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AbstractIn this article, we analyse translation in the context of revitalisation from the point of view of Language Making. Both translation and revitalisation are based on the idea of languages as distinct entities, and together they are doubly inclined to draw clear-cut borders between languages. The data come from a series of translation courses targeted at speakers and learners of Karelian, a critically endangered Finnic language spoken in Finland and Russia. By analysing the reflective assignments of the translation course participants and focusing on how they report on encountering and overcoming lexical gaps, we examine a very concrete case of Language Making: the creation of new lexical items for Karelian for the purposes of a translation task. Since coining neologisms in our data is mostly based on borrowing or calquing, the data illustrate how the participants perceive language boundaries and the connections between Karelian and other languages. Contrary to what the intersection between translation and revitalisation suggests, a rather flexible view on linguistic borders is displayed. Participants fill in lexical gaps by drawing on all linguistic resources available to them: mainly Finnish and Russian, but also "international" resources and occasionally other languages or other Karelian dialects. To a lesser extent, the data also display the participants' competing and conflicting ideologies of what is Karelian, what belongs to it and on which or whose model to base the neologisms.

AbstractThis article introduces a new concept called "Language Making". The term covers all kinds of processes in which speakers or non-speakers collectively conceptualize linguistic entities. Such processes are usually perpetual, they operate based on language ideologies and attitudes, and they bring about functional and structural norms which determine the boundaries of linguistic entities such as languages, dialects or varieties. The article discusses the significance of standardization, language policy and planning, and of stakeholders and agency for processes of Language Making. Raising the question as to why a new concept is needed in the first place, the article concludes with a demarcation of Language Making from opposite processes which may be called "un-Making" of Languages.

The present volume is a multidisciplinary collection of research articles exploring language use, language contact and multilingualism in the history of Turku, the first town in Finland, founded around the turn of the fourteenth century. Consisting of an introduction by the editors and nine case studies in the fields of linguistics, history, archeology, and literary and cultural studies, the volume participates in a wider discussion on multilingual communities while offering a closer look into linguistic encounters in Turku and its immediate vicinity. The volume covers the period from the Middle Ages (c. 1100–1500) to the latter half of the twentieth century. The case studies illustrate the wide array of languages, linguistic varieties and registers that the inhabitants and travellers used in their daily lives, the specific contexts in which certain languages were used, and the effects of these linguistic encounters at personal, social or institutional levels.

VTT Working Papers 187 ; The purpose of this study is to explore feasible gasoline biocomponents supplementary to ethanol, and to assess their exhaust emissions performance. Although ethanol is the dominant liquid biofuel globally, technical restrictions limit its use in conventional gasoline cars to 10-15 v/v% (bio-energy 7-10%). Since current conventional cars will continue to take the major share of gasoline car fleets for at least the next 10-20 years, it is necessary to establish and assess biocomponent options for them. Today, higher ethanol blending ratios are possible only with the use of flexible fuel vehicle (FFV) technology. The European Union requires renewable energy to have at least a 10% share of transport energy by 2020, and even higher shares are being attempted regionally. Biocomponents alternative or supplementary to ethanol are therefore desired in the gasoline pool. Interesting gasoline biocomponents are bioethers, biobutanols and biohydrocarbons. Oxygenated and non-oxygenated biocomponents can be combined to increase the bio-share of gasoline. This study consists of a literature review of the production processes, and an evaluation of the end-use performance of gasoline biocomponents. The results show that there are many options for increasing the bio-energy content of gasoline to 20% or more without increasing the gasoline oxygen content to a higher level than can be tolerated by E10-compatible gasoline cars.