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The aim of this study was to present private and official codifications concerning the topic of responsibility of international organizations. Moreover, it highlighted some controversial issues which occurred during the work of International Law Commission (ILC). The topic of responsibility of international organizations was analyzed both by private bodies such as Institute de Droit International and International Law Association and – as mentioned above – ILC. The efforts of Institute de Droit International resulted in a resolution on The Legal Consequences for Member States of the Non-fulfilment by International Organizations of their Obligations toward Third Parties. While in 1996 International Law Association studied these topics, a Committee on the Accountability of International Organizations was established. These private drafts paid attention of ILC to some legal issues which helped ILC to identify problems which require further discussion. After completion of its work on State responsibility in 2001, ILC decided to include the topic Responsibility of International Organizations in its work program. Mr G. Gaja was appointed the Special Rapporteur and in years 2003-2011 he presented eight reports which took into account the comments and observations received from governments and international organizations. In his reports he largely followed the model of Articles on State Responsibility for Internationally Wrongful Acts. In 2011 the Commission adopted the draft of 67 articles on Responsibility of International Organizations, divided into six parts. The Draft Articles aimed at codification of a set of secondary rules applicable to a wide range of international organizations. The codifications of rules on the responsibility of international organizations was a very difficult task due to diversity of international organizations, which differ in size, functions and competence. Furthermore, there is a lack of relevant practice that would allow to elaborate the principles relating to responsibility of international organizations. Nonetheless, the responsibility for international wrongful acts is the most important institution of international law irrespective of the subject which committed a wrongful act. ; Artykuł nie zawiera abstraktu w języku polskim

We analyze the system of organization of science and its change in Poland in the last quarter century, in the context of parallel changes in the world. Based on our experience at the International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw, but also thanks to good models from other institutions in Poland and abroad, we present our thoughts on the question of how to develop science in Poland. We think that in order to improve the system of science organization in our country and quickly achieve a positive effect, we must use proven models from other countries and positive examples of our own Polish successes. The implementation of these tasks requires courageous political decisions that will provide the scientists with the freedom necessary to work effectively, but will also bind this freedom with responsibility. Thanks to people, who take up this responsibility and take full advantage of the opportunities offered, Poland will have a chance for rapid civilization progress. Investments in science are crucial to the development of each country. ; Analizujemy system organizacji nauki i jego zmiany w Polsce w ostatnim ćwierćwieczu, w kontekście zmian równolegle zachodzących na świecie. W oparciu o nasze doświadczenia z pracy w Międzynarodowym Instytucie Biologii Molekularnej i Komórkowej w Warszawie, ale także dzięki dobrym wzorcom z innych instytucji w Polsce i za granicą, przedstawiamy nasze przemyślenia w odpowiedzi na pytanie, jak rozwijać naukę w Polsce. Uważamy, że aby usprawnić system organizacji nauki w naszym kraju i szybko osiągnąć pozytywny efekt, należy skorzystać ze sprawdzonych wzorów z innych krajów oraz pozytywnych przykładów własnych polskich sukcesów. Realizacja tych zadań wymaga odważnych decyzji politycznych, które zapewnią naukowcom niezbędną do efektywnej pracy wolność, ale także powiążą tę wolność z odpowiedzialnością. Dzięki ludziom, którzy się tego podejmą i odpowiedzialnie wykorzystają oferowane możliwości, Polska będzie miała szansę na szybki postęp cywilizacyjny. Inwestycje w naukę są kluczowe dla rozwoju każdego kraju.

Social cooperatives in the function of social enterprises are classified as a group of employers of the open labour market. In view of their specific functioning they prepare and offer some work places to people being away from the labour market. The article attempts to characterize and evaluate the existing funding opportunities for social economy enterprises in Poland on the example of social cooperatives of legal entities in the context of the development of social economy in the area of social policy understood as one of the components of public policy. This article is a review of the current scientific literature in the field of social entrepreneurship and current legislation on social cooperatives. The presented data suggests that currently, social cooperatives have various forms and sources of financing for their activities. They operate in the sphere of public utilities, filling the gap in the provision of publicly available services which cannot be filled by free market entities or state institutions. Their activity is financed mainly from own funds, which can be supplemented with financial support from the state budget or a local government unit as well as bank loans and the European Union fund.

The aim of the article is to take a broader look at the current situation related to the implementation of 5G technology in Poland from a social perspective. The analysis was conducted in a broader context – Poles' attitudes towards science and technology as well as their knowledge about modern technologies. In addition to an analysis of the literature on the subject, the article will present the results of two parallel studies conducted using three research methods: the focus method, in-depth expert interviews and a questionnaire conducted on the basis of direct interviews at respondents' homes. The article reflects on, inter alia, questions about the attitudes of Poles to the development of science and technology, in particular to 5G technology, and whether the development of modern technologies is a cause of social anxiety among Poles. Research on the social perception of the 5G network in Poland shows that Poles are not familiar with 5G technology. Their ignorance results from poorly conducted technological education, insufficient public information provided by state authorities, public distrust of the authorities as an unreliable source of information, and the hermetic language used by telecommunications specialists. The disinformation aimed at delaying the implementation of this technology in Europe, also being related to the war over 5G technology between the United States and China, has a great impact on the negative perception of the 5G technology in Polish society.

The synergies between rapid information technology (IT) development and the shifting paradigms of economic transactions have led to the emergence of digital entrepreneurship. This study aims to investigate potential precursors affecting the intention of final-year business students to engage in digital entrepreneurship. This research was examining the IT acceptance among the business students by employing two tailored technology acceptance models based on the theory of planned behavior and theory of reasoned action models. A sample of 302 respondents were analyzed using SPSS and Smart-PLS. The results revealed that fresh graduates' intentions to engage in digital entrepreneurship were significantly influenced by their own attitudes towards IT. The study also reaffirmed that the dimensions of I. Ajzen's theory of planned behavior model, including attitude towards IT, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, subjective norms except perceived risk have a "direct effect" on undergraduates' interest in an Internet-based business model. Although the results have contributed to filling the paucity of the empirical research in digital entrepreneurship, particularly in the Asian region, the availability of information technology, government resources and support to affect digital usage and behavior are not to be underestimated.

W gospodarce rynkowej podstawowym zadaniem instytucji państwowych jest ograniczenie niepewności przez wyznaczanie ram wpływających na podejmowanie działań i decyzji wszystkich podmiotów. Od efektywności instytucji, przyjętego przez nie systemu działania oraz jego spójności, zależy skuteczność realizacji wyznaczonych strategii i planów społeczno-gospodarczych. Nieskuteczne i nieetycznie działające instytucje mogą wywoływać narastanie zjawisk patologicznych i nie pozwolić z jednej strony na swobodny, bez narzucania niepotrzebnych ograniczeń rozwój wszystkich podmiotów w gospodarce, z drugiej natomiast – doprowadzić do sytuacji, w której odsłonią się niekontrolowane objawy zwierzęcej natury, skłaniające do nieracjonalnych, nazbyt ryzykownych czy wręcz szkodliwych zachowań. Wywołuje to potrzebę wypracowania przez państwo mechanizmów, które godziłyby wymogi efektywności ekonomicznej, społecznej i politycznej z jednoczesnym uszanowaniem norm etycznych. Celem opracowania jest wykazanie, że kwestie powiązań pomiędzy etycznie postępującymi reprezentantami instytucji państwowych a etycznym postępowaniem przedstawicieli biznesu są niedostatecznie dostrzegane i doceniane oraz że wprowadzenie systemu etycznego, złożonego z ocen obiektywnych, implikuje w efekcie etyczną samoregulację podmiotów społeczno-gospodarczych i rozwój ekonomiczny państwa. ; In a market economy, the main task of state institutions is to reduce uncertainty by setting frameworks that affect actions and decisions of all the actors in the market. The effectiveness of the implementation of socio-economic strategies and plans depends on the efficiency of the system adopted and its coherence. Ineffective and unethical institutions may lead to an accumulation of pathological phenomena. On the one hand they hinder the free, and not unreasonably restricted, development of all actors in the market, and on the other hand they may lead to a situation in which the uncontrollable symptoms of 'animal instinct' will come into play, provoking irrational, too risky or even harmful behaviours. This in turn raises the need to develop state mechanisms that reconcile the requirements of economic, social and political efficiency whilst at the same time respecting ethical standards. The aim of the study presented in this article was to demonstratethat the correlation between ethically acting of representatives of state institutions and the ethical behaviour of business representatives is not sufficiently recognised and appreciated, and that the introduction of a system of ethics, consisting of objective assessments, implies the ethical selfregulation of socio-economic entities and of the economic development of the state.

W literaturze przedmiotu określenie "kapitał" występuje zarówno w ujęciach funkcjonalnych, strukturalnych, normatywnych, jak i aksjologicznych. W naukach humanistycznych i społecznych pojęcie to rozumiane jest jako wartość odnoszona do czynnika ludzkiego. W naukach ekonomicznych kapitał to pojęcie węższe niż "zasób". Zasoby (np. surowce, materiały, ziemia, praca) są wykorzystywane przez ludzi do zaspokajania ich potrzeb, są czynnikami produkcji dóbr i usług (Rekowski, 2002, s. 12-13). Kapitał to szczególny czynnik produkcji, gdyż stanowi już przekształcone zasoby (np. kapitał rzeczowy/fizyczny, ludzki, finansowy), które mogą zostać uruchomione, by przynieść zysk, powiększyć szanse oraz osiągnąć cele i korzyści na rynku (w ujęciu socjologicznym są to różne sfery życia społecznego, nie tylko obszary wymiany dóbr i usług).

In the Europe of the European Union, policies and programmes on the social inclusion of millions of Euros have been presented for years in different countries, with a greater concentration in the countries of the South and neighbouring countries. This issue is of concern to state, regional and also local governments. The strategies proposed are also multilevel. It is the latter that have the most complicated role since they are the ones that are closest to the problem. For this last level of public administration, the main obstacle is the lack of resources, becoming clearly dependent on European, national and autonomous funds. The analysis of the plans guides us as to which aspects are the most important. This is the case of Barcelona, because it is an example of inclusive support measures and teamwork on a European and international scale. A theoretical model derived from the analysis of the theory and the results of the application of the different social policies of inclusion through training is presented, in which the leader has a determining role and a new actor is incorporated into the traditional models. ; In the Europe of the European Union, policies and programmes on the social inclusion of millions of Euros have been presented for years in different countries, with a greater concentration in the countries of the South and neighbouring countries. This issue is of concern to state, regional and also local governments. The strategies proposed are also multilevel. It is the latter that have the most complicated role since they are the ones that are closest to the problem. For this last level of public administration, the main obstacle is the lack of resources, becoming clearly dependent on European, national and autonomous funds. The analysis of the plans guides us as to which aspects are the most important. This is the case of Barcelona, because it is an example of inclusive support measures and teamwork on a European and international scale. A theoretical model derived from the analysis of the theory and the results of the application of the different social policies of inclusion through training is presented, in which the leader has a determining role and a new actor is incorporated into the traditional models.

In the Europe of the European Union, policies and programmes on the social inclusion of millions of Euros have been presented for years in different countries, with a greater concentration in the countries of the South and neighbouring countries. This issue is of concern to state, regional and also local governments. The strategies proposed are also multilevel. It is the latter that have the most complicated role since they are the ones that are closest to the problem. For this last level of public administration, the main obstacle is the lack of resources, becoming clearly dependent on European, national and autonomous funds. The analysis of the plans guides us as to which aspects are the most important. This is the case of Barcelona, because it is an example of inclusive support measures and teamwork on a European and international scale. A theoretical model derived from the analysis of the theory and the results of the application of the different social policies of inclusion through training is presented, in which the leader has a determining role and a new actor is incorporated into the traditional models. ; In the Europe of the European Union, policies and programmes on the social inclusion of millions of Euros have been presented for years in different countries, with a greater concentration in the countries of the South and neighbouring countries. This issue is of concern to state, regional and also local governments. The strategies proposed are also multilevel. It is the latter that have the most complicated role since they are the ones that are closest to the problem. For this last level of public administration, the main obstacle is the lack of resources, becoming clearly dependent on European, national and autonomous funds. The analysis of the plans guides us as to which aspects are the most important. This is the case of Barcelona, because it is an example of inclusive support measures and teamwork on a European and international scale. A theoretical model derived from the analysis of the theory and the results of the application of the different social policies of inclusion through training is presented, in which the leader has a determining role and a new actor is incorporated into the traditional models.

Currently, immigration issues occupy an important place in the debate on the future of Europe. One of the central themes of this debate is the issue of security. In spite of the functioning of supranational integration structures, individual states still remain a fundamental factor in shaping migration. In many cases, the issue of immigration is subjected to the process of securitization, framing immigration as a threat. It is the speech act that is important in this respect, being a kind of securitizing tool. Since 2015, one can notice elements indicating that the process of securitization of immigration has been present in Poland, too, which, among other things, is a consequence of the change of the ruling party, the immigration crisis that has taken place in Europe, and the migration situation on Poland's eastern border. The article presents the factors that influence the process of immigration securitization. Additionally, it includes numerous statements from Polish politicians securitizing the problem of immigrants as well as the results of social surveys on attitudes towards immigration. The analysis of the collected material leads to the conclusion that the securitisation of immigration in Poland is not a completed process and that this process concerns a geographically defined group of immigrants.

The local governments of settlements fulfi ll not only their basic duties but also a great deal of other tasks as well that infl uence the communities' living conditions and quality of life, and through the way inhabitants feel also have an impact on the retention capacity of the settlements. The social policy of local governments is fulfi lled by the governments. Financing the tasks and their risks have a great effect on the realization of sustainable local governing. The aim of this study is to review the Hungarian local governmental system assessing some anomalies of the fi nancing of local governments and to draw attention to the risk of local governments, to the possibilities of how to reduce their operational risks highly considering the social political goals of the local governments, the role it has in developing and improving the people's quality of life.