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As in many other countries, such as in Europe, Canada has increased its anti-trafficking efforts since this crime was included in the criminal code in 2005. However, trafficking for labour exploitation remains poorly addressed in the current anti-trafficking response. Concerns related to domestic sex trafficking have dominated the landscape and driven the bulk of government actions, leaving labour trafficking side way. This paper reviews the evolution the Canadian governance of trafficking and examines the key challenges in addressing trafficking for labour exploitation. The paper draws on a study conducted in Canada between 2011 and 2013, and which is based on 79 interviews with key stakeholders. One key argument of the analysis presented in this paper is that the Canadian policy has been shaped by national mobilisation around the issue of sexual exploitation of young women, especially adolescent girls as well as Aboriginal women. Further, this framing and conception of trafficking interact with the legal definition of trafficking in the criminal code and the ways in which it is applied. Indeed, the current trafficking offence is less easily understood as applying to situations of labour exploitation. However, labour trafficking is progressively emerging as a matter that deserves public and political interest. Migrants' and refugees' rights organisations, as well as civil society anti-trafficking initiatives, play a role in raising awareness about this issue and including this issue in the government actions.

This report examines the demand-side of trafficking in the domestic work sector based on seven country studies (Belgium, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, and the UK). The report i) provides an overview of the phenomenon of trafficking in domestic work, ii) examines the factors influencing the demand in the context of trafficking, and iii) discusses key challenges in responding to and tackling this issue. The paper argues that measures addressing the demand-side (employers/labour market) can hardly be separated from tackling the 'supply' side, namely addressing the workers' situations. Domestic workers face vulnerabilities to exploitation: the work is performed in private homes within intimate relationships characterised by dependency and power imbalance, very often within informal and live-in arrangements. Some policies may also foster the precariousness of migrant domestic workers. Preventing trafficking from occurring and discouraging inappropriate demand includes the reduction of vulnerability to abuse on the side of workers and the limitation of the opportunities for exploitation on the side of employers. Thus, a holistic approach must be adopted to address the demand-side of trafficking. Establishing stronger regulations for domestic work is crucial, but it is not sufficient without simultaneously seeking ways of empowering domestic workers and fostering change in social norms and employers' behaviour, beliefs, and attitudes that tend to undervalue domestic work. ; This project has received funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme for Research, Technological Development and Demonstration under Grant Agreement No. 612869.

Ethiopia has been facing an increased return of migrants, as a result of mass deportation from countries like Saudi Arabia, The Government of Ethiopia, together with other humanitarian actors successfully managed the return but, due to the absence of a national framework on reintegration, the reintegration component was not addressed. Hence this report presents the recommended approach for developing a reintegration package for return migrants in Ethiopia. This package is expected to serve as a point of reference and practical guide for the Government of Ethiopia, UN agencies, civil society organizations and other stakeholders to develop programs in support of the successful reintegration of returnees, back into their community and labour market.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This research report has been published as part of the EU Horizon 2020 research project (www.vulner.eu). The VULNER research project is an international research initiative, the objective of which is to reach a more profound understanding of the experiences of vulnerabilities of migrants applying for asylum and other humanitarian protection statuses, and how they could best be addressed. It therefore makes use of a twofold analysis, which contrasts the study of existing protection mechanisms for vulnerable migrants (such as minors and victims of human trafficking) with the experiences of migrants on the ground. This research report presents some of the intermediate research results of the VULNER project based on the first phase of the project. This phase consisted of mapping out the vulnerability assessment mechanisms developed by state authorities in Italy, including how they are implemented on the ground through the practices of the public servants in charge. The following research questions are addressed: What do the relevant domestic legislation, case law, policy documents, and administrative guidelines reveal about how 'vulnerabilities' are being assessed and addressed in the countries under study? Do the relevant state and/or aid agencies have a legal duty to assess migrants' vulnerabilities, and if yes, using which procedures, when and how? Following which legal and bureaucratic criteria? How do decision makers (street-level bureaucrats) understand and perceive the 'vulnerabilities' of the migrants they meet on a daily basis? How do they address these 'vulnerabilities' through their everyday practices? What is their stance on existing legal requirements towards 'vulnerable' migrants? What loopholes do they identify? Sources and data collected The research for this report was carried out between February and October 2020 and relied on the analysis of the relevant legal and policy framework and case law in the field of migration and asylum, as well as in-depth interviews with key ...

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This research report has been published as part of the EU Horizon 2020 research project 'Vulnerabilities Under the Global Protection Regime: How Does the Law Assess, Address, Shape and Produce the Vulnerabilities of the Protection Seekers?' (VULNER GA n. 870845). Our project arose from the finding that the requirement to address migrants' multiple and various vulnerabilities is flooding the policy discourse on asylum and migration at the EU and global levels. This is illustrated by the UN Global Compact for Migration and its objective 7 to 'reduce vulnerabilities' in migration; and by the current focus at EU level on the establishment of vulnerability assessment mechanisms as part of asylum and border procedures, as well as in resettlement programs. Yet, if not based on scientific data and analyses that provide a clear and non-stereotyped understanding of the vulnerabilities that are lived and experienced by migrants, such a policy objective runs the risk of failing to address vulnerabilities, exacerbating existing ones, and even producing new ones. The overall objective of the VULNER project is to produce such scientific knowledge in ways that will assist states in identifying suitable strategies to assess the 'vulnerabilities' of migrants, to address their specific needs and to prevent stereotyped understandings of their lived experiences. The VULNER project also seeks to develop a broader, more thorough and more critical reflection on the increasing use of 'vulnerability' as a legal and policy standard that guides the development and the implementation of migration policies, including how it relates to border control considerations inherent in such policies. This research report presents some of the intermediate research results of the VULNER project, based on the first phase of the project, which consisted of mapping out the vulnerability assessment mechanisms developed by state authorities in Italy, including how they are implemented on the ground through the practices of the public ...

The Canadian government's recent cuts to healthcare coverage for refugee claimants has rekindled the debate in Canada about what medical services should be provided to individuals with precarious immigration status, and who should pay for these services. This article further explores this debate, focussing on the perceptions of healthcare workers in Montreal, a large multiethnic Canadian city. In April–June 2010, an online survey was conducted to assess how clinicians, administrators, and support staff in Montreal contend with the ethical and professional dilemmas raised by the issue of access to healthcare services for pregnant women and children who are partially or completely uninsured. Drawing on qualitative analysis of answers (n = 237) to three open-ended survey questions, we identify the discursive frameworks that our respondents mobilized when arguing for, or against, universal access to healthcare for uninsured patients. In doing so, we highlight how their positions relate to their self-evaluations of Canada's socioeconomic situation, as well as their ideological representations of, and sense of social connection to, precarious status immigrants. Interestingly, while abstract values lead some healthcare workers to perceive uninsured immigrants as "deserving" of universal access to healthcare, negative perceptions of these migrants, coupled with pragmatic considerations, pushed most workers to view the uninsured as "underserving" of free care. For a majority of our respondents, the right to healthcare of precarious status immigrants has become a "privilege", that as taxpayers, they are increasingly less willing to contribute to. We conclude by arguing for a reconsideration of access to healthcare as a right, and offer recommendations to move in this direction.