la vivienda y a su vez como el clima juega un rol fundamental dentro de la misma generando así el bienestar de la vivienda como pauta de percepción y como producto generar calidad de vida dentro de la misma, lo anterior visto desde una perspectiva distinta a la función, materialización tradicional o convencional, calidad material entre otros aspectos. Por lo tanto se puede decir que la arquitectura de la vivienda bioclimática en cierta medida funciona como una alternativa de composición arquitectónica en Colombia ya que el usuario busca una temperatura de ideal, cómoda o de bienestar que en muchos casos resulta artificial y producto de la "mecanización del clima" lo cual no traduce a mejorar su calidad de vida sino en satisfacer una necesidad que en la mayoría de los casos debería ser tenida en cuenta desde la composición arquitectónica de la vivienda. El clima y su relación directa con la percepción del mismo dentro del habitar de la vivienda diseñada tradicionalmente obedece a una tendencia funcionalista, política y económica, se han perdido valores cualitativos en función del sentir la vivienda y permanecer en ella como un elemento generador de calidad de vida. El mensaje que se quiere transmitir con el título es en cierta medida una forma de desvirtuar la utilización de arquitectura bioclimática como un concepto complejo o utópico, ajeno como solución alternativa relacionada con el tema de la composición y diseño arquitectónico de vivienda y la utilización del clima dentro de este proceso al que los usuarios que no están muy enterados del tema o no pueden acceder, a su vez fomentar la formulación de valores de juicio no solo para el usuario sino también para aquel que todavía tenga ese sentimiento de preocupación por el desarrollo climático y el bienestar tanto de los usuarios de vivienda como del planeta que en cierta medida quieran concientizarse y preocuparse sobre el tema el cual se convierte en una cuestión a la que en muchos casos se debe recurrir a un tercero para consultar sobre el tema por lo que en muchos casos el usuario se niega a la obtención de nuevo conocimiento y recurre a los sistemas tradicionales para climatizar de manera adecuada mas no ideal y correcta en su vivienda. Por ultimo vale la pena decir que objetivo del enunciado planteado en el titulo no es informar conocimiento para expertos en el tema ni mucho menos desvalorar el conocimiento de los mismos sino que el usuario conozca en cierta medida que existen distintas alternativas espaciales y técnicas que le permitan tener un criterio frente a la utilización del clima dentro de la vivienda mejor estructurado y fundamental partiendo de los recursos climáticos o particularidades del lugar donde se encuentra su vivienda. Este trabajo está enmarcado en la línea teórico práctica de la arquitectura bioclimática; se parte de la selección de los factores climáticos que permitan al ser humano vivir con calidad dentro de su hábitat – vivienda y a la misma arquitectura bioclimática tener contar con una malla que contiene pautas que permitan analizar la interacción de los factores climáticos en el diseño de las viviendas. Por lo anterior, el problema radica en la selección de factores básicos para el diseño bioclimático, el conocimiento a profundidad de sobre las características de la arquitectura bioclimática y las pautas para llegar a esta. El lector encontrará de acuerdo con lo anterior un documento que como primera medida analiza y refiere el planteamiento del problema, su definición, una pregunta de investigación; los objetivos de la investigación; su justificación y relevancia social junto con la implicación práctica, delimitación y limitaciones de la investigación. Luego en el Marco teórico, se plantean diversas teorías que llevan al conocimiento de la arquitectura bioclimática, sus características y antecedentes; se cierra con una línea del tiempo que se utiliza como marco conceptual y ha sido elaborada por el autor como referente histórico conceptual y visual de los cambios arquitectónicos y climáticos que se han dado a lo largo del tiempo en la vivienda humana. En el marco metodológico se describe el tipo de investigación cuyo enfoque es cualitativo e interpretativo; se pretendió definir los parámetros climáticos básicos, llegar al planteamiento de una propuesta de malla que facilitará el análisis de los proyectos presentados (taller de composición 1 parque tercer milenio en Bogotá, taller de composición 2 Camellón del comercio en Girardot y taller de composición 3 La Merced en Bogotá) así como ser la base para el análisis de proyectos construidos o por construir. La información analizada y los instrumento generados se obtuvieron en el transcurso de la Maestría en Arquitectura y Vivienda. Se continua con la presentación el procedimiento que se utilizó para realizar la recolección de información, se muestran los resultados obtenidos en el análisis de los tres proyectos se realiza una análisis de contraste y una matriz desde el análisis de información obtenida, luego se realiza una triangulación de resultados; y se procede a definir las conclusiones del trabajo . "Todo esfuerzo por entender y utilizar las variables, reglas, parámetros o como quisieran llamarlo de aquel juego magnifico y genial llamado arquitectura, todo esfuerzo traduce felicidad" H.G.R 2016 ; Abstract. The bioclimatic housing architecture refers to the relationship between climate and human life. And the human being with housing. This is a fundamental pillar of the explanation of the title of the research. Likewise, the main pattern is the climate in terms of the well-being of the human being. Not only as their habitat, but as such within the dwelling. Also how climate plays a fundamental role within it. In this way it generates well-being of the dwelling as a pattern of perception and as a product to generate quality of life within it. The previous seen from a different perspective to the function, traditional or conventional materialization, and material quality among other aspects. It can be said that the architecture of bioclimatic housing to some extent functions as an alternative architectural composition in Colombia. This is because the user is looking for an ideal, comfortable or well-being temperature that in many cases is artificial and a product of the mechanization of the climate. But this does not translate to improving their quality of life, but in satisfying a need. This in most cases should be taken into account from the architectural composition of the house. The climate and its direct relation with the perception of the same inside the habit of the traditionally designed dwelling obeys a functionalist, political and economic tendency. That is why we can say that qualitative values have been lost depending on the feeling of housing. And therefore remain in it as an element that generates quality of life. The message to be transmitted is to a certain extent a way of distorting the use of bioclimatic architecture as a complex or utopian concept. This is oblivious as an alternative solution related to the theme of architectural composition and design of housing. And in turn to the use of the climate within this process to which users who are not very aware of the issue or cannot access. This at the same time promotes the formulation of judgment values for the user. And also for those who still have that feeling of concern for climate development. Without forgetting the well-being of both the home users and the planet who, to a certain extent, want to become aware and worry about it. This becomes a matter to which in many cases a third should be consulted on the subject. That is why in many cases the user refuses to obtain new knowledge and resorts to traditional systems. All this to adequately climatize more not ideal and properly in your home. Finally it is worth saying that the purpose of the statement in the title is not to inform knowledge for experts in the subject. Neither devalue the knowledge of them. On the contrary, the user knows to some extent that there are different spatial and technical alternatives. Everything to allow you to have a criterion against the use of the climate inside the house. All this is more structured and fundamental based on the climatic resources or particularities of the place where your home is located. This work is framed in the practical theoretical line of bioclimatic architecture. It is part of the selection of climatic factors that allow the human being to live with quality within their habitat or their dwelling. And therefore the same bioclimatic architecture must have a mesh that contains several guidelines. This allows to analyze the interaction of the climatic factors in the design of the houses. Therefore, the problem lies in the selection of basic factors for bioclimatic design. Also in the in-depth knowledge of the characteristics of bioclimatic architecture. And of course the guidelines to reach this. The reader will find in agreement with the above a document that as first measure analyzes and refers the approach of the problem and its definition. At the same time as a research question. Also the objectives of the research. Its justification and social relevance along with the practical implication, delimitation and limitations of the investigation. Then in the theoretical framework, several theories are presented that lead to the knowledge of bioclimatic architecture. Its characteristics and background are established. In the end it closes with a timeline that is used as a conceptual framework. Everything has been elaborated by the author as conceptual reference conceptual-visual. All related to the architectural and climatic changes that have occurred over time in human housing. The methodological framework describes the type of research. Whose approach is qualitative and interpretive? It was intended to define the basic climatic parameters. Also arrive at the proposal of a mesh. With which to facilitate the analysis of the projects presented (composition workshop 1 parque tercer milenio in Bogotá, composition workshop 2 Camellón del comercio in Girardot and composition workshop 3 La Merced in Bogotá). This is to be the basis for the analysis of projects built or to be built. The information analyzed and the instruments generated were obtained during the course of the Master's Degree in Architecture and Housing. The procedure that was used to perform the information collection is then followed by the presentation. Then the results obtained in the analysis of the three projects are shown. A contrast analysis and a matrix are performed from the analysis of the obtained information. The next step is to triangulate results. And as a final point we proceed to define the conclusions of this document. ; Maestría
De forma reciente se registran con más frecuencia denuncias, quejas y otras discusiones sobre la autoría de los artículos o sobre el uso no reconocido de contenidos de documentos por parte de otros autores (práctica conocida como plagio). Y aunque no es un tema nuevo y tampoco restringido al no reconocimiento de una idea, cada vez más se discuten los problemas asociados al uso no adecuado (ético) de la información, entre otros, a problemas en la recolección; el uso; análisis o discusión descuidada; con una mala intención o la falsificación de los datos (fraude); la autoría no merecida o la duplicación de trabajos, o partes de éstos, por parte de los mismos autores en las publicaciones científicas. Como lo han discutido Gallegos, Berra, Benito, & López-López, (2014) y López-López, (2013, 2014) seguramente las dinámicas y presión de producción de conocimiento están fomentando a que este tipo de conductas sean frecuentes. Sin embargo, a pesar de que éstas problemáticas hoy son más evidentes al mismo tiempo son más controlables, por cuanto: en primer lugar la revolución tecnológica de información y comunicaciones hace hoy que la circulación de información y conocimiento sea más rápida, eficaz, veloz y de una cobertura casi que global, más, que en ningún otro momento de la historia. Con lo cual, es más fácil que una comunidad evidencie los usos de los contenidos y las formas de obtención y análisis de datos, así como la generación de formas de control. Por otro lado, hoy los editores están exigiendo con más frecuencia las bases de datos primarias, los archivos de datos e incluso los borradores y plan de análisis de los resultados antes de la recolección de los mismos. Además, las revistas hoy en día cuentan con equipos que se encargan no solo de verificar parte de la información suministrada, sino además de verificar los análisis derivados de los mismos. Y en tercer lugar, algunas revistas están empezando a exigir la aclaración de roles en la producción de los artículos (generación de las ideas, participación en la recolección de los datos, en el análisis de datos, en la escritura del manuscrito, la discusión del documento, en la revisión del texto, en la traducción realizada, entre muchos otros) esto bajo declaraciones de acuerdo entre los autores del documento (Allen, Brand, Scott, Altman, & Hlava, 2014). En segundo lugar los procesos editoriales de los contenidos científicos pasan por revisión por pares que en general esperamos no solo evalúen la pertinencia, el alcance, la fortaleza teórica y metodológica si no la originalidad de los contenidos y que además detecten los problemas en los datos y sus análisis. Aunque no es un proceso exhaustivo e infalible, anecdóticamente hemos podido detectar documentos publicados con datos similares gracias al proceso de revisión. Sin embargo, el crecimiento en la cantidad de artículos a evaluar ponen en riesgo el sistema de revisión e inevitablemente la posibilidad de detectar este tipo de conductas (Arns, 2014). En tercer lugar, los editores en el caso del plagio cuentan con softwares que permite identificar un mismo documento o parte de un escrito que se encuentra en la red y en cualquier caso, más temprano que tarde, para toda la comunidad se hará evidente que existe una alteración y falla por parte de un autor/investigador. Por esta razón, el riesgo de usar contenidos sin el debido reconocimiento es más alto, y quienes tomen el riesgo evidentemente tendrán que asumir las consecuencias que la comunidad y las leyes tienen contemplados para esta conducta. A pesar de estos elementos mencionados, los editores además debemos ser más explícitos con las exigencias éticas de la información. Esto lleva a sumarnos a esfuerzos a nivel mundial y, por ejemplo, asumir los lineamientos del Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) (http://publicationethics.org/) (Yong, Ledford, & Van Noorden, 2013). Así, desde este número Universitas Psychologica hará un mayor énfasis en el uso de las guías del COPE y buscará promoverlas como guía de conducta de las publicaciones en la región en las diversas redes en las cuales participamos. Igualmente, desde hace algunos meses se ha hecho un énfasis en el reporte del aspecto ético de los artículos, siendo éste un criterio que en algunos casos puede convertirse en una causal de rechazo inmediato de los artículos. Ésta medida va más allá del tradicional "consentimiento informado" y requiere una evaluación ética de la investigación realizada, independientemente del campo de la psicología o el tipo de investigación. Los investigadores deberán ser conscientes del papel ético en la recolección, manejo, implicaciones y publicación de la información y la mejor forma de asegurar dicho proceso es si ha sido sometido a un comité institucional o estatal que respalda las acciones reportadas (Dolgin, 2014). La psicología en nuestra región está en creciente expansión y las dinámicas de producción están afectando nuestras comunidades y pueden estar generando practicas indeseables en el ámbito de las publicaciones y es necesario que provoquemos discusión los temas de la ética de las publicaciones y que busquemos más sistemas de control que permitan prevenir la publicación bajo condiciones anti éticas. Así mismo, evaluar el impacto y el costo que tiene para las publicaciones licales y en general de la región en desarrollo (económico, político, social y científico) la retractación y las malas prácticas asociadas a un desbordamiento en el afán de publicación. Sumarnos al control y prácticas internacionales globaliza nuestros procesos y aumenta el interés y la confianza de comunidades no hispanas en la producción de Iberoamérica. Wilson López López Editor ; In recent times, there has been an increase in the frequency with which reports, complaints, and other discussions about the authorship of articles or the unrecognized use of document contents by other authors (practice known as plagiarism), are being recoded. Although this is not a new topic nor restricted to the non-recognition of an idea, the problems associated with the improper use (ethical) of information are being increasingly discussed. For instance, topics of discussion are: problems in the collection, use, careless analysis or discussion of data with misconduct or falsification (fraud), and undeserved authorship or duplication of work, or parts thereof, by the same authors in scientific publications. As discussed by Gallegos, Berra, Benito, & López-López (2014) and López-López (2013, 2014), it is probable that the dynamics and pressure of knowledge production are promoting the frequent occurrence of these behaviors. Nonetheless, although these problems are now more evident, they are at the same time more controllable. Firstly, the technological revolution in information and communications allows the information and knowledge to flow quicker, more efficiently, faster, and with an almost global coverage, now a days, as compared to any other time in history. Thus, it is easier for a community to evidence the use of contents as well as the ways of collecting and analyzing data, and generating forms of control. Moreover, publishers currently demand more often the primary databases, data files, and even the drafts and analysis plan of the results, before their collection1. In addition, journals count, now a day, with teams that are responsible not only for verifying some of the information provided, but also for verifying the analysis derived therefrom. Furthermore, some journals have started to demand clarification of the roles in the production of articles (generation of ideas, participation in data collection, analysis of data, writing of the manuscript, the discussion of document, the revision of the text, the translation performed, among many others). This is done under statements of agreement between the authors of the document (Allen, Brand, Scott, Altman, & Hlava, 2014). Secondly, throughout the editorial process, the scientific content undergoes peer review. In general, we expect that reviewers assess not only the relevance, scope, theoretical and methodological strength, but also the originality of the content. Moreover, reviewers may detect problems in data and in their analyses. Although this is not an exhaustive and infallible process, anecdotally, we have been able to detect some documents published with similar data, thanks to the review process. Nevertheless, the growth in the number of articles to assess can jeopardize the review system and consequently the possibility of detecting this type of conducts (Arns, 2014). Thirdly, in the case of plagiarism, publishers count with softwares that enable them to identify a document, or sections of a text, that are in the network. In any case, sooner or later, it will be evident for the whole community that an author / researcher has committed an alteration or a fault. For this reason, the risk of using content without due recognition is higher, and those who take the risk will evidently have to assume the consequences that the community and the law have stipulated to this type of behavior. Despite these items mentioned above, as editors we must be more explicit about the ethical requirements of information. This leads us to join worldwide efforts and assume, for instance, the guidelines of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) (http://publicationethics.org/) (Yong, Ledford, & Van Noorden, 2013). Thus, from this number, Universitas Psychologica will place a greater emphasis on the use of the COPE guidelines, and will seek to promote them as a guide of conduct for the publications in the region, in the various networks in which we participate. Similarly, a few months ago an emphasis started to be made on the report of the ethical aspect of articles, since this is a criterion that, in some cases, can become grounds for immediate rejection of the articles. This measure goes beyond the traditional "informed consent" and requires an ethical review of the research that has been performed, regardless of the field of psychology or the type of research. Researchers should be aware of the ethical role in the collection, management, implications and publication of information. The best way to ensure this process is by subjecting it to an institutional or state committee, which supports the reported actions (Dolgin, 2014). Psychology, in our region, is having a rapid expansion. The dynamics of production are affecting our communities and may be generating undesirable practices in the field of publications. Therefore, it is necessary that we generate discussion of the ethical issues of publications, and that we seek for more control systems, capable of preventing publication under unethical conditions. Additionally, we should evaluate the impact and costs on local publications and overall on the region in development (economic, political, social and scientific), caused by the retraction and the malpractices associated with the rush to publish and the consequent overflow. By joining international control and practices, we will globalize our processes and will increase the interest and confidence of non-Hispanic communities in the production of Latin America. Wilson López López Editor
Are we close to face what some researchers and politicians call a "war for water as a resource"? The ideas around this topic are divided. We think that external factors, such as climate change and unequal distribution of the resource, will create conditions and pressures that are pressing perceptions and will be eventually affecting political behavior that will lead to war. Others agree that there are changes in the political landscape. However, when we look at different resources, we have to consider that they present a different dynamic affecting in alternative form the political behavior of the actor related to specific resources. War is not a consequence of the resource necessity and access problem. Resource wars are related to external factors like opportunity and power asymmetries, among others. In the case of water, if we consider the scarcity problem, the technological change and the capacity to create institutional ways to regulate its use, we can avoid the worst consequences of the resources race. As far as the previous sentence establishes, access and necessity could be the channeling cause of conflict. However, we will find the root of it in another part of the rivalry dynamic as the conflict for the Golan Heights shows. The present work tries to put in perspective the preceding discussion to clarify the current dynamics around different types of natural resources. To do that, we must start discussing what "Strategic Natural Resources (SNR)" are and also their role in geopolitical terms, to understand how they affect the political calculus around them. Resource discussions about policies, conflicts, and politics use mainly a realist approach, because it is all about use, availability, and scarcity. Security is an essential topic around them, but in the case of water, perspectives are a little bit different. We should consider Hydropolitics as a topic within the geopolitical field of studies. In that sense, it shows how different is the dynamics around water, and even if many conflicts of interest are around it, political action most of the time is not to fight over it in the sense of going to war. We will see tensions but no war. A war over water is considered awful for everyone, so it is more useful to try to channel the conflict to a more productive arena. In that sense, the creation of regimes, norms, and treaties around a shared river, underground water deposit, sustainable use, and others will be the most critical aspects of policy coordination around those who have a dispute over it. Moreover, we will see others trying to assist major partners in managing the problems that its uses generate. Policymakers look at social and economic considerations about to ignite a war over water, so that they are able to prevent it, because acts as a political barrier most of the time. The objectives of the present article are twofold, and they are interrelated. The first one is to advance in the discussion around which ones and how natural resources become a problem that could lead to war. Geopolitics and Realist Theory are the best tools to have a comprehensive picture of the resources play as a factor in war. It is doing that we can tackle the issue of war for water, which is a different thing than a conflict over water. When we look at security considerations, realism think that resources are a contributing factor to the balance of power, but do not affect the security dilemma. When we look at the accumulative power of water as a resource, we will find "neutral" in the sense that does not affect the fragile balance of power among potential rivals. On the other hand, the second objective of the article is different but associated. Water is a slightly different kind of SNR. Not only does it create conflict, but it also creates rivalries among those who perceive that they are going to face access problems to the resource; while at the same time, it does not push to resolve the situation violently, primarily in interstate conflict. A little bit more intense is the conflict around the resource when we look specific countries, but the difference in how they are solved is looking at the state capacity. If in interstate conflict, its accumulation is neutral, in an internal conflict, the accumulation power could be positive or negative, affecting the internal balance, creating more space for internal war. As a methodology, we use a descriptive and qualitative analysis of previously published works with the recent data around the issue to create a bright and differentiated view when we discuss war for water resources. Water is not the best case to argue in favor of views that emphasize a world prone to war. Moreover, we can say that there are fewer incentives to go to war for water than other resources. But the reader should be aware that the kind of insight we extract should not lead to develop a liberal approach to water governance. A realist approach to finite cooperation it is more useful to maintain stability. Water is strategic and related to territoriality, so identity considerations apply to hydropolitics, so states are important stakeholders in this issue. Nevertheless, we can think that some tension could arise between neighbors who share it. Much more difficult is a Great power taking steps into war for water. If they need it, they can buy their access to it. Even so, internally, the states could face conflicts around it. This difference is significant because we put too much time to talk and think about the international dimension of the problem when we should look at the internal dimension of it. With these in mind, the international discussion around water will be different and possibly better. consider, for example, the water contamination as a result of corporate activities. Neighbor states create a regime to overlook how, when and in which degree they pollute the shared resource. They establish limits around the river and coastal activities, they enforce it, and they get in around the table to deal with previous unconsidered situations. Furthermore, when differences arise, they stick to their commitments, even when the military balance is in favor of one part. We will divide the following article into three short and related discussions. The first part sets out to put in perspective the discussion around conflict and resources, giving water the specific place that it deserves. The second part turns around the geopolitics due location, availability, and scarcity are at the center of the discussion. Within this section, we will put the hydropolitics view to talk about the use of water. That is important because we will end our discussion looking at the differences between this resource and the others, for example, energy. With that in mind, this article serves as an introductory reading around how we think, act, and develop policy related to natural resources, showing that war is not the only possible result in resource competition. ; La idea del agua como recurso natural estratégico de la política internacional no es nueva, sin embargo desde la primera decada del presente siglo, el acceso a la misma ha cobrado especial intensidad. El presente paper pone en valor la idea de agua como recurso mediante el concepto de "Hidropolítica", al separar el mito de las llamadas "guerras por el agua" de la realidad geopolitica que trasunta al recurso. Al enfatizar en la dinámica conflictiva y en especial en la aspiración de las grandes potencias para hacerse del recurso, dejan marginada la discusion al entender del autor mas apremiante, que es identificar como el recurso afecta los procesos de la politica regional y global de manera diferenciada a partir de ponderaciones completamente distintas entre los actores alrededor del recurso. Al mirar al agua, y siguiendo las premisas del realismo, existe una mayor probabilidad que se produzcan conflictos en torno a la misma a partir del uso compartido, que por la intervención directa de un actor extraregional para tomar el control de la misma. El presente trabajo tiene por objetivo, discutir cuando un RNE es considerado factor de conflicto armado ya sea inter o intraestratal, para luego trasladar esa dinamica a la hidropolitica a los efectos si su importancia relativa hace o no que la dinamica en torno a ella sea diferente a la que existe alrededor de otros recursos. En este sentido esperamos demostrar al menos en las discusiones existentes y con la evidencia que muestra el relevamiento sobre lo reflexionado al respecto, es que en relación al agua, la potencialidad existente por los juegos de suma cero, parecen ceder su lugar a construir regimenes internacionales que administren o encapsulen el conflicto. Si en un período determinado aparecen lecturas o percepciones que hacen temer por un futuro donde la escaces provoque conflictos, el cambio tecnológico y la arquitectura institucional permite contemplar un espacio para la resolución de las divergencias que puedan surgir, sin que "la sangre llegue al rio".
The subject of study of this doctoral thesis is addressing to the nexus configuration between asylum and intern displacement migratory processes and the identifiable response in control and management migratory and border-crossing policies which state a "Border-crossing Order of things ". Additionally, analyzing the potential challenge/response to that identifiable order in "Transborder Citizenship Emerging Practices" by migrants, displaced people and refugees. A comparative study is carried out about/in the frontiers Spain-Morocco (European Union) and Colombia-Venezuela (Andean Community of Nations) in the period 1990-2010. In Chapter One, it is intended to made clear the coordinates about the What and How of the research as well as the results. This is done by three subsections: the literature review and the approach to the problem; research questions, hypothesis and research objectives; research methodology. The methodological design used poses a combination between qualitative and comparative research, which allow us to analyze and compare observations and descriptions (exploratory-descriptive research) and also to analyze and compare the addresses and representations (analytical-interpretive research). Generally, the type of comparison followed was the one proposed by Skocpol and Somers called " Contrast of Contexts " which is essential for the interpretive comparative variant in social sciences, different to the type of comparison by " hypothesis control ". On the other hand, we followed Charles Ragin's (1987) suggestions about the "Case-oriented Research " and about the complex problems of the " Conjunctural Causality ", in other words, causal models that vary " according to the context ". In Chapter Two, Global Order of Control and Management of Migrations and Borders. The emergence from the Migration-Displacement-Asylum nexus, the contextualization is made and the characteristics for this order are shown; in order to highlight transformation of the international migration tendencies to forced migrations and alongside with it, the emergence of the Migration-Displacement-Asylum nexus. The global order of control and migrations management as a border regime responds to a policy spin and to the policies that transform the frontiers into a mechanism for the migration control (Faist, 2003); just as shown in the detailed description of the global and regional control agendas, management and migration and border-crossing cooperation; migration and border-crossing policies, and the protection and asylum policies for refugees, asylum seeker and migrants in the frontiers Spain-Morocco and Colombia-Venezuela. In Chapter Three, emerging typologies related to the migration-displacement-asylum nexus that allowed us to make the analysis and the comparison in the specific border-crossing zones Spain-Morocco and Colombia-Venezuela; which have a big potential of being used in other case studies. These typologies correspond to: the closely related causes of forced and voluntary migration in their home countries; the diverse motivations of several migrants, displaced and asylum seekers; motivation changes during migration for many migrants, displaced and asylum seekers; motivation changes during migration for many migrants, displaced people and asylum seekers; the close relation between refugees and economic migrants in some transit countries in the Spain-Morocco frontier and the close relationship between refugees and economic migrants on the way through Colombian regions; the rising similarities in the migration process for both " forced " and " voluntary " migrants; refugees and migrant workers can have similar experiences in the host countries; the experience of return, repatriation or deportation can be similar. We have built an analytical-comparative proposal that includes theoretical contributions from anthropology and politics about frontiers and migrations, entering into conversation with political theories about frontiers, migrations and citizenship. Our proposal consists in analyzing control and migration/border-crossing management politics and the " transborder citizenship emerging practices " through two analytic triads " ( IBO-1 e IBO-2 ) ", known in critical literature about frontiers as " IBO ( IFO in spanish ) triad: Identities, Borders, Orders " ( Kearney, 1995; Albert, Jacobson and Lapid, 2001; Van Houtuum and Van Naerssen, 2001 ). The analytic and comparative effort allowed to integrate the two triads in three related pairs ( I-1 and I-2 ), ( B-1 and B-2 ), ( O-1 and O-2 ) between the state-built identities and their migration policies ( I-1 ) and the ways of identification-disidentification that the migrants-displaced-asylum seekers and refugees claim and negotiate ( I-2 ). Between the states border-crossing control ( B-1 ) and the unauthorized border crossing of the migrants-displaced-asylum seekers ( B-2 ). Between the states' power and the politics orders ( O-1) and the ways of political subjectivation from the migrants-displaced-asylum seekers and refugees (O-2 ). The IBO-1 triad corresponds to the border-crossing order of things and the IBO-2 triad to the potential challenge to that order via transborder citizenship emerging practices. In Chapters Four and Five, the previous analytical-comparative framework was applied in the Spain-Morocco and Colombia-Venezuela borders. In each case, the control and management migratory and border-crossing policies were analyzed taking into account three main aspects: identities production and classification, specially the political and civic identities. This is selectivity (Filter function); the frontierization practices, not only control and regulation but also the border-permeability function (Filter function), who can or cannot enter (citizens and non-citizens production ), taking into account the role of the States as well as their regional, global and local registry. In this dimension we talk about the border-crossing order of things. On the other hand, also in each case, the practices from the migrant, displaced, refugees, asylum seeker citizenships in other border games through de-frontierization practices; it is about authorized and unauthorized border-crossing agents and they answer to the Border Crossing Control but previously, they have been qualified and some identities have been attributed such as "irregulars", "illegals", "undesirables" and so on, against that, they answer de facto, claiming-verifying that "Any human being is illegal"; this through active processes of disidentification and disclassification, they will be rejecting, also de facto, their imputation as non-citizens; and in this process, they act as if they were citizens, in an equality verification as human beings and as a subject of universal law (Ranciére, 1999). Summarizing, these are "transborder citizenship emerging practices " from these migrant subjects alongside with their regional, global and local registry. In this analysis dimension, we talk about the (potential) challenge to the border-crossing order of things. Chapter Six gathers the compared analysis about the Spain-Morocco and Colombia-Venezuela borders. In this doctoral thesis, defining two case study was from the beginning the search for a comparative analysis that allowed addressing every case itself to give account of its own dynamics and evolution. From the particularities of the migration-displacement-asylum nexus in each border-crossing zone, there was an advance in a comparison, not as a migratory flows problem itself, but in its political articulations related to migration/border-crossing control and management politics and the citizenship practices. Actors and their political interactions related to their position in the face of borders. Borders are the matters of dispute that reconfigures constantly the concept of politics and the political Chapter Seven about conclusions was oriented to answer the question "How migrants, displaced people and refugees are constituted as political actors and are allowed to appeal to their community members condition? As exposed in the conclusions, in their transborder migrants condition and the democratization assertion from the borders, the transborder citizenship emerging practices take shape. Finally, we present some limitations, possible contributions from the doctoral thesis and some proposals for the future research development. The importance of contributing with studies that overcome the methodological nationalism and the internal focus was posed; also contributing to the methodological, epistemological and conceptual change in the borders, migrations and citizenship studies and strengthening a new epistemic community; and contribution to the ongoing research program about the relation between identity, borders and political orders in border-crossing zones. This analytical-comparative proposal pretends to be one step to the formation of a method or a theory about the comparative anthropology in the borders and periphery and more specifically, as the presentation of the border-crossing order of things and its challenge hypothesis. Therefore, the same questions that we have posed in this doctoral thesis could be asked concerning different borders and demarcation and policies regimes to perform compared works about how some borders are built and the migration processes that pass through it. A short-term future researching development could be addressing the migration-displacement-asylum nexus with a comparative analysis of the borders between Colombia and Venezuela and, Ecuador and Panama in the post-peace agreement transition process.
In my postgraduate formation during the last years of the 80's, we had close to thirty hospital beds in a pavilion called "sépticas" (1). In Colombia, where abortion was completely penalized, the pavilion was mostly filled with women with insecure, complicated abortions. The focus we received was technical: management of intensive care; performance of hysterectomies, colostomies, bowel resection, etc. In those times, some nurses were nuns and limited themselves to interrogating the patients to get them to "confess" what they had done to themselves in order to abort. It always disturbed me that the women who left alive, left without any advice or contraceptive method. Having asked a professor of mine, he responded with disdain: "This is a third level hospital, those things are done by nurses of the first level". Seeing so much pain and death, I decided to talk to patients, and I began to understand their decision. I still remember so many deaths with sadness, but one case in particular pains me: it was a woman close to being fifty who arrived with a uterine perforation in a state of advanced sepsis. Despite the surgery and the intensive care, she passed away. I had talked to her, and she told me she was a widow, had two adult kids and had aborted because of "embarrassment towards them" because they were going to find out that she had an active sexual life. A few days after her passing, the pathology professor called me, surprised, to tell me that the uterus we had sent for pathological examination showed no pregnancy. She was a woman in a perimenopausal state with a pregnancy exam that gave a false positive due to the high levels of FSH/LH typical of her age. SHE WAS NOT PREGNANT!!! She didn't have menstruation because she was premenopausal and a false positive led her to an unsafe abortion. Of course, the injuries caused in the attempted abortion caused the fatal conclusion, but the real underlying cause was the social taboo in respect to sexuality. I had to watch many adolescents and young women leave the hospital alive, but without a uterus, sometime without ovaries and with colostomies, to be looked down on by a society that blamed them for deciding to not be mothers. I had to see situation of women that arrived with their intestines protruding from their vaginas because of unsafe abortions. I saw women, who in their despair, self-inflicted injuries attempting to abort with elements such as stick, branches, onion wedges, alum bars and clothing hooks among others. Among so many deaths, it was hard not having at least one woman per day in the morgue due to an unsafe abortion. During those time, healthcare was not handled from the biopsychosocial, but only from the technical (2); nonetheless, in the academic evaluations that were performed, when asked about the definition of health, we had to recite the text from the International Organization of Health that included these three aspects. How contradictory! To give response to the health need of women and guarantee their right when I was already a professor, I began an obstetric contraceptive service in that third level hospital. There was resistance from the directors, but fortunately I was able to acquire international donations for the institution, which facilitated its acceptance. I decided to undertake a teaching career with the hope of being able to sensitize health professionals towards an integral focus of health and illness. When the International Conference of Population and Development (ICPD) was held in Cairo in 1994, I had already spent various years in teaching, and when I read their Action Program, I found a name for what I was working on: Sexual and Reproductive Rights. I began to incorporate the tools given by this document into my professional and teaching life. I was able to sensitize people at my countries Health Ministry, and we worked together moving it to an approach of human rights in areas of sexual and reproductive health (SRH). This new viewpoint, in addition to being integral, sought to give answers to old problems like maternal mortality, adolescent pregnancy, low contraceptive prevalence, unplanned or unwanted pregnancy or violence against women. With other sensitized people, we began with these SRH issues to permeate the Colombian Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology, some universities, and university hospitals. We are still fighting in a country that despite many difficulties has improved its indicators of SRH. With the experience of having labored in all sphere of these topics, we manage to create, with a handful of colleagues and friend at the Universidad El Bosque, a Master's Program in Sexual and Reproductive Health, open to all professions, in which we broke several paradigms. A program was initiated in which the qualitative and quantitative investigation had the same weight, and some alumni of the program are now in positions of leadership in governmental and international institutions, replicating integral models. In the Latin American Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (FLASOG, English acronym) and in the International Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (FIGO), I was able to apply my experience for many years in the SRH committees of these association to benefit women and girls in the regional and global environments. When I think of who has inspired me in these fights, I should highlight the great feminist who have taught me and been with me in so many fights. I cannot mention them all, but I have admired the story of the life of Margaret Sanger with her persistence and visionary outlook. She fought throughout her whole life to help the women of the 20th century to be able to obtain the right to decide when and whether or not they wanted to have children (3). Of current feminist, I have had the privilege of sharing experiences with Carmen Barroso, Giselle Carino, Debora Diniz and Alejandra Meglioli, leaders of the International Planned Parenthood Federation – Western Hemisphere Region (IPPF-RHO). From my country, I want to mention my countrywoman Florence Thomas, psychologist, columnist, writer and Colombo-French feminist. She is one of the most influential and important voices in the movement for women rights in Colombia and the region. She arrived from France in the 1960's, in the years of counterculture, the Beatles, hippies, Simone de Beauvoir, and Jean-Paul Sartre, a time in which capitalism and consumer culture began to be criticized (4). It was then when they began to talk about the female body, female sexuality and when the contraceptive pill arrived like a total revolution for women. Upon its arrival in 1967, she experimented a shock because she had just assisted in a revolution and only found a country of mothers, not women (5). That was the only destiny for a woman, to be quiet and submissive. Then she realized that this could not continue, speaking of "revolutionary vanguards" in such a patriarchal environment. In 1986 with the North American and European feminism waves and with her academic team, they created the group "Mujer y Sociedad de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia", incubator of great initiatives and achievements for the country (6). She has led great changes with her courage, the strength of her arguments, and a simultaneously passionate and agreeable discourse. Among her multiple books, I highlight "Conversaciones con Violeta" (7), motivated by the disdain towards feminism of some young women. She writes it as a dialogue with an imaginary daughter in which, in an intimate manner, she reconstructs the history of women throughout the centuries and gives new light of the fundamental role of feminism in the life of modern women. Another book that shows her bravery is "Había que decirlo" (8), in which she narrates the experience of her own abortion at age twenty-two in sixty's France. My work experience in the IPPF-RHO has allowed me to meet leaders of all ages in diverse countries of the region, who with great mysticism and dedication, voluntarily, work to achieve a more equal and just society. I have been particularly impressed by the appropriation of the concept of sexual and reproductive rights by young people, and this has given me great hope for the future of the planet. We continue to have an incomplete agenda of the action plan of the ICPD of Cairo but seeing how the youth bravely confront the challenges motivates me to continue ahead and give my years of experience in an intergenerational work. In their policies and programs, the IPPF-RHO evidences great commitment for the rights and the SRH of adolescent, that are consistent with what the organization promotes, for example, 20% of the places for decision making are in hands of the young. Member organizations, that base their labor on volunteers, are true incubators of youth that will make that unassailable and necessary change of generations. In contrast to what many of us experienced, working in this complicated agenda of sexual and reproductive health without theoretical bases, today we see committed people with a solid formation to replace us. In the college of medicine at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia and the College of Nursing at the Universidad El Bosque, the new generations are more motivated and empowered, with great desire to change the strict underlying structures. Our great worry is the onslaught of the ultra-right, a lot of times better organized than us who do support rights, that supports anti-rights group and are truly pro-life (9). Faced with this scenario, we should organize ourselves better, giving battle to guarantee the rights of women in the local, regional, and global level, aggregating the efforts of all pro-right organizations. We are now committed to the Objectives of Sustainable Development (10), understood as those that satisfy the necessities of the current generation without jeopardizing the capacity of future generations to satisfy their own necessities. This new agenda is based on: - The unfinished work of the Millennium Development Goals - Pending commitments (international environmental conventions) - The emergent topics of the three dimensions of sustainable development: social, economic, and environmental. We now have 17 objectives of sustainable development and 169 goals (11). These goals mention "universal access to reproductive health" many times. In objective 3 of this list is included guaranteeing, before the year 2030, "universal access to sexual and reproductive health services, including those of family planning, information, and education." Likewise, objective 5, "obtain gender equality and empower all women and girls", establishes the goal of "assuring the universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights in conformity with the action program of the International Conference on Population and Development, the Action Platform of Beijing". It cannot be forgotten that the term universal access to sexual and reproductive health includes universal access to abortion and contraception. Currently, 830 women die every day through preventable maternal causes; of these deaths, 99% occur in developing countries, more than half in fragile environments and in humanitarian contexts (12). 216 million women cannot access modern contraception methods and the majority live in the nine poorest countries in the world and in a cultural environment proper to the decades of the seventies (13). This number only includes women from 15 to 49 years in any marital state, that is to say, the number that takes all women into account is much greater. Achieving the proposed objectives would entail preventing 67 million unwanted pregnancies and reducing maternal deaths by two thirds. We currently have a high, unsatisfied demand for modern contraceptives, with extremely low use of reversible, long term methods (intrauterine devices and subdermal implants) which are the most effect ones with best adherence (14). There is not a single objective among the 17 Objectives of Sustainable Development where contraception does not have a prominent role: from the first one that refers to ending poverty, going through the fifth one about gender equality, the tenth of inequality reduction among countries and within the same country, until the sixteenth related with peace and justice. If we want to change the world, we should procure universal access to contraception without myths or barriers. We have the moral obligation of achieving the irradiation of extreme poverty and advancing the construction of more equal, just, and happy societies. In emergency contraception (EC), we are very far from reaching expectations. If in reversible, long-term methods we have low prevalence, in EC the situation gets worse. Not all faculties in the region look at this topic, and where it is looked at, there is no homogeneity in content, not even within the same country. There are still myths about their real action mechanisms. There are countries, like Honduras, where it is prohibited and there is no specific medicine, the same case as in Haiti. Where it is available, access is dismal, particularly among girls, adolescents, youth, migrants, afro-descendent, and indigenous. The multiple barriers for the effective use of emergency contraceptives must be knocked down, and to work toward that we have to destroy myths and erroneous perceptions, taboos and cultural norms; achieve changes in laws and restrictive rules within countries, achieve access without barriers to the EC; work in union with other sectors; train health personnel and the community. It is necessary to transform the attitude of health personal to a service above personal opinion. Reflecting on what has occurred after the ICPD in Cairo, their Action Program changed how we look at the dynamics of population from an emphasis on demographics to a focus on the people and human rights. The governments agreed that, in this new focus, success was the empowerment of women and the possibility of choice through expanded access to education, health, services, and employment among others. Nonetheless, there have been unequal advances and inequality persists in our region, all the goals were not met, the sexual and reproductive goals continue beyond the reach of many women (15). There is a long road ahead until women and girls of the world can claim their rights and liberty of deciding. Globally, maternal deaths have been reduced, there is more qualified assistance of births, more contraception prevalence, integral sexuality education, and access to SRH services for adolescents are now recognized rights with great advances, and additionally there have been concrete gains in terms of more favorable legal frameworks, particularly in our region; nonetheless, although it's true that the access condition have improved, the restrictive laws of the region expose the most vulnerable women to insecure abortions. There are great challenges for governments to recognize SRH and the DSR as integral parts of health systems, there is an ample agenda against women. In that sense, access to SRH is threatened and oppressed, it requires multi-sector mobilization and litigation strategies, investigation and support for the support of women's rights as a multi-sector agenda. Looking forward, we must make an effort to work more with youth to advance not only the Action Program of the ICPD, but also all social movements. They are one of the most vulnerable groups, and the biggest catalyzers for change. The young population still faces many challenges, especially women and girls; young girls are in particularly high risk due to lack of friendly and confidential services related with sexual and reproductive health, gender violence, and lack of access to services. In addition, access to abortion must be improved; it is the responsibility of states to guarantee the quality and security of this access. In our region there still exist countries with completely restrictive frameworks. New technologies facilitate self-care (16), which will allow expansion of universal access, but governments cannot detach themselves from their responsibility. Self-care is expanding in the world and can be strategic for reaching the most vulnerable populations. There are new challenges for the same problems, that require a re-interpretation of the measures necessary to guaranty the DSR of all people, in particular women, girls, and in general, marginalized and vulnerable populations. It is necessary to take into account migrations, climate change, the impact of digital media, the resurgence of hate discourse, oppression, violence, xenophobia, homo/transphobia, and other emergent problems, as SRH should be seen within a framework of justice, not isolated. We should demand accountability of the 179 governments that participate in the ICPD 25 years ago and the 193 countries that signed the Sustainable Development Objectives. They should reaffirm their commitments and expand their agenda to topics not considered at that time. Our region has given the world an example with the Agreement of Montevideo, that becomes a blueprint for achieving the action plan of the CIPD and we should not allow retreat. This agreement puts people at the center, especially women, and includes the topic of abortion, inviting the state to consider the possibility of legalizing it, which opens the doors for all governments of the world to recognize that women have the right to choose on maternity. This agreement is much more inclusive: Considering that the gaps in health continue to abound in the region and the average statistics hide the high levels of maternal mortality, of sexually transmitted diseases, of infection by HIV/AIDS, and the unsatisfied demand for contraception in the population that lives in poverty and rural areas, among indigenous communities, and afro-descendants and groups in conditions of vulnerability like women, adolescents and incapacitated people, it is agreed: 33- To promote, protect, and guarantee the health and the sexual and reproductive rights that contribute to the complete fulfillment of people and social justice in a society free of any form of discrimination and violence. 37- Guarantee universal access to quality sexual and reproductive health services, taking into consideration the specific needs of men and women, adolescents and young, LGBT people, older people and people with incapacity, paying particular attention to people in a condition of vulnerability and people who live in rural and remote zone, promoting citizen participation in the completing of these commitments. 42- To guarantee, in cases in which abortion is legal or decriminalized in the national legislation, the existence of safe and quality abortion for non-desired or non-accepted pregnancies and instigate the other States to consider the possibility of modifying public laws, norms, strategies, and public policy on the voluntary interruption of pregnancy to save the life and health of pregnant adolescent women, improving their quality of life and decreasing the number of abortions (17).
Esta investigación tiene como objetivo principal la reconstrucción gráfica del desaparecido convento franciscano de San Lorenzo de Montilla (Córdoba), edificado bajo el patronazgo del marquesado de Priego durante los primeros años del siglo XVI, su puesta en valor y la recuperación de su memoria histórica. La práctica inexistencia de vestigios arquitectónicos, así como la ausencia de estudios previos, ha obligado a sustentar la presente tesis doctoral en la consulta de abundantes fuentes documentales ―manuscritas y gráficas fundamentalmente― a través de las cuales se ha realizado un riguroso análisis y desarrollo de la trayectoria histórica del mencionado convento. Para ello, como punto de partida, se ha hecho una revisión de conceptos relacionados con los orígenes, evolución y pensamiento de la orden franciscana, los cuales son imprescindibles para entender la configuración de la arquitectura seráfica, que ha sido analizada en sus planteamientos teóricos y técnicos. Seguidamente se atiende a todo lo referente al complejo proceso prefundacional y fundacional del convento de los franciscanos en Montilla, contextualizando los hechos acaecidos dentro del panorama político, social y religioso del momento, teniendo como telón de fondo el estado señorial de la Casa de Aguilar, elevado a marquesado de Priego desde 1501, y como protagonistas a algunos de sus componentes más destacados: Elvira de Herrera, Catalina Pacheco, Pedro Fernández de Córdoba ―I marqués de Priego― y su heredera Catalina Fernández de Córdoba, todos ellos partícipes en la puesta en marcha del cenobio que nos ocupa, que estaba destinado a acoger la capilla funeraria del linaje. Fundamental ha sido en esta investigación el estudio de los testamentos de los referidos personajes, los cuales han esclarecido numerosas dudas que, hasta el momento, se desconocían en el proceso prefundacional y fundacional. Además, la consulta de otros documentos ha permitido dilucidar importantes datos ignorados, como la fecha más próxima al inicio de las obras del primer convento de los franciscanos de la indicada localidad cordobesa durante el gobierno del I marqués de Priego. También se aborda el estudio de su arquitectura que, como se justifica en el desarrollo de esta tesis, en 1525 fue destinada a convento de clarisas bajo la aprobación de la II marquesa de Priego. Esa modificación obligó a la noble heredera a impulsar la edificación de un nuevo convento para los franciscanos, bajo la advocación de San Lorenzo, en cuya iglesia habría de ubicarse el mausoleo de los miembros del marquesado, tal y como quedaba recogido en los testamentos de sus comitentes. Las distintas circunstancias que rodearon la construcción de este cenobio con respecto al anterior han sido analizadas con el fin de contrastar las causas que determinaron las diferencias establecidas entre ambos proyectos arquitectónicos. Se ha profundizado en la trayectoria histórica del convento de San Lorenzo durante el tiempo en que estuvo en funcionamiento, entre 1530 y 1796. De esta forma se han destacando aspectos relacionados con las características de su ubicación y entorno natural, con los de la construcción del edificio monacal y, por su significación vinculante con la Casa de Aguilar, con la capilla funeraria. Asimismo se ha realizado un estudio de las obras artísticas que poseyó, elementos que se han abordado desde la óptica que identifica el franciscanismo de la rama observante. Con respecto a las aportaciones arquitectónicas y artísticas que advirtió el cenobio a lo largo de su existencia, se ha considerado oportuno analizarlas tanto desde el punto de vista formal como del mecenazgo ejercido por los miembros del marquesado de Priego, especialmente en lo que respecta a la portada plateresca y la enfermería ejecutada por Juan Antonio Camacho a principios del siglo XVIII. El abandono del convento de San Lorenzo por la comunidad de frailes en 1796 es otro asunto de interés para conocer las causas de su rápida desaparición a principios del siglo XIX. En efecto, su utilización con distintas funcionalidades, algunas de la cuales no pasaron de ser un esperanzador proyecto ―como el colegio de misioneros propuesto por fray Juan Duárez― así como hospital de contagiados, no contribuyeron a conservar la edificación conventual, que es considerada en estado de ruina varios lustros antes de que se aprobara la Ley de desamortización de bienes eclesiásticos en 1836, fecha en la que la parcela que ocupaba el convento de San Lorenzo es vendida y en la que finaliza su estudio. Los datos obtenidos de esta investigación histórica han sido primordiales para realizar la configuración arquitectónica y distribución espacial del conjunto constructivo, permitiendo representar gráficamente sus principales bloques de edificación conformados por la iglesia, el claustro con la concreción de sus dependencias adyacentes y el noviciado, elementos que hasta la realización del presente trabajo habían sido desconocidos. Asimismo, se ha tenido en cuenta el entorno natural de la parcela y sus cultivos como complemento del conjunto edificado. Al respecto hemos de señalar la importancia de un dibujo realizado por Juan Antonio Camacho en 1723 como principal fuente gráfica utilizada, el cual ha sido interpretado en función de la documentación manuscrita manejada. Como resultado de este trabajo de investigación se han diseñado diversas plantas y alzados del desaparecido convento, así como el levantamiento volumétrico en 3D de los enclaves más representativos del edificio conventual, en los que se han integrado las piezas artísticas que hubo de tener en su día. Además, debido a su excepcionalidad constructiva y documental, se ha realizado un minucioso estudio de la portada plateresca que daba acceso al recinto religioso, profundizando en su programa iconográfico como referente del ideal humanista del Renacimiento. Dado que el tema objeto de estudio había permanecido prácticamente inexplorado, las conclusiones a las que se ha llegado son de diversa índole y suponen novedosas aportaciones. De esta forma, se han descubierto nuevos e importantes datos históricos en cuanto a los orígenes del proceso fundacional, de los años en que el convento estuvo en funcionamiento y los que siguieron hasta la desamortización de 1836. En cuanto a su edificación, hemos de señalar que ésta coincide con la implantación de la más estricta observancia, factor que determinó las sobrias características arquitectónicas y materiales de este cenobio que lo hace prototipo de las construcciones franciscanas observantes del siglo XVI. ; This research has as main objective the graphic reconstruction of the disappeared Franciscan convent of San Lorenzo from Montilla (Córdoba), built under the patronage of the Priego Marquesado during the first years of the sixteenth century, its enhancement and the recovery of its historical memory. The practical absence of architectural vestiges, as well as the absence of previous studies, has forced to sustain the present doctoral thesis in the consultation of abundant documentary sources ―mainly handwritten and graphics― through which it has been carried out a rigorous analysis and a development of the historical trajectory of the mentioned convent. For this as a starting point, it has been made a review of concepts related to the origins, evolution and thought of the Franciscan order, which are essential to understand the configuration of the seraphic architecture, an analyzed in its theoric and technical approaches. Next, it is detailed everything related to the complex process of the pre-foundation and foundation of the Franciscan convent in Montilla, contextualizing the events that took place within the political, social and religious scene of the moment, having as backdrop the lordly state of the Casa de Aguilar, elevated to marquesado de Priego since 1501, and as protagonist to some of their outstanding components: Elvira de Herrera, Catalina Pacheco, Pedro Fernández de Córdoba ―firs marquis of Priego―, and the heiress Catalina Fernández de Córdoba, all of them participants in the start-up of the monastery that concerns as, that was intended to house the funeral chapel of the lineage. In this investigation, it has been carry out the study of the testaments of the mentioned characters who have clarified many doubts that, until now, were unknown the pre-foundational and foundational process. In addition, the consultation of other documents has made posible to elucidate important ignored data, such as the closest date to the beginning of the works of the first franciscan convent of the mentioned Cordovan town during the government of the first marquis of Priego. At the same time, it is approached the study of its architecture that, as it is justified in the development of this thesis, it was intended to Saint Clare Order under the approval of the second marchioness of Priego in 1525. This modification forced the noble heiress to promote the construction of a new convent for the Franciscans, under the name of San Lorenzo. In whose church, the mausoleum of the members of marquisate will be located, as it was registered in the testament of their patrons. The different circunstances that surrounded the construction of this monastery with respect to the previous one have been analyzed with the purpose of contrasting the causes that determined the differences established between both architectural projects. The historical trajectory of the convent of San Lorenzo has been deepened during the time it was in operation, between 153 and 1796. In this way, aspects related to the characteristics of its location and its natural environment has been highlighted with those of the construction of the monacal building and, because of its binding significance with the Casa de Aguilar, with the funeral chapel. Likewise, it has been carried out a study of the artistic works that possessed, elements that have been approached from the point of view that identifies the franciscanism of the observant branch. With respect to the architectural and artistic contributions that the monastery noticed throughout its existence, it has been considered appropriate to analyze them not only from the formal point of view but from the patronage exercised by the members of the marquesado de Priego, especially with regard to the plateresque cover and the infirmary executed by Juan Antonio Camacho at the beginning of the XIII century. The abandonment of San Lorenzo convent by the community of friars in 1796 is another matter of interest to know the causes of its rapid disappearance at the beginning of the XIX century. In fact, its use with different functionalities, some of which did not go beyond being a hopeful project ―like the missionary school proposed by Juan Duarez― as well as a hospital for infected people, did not contribute to conserve the conventual building, which is considered to be of ruin several decades before the Law of confiscation of ecclesiastical property was approved in 1836, data in which the plot occupied by the convent of San Lorenzo is sold and in which its study ends. The data obtained from this historical research have been essential to realize the architectural configuration and spatial distribution of the building, allowing to represent graphically its main building blocks formed by the church, the cloister with the concretion of its adjacent dependencias and the novitiate, elements that had been unknown until the completion of this work. Likewise, the natural environments of the plot and its crops have been taken into account as a complement of the build-up area. In this regard, it is important to detach the importance of a drawing made by Juan Antonio Camacho in 1723 as the main graphic source used, which has been interpreted according to the handled handwritten documentation. As a result of this research work, some plants and elevation of the disappeared convent have been designed, as well as the volumetric lifting in 3D of the most representative enclaves of the conventual building, in which the artistic pieces that had to have in its day, have been integrated. In addition, due to its constructive and documental exceptionality, a throrough study of the plateresque main front that gave access to the religious place has been made, deepening in its iconographic program as a reference of humanist ideal of the Renaissance. Given that the topic of this study had remained practically unexplored, the conclusions reached are various and involve novel contribution. In this way, new and important historical data have been discovered in terms of the origins of the founding process, or the year in which the convent was in operation and of those that continued until the confiscation in 1836. Regarding its construction, it must be pointed out that this coincided with the implementation of the most stricter observance, a factor that determined the sober architectural characteristic of this monastery that makes it a prototype of Franciscan buildings of the XVI century.
Un problema que sufre cada vez más la sociedad es la generación de residuos de diferente naturaleza. La legislación trata, a diferentes niveles, de que se alcance una gestión más adecuada y sostenible, al menos en las sociedades menos industrializadas. Pero además de las obligaciones impuestas por las normativas existentes a este respecto, la concienciación sobre este problema está generando el cambio en los sistemas de producción, invirtiendo cada vez más para alcanzar un sistema coherente con el concepto de economía circular, una apuesta por cerrar los ciclos productivos en cuanto a flujos de materia y energía se refiere. Una alternativa para conseguir dichos objetivos es la valorización energética de los residuos derivados de la actividad productiva y de este modo utilizar la energía obtenida para el autoconsumo energético de las propias instalaciones. En este contexto, la digestión anaerobia es una tecnología ampliamente implantada para el tratamiento y valorización energética de residuos orgánicos biodegradables. Este tipo de residuos presenta diferentes características fisicoquímicas, puntos de generación y periodos de producción. En muchas ocasiones, el coste de implantación de un sistema de tratamiento de una única fuente de generación de residuos es inviable, excepto en el caso de los residuos municipales. Por ello, y partiendo de la premisa de que este estudio todos se ha centrado en posibles mejoras del proceso de digestión anaerobia, ofreciendo información sobre las mismas y así, posibilitar su implantación, en la memoria se recogen distintas vertientes o frentes de actuación: Caracterización y optimización de la concentración de nutrientes en el sustrato orgánico a biometanizar, pretratamientos que aceleren el proceso, incrementando el rendimiento energético en forma de metano, así como la optimización de posibles combinaciones o mezclas de sustancias residuales. La evaluación teórica de la viabilidad de la biometanización de residuos orgánicos es un paso fundamental para su posterior estudio experimental. Así, la creación de herramientas que combinen la caracterización físico-química con la estadística, permitirían un análisis multivariante poco aplicado a un proceso biológico con alto componente de inercia en el sistema, facilidad en cuanto a su desestabilización y requerimiento de personal más o menos cualificado para su mantenimiento y alto coste inicial en su implantación. Los balances de materia aplicados a nutrientes fundamentales (DQO, N y P) y los análisis multivariantes, Análisis de Componentes Principales (ACP) y el Análisis de Clústers (AC), basados en una primera caracterización físico-química de las materias residuales a biodegradar anaerobiamente, han permitido realizar una primera evaluación sobre las posibilidades de codigestión de diferentes residuos, ya sea por compensación del balance de dichos nutrientes, por agrupamiento entre residuos o por predominancia de alguno de ellos. La búsqueda de una mezcla más adecuada en sus proporciones para el arranque de un digestor o para su posterior mantenimiento se hace posible gracias a las herramientas presentadas en las publicaciones científicas incluidas en este documento (Gil et al., 2018. Multivariate analysis and biodegradability test to evaluate different organic wastes for biological processes. Waste Management, 78, 819-828). Tener en cuenta diferentes residuos que se produzcan en una misma área geográfica y que puedan ser susceptibles de ser tratados mediante codigestión podría resultar interesante tanto para su gestión, como su valorización. Esta alternativa aportaría sostenibilidad económica en sus tres vertientes a la zona de implantación, objetivo perseguido por todos los planes nacionales y europeos de mejora económica y ambiental (Gil et al., 2017. Optimizing the selection of organic waste for biomethanization. Environmental Technology (In press); Gil et al., 2015. Mixture optimization of anaerobic co-digestion of tomato and cucumber waste. Environmental Technology, 36, 2628-2636). Siendo el correcto balance de nutrientes una cuestión fundamental para el metabolismo microbiano y generación de productos (CO2 y CH4 preferiblemente), es conocido el efecto tóxico del nitrógeno, a elevadas concentraciones, sobre el metabolismo de los distintos grupos tróficos que intervienen en la cadena de reacciones de transformación de las macromoléculas contenidas en los sustratos residuales por la microbiota anaerobia. Sin embargo, el efecto que el aporte de P puede provocar en el proceso no es tan conocido, solo que es necesario en menor concentración que los demás nutrientes. Dado que las sustancias orgánicas residuales no suelen estar compuestas a ex profeso con las concentraciones óptimas para su valorización mediante la biometanización, se ha considerado como una cuestión de interés la evaluación del efecto que sobre el proceso (generación de metano, estabilidad y cinética) provocan diferentes opciones en el aporte de N y P simultáneamente, respecto del contenido en materia carbonosa del residuo a tratar (Gil et al., 2018. Effect of variation in the C/[N+P] ratio on anaerobic digestion. Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (In press)). Por otra parte, la existencia de residuos cuya biodegradabilidad es baja, pero cuyo tratamiento mediante digestión anaerobia es conveniente, pone de manifiesto la necesidad de ampliar los estudios de aplicación de pretratamiento/s que mejoren esta situación. Así, la evaluación de pretratamientos que permitan mejorar la solubilización del C y N contenidos en los residuos, puede resultar de gran interés para mejorar su posterior tratamiento mediante digestión anaerobia. La biodisponibilidad de los nutrientes conlleva la reducción del tiempo que la etapa de solubilización e hidrólisis de la materia orgánica a tratar requiere. Por ello, se ha evaluado el pretratamiento con microondas del lodo de las estaciones depuradoras de aguas residuales, ya sea el lodo flotado o lodo centrifugado, evaluando la conveniencia de su aplicación y posterior influencia sobre el test de biodegradación anaerobia. Con ello se estudia adicionalmente la posibilidad de transportar el lodo a otro punto geográfico distinto del lugar de generación, donde se encuentre implantado un sistema de tratamiento anaerobio (Gil et al. Effect of microwave pretreatment on centrifuged and floated sewage sludge derived from WWTP. Renewable Energy (Under review); Gil et al., 2018. Effect of microwave pretreatment on semi-continuous anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge. Renewable Energy, 115, 917-925). Finalmente, dado que los pretratamientos energéticos parecen ser siendo los más adecuados cuando en una etapa posterior se aplican tratamientos biológicos, se han realizado estudios adicionales sobre la combinación de un pretratamiento hidrotérmico con la digestión anaerobia de residuos vegetales con elevado contenido lignocelulósico (Gil et al. Evaluation of physicochemical pretreatment of tomato plant for anaerobic digestion. Waste Management (Under review); Hamraoui et al. Evaluation of hydrothermal pretreatment for biological treatment of lignocellulosic feedstock (pepper plant and eggplant). Waste Management (Under review)). Los resultados presentados en esta Tesis Doctoral han supuesto un avance significativo en el contexto de la gestión de los residuos biodegradables, ya que han permitiendo aportar soluciones a un problema de gran relevancia en la sociedad actual, con los consecuentes beneficios ambientales y sociales que una mejora en el tratamiento de los mismos puede conllevar. ; A problem that increasingly affects society is the generation of different types of waste. The legislation deals with the achievement of more adequate and sustainable management at different levels. But, in addition to the obligations imposed by existing regulations in this regard, awareness of this problem has led to changes in the production systems, investing more resources to achieve a system consistent with the concept of circular economy. This concept is a commitment to close the productive cycles in terms of matter and energy flows. An alternative to achieve these objectives is the energy recovery from waste generated in industrial productive activities and, thus to, use the energy obtained for self-consumption in the facilities themselves. In this context, anaerobic digestion is a widely implemented technology for energy recovery and treatment of biodegradable organic waste. Such type of waste may have different physico-chemical characteristics, generation points and production periods. In many cases, the cost of implementing a treatment system from a single source of waste generation is unviable, except in the case of municipal waste. Starting from the premise that all the objetives of this PhD Thesis focus on possible improvements in the anaerobic digestion, offering relevant information about them and, thus, making possible their implementation, different fronts for action have been are considered: Characterization and optimization of the concentration of nutrients in organic substrates to be biomethanized, application of pretreatments to accelerate the biodegradation process and to increase its energy efficiency in the form of methane, and the optimization of possible combinations or mixtures . The theoretical evaluation of the viability of organic waste biomethanization is a fundamental step for further experimental studies. Thus, using of tools that combine physico-chemical characterization with statistics would allow carrying out a multivariate analysis, which has been scarcely applied to a biological process with high inertia component, can be easily destabilized, and requires qualified personnel for maintenance and high initial implementation cost. The application of mass balances to several fundamental nutrients (COD, N and P) and multivariate analysis such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Cluster Analysis (CA), based on a first physical-chemical characterization of waste materials to be biodegraded anaerobically, have allowed performing a first evaluation of co-digesting different residual substrates, either by compensating the balance of such nutrients, by grouping residues or by predominance of some of them. The search for a suitable mixture in terms of waste proportions for starting a digester or for its subsequent maintenance has been possible thanks to the tools presented in the scientific publications included in this PhD Thesis (Gil et al., 2018. Multivariate analysis and biodegradability test to evaluate different organic wastes for biological processes. Waste Management, 78, 819-828). Anaerobic co-digestion of different wastes generated in the same geographical might be interesting both for waste management and valorization. Co-digestion would provide economic sustainability, in its three aspects, to the area of implementation, which is an objective pursued by all national and European plans for economic and environmental improvement (Gil et al., 2017. Optimizing the selection of organic waste for biomethanization. Environmental Technology (In press); Gil et al., 2015. Mixture optimization of anaerobic co-digestion of tomato and cucumber waste. Environmental Technology, 36, 2628-2636). Being the correct balance of nutrients a fundamental issue for microbial metabolism and generation of products (CO2 and CH4, preferably), the toxic effect of nitrogen at high concentration on the metabolism of the different trophic groups involved in the transformation reactions chain of the macromolecules contained in residual substrates by the anaerobic microbiota is well-known. However, the effect that the contribution of P might cause in the anaerobic process is not so established. The only information available is that this nutrient is required at lower concentration than other ones. Given that residual organic substances are not usually composed by nutrients at optimal concentration for their valorization through biomethanization, the evaluation of the effect caused on the process (generation of methane, stability and kinetics) by different combinations of N and P simultaneously, with respect to the content of carbonaceous matter contained in the waste to be treated, has been considered of special interest (Gil et al., 2018. Effect of variation in the C/[N+P] ratio on anaerobic digestion. Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy ( In press)). On the other hand, the existence of low-biodegradability waste whose anaerobic treatment is required leads to the need of carrying out further pretreatment studies. Thus, the evaluation of pretreatments that allow improving the solubilization of C and N contained in waste can be of marked interest to favor the subsequent treatment through anaerobic digestion. Nutrients bioavailability entails the reduction of time required to solubilize and hydrolyse the organic substrate to be treated. In this context, the microwave pretreatment of sewage sludge derived from wastewater treatment plants (floated or centrifuged sludge) has been evaluated in terms of suitability and effect on the subsequent the anaerobic biodegradation test. Furthermore, the possibility of transporting sewage sludge to a different geographical point from the generation site where an anaerobic system is implanted has been also evaluated (Gil et al. Effect of microwave pretreatment on centrifuged and floated sewage sludge derived from WWTP. Renewable Energy, (Under review); Gil et al., 2018. Effect of microwave pretreatment on semi-continuous anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge. Renewable Energy, 115, 917-925). Finally, given that energy pretreatments seem to be the most appropriate ones when biological treatments are further applied to manage waste, additional studies on the combination of hydrothermal pretreatment with biomethanization of high-cellulose vegetable waste have been carried out lignocelulósico (Gil et al. Evaluation of physicochemical pretreatment of tomato plant for anaerobic digestion. Waste Management (Under review); Hamraoui et al. Evaluation of hydrothermal pretreatment for biological treatment of lignocellulosic feedstock (pepper plant and eggplant). Waste Management (Under review)). The results obtained represent a significant advance in the context of the management of biodegradable waste. This PhD Thesis provides a solution to a markedly relevant problem in current society, with the consequent environmental and social benefits that an improvement in organic waste treatment might lead.
La presente investigación hace referencia a la revocatoria directa de los actos administrativos definida por el Consejo de Estado, Sala de lo Contencioso Administrativo (2009), como: Una herramienta de la que pueden hacer uso tanto la Administración como el administrado para que en sede administrativa desaparezcan del ordenamiento jurídico aquellos actos administrativos que estén en oposición a la Constitución Política o a la ley, que no estén conformes con el interés público o social o cuando con ellos se cause agravio injustificado a una persona. (Consejo de Estado, Sala de lo Contencioso Administrativo, 13 de mayo de 2009, Sentencia 25000-23-26-000-1998-01286-01 [C.P. Ramiro Saavedra Becerra]. A su vez, la Ley 1437 de 2011, contiene en su articulado el procedimiento que debe seguir un ciudadano o una autoridad administrativa para adelantar el trámite de revocatoria directa de un acto administrativo, estipulando las causales por la que procede el trámite en mención, la oportunidad para solicitarlo, los efectos jurídicos que causa la decisión, la titularidad para solicitar la iniciación del trámite y declarar revocado un acto administrativo, el término en que deben ser resueltas las solicitudes y la revocatoria de actos administrativos particulares y concretos. (Ley No. 1437. 2011). De manera que, su característica principal consiste en sustraer del ordenamiento jurídico un acto administrativo del que se presume su legalidad y el cual se encuentra generando efectos jurídicos durante el tiempo que no ha sido revocado. (Galvis, 2013, p.19). Dentro del marco indicado, esta investigación analiza lo establecido en el artículo 95 del Código de Procedimiento Administrativo y de lo Contencioso Administrativo, según el cual las entidades públicas o las autoridades competentes tienen el término de dos meses para resolver la solicitud de revocatoria directa, enfatizando que frente a tal decisión no procede ningún tipo de recursos de ley, es decir, reposición, apelación y queja. Paralelo a ello, es necesario llevar a cabo el análisis del artículo 96, el cual estipula como efecto, que ni la petición ni la decisión de revocatoria, reviven los términos para que el acto administrativo sea demandado ante la jurisdicción contenciosa, no siendo posible la aplicación del silencio administrativo positivo ni negativo, cuando la administración no dé respuesta en el término estipulado a la mencionada solicitud. (Ley No. 1437. 2011). Con base a lo anterior, esta investigación se realiza con el interés académico y profesional de determinar qué herramienta jurídica tiene el ciudadano para obligar a la Administración a darle respuesta a la solicitud de revocatoria directa de un acto administrativo, si esta no se resuelve en el término estipulado en la Ley 1437 de 2011, al igual que busca establecer los efectos jurídicos del silencio administrativo frente a la solicitud de revocatoria directa. La metodología de esta investigación estuvo ligada al estudio teórico de la Ley 1437 de 2011, Ley 734 de 2002, Ley 1952 de 2019, Ley 80 de 1993, Ley 142 de 1994, el Decreto 01 de 1984, Decreto 2733 de 1959, la jurisprudencia del Consejo de Estado, jurisprudencia de la Corte Constitucional referente al tema y doctrina específica sobre revocatoria directa de actos administrativos. Como objetivo general de la investigación perfilé encontrar si existía o no una herramienta jurídica aplicable por parte del ciudadano en el evento que caducara el término para resolver su solicitud de revocatoria directa frente a un acto administrativo y, los efectos jurídicos que acarrea para la administración no resolver en el término tal solicitud. Para lo cual se analizan diferentes figuras y acciones legales tendientes a brindar una respuesta aplicable al problema de investigación, además, estudiar procedimientos administrativos específicos o especiales con el fin de determinar si la norma especial podría ser aplicada en el contexto de la norma general. De la investigación en concreto. El trabajo de investigación se estructura en tres capítulos: en el primer capítulo se hace referencia a los antecedentes normativos desde la expedición del Decreto 2733 de 1959, hasta la regulación de la revocatoria directa en la Ley 1437 de 2011. Plasmando la selección de jurisprudencias y conceptos emitidos por el Consejo de Estado, en la sala de Consulta y Servicio Civil y de Contencioso Administrativo, desde 1954 hasta 2019, con el objetivo de relatar el avance histórico que ha tenido la figura de la revocatoria directa de los actos administrativos en Colombia. Es importante recalcar, que el criterio de escogencia obedeció exclusivamente al avance interpretativo que el Consejo de Estado le ha dado a la figura jurídica en mención y no al orden cronológico en el tiempo. Se analiza el silencio administrativo y los recursos ordinarios contemplados para el procedimiento adelantado en sede administrativa. Efectuando una aproximación a los conceptos generales, normativos y jurisprudenciales sobre estas figuras para llegar a la conclusión de verificar si la Ley 1437 de 2011 y las demás estudiadas, plantean correctamente su postura sobre la improcedencia del silencio administrativo y los recursos en vía gubernativa y si su redacción corresponde a una correcta adecuación, o si por el contrario existe una contradicción jurídica dentro del procedimiento. En el capítulo segundo se estudia los procedimientos administrativos adelantados en ejercicio de funciones específicas de carácter administrativo. Verificando lo relativo a los procedimientos administrativos de revocatoria directa que se realizan en las actividades administrativas como en la prestación de servicios públicos domiciliarios, el ejercicio de la función fiscal del Estado y de la función disciplinaria de acuerdo a lo consagrado en la Ley 734 de 2002 y la Ley 1952 de 2019, en el entendido de determinar si lo contenido en el procedimiento especial prevalece sobre la norma general. Se indaga igualmente sobre la revocatoria de los actos administrativos de adjudicación en materia contractual y revocatoria de los actos administrativos pre-contractuales con el fin de determinar su revocabilidad o irrevocabilidad. En el capítulo tercero se analiza la acción de cumplimiento como posible solución al problema jurídico, es decir, como una herramienta jurídica utilizable por el administrado para obligar a la administración a darle cumplimiento a lo estipulado en el artículo 95 de la Ley 1437 de 2011. Plasmando el concepto normativo, jurisprudencial y doctrinal y comprobando los aspectos importantes de la Ley 393 de 1997, con el fin de resolver el problema jurídico. Igualmente, se examina la titularidad que se requiere para revocar actos administrativos tomando en cuenta las modificaciones realizadas con la expedición de la Ley 1437 de 2011, que específicamente determina las autoridades administrativas que tienen competencia para revocar actos administrativos. Así las cosas, se busca determinar si para el problema jurídico planteado existe una herramienta jurídica aplicable que obligue a la administración a dar respuesta al administrado o si por el contrario la norma deja la interpretación sin un sustento jurídico que conlleve a la no respuesta por parte de la administración. ; This investigation refers to the direct revocation of administrative acts defined by the Council of State, Administrative Litigation Chamber (2009), such as: A tool that can be used by both the Administration and the administered so that administrative acts that are in opposition to the Political Constitution or the law, that are not in accordance with the public or social interest or when with them unjustified injury is caused to a person. (Council of State, Administrative Litigation Chamber, May 13, 2009, Judgment 25000-23-26-000-1998-01286-01 [C.P. Ramiro Saavedra Becerra]. In turn, Law 1437 of 2011, contains in its articles the procedure that a citizen or an administrative authority must follow to carry out the process of direct revocation of an administrative act, stipulating the causes by which the procedure in question proceeds, the opportunity to request it, the legal effects caused by the decision, ownership to request the initiation of the procedure and declare an administrative act revoked, the term in which requests must be resolved and the revocation of particular and specific administrative acts. (Law No. 1437. 2011). Thus, its main characteristic consists in subtracting from the legal system an administrative act from which its legality is presumed and which is generating legal effects during the time that it has not been revoked. (Galvis, 2013, p.19). Within the indicated framework, this investigation analyzes the provisions of article 95 of the Code of Administrative Procedure and Administrative Litigation, according to which public entities or competent authorities have a period of two months to resolve the request for direct revocation, emphasizing that in the face of such a decision, no legal remedies, that is, replacement, appeal and complaint, proceed. Parallel to this, it is necessary to carry out the analysis of article 96, which stipulates, as an effect, that neither the petition nor the decision to revoke, revive the terms for the administrative act to be sued before the contentious jurisdiction, not being possible application of positive or negative administrative silence, when the administration does not respond within the stipulated term to the aforementioned request. (Law No. 1437. 2011). Based on the above, this investigation is carried out with the academic and professional interest of determining what legal tool the citizen has to compel the Administration to respond to the request for direct revocation of an administrative act, if it is not resolved in the term stipulated in Law 1437 of 2011, just as it seeks to establish the legal effects of administrative silence against the request for direct revocation. The methodology of this research was linked to the theoretical study of Law 1437 of 2011, Law 734 of 2002, Law 1952 of 2019, Law 80 of 1993, Law 142 of 1994, Decree 01 of 1984, Decree 2733 of 1959, jurisprudence of the Council of State, jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court referring to the subject and specific doctrine on direct revocation of administrative acts. As a general objective of the investigation, I outlined whether or not there was a legal tool applicable by the citizen in the event that the term expires to resolve their request for direct revocation against an administrative act and, the legal effects that it entails for the administration do not resolve such request within the term. For this, different legal figures and actions are analyzed to provide an applicable answer to the investigation problem, in addition, to study specific or special administrative procedures in order to determine if the special rule could be applied in the context of the general rule. Of the investigation in concrete. The research work is structured in three chapters: the first chapter refers to the regulatory background from the issuance of Decree 2733 of 1959, to the regulation of direct revocation in Law 1437 of 2011. Embodying the selection of jurisprudence and concepts issued by the Council of State, in the Consultation and Civil Service and Administrative Litigation room, from 1954 to 2019, with the aim of relating the historical progress that the figure of the direct revocation of administrative acts in Colombia has had. It is important to emphasize that the selection criterion was exclusively due to the interpretative advance that the Council of State has given to the mentioned legal figure and not to the chronological order in time. The administrative silence and the ordinary resources contemplated for the procedure advanced in administrative headquarters are analyzed. Making an approximation to the general, normative and jurisprudential concepts on these figures to reach the conclusion of verifying if Law 1437 of 2011 and the others studied, correctly state their position on the inappropriateness of administrative silence and resources in the government channel and if its wording corresponds to a correct adaptation, or whether by On the contrary, there is a legal contradiction within the procedure. The second chapter studies the administrative procedures carried out in the exercise of specific administrative functions. Verifying the relative to the administrative procedures of direct revocation that are carried out in the administrative activities as in the provision of domiciliary public services, the exercise of the fiscal function of the State and of the disciplinary function according to what is enshrined in Law 734 of 2002 and Law 1952 of 2019, in the understanding of determining if what is contained in the special procedure prevails over the general rule. It also investigates the revocation of administrative acts of adjudication in contractual matters and the revocation of pre-contractual administrative acts in order to determine their revocability or irrevocability. In the third chapter, compliance action is analyzed as a possible solution to the legal problem, that is, as a legal tool that can be used by the administrator to compel the administration to comply with the provisions of article 95 of Law 1437 of 2011. Embodying the normative, jurisprudential and doctrinal concept and checking the important aspects of Law 393 of 1997, in order to solve the legal problem. Likewise, the ownership required to revoke administrative acts is examined taking into account the modifications made with the issuance of Law 1437 of 2011, which specifically determines the administrative authorities that have jurisdiction to revoke administrative acts. Thus, it is sought to determine if there is an applicable legal tool for the legal problem raised that forces the administration to respond to the administered or if, on the contrary, the rule leaves the interpretation without a legal basis that leads to non-response by the party. of the administration.
Antecedentes: el cuidado de la salud, de forma autónoma e independiente, ha sido una preocupación permanente a lo largo de la historia y una de las metas más importantes para las personas. El movimiento constituye el fundamento básico de la vida pero, por múltiples razones, el ser humano contemporáneo puede llevar una vida exenta de actividad física regular, produciéndose uno de los problemas más relevantes de salud en la actualidad, determinando la aparición de sobrepeso, obesidad y múltiples patologías crónicas asociadas como enfermedades cardiovasculares, osteoporosis, cáncer y diabetes, entre otras. La composición corporal se relaciona con la salud y es utilizada habitualmente para la investigación de la obesidad, el crecimiento corporal y la actividad física fundamentalmente. El ejercicio físico se asocia positivamente con la salud, una mayor longevidad y esperanza de vida. Cuando se desarrolla con regularidad, es un componente esencial de un estilo de vida saludable, generando beneficios tanto a nivel fisiológico, como psicológico y social, incidiendo, por tanto, de manera positiva en los individuos que la practican. El entrenamiento físico programado y asistido por un experto es uno de los procesos que los individuos pueden elegir para mejorar su condición física, de una forma sistemática, motivada y exenta de riesgos. Objetivos: la tesis doctoral que se presenta tiene como objetivo principal la evaluación del impacto del entrenamiento combinado de fuerza-resistencia en la mejora de la composición corporal en personas adultas sedentarias, que será la base de nuestra hipótesis primaria. Como objetivos específicos se destaca la identificación del perfil antropométrico de los usuarios de los centros deportivos estudiados y el análisis del efecto de la intervención anteriormente mencionada sobre la reducción de la grasa corporal total, la grasa visceral, así como el aumento de la masa muscular y su efecto diferenciado en los diferentes grupos de edad y complexión. Este estudio, tiene el propósito de contribuir a mejorar la salud de las personas y, de forma más concreta, a aquellas que optan por la actividad física programada. Se pretende obtener información que nos permita incrementar la calidad de este tipo de prescripción de ejercicio para la salud, aumentar la seguridad de los usuarios, incrementar las competencias de los prescriptores, motivar a la población hacia la práctica del ejercicio de forma continuada y, en definitiva, contribuir desde nuestra área de responsabilidad al aumento de la calidad de vida de la población. Metodología: se ha realizado un estudio bifásico. En primer lugar se realizó un estudio descriptivo transversal del perfil antropométrico de los usuarios de los diferentes centros en los que se realizó este trabajo a través de una muestra de 250 individuos. Posteriormente se procedió a la realización de un estudio cuasi-experimental prospectivo pretest-postest que evaluó el efecto de un programa de combinado de fuerza resistencia sobre la composición corporal de un grupo experimental de 54 participantes. Los estudios se llevaron a cabo durante los años 2011 y 2012 en tres centros deportivos de la Comunidad de Madrid (España). En este trabajo se han seguido las recomendaciones de la guía CONSORT para los estudios experimentales controlados aleatorizados. Se ha considerado como variable independiente el programa combinado de fuerza y resistencia que se le aplicó al grupo experimental, que consistió en un programa combinado de fuerza y resistencia con una frecuencia de 2 sesiones por semana (con al menos 48 h de descanso entre sesiones) y una duración de 16 semanas. La duración aproximada de la sesión fue de 80 minutos. Como variables dependientes se consideraron el peso, los pliegues de grasa subcutánea, las circunferencias corporales, el índice de masa corporal [IMC], el porcentaje de tejido graso, el porcentaje de masa muscular y la distribución del tejido muscular. También se valoraron como variables moderadoras la edad, el sexo, la talla, el tipo de complexión, la frecuencia cardíaca basal y los diámetros óseos. Las técnicas utilizadas en la recogida de datos fueron un cuestionario inicial de datos socio demográficos y antropométricos, un cuestionario de datos antropométricos post-test, el cuestionario Par-Q (ACSM, 2011) y el software Fitcomp, en el que se incluyeron los datos antropométricos para la obtención de un perfil de cada participante. Para el análisis de datos se comenzó describiendo las variables sociodemográficas y antropométricas de la muestra objeto de estudio. Los análisis uni-variados se efectuaron teniendo en cuenta las características propias de las escalas de medida de dichas variables. Posteriormente se continuó con el análisis descriptivo del grupo experimental. Se procedió a realizar el contraste de hipótesis por medio de la prueba T-Student de comparación de medias para muestras relacionadas, contrastes multivariados intra/inter sujetos, Anova de Medidas Repetidas así como la prueba de contrastes Post-Hoc de Scheffe. Para identificar diferencias de promedio entre variables, se aplicaron las pruebas no paramétricas de Kruskal Wallis y U de Mann-Withney. Respecto a las consideraciones éticas se han aplicado todos los principios establecidos por la declaración de Helsinki de la Asociación Médica Mundial [AMM] sobre "Principios Éticos para las Investigaciones en Seres Humanos" de 2008, así como la legislación actual sobre protección de datos. Resultados: se observa que en la muestra de 250 personas hay 96 personas con sobrepeso, lo que equivale a un 38.4%, y 29 personas con obesidad, un 11.6. Estos datos son muy representativos de la sociedad actual, ya que, según la Organización Mundial de la Salud, en el Mundo un 39% de las personas sufren de sobrepeso y un 13% de ellas obesidad (OMS, 2015). En el grupo experimental se obtiene que hay 54 participantes (21.6% del total) con pre-obesidad abdominal y 34 participantes (13.60% del total) con obesidad abdominal, lo que representa un 35.20% de personas con un alto riesgo de padecer problemas crónicos de salud en el futuro. En este grupo hay una clara mejoría de la composición corporal tras la intervención con el programa combinado de fuerza y resistencia en todos los parámetros medidos. Respecto al peso, existen diferencias significativas entre el pre-test y el post-test (t = 4.88, p = 0.001), siendo menor en el post-test en un promedio de 2.14 Kg. También hay una reducción considerable en los pliegues de grasa y prácticamente en todas las circunferencias corporales. El porcentaje total de grasa también se redujo de manera significativa entre el pre-test y el post-test (t = 7.56, p = 0.001), siendo menor en el post-test en un promedio de 3.33 %. Además se observó un incremento importante en el porcentaje de masa muscular el pre-test y el post-test en un promedio de 2.15% (t = -5.45, p = 0.001). Conclusiones: en términos globales, se puede afirmar que el entrenamiento combinado de fuerza-resistencia es altamente efectivo la mejora de la composición corporal, ya que contribuye significativamente a la reducción de la grasa corporal total y la grasa visceral. Además, tiene un efecto muy positivo en el aumento de la masa muscular, especialmente en el miembro superior. ; Background: Health care has been a permanent concern throughout history and one of the most important desires of society. Movement is the basic foundation of life, nonetheless, for a variety of reasons, contemporary human being develops a life free of regular physical activity, constituting one of the most important health problems today, determining the appearance of overweight, obesity and multiple chronic diseases associated. Sedentariness is directly related to cardiovascular diseases, osteoporosis, cancer and diabetes, among others, unlike physical activity that is related to positive aspects on health, greater longevity and life expectancy. Regular physical activity is an essential component of a healthy lifestyle, generating physiological, psychological and social benefits, affecting positively to individuals who practice it. Body composition has an important relationship with health and is commonly used for research in obesity, body growth, physical activity and health, among others. Programmed and expert-assisted physical training is one of the processes that individuals may choose to improve their physical condition, in a systematic, motivated and risk-free trend. Objectives: The main objective of the present dissertation is the evaluation of the effectiveness of a combined endurance-strength training program on the improvement of body composition in sedentary adults, which will be the basis of our primary hypothesis. Specific objectives include the identification of the anthropometric profile of the users of sports centers and the analysis of the effect of the intervention, mentioned in the main objective, on the reduction of total body fat, visceral fat as well as the increase of muscle mass and the effect that this program has on the different age groups and complexion. This study aims to contribute to improving the health of people, more specifically, those who opt for scheduled physical activity. It has been possible through obtaining information that allows to increase quality of exercise prescription, safety of users, and competencies of prescribers, motivating users towards the practice of exercise on a daily basis and, in, all in all, to contribute from our area of responsibility to increase the quality of life of population. Methodology: a biphasic study was carried out. In the first place, a cross-sectional descriptive study of the anthropometric profile of the users of the different centers in which the study was carried out was developed, which consisted of a sample of 250 individuals. Subsequently, a prospective, quasi-experimental, pre-test/pos-test study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a combined strength-resistance program on the body composition over an experimental group of 54 participants. The studies were realized during years 2011 and 2012 in three sports centers of Madrid (Spain). This project follows the recommendations of the CONSORT guide for the randomized controlled experimental studies. The combined endurance and strength program applied to the experimental experimental group was considered as an independent variable. That intervention had a frequency of 2 sessions per week (with at least 48h rest between sessions) during 16 weeks. The approximate duration of the session was 80 minutes. Weight, subcutaneous fat folds, body circumference, body mass index [BMI], percentage of fat tissue, percentage of muscle mass and distribution of muscle tissue were considered as dependent variables. Moderating variables were also taken into account: age, sex, height, type of complexion, basal heart rate and bone diameters. The techniques used in the data collection were an initial questionnaire of sociodemographic and anthropometric data used in the first phase, a questionnaire of anthropometric data post-test, Par-Q questionnaire (ACSM, 2011) and Fitcomp software, in which the anthropometric data were included to obtain a profile of each user. For the analysis of data, a descriptive analysis of sociodemographic and anthropometric variables of the sample under study was started. The uni-varied analysis was carried out taking into account the characteristics of the scales of measurement of these variables. Likewise, the descriptive analysis of the experimental group was continued. To test the hypothesis, the T-Student test of comparison of means for related samples, multivariate contrasts intra/inter subjects, Anova of Repeated Measurements as well as the test of Scheffe´s Post-Hoc were accomplished. In order to identify differences in mean between variables, non-parametric Kruskal Wallis and Mann-Withney U tests were applied. Regarding ethical considerations, all the principles established by the Helsinki Declaration of the World Medical Association (WMA) on "Ethical Principles for Research in Human Beings" of 2008 as well as the current legislation on data protection have been applied. Results: in the sample of 250 people there are 96 overweight people, which is equivalent to 38.4%, and 29 people with obesity, 11.6. According to World Health Organization, 39% of people in the world are overweight and 13% of them are obese (OMS, 2015). In the experimental group, there were 54 participants (21.6% of the total) with abdominal pre-obesity and 34 participants (13.60% of the total) with abdominal obesity, representing 35.20% of people with a high risk of chronic health problems in the future. In the experimental group, there is a clear improvement of the body composition after the intervention with the combined program of strength and resistance in all measured parameters. Regarding weight, there were significant differences between the pre-test and the post-test (t = 4.88, p = 0.001), being lower in the posttest at an average of 2.14 kg. There is also a considerable reduction in fat folds and practically all body circumferences. The total fat percentage also decreased significantly between the pre-test and the post-test (t = 7.56, p = 0.001), being lower in the post-test by an average of 3.33%. In addition, a significant increase in muscle mass percentage between the pre-test and the post-test was observed in an average of 2.15% (t = -5.45, p = 0.001). Conclusions: Overall, combined endurance-strength training is highly effective in controlling body composition, as it contributes significantly to the reduction of total body fat and visceral fat. In addition, this intervention has a very positive effect on muscle mass increase, especially in the upper body.
