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Recommendations The study confirms the premise that has recently also been increasingly voiced in foreign publications, that the host society plays the most important role in fostering integration. In order to avoid the isolation of migrants in professional, international or ethnic bubbles, it is important to provide opportunities for meaningful contacts with the local community and to promote openness. The bonds of friendship that develop can encourage migrants to become more deeply rooted in the host society. Secondly, the analysis clearly shows that when the future of a migrant, including the length and possibility of remaining in a given country, is uncertain, the motivation to invest time and effort in integration is reduced. It is therefore important on the part of the state to give migrants as much long-term certainty as possible and a more stable basis for planning their future whenever possible. Thirdly, there is a need to review integration indicators traditionally used in international comparisons (e.g. MIPEX) in the context of today's complex migration patterns. The findings call for 'more mobile thinking' (Shubin & Dickey, 2013) and a relationship-based, dynamic and transformative interpretation of integration that takes into account the unpredictable trajectories of mobility and integration and recognises the diverse needs of migrants. Fourth, it is desirable that attempts to promote integration become more holistic, open and «migrant-centred». Rather than trying to squeeze migrants into a formally defined 'framework', it is necessary to listen to and take into account their different expectations, to help them experience their roots, to support their life strategies and to exploit the potential of international mobility. This is the only way to reduce the politicised nature of integration, the assimilationist orientation and the disconnection of integration indicators from the real experience of migrants. Finally, the proposed conceptual model can help theorists to better illustrate ...

Elektroniskā versija nesatur pielikumus ; Pētnieki nereti pauduši bažas par politisko atsvešinātību postkomunisma valstīs, norādot, ka uzlabojumi iedzīvotāju politiskajās attieksmēs notiek lēni vai pat to nav (Howard, 2003; Mishler & Rose 2001; Lagerspetz, 2009). Vairumā postkomunisma valstu cilvēki neuzticas ne viens otram, ne politiskajām institūcijām, un šādas valsts un pilsoņu attiecības ir uzskatāmas par disfunkcionālām (Woolcock & Narayan 2000). Balstoties uz sociālā kapitāla teoriju, institucinālajām un kultūras teorijām, un izmantojot kvantitatīvu mikro līmeņa analīzi (strukturālo vienādojumu modelēšanu un oriģinālu kohortu analīzes tehniku) promocijas darbs piedāvā ieskatu valsts un pilsoņu attiecībās postkomunisma valstīs, kā arī mehānismos, kas nosaka to attīstību vai noturību. Atslēgas vārdi: politiskā atsvešinātība, postkommunisma valstis, kohortu analīze, politiskā socializācija, sociālais kapitāls, iemācītā bezpalīdzība. ; Abstract Often concerns are raised about the political disenchantment and the lack of notable improvements in political attitudes among the citizens of post-communist countries (Howard, 2003, Mishler & Rose 2001, Lagerspetz, 2009). In most of these countries people distrust both each other and the political authority, and such conflicting statesociety relations can be considered `dysfunctional' (Woolcock & Narayan 2000). Building on the social capital theory, institutional and cultural theories and by using quantitative micro-level analysis (structural equation modeling and an original technique of cohort analysis) this PhD thesis offers an insight into the state-society relations in post-communist countries, as well as mechanisms behind the evolution or persistence of these attitudes. Keywords: political alienation, post-communist countries, cohort analysis, political socialization, social capital, learned helplessness

Introduction: Rita Kaša and Inta Mieriņa -- Part I Contemporary Latvian Migration: An Integrated Approach to Surveying Emigrants Worldwide: Inta Mieriņa -- Emigration from Latvia: A Brief History and Driving Forces in the 21st Century: Mihails Hazans -- The Complex Identities of Latvians Abroad: What Shapes a Migrant's Sense of Belonging?: Ilze Koroļeva -- Latvian Migrants in Foreign Labour Markets: Job Placement and Discrimination: Aivars Tabuns -- PART II Case Studies on Transnational and National Belonging of Migrants: Latvian Migrants in Great Britain: 'The Great Departure', Transnational Identity and Long Distance Belonging: Mārtiņš Kaprāns -- Growing Up to Belong Transnationally: Parent Perceptions on Identity Formation among Latvian Emigrant Children in England: Daiga Kamerāde and Ieva Skubiņa -- Manoeuvring in between: Mapping out the Transnational Identity of Russian-speaking Latvians in Sweden and Great Britain: Iveta Jurkane-Hobein and Evija Kļave -- Cultural and Media Identity among Latvian Migrants in Germany: Laura Sūna -- Latvian Emigrants in the United States: Different Waves, Different Identities?: Andris Saulītis and Inta Mieriņa -- 'I Am One of Them': Exploring the Communication of Identity of Latvian Migrants on Social Networking Sites: Ianis Bucholtz and Laura Sūna -- Part III Return Migration and Policies of the Sending Country: Return Migration Process in Policy and Practice: Evija Kļave and Inese Šūpule -- The Nexus between Higher Education Funding and Return Migration Examined: Rita Kaša

This open access volume examines experiences of contemporary Latvian migrants, thereby focusing on reasons for emigration, processes of integration in their host countries, and – in the case of return migration - re-integration in their home country. In the context of European migration, the book describes the case of Latvia, which is interesting due to the multiple waves of excessive emigration, continuously high migration potential among European Union member states, and diverse migrant characteristics. It provides a fascinating insight into the social and psychological aspects linked to migration in a comparative context. The data in this volume is rich in providing individual level perspectives of contemporary Latvian migrants by addressing issues such as emigrants' economic, social and cultural inclusion in the host country, ties with the home country and culture, interaction with public authorities both in the host and home country, political views, and perspectives on the permanent settlement in migration or return. Through topics such as assimilation of children, relationships between emigrants representing different emigration waves, the complex identities and attachments of minority emigrants, and the role of culture and media in identity formation and presentation, this book addresses topics that any contemporary emigrant community is faced with.; Provides insight in patterns of Latvian migration during the past 25 years An interdisciplinary enriched account on push and pull forces in contemporary diaspora transformations Discusses migration combining top-down policy and bottom-up emigrant perspectives

Contact restrictions imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic have contributed to the rapid expansion of remote work. With this expansion, new opportunities arise for the typical migrant-sending countries in Central and Eastern Europe to remotely involve their diaspora in their labor market. The aim of this paper is, by using the case study of Latvia, to show the potential of cross-border remote work for alleviating human capital losses caused by emigration. We assess the main obstacles and necessary adjustments in taxes, social benefits, labor market regulation and other areas to facilitate the labor market transition and show what incentives the country can use to become a place of choice for performing remote work for the diaspora. Combining the perspectives of employers, employees and the government, this study sheds new light on the challenges and opportunities related to the rise of remote work for countries suffering from emigration. The comprehensive analysis builds on triangulating secondary data, analysis of policy documents, a survey of employers, as well as a survey and in-depth interviews with cross-border remote workers.

There is a growing awareness in migration research that traditional interpretations and approaches to measuring and evaluating integration do not adequately fit the increasingly fluid and unpredictable patterns of migration observed today. Focusing on the transnational and liquid migration characteristic of Eastern European migrants, we propose a new conceptual framework that explains contemporary processes of migrant incorporation from the perspective of migrants themselves. Our model accounts for the "breadth and depth" of integration and contrasts deep integration and assimilation with functional adaptation, and integration into a certain group or network with integration into society as a whole. The analysis is based on comprehensive mixed-design research of Latvian migrants which includes a survey of 6,242 Latvian emigrants, as well as 15 in-depth interviews with internationally-mobile global talents. The bottom-up perspective that we employ sheds new light on how migrants themselves think about, and experience integration in their everyday lives.

One of the first areas severely hit by the Covid-19 pandemic was international travel. In March/April, with commercial flights coming to a near halt, the governments were struggling to help their stranded citizens to return home. Extra flights and ferry trips were organised, and the opportunity to return was used by many emigrants worried about the uncertainty and the possible future development of the pandemic. This paper containing both data collected through survey and in-depth interviews with people aged 50+ in Latvia, is the first to explore the reactions of the society to repatriation policy implemented by the government of Latvia, and to explore how the Covid-19 situation has affected the attitudes towards return migrants in general. Importantly, it demonstrates how education moderates these attitudes. The results show that most of the population consider returning migrants as a significant source of infections, and many had doubts if they follow self-isolation and other rules responsibly. Those with the higher education were in general more supportive of the repatriation policy demonstrating the importance of education and explaining difficult decisions in order to reduce tension and fear.

By moving, a person loses at least some of their social contacts, causing not just psychological distress and anxiety, but also loss of support networks one can rely on in times of need. Latvia was one of the typical 'sending countries' in Europe, and since year 2000 about 10% of the population has emigrated. Here we would like to use the data gathered in the Latvian migrant survey to analyze how the migrants integrate into the local communities, and to what extent they still maintain close ties to their home countries; how does it change with time and what factors affect it. A special attention will be paid to how do emigrants' identities change with time – do they retain their national identity, do they integrate also in terms of belonging and identification with the host community, perhaps it is a mix of both, or they develop a new, global or European identity? These are just some of the questions this research tries to answer. The paper is based on a recent Web-based survey of more than 10 000 Latvian emigrants abroad, in all regions of the world (including USA, Europe and Asia). The study was conducted with the support of by the ESF research grant "The emigrant communities of Latvia: National identity, transnational relations, and diaspora politics" (Nr.2013/0055/1DP/1.1.1.2.0/13/APIA/VIAA/040) – the largest survey of emigrants from one country so far conducted in Europe.

AbstractWhat factors influence the formation of threat perception among the masses? Can the public perceive that external threats exist yet also feel safe? This article investigates both how threat perceptions form, as well as what factors influence security perceptions, in ethnically diverse countries and societies. While drawing on data from two nationally representative surveys, this article inquires to what extent the views of the government and society align regarding whether Russia represents a security threat to Latvia. We find that the determinants of threat and security perceptions differ. Above all else, the views of our respondents are shaped by their ethnic identities and regional effects. Consumption of different forms of media also influence threat perception. Perceived asymmetry of power is an additional important variable shaping security perception. Importantly, there is a correlation between seeing Russia as a security threat and Russophobia or fear of Russians living in Latvia. Overall, this article demonstrates that threat perceptions differ between Russian-speakers and Latvians, shows that it is important to differentiate between perceptions of threat and security, and identifies key explanatory variables influencing development of these perceptions in ethnically diverse societies.