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Cover -- Half Title -- Title -- Copyright -- Dedication -- Table of Contents -- Preface -- I: INTRODUCTION -- Causal Thinking, Theory, and Operationalism -- The Concept of Causality -- Some Problems with Causal Thinking -- Causal Models -- Inferences from Experimental and Nonexperimental Designs -- Concluding Remarks -- II: MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATIONS OF CAUSAL MODELS -- Causality, Attributes, and Necessary Conditions -- Independent and Dependent Variables: the Problem of Asymmetry -- Prediction Versus Causal Inferences -- Outside Influences, Error Terms, and Correlations -- The Use of Simultaneous Equations -- III: EVALUATING CAUSAL MODELS -- Rationale for Testing Models -- Specific Causal Models -- Numerical Applications -- Some Cautions -- Concluding Remarks -- IV: INFERENCES BASED ON CHANGES IN NONEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS -- Changes in Units of Analysis -- Comparisons with Same Units, Different Variations -- Comparisons Involving Change Data -- Concluding Remarks -- V: COMPLICATING FACTORS -- Reducing the Effects of Confounding Influences -- Measurement Error in Nonexperimental Studies -- Inferences Involving Unmeasured Variables -- Concluding Remarks -- VI: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS -- Summary -- Concluding Remarks -- APPENDIX: SOME RELATED APPROACHES -- INDEX -- A -- B -- C -- D -- E -- F -- G -- H -- I -- J -- K -- L -- M -- N -- O -- P -- R -- S -- T -- U -- W -- Z