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The ageing of the population is one of the most important problems of contemporary European societies. It is assumed that, within the next two decades, the percentage of people aged 65 and older throughout the population of the European Union will increase up to 20%, and around 2060 – nearly one third of the community's inhabitants will reach this age. Therefore, it is important for the elderly people to have proper living conditions ensured, in particular in countries such as Poland, where seniors are still marginalised and excluded from many areas of social life. The quality of life of people in the post‑working age can be determined by taking account of numerous factors. These include, above all: financial situation, living conditions, health condition, self‑esteem, and the feeling of playing a significant role for the family and for the society.The purpose of the presented study is to assess the quality of life of elderly people from the region of Malopolskie Voivodship. The analysis of the research material takes account of various aspects of this particular category, namely the quality of life, with clear focus on the so‑called subjective quality of life. Conclusions were drawn on the basis of results of the study conducted in 2015 on a group of 150 people aged 60+, living in the counties of Myślenice and Nowy Targ from the Małopolskie Voivodship.Among numerous elements that can be used to assess the quality of life, crucial importance has the determination of the degree of satisfaction of seniors on several levels: with regard to relations with family members, health condition, and the housing situation. In addition, it was deemed important to identify the attitude of the environment towards seniors, as well as indicate the needs and expectations of elderly people with regard to e.g. services and products missing from the Polish market and addressed to this age category.The research results indicate that the subjective quality of life of the examined elderly people from the two counties is on an average level. Such a conclusion may be drawn on the basis of opinions of the respondents, who are rather satisfied with contacts with the environment and, at the same time, moderately satisfied with their health condition. Furthermore, the examined seniors notice clear shortages on the Polish market within the offer of services and products addressed specifically to their age group. ; Starzenie się ludności jest jednym z najważniejszych problemów społeczeństw współczesnej Europy. Zakłada się, że w ciągu najbliższych dwóch dekad udział ludzi w wieku 65 lat i więcej w całej populacji Unii Europejskiej wzrośnie do 20%, a około 2060 roku niemal jedna trzecia mieszkańców Wspólnoty osiągnie ten wiek. Dlatego też ważne jest, aby osoby starsze miały zapewnione odpowiednie warunki do życia, szczególnie w takich krajach jak Polska, w których seniorzy nadal są marginalizowani i wykluczani z wielu sfer życia społecznego. Jakość życia osób w wieku poprodukcyjnym można określić, uwzględniając wiele czynników. Zaliczyć do nich należy przede wszystkim: względy finansowe, warunki bytowe, stan zdrowia, poczucie własnej wartości oraz odgrywanie istotnej roli w rodzinie i społeczeństwie. Celem artykułu jest ocena jakości życia osób starszych z województwa małopolskiego. W trakcie analizy materiału badawczego uwzględniono różne aspekty tej szczególnej kategorii, jaką jest jakość życia, z wyraźnym wskazaniem na tzw. subiektywną jakość życia. Podstawę wnioskowania stanowią wyniki badań przeprowadzonych w 2015 roku na grupie 150 osób w wieku 60+ z terenu powiatów myślenickiego i nowotarskiego z województwa małopolskiego. Spośród wielu elementów, na podstawie których można dokonać oceny jakości życia, decydujące znaczenie ma określenie stopnia satysfakcji seniorów na kilku płaszczyznach: w zakresie relacji z członkami rodziny, stanu zdrowia oraz sytuacji mieszkaniowej. Ponadto za istotne uznano określenie stosunku otoczenia do seniorów, a także wskazanie na potrzeby i oczekiwania osób starszych w zakresie kierowanych do nich usług i produktów, których brakuje na polskim rynku. Wyniki badań wskazują, że subiektywna jakość życia badanych osób starszych z terenu dwóch powiatów jest na średnim poziomie. Wniosek taki można wysnuć na podstawie opinii respondentów raczej zadowolonych z kontaktów z otoczeniem i równocześnie umiarkowanie usatysfakcjonowanych swoim stanem zdrowia. Ponadto badani seniorzy dostrzegają wyraźne braki na polskim rynku w zakresie oferty usług i produktów kierowanych specjalnie do nich.

The article continues the analysis of the problem of tensions between the modelled direction and the context in education in Lithuania in the stage of its development in the second decade of the 21st century. The selected aspect – the opportunity for the transformational purpose of education declared in documents on education while social groups assess education unfavourably. The research question – why are there tensions between the declared transformational purpose of education and the context of development of education. The research is based on the qualitative methodology of documentary analysis: purposefully selected document sources of discourse on educational matters are analysed. Data analysis and interpretation and discussion of approaches by comparing them with theoretical perceptions and insights of researchers lead to conclude the following: All approach coalitions analysed in the discourse recognise transformational impact of education as a system on an individual and society, but treat the content of the impact completely differently. The representatives of business and politics coalitions rely in the discourse on the perceptions of education as socialisation and development of society as economic growth, therefore they would consider education good, if individuals were formed in accordance with the requirements of the business coalition, with no opportunities to choose the learning area, provision of knowledge of exact sciences, digital literacy and entrepreneurship required for economic growth rates, training the capacity to sell skills, instilling values and behavioural models for taking care of oneself, so that young people would as soon as possible be able to become the quality "human capital" creating added value, while the education system and policy would serve business and industrial development. This discourse coalition uses pervading economic criteria in assessing the intellectual resources and processes of education, and educational outcomes, and would use these criteria for modelling further direction of teaching individuals and developing education. Individual participants of discourse who by their occupation belong to the business coalition are guided by the perception of the development of society as long-term sustainable progress, i.e. they assess not only economic growth, but also the distribution of goods resulting from sustainable progress and the stability of progress. Although individual approaches do not represent a strong position in assessing education, their concepts serve the basis for raising the problem of equality of income and opportunities in society, which has a significant impact on educational outcomes: income inequality causes inequality of opportunities due to which some part of the youth is socially marginalised or is forced to emigrate. The discourse coalition of philosophers, sociologists, and psychologists relies on the perception of education as empowerment of an individual and as personal liberation, development of society as increasing choice opportunities and the process of revealing the capacity to form the world. Approaches of this coalition focus on the humanist relationship with the growing individual as the perspective of the nation, on a human being nurtured on the humanist level as a civic, thinking, creative and democratic individual, on the cognition of the world as an intrinsic value and as the way to search for intelligence, on knowledge which serves values, and also on many other values which essentially represent the provisions of educational policies adhered to in Lithuania in the second decade of the 21st century. Tensions between the provisions modelled in education and the understanding of the role of education in society, assessment of the condition of education, and further direction in which education should develop during the period researched by groups implementing education policy and different groups of society occur due to conflicting theoretical concepts, on which individual groups of society rely. ; Straipsnyje tęsiama Lietuvos švietimo modeliuotos krypties ir konteksto įtampų problemos XXI a. antrojo dešimtmečio Lietuvos švietimo raidos etape analizė. Pasirinktas aspektas – švietimo dokumentuose deklaruotos transformacinės švietimo paskirties galimybė klostantis nepalankiam visuomenės socialinių grupių švietimo vertinimui. Pagrindinis tyrimo klausimas – kodėl tarp deklaruotos švietimo transformacinės paskirties ir švietimo raidos konteksto klostosi įtampos. Daroma prielaida, kad problemos priežastys atsiranda ryškėjant konfliktui tarp švietimo dokumentuose įvardytos transformacinės paskirties ir visuomenėje besiklostančių prieštaringų požiūrių į švietimo paskirtį, būklę, raidos perspektyvas. Remiamasi kokybinio dokumentinio tyrimo metodologine prieiga: analizuojami tikslingai pasirinkti švietimo diskurso dokumentiniai šaltiniai. Duomenų analizės metodas – kokybinės turinio analizės dedukcinė versija. Prieinama išvada, kad apibrėžtu švietimo raidos laikotarpiu tarp deklaruotos švietimo transformacinės paskirties ir švietimo konteksto įtampos gali klostytis dėl skirtingas galias ir išteklius, skirtingus ginamus požiūrius ir besiskiriančias švietimo paskirties, visuomenės plėtros sampratas turinčių suinteresuotųjų grupių pastangų daryti įtaką švietimo politikai, švietimo raidai.

ABSTRAK IMPLEMENTASI ELEKTRONIK PEMILIHAN KEPALA DESA (E-PILKADES) OLEH DINAS KEPENDUDUKAN DAN CATATAN SIPIL KABUPATEN GRESIK (Studi di Desa Panjunan, Kecamatan Duduk Sampeyan, Kabupaten Gresik) Nama : Arjuna Dwi Amarta Putra NIM : 14040674118 Program Studi : S1 Ilmu Administrasi Negara Jurusan : Administrasi Publik Fakultas : Ilmu Sosial dan Hukum Nama Lembaga : Universitas Negeri Surabaya Pembimbing : Fitrotun Niswah, S.AP., M.AP. Implementasi kebijakan e-Government dalam pelaksanaan Pemilihan Kepala Desa di 5 Desa di Kabupaten Gresik merupakan tindakan pemerintah Kabupaten Gresik dalam menindaklanjuti munculnya data ganda pada penyelenggaraan pemilihan kepala desa, untuk mengantisipasi kecurangan dengan menyalahgunakan data ganda tersebut. Sehingga dapat mencapai tujuan pelaksanaan pemilihan kepala desa yang teratur, bebas dan adil. Penelitian ini mendeskripsikan bagaimana Implementasi Elektronik Pemilihan Kepala Desa (E-pilkades) oleh Dinas Kependudukan dan Catatan Sipil Kabupaten Gresik di Desa Panjunan, Kecamatan Duduk Sampeyan, Kabupaten Gresik. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah deskriptif dengan pendekatan kualitatif. Narasumber penelitian ini terdiri dari Ketua dan staff Bidang Kerjasama dan Inovasi Pelayanan Dinas Kependudukan dan Pencatatan Sipil Kabupaten Gresik, perangkat Desa Panjunan, warga Desa Panjunan, panitia pelaksanaan pemilihan kepala Desa Panjunan. Analisis yang dilakukan pada penelitian ini menggunakan indikator Aspek-aspek dalam implementasi e-Government untuk mewujudkan pelayanan yang lebih baik menurut Rianto dan Lestari (2012:43) antara lain Perangkat Keras (Hardware), Perangkat Lunak (Software), Human Resources (SDM), Data dan Informasi, Struktur Organisasi, Komunikasi, dan Sikap Pelaksana. Teknik pengumpulan data dalam penelitian ini melalui wawancara, observasi dan dokumentasi. Teknik analisis data yaitu pengumpulan data, reduksi data, penyajian data, penarikan kesimpulan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan implementasi kebijakan E-Pilkades cukup direspon dengan baik oleh masyarakat Desa Panjunan, insfrastruktur yang diberikan dari segi hardware masih banyak permasalahan yang muncul. Software yang digunakan dapat berjalan dengan baik. SDM yang ada tidak berdasarkan latar belakang pendidikan, tetapi hal tersebut dapat diatasi oleh Dispendukcapil Kabupaten Gresik. Selain itu Sikap pelaksana yang diberikan oleh operator pelaksanaan E-Pilkades merupakan yang terbaik dalam melayani masyarakat, dan telah direspon baik oleh masyarakat Desa Panjunan yang menggunakan program E-Pilkades. Kata Kunci: Implementasi, E-Government, E-PilkadesABSTRACT ELECTRONIC E-PILKADES BY DEPARTMENT of POPULATION and CIVIL REGISTRY GRESIK REGENCY (Study in Panjunan Village, Duduksampeyan Sub-District, Gresik Regency) Name : Arjuna Dwi Amarta Putra NIM : 14040674118 Study Program : S1 State Administration Science Major : Public Administration Faculty : Social and Law Sciences Name of Institute : Universitas Negeri Surabaya Advisor : Fitrotun Niswah, S.AP., M.AP. Implementation of e-Government policy in the implementation of Village Head Election in 5 Villages in Gresik Regency is an action of Gresik Regency government in following up the emergence of double data on the implementation of village head election to anticipate cheating by misusing the double data. So as to be able to achieve the goal of conducting regular, free and fair village head elections. This research describes how Electronic Implementation of Village Head Election (E-Pilkades) by the Department of Population and Civil Registry of Gresik Regency in Panjunan Village, Sampeyan Sub-District, Gresik Regency. The research method used is descriptive with qualitative approach. The resource persons of this research consist of Chairman and staff of Cooperation and Innovation of Service Department of Population and Civil Registration of Gresik Regency, Panjunan Village Device, Panjunan Village Residents, Panjunan Village Head Election Committee. The analysis done in this research use indicator Aspects in e-Government implementation to realize better service according to Rianto and Lestari (2012: 43) such as Hardware, Software, Human Resources (SDM) , Data and Information, Organizational Structure, Communication, and Implementing Attitude. Data collection techniques in this study through interviews, observation and documentation. Data analysis techniques are data collection, data reduction, data presentation, conclusion drawing. The results show that the implementation of E-Pilkades policy is quite well responded by the people of Panjunan Village, the infrastructure provided in terms of hardware is still a lot of problems that arise. Software used can run well. The existing human resources are not based on educational background, but they can be solved by Department of Population and Civil Registry of Gresik Regency. In addition, the implementation attitude given by the operators of the implementation of E-Pilkades is the best in serving the community, and has been responded well by the people of Panjunan Village who use the E-Pilkades program. Keywords: Implementation, E-Government, E-Pilkades

"Life among the lowly" is the XIX century best-seller which strongly con- tributed to the anti-slavery movement. Certainly, it denounced the life and labour conditions of black slaves, but it also inspired some stereotypes on black people that still survive today. These two faces of the novel are contained in the present dissertation. The first chapter "Hate at First Sight? Dynamic Aspects of the Electoral Impact of Migrations: the Case of the UK and Brexit" analyses how native political preferences are influenced by the presence of foreigners in a neighbourhood. The last European and U.S. election campaigns hinged on the migration issue and we argue that the preferences expressed through the vote might reflect some prejudicial attitudes. Instead, the second and third chapters refer to the impact of immigration on the domestic labour market. "Need for Flexibility or Subsidies? Reviewing the Impact of Immigration on the Domestic Labour Market" reviews all the seminal papers that have contributed to understand the effect of immigrant workers on native labour market conditions. The conclusion of this literature sustains a non negative impact of foreign labour supply on native average wage. According to these studies this effect is achieved more easily when the labour market is flexible and workers can nimbly change their occupations. Nonetheless, the crucial hypothesis of all the analysis is a perfect elastic capital supply. Studies on the reaction of investments to an increase in the immigrant labour-force are still rather scant and we try to improve the knowledge on the underlying dynamics in the last chapter. "The Labour Demand Response to Supply Shocks. The Indirect Effect of Immigration" investigates how industries and firms production decisions are influenced by migration inflows. The general conclusion, as suggested by the title of the review, is that policy makers should pay attention to industrial policies and not only to labour market structure. In particular, previous studies on the impact of foreign-born population on native voting preferences have highlighted a positive effect of immigration on the electoral consensus for right-wing parties. Nonetheless, this result holds with some caveats. To overcome the limit of the existing literature we formulate the hypothesis that an anti-immigrant attitude rises only at the arrival of the migration inflows and disappears some period later. At the basis of such a dynamics there could be material concerns about the adjustment costs of the new population or some prejudices, both denoting an "hate at first sight effect". To measure this potential mechanism we use an approach based on the standard network instrument which robustly supports our hypothesis. With regard to the analysis on the labour market, neglecting the reaction of investments to an increase in the labour supply can lead to some mislead- ing policy conclusions. Our contribution to the literature is to explicitly looking at the labour demand side of the market. Furthermore, contrary to the existing studies, the data that we use allow us to conduct the analysis at the firm level. We then avoid the bias that originates from the heterogene- ity of production units within industries. The data refer to an important case-study such that of Italy. Although it is only a landing country for most migrants, inflows increased tremendously from 2007, deserving a specific at- tention from academics. The result of the empirical analysis – conducted by means of the network instrument – highlights that immigrant labour- force has been largely absorbed by the adoption of more labour-intensive technologies. The layout with which we present the different studies depicts the order of priorities that in our opinion policy makers should follow. From the very beginning of the refugee crisis the economic analysis has been used in order to find political answers. Public attitudes in favour of solidarity have been linked to the ability of the market in absorbing the population shock. In doing that few attention has been given to the potential effect of the phe- nomenon on the political stability and social cohesion. On the contrary, we expect that public actors would build a community around shared values and consequently design the policies to overcome the market failures.

Introduction. The article deals with the main tendencies of development of recreational and tourist nature use in the context of ownership rights to natural resources. It should be noted that to date, there is no clear distinction between property rights and the definition of the conditions of possession, disposal and use of recreational and tourist resources as well as methodical provision of valuation, assessment of recreational and tourist resources and determining the amount of damage caused as a result of violations of environmental legislation. Aim and tasks. The purpose of the article is to analyze trends in the development of administrative management of recreational and tourist use in the domestic and international plane. The set goal requires the following tasks: to analyze the ownership of natural resources in Ukraine and in the international aspect; to substantiate the necessity of integrated approach to conducting ecologically oriented entrepreneurial activity in the recreational and tourist area with the definition of the main directions of this activity and the control levers. Research results. Today, there is no complete interconnection of recreational and tourist use with three spheres - economic, environmental and social, which imposes certain restrictions on maximizing economic revenues from recreational and tourist flows and preventing damage to the natural environment. There are also no methodological recommendations that would take into account the legal factor - the consistency of the socio-ecological and economic factors of recreation and tourism activities with the right to own natural resources. There is no distinction between types of economic activity using the recreational and tourist resource and ownership of this resource, taking into account the privileges and tax provisions of the entrepreneur. At the same time when calculating tax provisions from the introduction of economic activities, only the profit of the enterprise, which is transferred to the state budget, is taken into account, and only the parking fee and resort tax are levied to the local. The fee for the use of natural resources is also not calculated taking into account the activity of the enterprise. Conclusion. The main gaps in domestic legislation in the field of administrative management of recreational and tourist nature use are determined and directions of its improvement are described. Consequently, the task of administrative management of recreational and tourist nature use is to form an ecologically oriented model of entrepreneurial activity that will be legally sound and economically profitable both for the entrepreneur and for budget replenishment. ; Проблема. У статті розглянуто основні тенденції розвитку рекреаційно-туристичного природокористування в розрізі права власності на природні ресурси. Зазначимо, що на сьогодні не встановлено чіткого розмежування прав власності і визначення умов володіння, розпоряджання і використання рекреаційно-туристичних ресурсів як і методичного забезпечення нормування, оцінювання рекреаційно-туристичних ресурсів та визначення розмірів збитків завданих внаслідок порушення природоохоронного законодавства. Мета та завдання. Метою статті є аналіз тенденцій розвитку адміністративного управління рекреаційно-туристичним природокористуванням в вітчизняній та міжнародній площині. Поставлена мета потребує виконання наступних завдань: проаналізувати право-власності на природні ресурси в Україні та в міжнародному аспекті; обґрунтувати необхідність комплексного підходу до ведення екологоорієнтованої підприємницької діяльності у рекреаційно-туристичній сфері з визначенням основних напрямів цієї діяльності та важелів контролю. Результати. На сьогодні не існує повного взаємозв'язоку рекреаційно- туристичного природокористування з трьома сферами – економічною, екологічною та соціальною, що накладає певні обмеження щодо максимізації економічних доходів від рекреаційно-туристичних потоків та недопущення збитків навколишньому природному середовищу. При цьому, в правовому полі визначено лише методики розрахунку збитків від видобутку ресурсу, або ж забруднення навколишнього природного середовища. Немає розмежування між видами господарської діяльності з використанням рекреаційно-туристичного ресурсу та правом власності на цей ресурс, з урахуванням пільг та податкових забовязень підприємця. При розрахунку податкових забовязень від введення господарської діяльності враховується лише прибуток підприємства, який перераховується до держбюджету, а до місцевого бюджету потрапляють лише збір за паркування та курортний збір. Збір за використання природного ресурсу теж не обчислюється з урахуванням діяльності підприємства. Висновки. Визначено основні прогалини вітчизняного законодавства в сфері адміністративного управління рекреаційно-туристичним природокористуванням та запропановано напрями її вдосконалення. Отже, завдання адміністративного управління рекреаційно-туристичним природокористування полягає в тому, щоб сформувати екологоорієнтовану модель введення підприємницької діяльності яка буде законодавчо обгрунтована та економічно вигідна як для підприємця, так й для поповнення бюджету.

Purpose
Most of the existing studies in e-governance context have attempted to measure public value of projects in terms of quality of services provided, cost effectiveness of public organizations and extent to which public organizations are able to meet their social objectives. However, it is also important to explore variables influencing public value to pursue for attaining high public value from such projects. This paper aims to attempt to explore such variables based on Situation-Actor-Process (S-A-P) framework. In India, physical presence of citizens is still required at many public centers established for delivering a variety of government services. A citizen at the time of his visit to a public service center faces a situation, deals with different actors and is subjected to a set of processes. At the end of the service cycle, the citizen develops a perception about public value of the e-governance project. The paper aims at exploring the likely influence of "Improved Situation", "Capability Level of Actors" and "Flexible Process Workflow" on "Public Value" of e-governance projects.

Design/methodology/approach
On the basis of a review of literature, variables likely to be influencing public value have been identified in terms of situation, actors and processes. A questionnaire was designed, and a survey conducted to measure public value and S-A-P-related variables in the context of two e-governance projects, namely, Passport Seva Project and Driving License Project in India. Survey data have been analyzed to study the influence of S-A-P-related variables on the public value of e-governance projects. Learning issues have been synthesized in terms of implications for practitioners as well as researchers for enhancing public value of e-governance projects.

Findings
The study has revealed that a citizen-centric e-governance project with observed high value of conceptualized S-A-P variables is expected to be characterized by high public value. The analysis has also reflected upon a need for an in-depth study to explore empirically validated linkages between S-A-P variables and public value of e-governance projects.

Research limitations/implications
The paper is based on a pilot study in the context of two citizen-centric e-governance projects. It is required to study more such projects for the purpose of validating the proposed framework and arriving at generalized findings.

Practical implications
The study results are expected to sensitize practitioners to keep in view conceptualized variables related to situation, actors and processes while planning for citizen-centric e-governance projects. This may result in improved situation at the public service centers, better performance of employees and more flexible processes which may further help to increase the public value of such projects.

Practical implications
E-governance projects can perform a vital role in improving public value. In the context of India, a key objective of e-governance projects is to improve the service delivery of citizen-centric projects. The findings of the pilot study, based on the select two citizen-centric e-governance projects in India, reflect upon the likely relationship between public value and S-A-P variables. Thrust on improving situational aspects, as conceptualized in this study, is expected to improve comfort level of citizens while taking benefit of IT enabled services of government organizations. Better capability of actors at public organizations is likely to build trust and confidence among citizens toward these services. Adoption of flexible processes by public organizations is expected to ensure seamless delivery of services to citizens through alternate options. Enhanced delivery of services satisfies the need for improved public value and create positive attitude among society toward public organizations. It contributes to satisfaction level of citizens in terms of saving of time, money and efforts.

Originality/value
A review of literature has revealed a few studies undertaken in recent past with focus on measurement of public value in e-governance context. This paper is based on a novel idea of exploring the likely relationship between conceptualized S-A-P-related variables and public value of citizen-centric e-governance projects. Recommendations based on learning issues are expected to trigger suitable interventions to generate high public value from such projects.

At present, the formation of a positive image of the armed forces of the Russian Federation among various social groups is necessary. Many citizens want to have a full understanding of the army, since this is one of the most important institutions of the state and the country's security directly depends on it. One of the most important components is the image of the armed forces in the youth environment, as in Russia there is a mixed recruitment of troops, and many servicemen carry out their service on conscription. The transformation of the information sphere into a system-forming factor in the life of a society that actively influences its state, development and security is in demand. Therefore, the information security aspect is rather difficult to overestimate. It is very important for our state, in the current conditions of information confrontation, to respond in a timely manner to the information activity of potential adversaries who may try to form a negative image of the Russian army, undermining its fighting capacity, authority, and people's trust. There is an urgent increase in the role of information and communication technologies in politics and the public sphere. In this regard, it becomes possible to more effectively form, introduce and develop the image of the Armed Forces in the minds of citizens. There is a proliferation of conflicting and diverse information about the army, which is often untrue. To change such activities, effective approaches are needed in the production and broadcasting of information on the Armed Forces, the use of various channels of communication to enhance the prestige of military service and trust in it. It is necessary to cover competently and professionally the activities of the Armed Forces in military conflicts. Effective information support of the army's participation in military operations (including media) reduces the potential of potential adversaries to discredit the Armed Forces. And the integral image of the Russian army in the international arena increases its strength in the eyes of the world community, positively influences the export of weapons to military cooperation. The article analyzes the changes in the image of the Russian army at the present stage of its functioning. Building on the achievements of the domestic Political Science in the field of political imageology, the author focuses on the some negative and positive of the factors and trends, creating an image of the Russian Armed Forces. Author give periodization of the transformation of the image the army. Presented strategic vectors to improve it. ; В настоящее время необходимо формирование положительного имиджа вооружённых сил РФ среди различных социальных групп. Многие граждане хотят иметь полноценное представление об армии, так как это один из важнейших институтов государства и от него напрямую зависит безопасность страны. Одним из важнейших компонентов является образ вооружённых сил в молодёжной среде, так как в России идёт смешанное комплектование войск, и многие военнослужащие осуществляют свою службу по призыву. Востребовано превращение информационной сферы в системообразующий фактор жизни общества, который активно влияет на его состояние, развитие и безопасность. Поэтому информационный аспект безопасности довольно трудно переоценить. Очень важно нашему государству в современных условиях информационного противоборства вовремя реагировать на информационную активность потенциальных противников, которые могут пытаться формировать негативный имидж российской армии, подрывая её боеспособность, авторитет, доверие со стороны людей. Насущно возрастание роли информационно-коммуникационных технологий в политике и общественной сфере. В связи с этим появляется возможность более эффективно формировать, внедрять и развивать имидж Вооружённых сил в сознании граждан. Существует распространение противоречивой и разноплановой информации об армии, которая часто не соответствует действительности. Для изменения подобной деятельности необходимы эффективные подходы в области производства и трансляции информации о ВС, применение различных каналов коммуникации для повышения престижа военной службы и доверительного отношения к ней. Необходимо грамотно и профессионально освещать деятельность Вооружённых сил в военных конфликтах. Эффективное информационное сопровождение участия армии в военных действиях (в том числе медийное) снижает возможности потенциальных противников по дискредитации Вооружённых сил. А целостный формируемый образ российской армии на международной арене повышает её силу в глазах мирового сообщества, позитивно влияет на экспорт вооружения в военное сотрудничество. В статье анализируется изменение образа российской армии на современном этапе ее функционирования. Опираясь на достижения отечественной политологии в сфере политической имиджелогии, автор акцентирует внимание на некоторых факторах и тенденциях, как отрицательных, так и положительных, создания имиджа Вооруженных Сил России. Представлена авторская периодизация трансформации имиджа армии. Предложены стратегические векторы его улучшения.

Every religious and philosophical theory of ethics tends to determine what is good, and what is evil. Among ancient peoples religious laws governed every aspect of the communitys life. Ancient legal and moral codes have a religious quality because religion and government were never separate in the ancient world. In the teaching of the utilitarian, the utility is regarded as the basis of the appropriateness and of the obligation. Thus proceed the formation of the public utility concept. The purpose of this study – to examine the impact of the ancient Near East Law, Philosophy and Religion on human rights. Human rights in the early civilizations of both the East and the West were composites of various philosophies that served a peoples social and cultural contexts. The Code of Hammurabi from about 1800 B.C. is often cited by historians for its foundational place in the Western tradition of human rights. In the Hebrew Bible ethics also can be referred to as "human rights," but they are based on a very different foundation than the "human rights" commonly promoted today. Both the Hammurabi Code and the Hebrew Bible are utilitarian in their approach, but in the biblical writings use of both utilitarian and deontological methods are used. In a narrow sense, the Mosaic Code reflects the point of view of the radical relativism school. In a broad sense, some of the Commandments involve protecting people from other people, and in this sense a form of "human rights" is established At the very heart of biblical ethics lie the fundamental values that infuse moral conduct and principles. In the Hebrew Bible all morality was legislated. No distinction was made between law and morality, as one could find in a pluralistic society. ; Kiekviena religinė ir filosofinė etikos teorija stengiasi nustatyti kas yra gera, o kas yra blogis. Visuotinai pripažįstama, kad gėriui būdinga tai, kad jo trokštama. Senovės tautų religiniai įstatymai reglamentuoja kiekvieną bendruomenės gyvenimo aspektą. Antikiniai teisės ir moralės kodeksai visada turėjo glaudų sąryšį su religija, nes nebuvo griežtos takoskyros tarp religijos ir politikos. Judaizme, Islame, ir daugelyje senovės politeistinių religijų centrinę vietą užėmė Dievo įsakymas. Bet tampa neaišku – Dievo įsakymas teisingu ir naudingu padaro veiksmą ar jo rezultatą? Utilitarizmo mokyme naudingumas laikomas deramumo ir pareigos pagrindu. Tam tikras poelgis teisingas tada, kai jo naudingumas yra ne mažesnis, negu kurio nors kito alternatyvaus poelgio. Poelgis neteisingas, kai jo naudingumas mažesnis. Naudingumas suprantamas kaip indėlis į gerais laikomų dalykų ir situacijų sąrangą. Anot J.S. Mill, žmogus – sociali būtybė, todėl jo siekius kontroliuoja visuomenė. Šitaip visuomenėje formuojasi naudingumo samprata. Naudingumas yra determinuotas visuomenės pritarimo arba nepritarimo, vadinasi, naudingumas yra socialiai determinuotas. Antikinėse Rytų ir Vakarų civilizacijose ţmogaus teisių sistemą svarstė vairios filosofinės srovės. Iš Istorikų teigimu, Hamurabio kodeksas apie (1800 m. pr m. e.) padėjo pagrindus dabartinei vakarietiškai žmogaus teisių sistemai. Nors kodekse pastebimas didelis skirtumas bajoro ir vergo atžvilgiu, tačiau šiuo teisynu buvo bandyta atsikratyti primityvaus visuomeninio tribalizmo, likusio iš primityvios visuomeninės santvarkos. Žmogaus gyvybės svarbą pripažinimo ir skelbė hebrajų Biblijos tikėjimo sistema. Tai – pirmoji ir būtina žmogaus teisių sistemos funkcionavimo sąlyga. Hebrajai tikėjo, kad žmogus sukurtas pagal Dievo paveikslą ir panašumą. Taigi, kiekvienas asmuo labai vertingas ir svarbus. Hamurabio kodeksas pasižymėjo utilitarizmo tendencija, ir tapo beveik visų šiuolaikinių teisės kodeksų pagrindu. Mozės teisynas buvo dvišalė sandora, kuri buvo skirta specialiai Izraeliui tam, kad hebrajai vieninteliai turėtų teisę į pažadėtąją žemę. Hebrajų Biblijoje nėra takoskyros tarp teisės ir moralės. Biblijos raštuose, priklausomai nuo raštų grupės ir rūšies, naudojami deontologinis ir utilitarinis metodai. Siaurąja prasme, Biblijos raštai ir Mozės teisynas atitinka radikalaus reliatyvizmo mokyklos tendencijas. Plačiąja prasme, Dešimt Dievo įsakymų, gali būti traktuojami kaip potencialus civilinės valdžios moralės pagrindas. Šių įsakymas pagrindinis tikslas – apsaugoti žmones nuo kitų žmonių, ir tokiu būdu tam tikra prasme nustato "žmogaus teisių" standartą. Specifinė Dešimties Įsakymų forma tikslas leidžia daryti ir kitą išvadą: Įstatymai yra tik kryptis, siektinas tikslas. Jie turi būti tokie aiškūs, kad niekam nekiltų abejonių dėl laikymosi. Jei šie įstatymai ignoruojami arba pažeidinėjami, gyvenimas bendruomenės tampa neįmanomas arba nepakeliamas. Hebrajų Biblijoje moralė buvo neatsiejama nuo teisės. Joje neliko skirtumo tarp teisės ir moralės, kaip tai pastebima dabartinėje pliuralistinėje visuomenėje. Biblijos etikos dėmesio centre – fundamentalios vertybės, kad dieviško autoriteto nustatyti moralės normos ir principai.

Purpose The purpose of this single abstract is to present and discuss results coming from a pilot study exploring how creative production can be used as a didactic framework for teaching theory of science at BA level at the university. The data consists of observations during talks and evaluations, log books of reflections, and the students' productions. Conceptual framework The BA in Communication and Digital Media at AAU is based on an interdisciplinary approach involving a wide range of scientific positions of communication. Hence, the teaching of theory of science plays a central role even from the first semester to support the students' development of not only theoretical, but also meta-theoretical awareness and agency. Further, the education is based on problem-based and project-organized learning, where the students' learn through applying theoretical concepts and perspectives on self- selected communication problems derived from real world practices. The problem-based approach requires the ability to construct relevant and scientific rationales through acknowledging and applying the meta-theoretical dimensions of their academic work. Theory of science as a discipline, then, becomes not only a matter of knowing, but also a matter of doing, as a tool for building reasonable, scientific optics for analyzing data. Previously, most meta-theoretical dimensions of the students' projects have consisted of static references of meta-theory with no deeper connection to or actual impact on the project. In this inactive form meta-theory becomes a meaningless and not a productive element of the students' academic practices, sometimes even counterproductive if it contradicts the concerns and conclusions of the project. Hence, new teaching strategies which can enhance the students' meta-theoretical agency are needed. As part of a new application-oriented strategy we use creative production in exchange for students passively listening and taking notes as the only mode of production during Theory of science classes. Through the making of small, digital productions the students gain personal and material experiences with meta-theoretical perspectives such as a hermeneutic notion of gaming, the phenomenological perceptions of things and social construction of meaning. Through this rather unorthodox approach to a classic, contemplative subject, Theory of Science is turned into an active and experience-oriented discipline. Theoretical framework We understand creative production in the light of design thinking (Ejsing-Duun & Skovbjerg, 2016). The production is a form given by using a digital tool, using text and theoretical concepts. Learning through production has an important functional aspect as it makes it possible to reflect upon one's own learning afterwards and to discuss it with others. This point of departure is based on a pragmatic learning perspective provided and inspired by Dewey (1976), Schön (1999) and by an understanding of learning design framed by Sørensen & Levinsen (2014). In a pragmatic understanding of learning the students must first and foremost do something with the concepts – in this perspective concepts coming from theory of science. In their forming a production the students are not only getting to know concepts of science, but they are applying them to a actual scientific practice. Results Our results show indications that production: 1) can facilitate knowledge sharing between students, 2) be a guide for reading and how making theoretical and abstract concepts understandable for students, when they are asked to work with them in a concrete and practical way. At the conference we would like to elaborate on these indications and, on that basis, discuss some of the main challenges for both students and teachers, when implementing a didactic of creative production in a context where creativity and productivity is least expected, for instance, how evaluation seems to be crucial for the students' acceptance of and ability to enter into this kind of creative and productive framework. References: Dewey J.(1976) Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (New York: Macmillan, 1916; New York: Free Press / London: Collier-Macmillan, 1944). Ejsing-Duun S. & Skovbjerg, H.M (2016) Copycat or Creative Innovator? Re-production as a Pedagogical Strategy in Schools. I: Electronic Journal of E-Learning, 2016. Schön, D. (1999) The Reflective Practitioner: How professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith. Sørensen, B.H & Levinsen, K. (2014) Digital Production and Students as Learning Designers. Designs for Learning, Vol. 7:1:54-73.

Diese Studie konzentriert sich auf eine vergleichende Erforschung über lebenslange Lernmotivation und deren Einflussfaktoren in China und Deutschland. Da das lebenslange Lernen ein weithin anerkanntes System ist, welches internationale Bedeutung, reichliche Konnotation, Multiplex-Programmen und komplexe Verzweigungen enthält, scheinen die Erforschung und Analyse über das lebenslange Lernen und konkretes Lernverhalten, Strategien, Theorien, Performanz und Einflussfaktoren immer extrem schwierig zu sein. Zum Analysieren der konkreten Lernerfahrungen sowie Einstellungen und Gedanken von normalen Personen über das lebenslange Lernen werden biographische Erzählung Interview als Instrument der Datenerhebung und die Erforschung Schritte vom Grounded Theory als Forschungsmethode verwendet. Insofern ist eine empirische Theorie auf unseren Forschungsgegenstand zu entwickeln. Die interviewten Personen für dieser Studie besteht aus 20 ausgewählten chinesischen und 20 ausgewählten Deutschen mit unterschiedlichem Hintergrund und Konventionen. Untersucht werden die ganzen Lernerfahrungen und Ansichten von ihnen über die Motivationen und Einflussfaktoren auf ihr eigenes lebenslanges Lernen. Basiert auf einen Analyseprozess von offenen, axialen und selektiven Codierung kann man feststellen, dass die Lernmotivationen und Einflussfaktoren auf lebenslanges Lernen vor allem aus vier Hauptgruppen, nämlich Familie, Gesellschaft, Individuum, sowie Schulen bzw. Mitschüler und Lehrer kommen. Zum Beschreiben der Zusammenhänge zwischen diesen Faktoren und den typischen Kategorien von Einflussfaktoren in den einzelnen Ländern zu beschreiben, werden sie in "Postmoderne", "Scandinavian", "Transformation" und "Traditionelle Asiatische" Typen mit dem "Ideal-Typ" als Leitgedanke eingeteilt . In der konkreten Analyse der Arten der Motivation und Einflussfaktoren auf lebenslanges Lernen von Deutschen und Chinesen, werden die "Autonome" und "Autoritären" Features auf der y-Koordinate, und die "Individuell" und "Sozial" Faktoren auf die x-Koordinate beschriftet, damit die Cluster-Formen der Faktoren in den einzelnen Ländern auf die Diagramme zeichnet werden können. Die konkrete Analyse der Einflussfaktoren und Motivationen beruht auf dem allgemeinen Hintergrund der nationalen Bedingungen und der Realität der Bildungsentwicklung in jedem Land. Jede Hauptkategorie der Einflussfaktoren und Motivationen hat seinen tiefen Grund von der konkreten Makro-, Meso- und Mikrorealität, wie die nationalen Geschichte, Gesetzessystem, Bildungseinrichtungen, Lehr- und Lernpraktiken, wirtschaftliche Situationen, Gesamt Figuration und Bildungskulturen, sowie das Bildungssystem. Durch Analysieren und Vergleichen kann festgestellt werden, dass jedes Land oder Region ihre eigenen Eigenschaften, Implementierungsmethode oder Merkmale des lebenslangen Lernens sowie ihrer Bildungspolitik, Bildungserfahrungen, Lernmethoden, Prinzipien, Lern- und Lehrerfahrungen hat. Zur Verbesserung der Bildungsreformation und deren Fortschritt könnte man erfolgreiche Erfahrungen und Geschichte als Referenz verwenden, damit eigenes erfolgversprechendes Bildungssystem bzw. erfolgversprechende Bildungspolitik gründet werden könnte. Auf der Grundlage von Schlussfolgerungen und Ergebnisse dieser Erforschung sind Vorschläge und Anleitung für die Förderungen des lebenslangen Lernens zu erschließen, die sich in der Zukunft nicht nur in China und Deutschland, aber auch in anderen Industrie- und Entwicklungsländern für verbesserte Leistungen in diesem Bereich anbieten. ; This study focuses on comparative research on the lifelong learning motivations and influential factors in China and Germany. As lifelong learning is a widely recognized system, which possesses international importance, multiple connotation and complex branches, the research and analysis on lifelong learning and concrete learning behaviors, politics, theories, performances and influential factors is extremely difficult. However, in order to be able to analyze the concrete learning experiences as well as individual attitudes and thoughts on lifelong learning according to the reconstruction of their respective experience, we can use biographical narrative interview as an instrument of data collection and the researching steps of Grounded Theory as methodology to develop an empirical theory on our research subject. The study sample consists of 20 selected Chinese and 20 selected Germans from different background and conducts interviews with them to investigate their whole learning experiences and views on the motivations and influential factors for their own lifelong learning. Based on the analysis process of open, axial and selective coding, we can find the learning motivations and influential factors on lifelong learning are coming mainly from the four main groups including family, society, individual, and schools, peers and teachers. In order to describe the relationships among these factors and the typical influencing aspects in each country, we can divide them into the 'postmodern', 'Scandinavian', 'transforming' and 'traditional Asian' types with the "Ideal type" as a guiding ideology. In the concrete analysis of the types of Chinese and German lifelong learning motivations and influential factors, we can label the "Autonomous" and "Authoritarian" features on the y-axis and the "Individual" and "Social" factors on the x-axis so as to draw the cluster shapes of the factors in each country graphically. The concrete analysis of influential factors and motivations relies on the general background of the national conditions and the reality of educational development in each country. Each main category of the influential factors and motivations has its profound reason from the macro, meso and micro objective reality, such as the national history, laws system, educational institutions, teaching and learning practices, economic situations, overall figuration and educational cultures, as well as the educational system in each country. According to the analysis and comparison, we can see that each country or region has its own characteristics, implementation methods of lifelong learning, as well as their educational policies, individual learning methods, principles, learning and teaching experiences. However, the driving force for the improvement of the educational reformation and progress could rely on referencing the successful experiences of others and historical examples to develop their own educational system or establish their own educational policies. Therefore, based on the researching conclusions and results we can make suggestions and guidance for the promotion of lifelong learning performances and achievements in the future not only in China and Germany, but also in other developing and developed countries.

Includes bibliographical references ; The South African policy document of the Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS) for Natural Science (Department of Education, 2002), the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) for Life Science (Department of Education, 2003), and the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) for Natural Science and Life Science (Department of Education, 2011) recognises and affirms the critical role of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) in science education. These policy documents expect the science teachers to integrate indigenous knowledge in their lessons. This study strove to establish how selected high school science teachers in the Western Cape Province responded to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in their teaching. The present study employed a multi-method approach, involving different research methods used in parallel or sequence but are not integrated until inferences are made (Johnson, Onwuegbuzie & Turner, 2007). This study took place in two main sequential data collection phases, namely, the quantitative data collection phase ((QUAN) and the qualitative data collection phase (qual). This contemporary approach was employed in order to provide credible and trustworthy answers to the following research questions, namely, 1) To what extent are the science teachers in the Western Cape Province integrating scientific and indigenous knowledge, as required by the Department of Education? If not, what are their reasons for this? 2) What are the teachers' views about and understanding of the nature of science and indigenous knowledge as well as their views on how the two worldviews can be integrated in the classroom? 3) How effective was the treatment in enhancing the teachers' ability to integrate science and indigenous knowledge in the classroom? 4) To what extent can the model of Snively and Corsiglia (2001) be useful for measuring change as the teachers implement the integration of indigenous knowledge in the science classroom? For the QUAN phase, the researcher adapted a questionnaire and a new questionnaire, the Nature of Indigenous Knowledge Questionnaire (NOIKQ), was developed. The purpose of this questionnaire was to obtain a detailed description of high schools science teachers' understanding of scientific and indigenous knowledge, as well as the problems the teachers encounter in their implementation of Learning Outcome 3 of Life Sciences and Natural Science. After the pilot study of the questionnaire and subsequent modifications to it, data were collected. Convenience sampling and purposeful sampling characterised the samples of respondents and schools. This sampling strategy ensured a total sample of 370 high school science teachers in 80 public schools, represented by urban and township schools in the Western Cape Province. The results of the QUAN phase indicated that the teachers did not receive training on how to integrate science and indigenous knowledge, and that they did not have sufficient knowledge of indigenous knowledge to teach this aspect confidently to their learners. An inquiry was embarked on in order to train the science teachers in how to integrate indigenous knowledge in the science classrooms. A workshop was chosen as an intervention to improve the teaching skills of the teachers and to develop new methods of teaching. A quasi-experimental design was chosen to establish how effective the intervention was. In this quasi-experimental design, one group of five teachers was assigned to the intervention, whilst the other group of six teachers received no intervention at all. This intervention was based on the model of Snively and Corsiglia (2001) for integrating IK in the science curriculum. These teachers had participated in the survey and were selected for their particular interest in the research study. Classroom observations and three teacher and six learner interviews were used for collecting qualitative data to establish the effectiveness of the intervention. A finding from this study is that the worldviews that the teachers bring into the classroom have implications for approaches they take to include IKS in their lessons. The results of the qualitative phase indicated that, given the teachers background (i.e., cultural, political and social), teachers interpreted and implemented IKS in different ways in the curriculum. The teachers who attended the workshop and were trained to integrate indigenous knowledge in the science curriculum were more confident than those teachers who were not trained to integrate IK in the science curriculum. This increased confidence resulted from the workshop which enhanced the teachers' IK content knowledge and made them less dependent on the learners for examples of IKS. The study offers important implications and recommendations to teachers and policy- makers regarding the implementation of the integration of IKS in the science curriculum, as well as fruitful avenues for further research.

The objectives of this study are to critically map and analyse past and current discussions, negotiations and social processes that take place and relate to conditions created by living in- or monitoring the World Heritage City Angra do Heroísmo in the Azores, Portugal. Based on ethnographic fieldwork and qualitative interviews with the stakeholders in the city, the purpose has been to study how, and with what result and consequences, contested values, interests, rhetoric and powers are mobilized and made into dynamic forces for these stakeholders. Hence, this thesis gives a chronological presentation of selected issues and discussions, which have been taking place in the city from 1980 to 2012. The first subjects attended to are the 1980 earthquake and the nomination process which led to the inscription of Angra to the World Heritage List in 1983. However, some of the core objectives relate to the implications of living in a World Heritage City, given the preservation provisions which follow such a classified area. The aim has further been to assess the point of departure for the official monitors and their views on monitoring a vibrant historical area. The discussions analysed relate to the predicaments occurring when modern development is set up against preservation. However, the analyses show how policies and preservation ideals change, as well as how powers and authorities are challenged and affected by forces within and outside the "authorized heritage discourse". Finally, this study has assessed the notions of pride, local attachment and identity among the inhabitants in Angra. The World Heritage Status can trigger a double sense of feelings; on the one side it holds emotions related to pride and recognition, on the other it represents obstacles for living- and developing the city in accordance with the present needs. World Heritage and tourism are closely linked, and this investigation explores how the stakeholders in Angra relate to the possibilities and threats which tourism holds. Angra represents a site where there is a limited influx of tourist, and we can see how most stakeholders speak for a quality-based tourism. In this respect, one could say there is a prevailing consensus among the stakeholders. Finally, this study has assessed the notions of pride, local attachment and identity among the inhabitants in Angra. These sensations are related to the historical cityscape, an environment which also frames personal experiences and processes. The World Heritage Status can trigger a double sense of feelings; on the one side it holds emotions related to pride and recognition, on the other it represents obstacles for living- and developing the city in accordance with the present needs. Angra do Heroísmo is studied for its particularities, yet comparisons made with other studies reveal that the matters and aspects addressed in this thesis can be universal rather than particular. ; Avhandlingen er en kritisk kartlegging og analyse av tidligere og pågående diskusjoner, forhandlinger og sosiale prosesser som er relatert til det å leve i og forvalte verdensarvbyen Angra do Heroísmo på Asorene i Portugal. Basert på etnografisk feltarbeid og kvalitative intervjuer med for eksempel innbyggere, kulturminneforvaltningen, politikere og utviklere har formålet vært å forstå hvordan, og med hvilke konsekvenser, ulike verdier, retorikker, interesser og ressurser er mobilisert og gjort til drivende krefter for disse stakeholderne. Avhandlingen gir en kronologisk fremstilling av utvalgte tematikker og diskusjoner fra 1980 og frem til 2012, hvor de første temaene er knyttet til jordskjelvet som rammet byen i 1980, og den påfølgende nominasjonsprosessen til verdensarvlisten som ga Angra do Heroísmo verdensarvstatus i 1983. Et hovedanliggende for denne avhandlingen er problemstillinger knyttet til det å leve i en verdensarvby, med de restriksjoner som følger et klassifisert område. Videre har målet vært å studere myndighetenes- og kulturminnevernets ståsted og deres bevaringspolitikk. I skjæringspunktet mellom hensynet til bevaring og behovet for utvikling oppstår diskusjoner og forhandlinger, og avhandlingen analyserer utvalgte diskusjoner som hovedsakelig er knyttet til utbyggingsprosjekter. Studien viser imidlertid hvordan bevaringsidealer- og politikk endres, og likeledes hvordan myndigheter og autoriteter utfordres av krefter innenfor og utenfor 'the authorized heritage discourse'. Avslutningsvis gir avhandlingen en analyse av hvilken betydning verdensarvstatusen har for innbyggerne, noe som berører temaene identitet, stolthet og lokal tilknytning. Verdensarven har således en dobbeltsidig størrelse, som på den ene siden trigger følelser som stolthet og annerkjennelse, mens på den andre siden representerer begrensninger og diskusjoner.

Social and economic inequalities have been a concern in human societies throughout history. In recent years especially wealth and income inequality have been the focus of controversial public, political, and scientific debates. The present thesis seeks to contribute to the ongoing inequality debate by regarding economic inequality from a psychological point of view. Together with Detlef Fetchenhauer, Thomas Schlösser, and Daniel Ehlebracht, I experimentally investigated the psychological determinants and consequences of economic inequality in three different studies. Of the many aspects that inequality comprises, we particularly focused on the association between inequality and justice (Chapter 2 and Chapter 3) as well as its consequences for affects, emotions, and cooperation (Chapter 2 and Chapter 4). In this context, inequality as conceived in Chapter 2 might be most comparable to income inequality because it emerges as a consequence of individuals' performance in a working task. Inequality as conceived in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 might be most comparable to wealth inequality because it is the result of a random assignment to an advantageous or disadvantageous societal position, as is inheritance. Nevertheless, all inequalities examined within this research project are closely related, as they share an economic or monetary basis. In Chapter 2, we experimentally explored the emotional and affective consequences of inequality and their association to justice perceptions. In particular, our participants had to solve effort-based tasks and were assigned to compensation systems referred to as tournament system and equality system. Whereas tournament systems evoked high outcome disparities, equality systems, as they were applied, caused equal outcome distributions. In accordance with prior research (e.g., Schlösser & Fetchenhauer, 2015), we found that the equality system was perceived to be more just than the tournament system. Yet, the effect of the system's justice on affect and emotions was found to be small and both appeared, instead, to be crucially determined by the income and the status of a participant within a given system. For instance, those that benefited from the unequal tournament system perceived the system to be unjust but reported the highest positive affect and the lowest negative affect, anger, and guilt. A possible explanation might be that—within our research paradigm—beneficiaries cannot be hold accountable for the negative consequences of the exogenously determined compensation systems which might detach their justice perceptions and affects as well as emotions. In Chapter 3, we investigated whether a person's personal sensitivity towards justice (i.e., justice sensitivity) predicts equality preferences in democratic systems. Prior research found that unequal distributions are likely to be perceived as unjust (e.g., Deutsch, 1975), hence, we assumed that persons who are truly concerned about the just treatment of others (i.e., other-sensitive persons) hold a genuine preference for equal distributions and low inequality. Persons who show the tendency to predominantly care about a just treatment for themselves (i.e., victim-sensitive persons) were instead assumed to hold no genuine distributional preferences, but rather prefer the degree of inequality within their monetary self-interest. With the help of a so-called welfare state game (e.g., Biniossek & Fetchenhauer, 2007; Lotz & Fetchenhauer, 2012), we measured equality preferences in a democratic decision-making process. Indeed, other-sensitive persons displayed a general preference for low inequality irrespective of whether they financially gained or lost out on that decision. In contrast, victim-sensitive persons preferred either low inequality or high inequality depending on whether the one or the other was in their financial interest. In Chapter 4, we finally investigated the relationship between democratically determined economic inequality and cooperation. Based on previous research which found that in particular endogenously induced inequality harms preconditions for cooperative behavior, such as trust (e.g., Greiner et al., 2012), we assumed that democratically induced inequality hampers cooperation. In accordance with this assumption, we found that groups which previously implemented high inequality through a majority choice displayed relatively low levels of cooperation compared to groups which previously implemented low inequality. In addition, we found that the mechanism driving this effect is likely based on motivated reasoning rather than based on self-selection, similarity, risk, or inequality aversion. These findings suggest that high degrees of inequality harm cooperation in democratic systems. Chapter 5 provides an integrative discussion of the presented empirical research findings, while Chapter 6 suggests possible paths for future research.

A unique 17th-century historical source, the diaries of Patrick Gordon, a Scot in Russian service, contains a great deal of information about Russian history. A close reading of the detailed record of daily events in the author's life reveals details about Russian life, which are not found in other documents. From Gordon's diaries and correspondence, the article's author extracted information, which helps us understand the functioning of the postal service in Russia in the late 17th century. Several aspects of the problem are treated. Firstly, information about his correspondents is systematized, including personal, official, and more casual acquaintances. Analysis of the correspondence underscores Gordon's wide-reaching national, social and familial connections. Secondly, the article describes the routes that letters traveled to and from their addressees. There was a clear preference for sending letters via special couriers or acquaintances who happened to be traveling, even if a government system of communication was available. Thirdly, the article establishes transit times and explains the possible objective or subjective reasons why they might be faster or be delayed. This analysis also reveals something about the interactions between Patrick Gordon and his contemporaries, which is evidenced by the frequency of the correspondence and the direct responses. The author discusses concrete circumstances around the organization of the official postal network and its development in its early stages.The publication of the article is in two thematically delineated parts. The first examines data about Gordon's communications network, such as communication routes, official and personal agreements, as well as speed and frequency of exchanges. To a degree the content of the letters is examined here, though their more detailed treatment is to be found in the second part of the article devoted to the analysis of how he obtained political news and intelligence information. Both parts are organized roughly chronologically: it is important to see what changes occurred over nearly half a century covered in the diaries.The author's conclusions provide evidence about the broad connections of Russia and Europe as well as the active diplomacy, which made it imperative in the Petrine era to establish a state postal system. In the case of Patrick Gordon, who was an active participant in the political process, we can see how it was essential for him to take advantage of all means of communication in order to maintain his extensive correspondence about political, military, and personal affairs. ; Уникальный исторический источник XVII в. — дневники шотландского подданного на российской службе Патрика Гордона — таят в себе немало сведений по русской истории. Подробное описание каждодневных событий из биографии автора при внимательном чтении обнаруживает такие детали российской жизни, которые не представлены ни в каких других документах. Автор статьи поставил задачу вычленить из дневников и переписки Патрика Гордона информацию, способную раскрыть состояние почтовой службы в России конца XVII в. Проблема поставлена в нескольких аспектах. Во-первых, систематизируются адресаты Гордона, учитывая частные, официальные и дружеские контакты. Анализ переписки свидетельствует об очень широких национальных, социальных и родовых связях ее героя. Во-вторых, обрисовываются маршруты, которыми письма шли к адресатам и обратно, выявляется предпочтение отправки писем с нарочными или попутными средствами, хотя начинает работать и государственный канал доставки. В-третьих, фиксируется время доставки и устанавливаются возможные объективные и субъективные причины ее ускорения или замедления. Попутно обращается внимание на взаимоотношения Патрика Гордона и его современников, проявляющиеся в частоте переписки и оперативности ответов. Уточняются конкретные обстоятельства организации официальной почтовой связи и ее развития на начальном этапе.Публикация статьи тематически разделена на две части. В первой рассматриваются данные о сети коммуникаций, которой пользовался Гордон, — о путях сообщения, официальных и личных договоренностях, скорости, частоте сообщений. В некоторой степени здесь раскрывается содержание писем, более подробно разбираемое автором во второй части статьи, посвященной анализу того, как Гордон получал политические новости и сведения разведки. В обеих частях данные приводятся преимущественно в хронологическом порядке: важно увидеть, какие изменения произошли почти за полвека, которые охватывают дневники.Выводы автора свидетельствуют об обширных связях России и Европы, активной дипломатической деятельности, в связи с чем для петровского времени стало актуально создание государственной службы почтовой связи. Новые качества обнаруживаются в личности Патрика Гордона, активного участника политического процесса в России, пользующегося малейшей возможностью коммуникации с различными адресатами политического, военного и дружеского свойства.

A unique 17th-century historical source, the diaries of Patrick Gordon, a Scot in Russian service, contains a great deal of information about Russian history. A close reading of the detailed record of daily events in the author's life reveals details about Russian life, which are not found in other documents. From Gordon's diaries and correspondence, the article's author extracted information, which helps us understand the functioning of the postal service in Russia in the late 17th century. Several aspects of the problem are treated. Firstly, information about his correspondents is systematized, including personal, official, and more casual acquaintances. Analysis of the correspondence underscores Gordon's wide-reaching national, social and familial connections. Secondly, the article describes the routes that letters traveled to and from their addressees. There was a clear preference for sending letters via special couriers or acquaintances who happened to be traveling, even if a government system of communication was available. Thirdly, the article establishes transit times and explains the possible objective or subjective reasons why they might be faster or be delayed. This analysis also reveals something about the interactions between Patrick Gordon and his contemporaries, which is evidenced by the frequency of the correspondence and the direct responses. The author discusses concrete circumstances around the organization of the official postal network and its development in its early stages.The publication of the article is in two thematically delineated parts. The first examines data about Gordon's communications network, such as communication routes, official and personal agreements, as well as speed and frequency of exchanges. To a degree the content of the letters is examined here, though their more detailed treatment is to be found in the second part of the article devoted to the analysis of how he obtained political news and intelligence information. Both parts are organized roughly chronologically: it is important to see what changes occurred over nearly half a century covered in the diaries.The author's conclusions provide evidence about the broad connections of Russia and Europe as well as the active diplomacy, which made it imperative in the Petrine era to establish a state postal system. In the case of Patrick Gordon, who was an active participant in the political process, we can see how it was essential for him to take advantage of all means of communication in order to maintain his extensive correspondence about political, military, and personal affairs. ; Уникальный исторический источник XVII в. – дневники шотландского подданного на российской службе Патрика Гордона – таит в себе немало сведений по русской истории. Подробное описание каждодневных событий из биографии автора при внимательном чтении обнаруживает такие детали российской жизни, которые не представлены ни в каких других документах. Автор статьи поставил задачу вычленить из дневников и переписки Патрика Гордона информацию, способную раскрыть состояние почтовой службы в России конца XVII в. Проблема поставлена в нескольких аспектах. Во-первых, систематизируются адресаты Гордона с учетом частных, официальных и дружеских контактов. Анализ переписки свидетельствует об очень широких национальных, социальных и родовых связях ее героя. Во-вторых, обрисовываются маршруты, которыми письма шли к адресатам и обратно, выявляется предпочтение отправки писем с нарочными или попутными средствами, хотя начинает работать и государственный канал доставки. В-третьих, фиксируется время доставки и устанавливаются возможные объективные и субъективные причины ее ускорения или замедления. Попутно обращается внимание на взаимоотношения Патрика Гордона и его современников, проявляющиеся в частоте переписки и оперативности ответов. Уточняются конкретные обстоятельства организации официальной почтовой связи и ее развития на начальном этапе.Статья тематически разделена на две части. В первой рассматриваются данные о сети коммуникаций, которой пользовался Гордон, – о путях сообщения, официальных и личных договоренностях, скорости, частоте сообщений. В некоторой степени здесь раскрывается содержание писем, более подробно разбираемое автором во второй части статьи, посвященной анализу того, как Гордон получал политические новости и сведения разведки. В обеих частях данные приводятся преимущественно в хронологическом порядке: важно увидеть, какие изменения произошли почти за полвека, которые охватывают дневники.Выводы автора свидетельствуют об обширных связях России и Европы, активной дипломатической деятельности, в связи с чем для Петровского времени стало актуальным создание государственной службы почтовой связи. Новые качества обнаруживаются в личности Патрика Гордона, активного участника политического процесса в России, пользовавшегося малейшей возможностью коммуникации с различными адресатами политического, военного и дружеского свойства.