The Biodiversity Coalition Newsletter No. 13 May 1996 An International NGO Network for Biodiversity Conservation (C/- P. 0., Cygnet 7112, Tasmania, Australia, ph/fax: +61-02- 9 5174 5 ) Code Number: NL96008 Size of Files: Text: 64K Graphics: Line Drawings (gif) - 19K GEF ABANDONS BIODIVERSITY In petulant refusal to be guided by the CBD's COP, let alone operate under its authority and control, the GEF Council has effectively stopped funding biodiversity projects. At its latest meeting in Washington (2-4 April 1996), GEF Council approved less than $5 million for expenditure on only two biodiversity related projects - one involves Kazakhstan which has not ratified and the other involves the ten southern African countries including Namibia and Angola which have not ratified - out of total approved expenditure of more than $260 million. --- FAO STILL UP TO ITS OLD TRICKS AT LEIPZIG FAO(UN)'s supposedly 'technical' international conference at Leipzig next month looks like being a political 'talk-fest'. This regrettable prospect is a direct and inevitable consequence of the FAO(UN)'s self-serving political aggression. On the one hand, their CPGR networks stubbornly refuse to recognise the new international legal regime with respect to ownership and control of genetic resources established by entry into force of the Biodiversity Convention. --- HELP! The Biodiversity Coalition is in desperate need of funds. Local sources of financial and in-kind support are not likely to be forthcoming next financial year (from June 1996) for a variety of reasons. While we appreciate that most recipients of the Newsletter are in no position to contribute financially to its continued publication - which is one of the objectives of the Newsletter, after all - this is a plea to those organisations and individuals who may have some capacity to pay to consider making a substantial contribution. --- EX-SITU/IN-SITU CONSERVATION - DEFINITIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES The Biodiversity Convention defines 'ex-situ conservation' as "the conservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural habitats" while 'in-situ conservation' is defined as "the conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties". --- SUSTAINABILITY - FOR WHAT AND FOR WHOM? A Job for SBSTTA "Sustainability" has become one of those words which everyone chooses to interpret in their own way to reflect their own interests. While the problem is not limited to biodiversity conservation, if the Biodiversity Convention is to be properly implemented, the CBD's COP must come up with its interpretation of sustainability - based on advice from its scientific advisory body, the SBSTTA. --- CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF TRADE IN WILD FAUNA AND FLORA (Abridged Draft Prepared by the Wildlife Use Working Group of the Species Survival Network, a network of NGOs working within CITES for the protection and conservation of species in international commercial trade, 5 Jan 1996) --- COMMERCIALISING TRADITIONAL USES - MAKING THE TRANSITION FROM HUNTER-GATHERING TO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION A common theme in the history of human civilisation is the domestication of wild species of animals and plants as the key to producing agricultural surpluses capable of supporting urban communities. Such domestication is necessary to allow intensive production to meet high demand - especially in these modern days of global trade and massive markets. --- ITTO DOES BETTER Donors now contribute substantially more money to the ITTO [International Tropical Timber Organisation] than they do to the GEF biodiversity window. The graph, reproduced from the latest issue of 'Tropical Forest Update [6(1 ) March 1996/1 ], the ITTO's own in-house magazine, shows they have donated about US$130M over the last eight years. --- COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN AND COUNTRIES PROVIDING GENETIC RESOURCES - THE POLITICS OF DEFINITIONS The final text of the Biodiversity Convention refers to 'countries of origin' of and 'countries providing' genetic resources. This distinction was lobbied for by seed and gene bank interests (the IARC networks, national agencies of both 'north' and 'south' and corporations) to ensure that the Convention's benefit sharing obligations did not apply to holders or users of genetic material already held in ex-situ collections at the time of entry into force of the Convention [See Article 2. Definitions and Article 15(3) Access to Genetic Resources]. Countries of origin (of specified genetic resources) are those conserving those resources in-situ and/or providing resources directly from in-situ sources i.e., not from ex-situ collections. --- NICARAGUAN ARMY TO DEFEND NATURE: IUCN [Bulleting 4/95] reports that "Environmental conservation will now be one of the Nicaraguan army's priority objectives." "The Nicaraguan army is a green army, not because of the colour of its uniforms, but thanks to its commitment to natural resource conservation in our country", said General Joaquin Lacayo, Commander-in-Chief of the Nicaraguan armed forces. --- PAYING THE RENT With donor governments having left the field for a while in stopping GEF funding for CBD implementation, now is the time to push for establishing a COP-controlled fund based on contributions from corporate users of genetic resources - principally seed and gene companies, pharmaceutical companies and biotech companies. Exploratory discussions need to be pursued vigorously by the Secretariat to the mandate given to it by COP 2 to "further explore possibilities to identify additional financial resources" with a view to convening a meeting of interested corporations later this year. --- RATIFICATION PROGRESS 142 countries have now ratified the Convention, as of 21 February 1996. It is particularly pleasing to see that Poland and Yemen despite the latter's recent troubles, have now ratified. The following 35 countries, however, despite being original signatories to the CBD, have still not ratified. Other Governments and NGOs with access to these tardy Governments are urged to persuade them to ratify as soon as possible: As ever, the absence of the USA remains a great disappointment. --- COOPERATION GOING WELL While the GEF may have gone off in a sulk, other international agencies have been showing enthusiastic support for the CBD. Following signature of an MoU with the Ramsat Secretariat last year, the CBD Secretariat has just signed a similar MoU with the CITES Secretariat. Also, in March this year, the IOC [Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission] has committed itself to full cooperation through SBSTTA. Interestingly, it looks like UNESCO-serviced international organisations and networks, like the IOC, the Man and the Biosphere Programme and the World Heritage Committee, are all responding very positively to the CBD - in marked contrast to FAO and the World Bank. --- WHODUNNIT The Biodiversity Coalition is a project of WWF(Australia) funded by the Biodiversity Unit of the Australian Federal Government's Department of Environment. It is coordinated by Alistair Graham and its principal output is this Newsletter plus the giving of advice, encouragement and support to numerous groups and individuals, many of whom have contributed to the ideas and information in the Newsletter. For further information, please contact: Alistair Graham, C/- P.O., Cygnet 7112, Tasmania, Australia; ph/fax:+61-02-951745 --- Invitacion FORO LATINOAMERICANO DE BIODIVERSIDAD Mayo 26-29 de 1996, Centro de Convenciones Hotel Irotama, Santa Marta, Colombia, en contribucion al proceso del: Foro Global de Biodiversidad Antecedentes El Foro Latinoamericano de Biodiversidad es la contribucion regional al Foro Global de Biodiversidad auspiciado por la UICN, el WRI yel PNUMA, como un aporte al debate asociado a la Convencion sobre Diversidad Biologica firmada por los Jefes de Estados en Rio de Janiero en 1992, puesta en vigor a partir de diciembre de 1993, y hoy en dia ratificada por alrededor de 130 gobiernos. Desde entonces se hart realizado tres Foros Globales de Biodiversidad cuyos resultados han contribuido a la definicion de la agenda para la toma de decisiones durante las reuniones de la Conferencia de las Partes.
The National Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Program (NDDRP) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) was implemented over a period of seven years (2004- 2011) with the World Bank's support and funding. The NDDRP had three objectives: 1) disarmament of all combatants willing to be granted a status of demobilized person; 2) demobilization of all ex-combatants who met the conditions for a return to civilian life through a downsizing process of armed forces or groups; and 3) reintegrate the demobilized in the social and economic practices of the community of their choice with opportunities and conditions similar to those of other members of the community. To achieve these objectives, the DRC government initially established a National Commission of Demobilization and Reinsertion (CONADER, 2003), then established the NDDRP (2004), and finally created a new NDDRP Implementation Unit (IU-NDDRP, 2007). NDDRP was divided into three distinct phases, each capitalizing on the gains as well as the mistakes of the past. Economic reintegration of demobilized ex-combatants represented four out of five demobilized as recorded by the program. At the program's conclusion, the implementing partners decided to support the creation, legalization, and strengthening of demobilized persons' economic associations. This model of economic and social reintegration developed by the NDDRP can serve as a model framework for future rehabilitation and reintegration processes in DRC as well as in other countries. Finally, as the results were not as high as expected in regard to the number of women as well as wounded and disabled veterans demobilized, the NDDRP can be lauded for successfully reaching and reintegrating a highly significant number of Children Associated to Armed Forces and Groups (CAAFG) through special projects executed by different implementing partners.
Arviointi, mikäli sen kaikkia mahdollisuuksia hyödynnettäisiin, olisi tärkeä työkalu avustamaan julkista sekä yksityissektoria ja kansalaisyhteiskuntaa inhimillisen hyvinvoinnin lisäämiseksi. Valitettavasti, vaikka tehtyjen arviointien määrä on maailmanlaajuisesti lisääntymässä, näiden arviointien alhainen hyödyntämisaste on samoin kasvamassa. Tästä esimerkkinä on kehitystyö, jossa lukemattomat tuotetut ja oppimislähteenä käytettäväksi oletetut arviointiraportit kuitenkin todellisuudessa makaavat koskemattomina. Tämä toteutumaton "käyttö" on todellista ajan ja rajallisten julkisten varojen tuhlausta. Arviointien hyödyllisyyden määrittäminen tiukasti näiden julkaistujen arviointiraporttien käyttöön perustuvaksi, mikä useimmiten on tilanne, laiminlyö ja vähentää muiden käytettävissä olevien arviointielementtien, kuten arviointitoimeksiannon tai arviointiprosessin hyödyntämistä ja käyttöä, mikä yhä enemmän supistaa arvioinnin kokonaisvaikuttavuutta. Tämän tansanialaisessa ammattikoulussa, Mwanza Home Craft Centressä (MHCC), toteutetun arviointikokeilun tarkoitus oli hyödyntää arviointia, etenkin sen arviointiprosessia, arviointivaikutusten osoittamiseksi. Kokeiluni, joka toteutettiin suomalaisin kehitystyövaroin käynnistetyssä kansalaisjärjestöhankkeessa, tehtiin kehityshankkeesta rinnan hankkeen edetessä, oli vastakohta kehnosti hyödynnetyille ulkopuolisten arvioitsijoiden vallitsevaa tilivelvollisuus- ja kontrollitarkoitusta varten tekemille, menneeseen fokusoituneille ja kovia tutkimusmenetelmiä käyttäville kehitysarvioinneille, jotka sulkevat paikalliset ulkopuolelle ja ovat heille vieraita, ja siksi saavat vähäistä paikallista arviointivaikuttavuutta aikaan. Noissa arvioinneissa on suosittu hallitsevaa länsimaista ja Eurooppa-keskeistä positivistista tulokulmaa, rahoittajakeskeistä arviointiparadigmaa ja hegemonista kieltä, joka saa alkunsa uudesta julkishallinnon johtamisliikkeestä. Sen sijaan, kokeiluni oli mikrokuvaus ja reflektio hankkeen rahoittajan sponsoroimasta, paikallis- ja asianomaiskeskeisestä, oppimis- ja tulevaisuussuuntautuneesta, paikallisesti hyödynnetystä ja vaikuttaneesta kehitysarvioinnista. Arviointikokeilu koostui kahdesta komponentista. Arviointiosuudessa tutkittiin ammatillisen koulutuksen sosio-ekonomisia vaikutuksia. Arviointitutkimusosiossa fokusoitiin arvioinnin prosessikäyttöön ja arvioinnin vaikuttavuuteen. Ammattikouluhankkeessa kaikkien asianomaisten arviointioppimista pyrittiin tukemaan arvioinnin aikana arviointiprosessia hyödyntäen. Yksilöllisiä, interpersoonallisia ja kollektiivisia arviointivaikutuksia tavoiteltiin henkilökohtaisen ja organisaation osallistumisen, saadun arviointikokemuksen ja valmennuksen sekä dialogin kautta. Mandaattini oli integroida, "arviointimassoja", tarkoittaen avun vastaanottajia, paikallisten arviointivaikutusten aikaansaamiseksi, ja tarkastella arvioinnissa suhdetta valtaan heidän näkökulmastaan. Yleisesti ottaen heillä on vähemmän valtaa ja ääntä nykyisessä kehitysarvioinnissa kuin vahvemmilla, "eliitillä", avun rahoittajilla. Asetin hypoteesikseni, että jokainen tutkimus ja arviointitutkimus on tulokulmasidonnaista, mikä vaikuttaa arvioinnin käytettävyyteen, ja siten myös arvioinnin vaikutuksiin, vaikutustyyppeihin, -tasoon, -ryhmiin, ja vaikuttavuuden kestoon. Tässä tutkimuksessa painotettiin sellaisia arvioinninkäytössä ja arvioinnin vaikuttavuudessa keskeisessä roolissa olevia elementtejä, kuten arviointiparadigmaa, arviointimallia ja metodologiaa, arvioijan asemaa ja näkökulmaa, arvioinnin käyttäjien asemaa, arviointitarkoitusta, arvioinnin aikakehikkoa, ja arviointietiikkaa. Tässä tutkimuksessa käytettiin toimintatutkimuksellisesti suuntautunutta strategiaa. Tutkimusaineisto koottiin kahden Tansanian kenttämatkan aikana useita aineistonkeruumenetelmiä hyödyntäen. Arvioinnin vaikutuksia ja arvioinnin prosessikäyttöä tutkittiin aineistosta, joka saatiin ammattikoulutustapauksen kahdesta MHCC:n henkilöstölle ja komiteanjäsenille organisoidusta seminaarista ja työpajasta, samoin kuin henkilöstön jäsenten teemahaastatteluista ja komitean, henkilöstön antamasta kirjallisesta arviointipalautteesta ja yhdestä 11 hengen ryhmähaastattelusta. Lisäksi, ammatillisen koulutuksen sosio-ekonomisia vaikutuksia kerättiin 115 opiskelijan kirjallisen kertomuksen ja taustalomakkeen sekä 11 opiskelijan ja 20 muun arvioijan teemahaastattelun avulla. Kirjallinen aineisto koodattiin käyttäen teoriavetoista (tai -suuntautunutta) laadullista sisällönanalyysiä, johon pohjautuen johtopäätökset tehtiin. MHCC:n arviointikokeilu osoitti, että valittu arvioinnin tulokulma ja paradigma erilaisten arviointifaktorissa olevien elementtien hyödyntämisen kautta vaikutti arvioinnin käyttöön ja arvioinnin vaikutuksiin. Kokeilu sai aikaan vaikuttavuutta; arviointia automaattisesti hyödynnettiin jo arvioitaessa sen prosessikäytön vuoksi. Arviointiprosessiin osallistuneiden henkilöiden ja heidän instituutioidensa omakohtaisia arviointikokemuksia ei voinut vain "jättää hyllylle". Heidän yksilöllinen, henkilöiden välinen ja kollektiivinen arviointioppiminen arvioidessa kiistatta myötävaikutti, ei vain välittömiin vaan myös pidempiaikaisiin kognitiivisiin, affektiivisiin, sosiaalisiin, toiminnallisiin, jopa taloudellisiin ja kulttuurillisiin muutoksiin kehitysintervention eri tasoilla, jopa ammattioppilaitoksen ulkopuolella. Tämän tutkimusten löydösten perusteella, päättelin, että prosessuaalinen arvioinnin käyttö oli vahva työkalu ja MHCC:n muutosprosessien kiihdyttäjä, etenkin niille arvioinnin asianomaisille, jotka omaksuivat arvioivaa mieltä. Tämä ajattelutavan muutos, valistuminen ("mwanga"), mahdollisti siirtymisen jälki- ja menneisyysorientoituneesta historiaa tarkastelleesta ajattelusta tulevaisuussuuntautuneeseen omaehtoiseen kehittämistoimintaan. Tämä tutkimusaineisto antanee ymmärtää, että arviointiprosessilla ja -tuloksilla samanaikaisesti hyödynnettynä arvioivan oppimisen lähteinä oli pitkäaikaisia vaikutuksia – ehkä pidempiaikaisia kuin vain arviointituloksia yksin hyödynnettäessä voitaisiin aikaansaada. Nämä vaikutukset saattoivat muodostua MHCC:n reflektion, nopeamman ympäristöön reagoinnin ja jatkuvan sopeuttamisen elinehdoiksi. Tämä selitti, kuinka ammattikoulutusinstituutio MHCC on ollut kykenevä jatkuvasti uudistumaan ja muuttamaan toimintojaan tarvittaessa, huomioiden taloutensa ja ympäröivän yhteiskunnan vaatimukset sekä olemaan taloudellisesti itsensä kannattava yli 20 vuotta (mikä on ainutlaatuista koulutussektorilla maailmalaajuisestikin, puhumattakaan kehitysmaista, kuten Tansaniasta). Lisäksi, kokeilun ansiosta saatiin uutta tietoa arviointikohteesta, MHCC:stä opiskelijoineen, sen arviointikäytänteistä ja oppilaitosta ympäröivästä todellisuudesta. Ammattikoulun nimi muutettiin, uusia osastoja, kuten ajoneuvo, sähkö, sekä hotellinjohto ja turismi, lanseerattiin, ja uusia iltakursseja käynnistettiin, metallityön lisäkoulutusta, sekä tietokone- ja englannin kielen kursseja aloitettiin. Tämän tutkimuksen yleisenä yhteenvetona totean, että kansalaisjärjestöjen rooli on edelleen tärkeä ammatillisen koulutuksen järjestäjänä Tansanian kehityshankkeissa neljästä syystä. Ensiksi, koska maan koulutuksen yleistaso on dramaattisesti huonontunut. Toiseksi, koska riittävät ammattikoulutusmahdollisuudet puuttuvat. Kolmanneksi, koska ammattikoulutus on yleisesti ottaen hyödyllistä: se näytti vaikuttaneen ei vain yksilön köyhyyden vähentämiseen vaan laajemminkin yhteiskuntaan. Kuitenkin, tutkimustulokset esittivät yllättävän todisteen, mikä on vastakkaista länsimaalaiselle suoraviivaiselle ajattelulle ja oletukselle ammattitaidon ja ammatillisen koulutuksen valtavasta taloudellisesta voimasta ja hyödystä saajalleen; ei edes kokoaikatyö köyhyyden vähentämis- ja automaattisesti elintasoa nostavana keinona toiminut. Kaikesta huolimatta, minkä ammattiin opiskelleiden elämää koskeva aineisto todistaa, niiden, jotka kokivat positiivisia, merkittäviä, kestäviä taloudellisia, sosiaalisia ja henkilökohtaisia koulutusvaikutuksia MHCC:n koulutushankkeen vuoksi, nämä ammatillisen koulutuksen sosio-ekonomiset materiaaliset ja immateriaaliset positiiviset, tuotteliaat vaikutusketjut näyttivät ulottuneen myös laajennettuun perheeseen, ikätovereihin, yhteisöjen jäseniin ja tansanialaiseen yhteiskuntaan merkittävin seurannaisvaikutuksin. Esimerkkinä mainittakoon valmistuneiden opiskelijoiden sukulaisilleen, ikätovereilleen ja yhteisöjensä jäsenilleen tarjoama "epävirallinen, yksityinen oppisopimuskoulutusjärjestelmä"; jonka kautta yksi MHCC:stä valmistunut on epävirallisesti kouluttanut yli 50 henkilöä. Tosin, näitä sosio-ekonomisia koulutusvaikutuksia olisi voitu tehostaa resursoimalla ja tekemällä säännöllisesti arviointeja sekä syöttämällä niiden tuloksia edelleen ammattioppilaitoksen palvelujen parantamiseksi (esim. työvälineet tai yrittäjyyskurssit ammattiin valmistuneille). Neljänneksi, tutkimus osoitti, että kehitysmaissa työpaikat olivat tarjolla pääasiassa informaalilla sektorilla ja itsenäisenä ammatinharjoittajana työskenteleminen oli useimmille valmistuneille ainoa työllistymisvaihtoehto. Näin ollen, kansalaisjärjestöjen toteuttama ammattikoulutus oppilaitoksen kannattavuudelle välttämättömine tulonhankkimisprojekteineen (jotka yleensä puuttuvat valtion omistamista ammattioppilaitoksista) voi toimia erinomaisena yrittäjyyshenkeä vahvistavana oppimisympäristönä. Tutkimuslöytöjä voitaneen soveltaa seuraavasti. Ensiksi, huolestuttava arviointien käyttämättömyys ja/tai tehoton käyttö tulee tiedostaa. Toiseksi, arvioinnin teettäjien, käynnistäjien, rahoittajien ja avunantajien tulee saada lisätietoa merkittävistä arvioinnin positiiviseen käyttöön ja vaikuttavuuteen tai sitä estävistä kontekstuaalisista, arviointi- ja inhimillisistä faktoreista elementteineen. Esimerkiksi, sellaisia kontekstuaalisia tekijöitä, jotka liittyvät taloudellisiin ja poliittisiin rajoitteisiin ja arviointisysteemeihin ja jotka negatiivisesti vaikuttavat arviointien hyödyntämiseen ja vaikutuksiin, tulee paljastaa. Kolmanneksi, arviointien puutteellista hyödyntämistä vastaan tulee hyökätä muun muassa arviointiprosessia käyttämällä. Neljänneksi, jokaisessa arviointipolitiikassa ja -suunnitelmassa jo arvioinnin toimeksiantovaiheessa tulee edellyttää konkreettisia toimia arviointien hyödyntämiseksi. Jokaiselta julkisin varoin tuotetulta arvioinnilta tulee vaatia arvioinninkäyttösuunnitelma tavoiteltavine arviointivaikutuksineen ennen arvioinnin toimeenpano vaihetta. Viidenneksi, arviointikäyttö tulee uudelleen käsitteellistää arviointipolitiikkojen ja -suunnitelmien sanastossa. Kaikki tarjolla olevat arvioinnin käytön keskeiset elementit — arvioinnin toimeksianto, arviointiprosessi (eikä ainoastaan arviointilöydökset) — tulee maksimaalisesti valjastaa kaikilla arvioinnin tasoilla, myös kansalaisjärjestöissä, rajallisten evaluointiresurssien vuoksi, tuodakseen maksimaalisen arvon arviointikohteelle, sen asianomaisille ja arvioinnin käyttäjille. Kuudenneksi, arviointien hyödyntämistä tulee ohjeistaa, kannustaa ja rahoittaa. Arvioinnin käynnistäjien ja rahoittajien tulisi palkita arvioinnin asianomaisia ja heidän organisaatiotaan, mikäli arviointia hyödynnetään ja se saa aikaan vaikuttavuutta. Seitsemänneksi, arvioinnin vaikuttavuus/vaikutus -termit tarvitsevat selkeyttämistä, ei ainoastaan viitaten vain arvioinnin positiivisiin seurauksiin, vaan myös sen negatiivisiin, tahattomiin vaikutuksiin, joihin täytyy myös puuttua. ; Evaluation, if utilised to its full potential, would be an important tool for helping governments, the private sector and civil society to increase human well-being. Unfortunately, though the number of evaluations conducted is increasing worldwide, a low rate of utilisation of these evaluations is increasing as well. An example of this is the development field, where countless evaluation reports are produced and assumed to be used as sources of learning, when in reality they lie untouched. This non-actualised "use" is a real waste of time and of limited public funds. The usefulness of evaluations, when strictly determined based on the use of the published evaluation reports (as is the case most of the time), neglects the usefulness and reduces the utilisation of other evaluation elements available, such as evaluation commissioning or evaluation process, which further reduce the overall impact of the evaluation. This evaluation experiment, conducted in the Tanzanian vocational education and training (VET) centre, Mwanza Home Craft Centre (MHCC), was designed to utilise the evaluation, especially its process, to show evaluation impacts. My experiment, conducted upon the development intervention of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) established by Finnish funds, was performed concurrently alongside and from within the development intervention, in contrast to the poorly utilised development evaluations conducted for dominating accountability and control purposes by external evaluators using a past-focussed orientation combined with hard evaluation methods, all of which were exclusive and unfamiliar to the locals and thus, had minor local evaluation impact. In those evaluations the donorcentred standpoint, overarching evaluation paradigm and hegemonic language, having their origin in the New Public Management movement were favoured. Instead, I devised a micro explanation of, and provided reflections about, the donorsponsored, local- and stakeholder-centred, learning- and future-oriented, and locally utilised development evaluation with impacts. The evaluation experiment consisted of two components. In the evaluation section, the socio-economic impacts of VET were studied. In the research on evaluation section the focus was put on the process use of evaluation and evaluation impacts. In the VET project, all the stakeholders' evaluative learning was targeted to be supported with the assistance of the process use of evaluation while evaluating. It was aimed at individual, interpersonal and collective evaluation impacts through personal and organisational involvement, evaluative experience and training received, as well as dialogue. My mandate was to integrate into the evaluation process, evaluation "masses," that is, the aid recipients, to generate stronger local evaluation impacts, and to look at the relation to power in evaluation from their standpoint. Generally speaking, they have less power and voice in the current development evaluations than do "the elite," the financial donors. I hypothesised that every research and evaluation research is standpoint-bound, which has influence on evaluation usability, and then, on evaluation impacts, their types, levels, user groups, and duration. In this research, emphasis was placed on those elements playing key roles in evaluation use and evaluation impact, such as the evaluation paradigm, evaluation design and methodology; the evaluator's location and standpoint; the position of the evaluation users; the evaluation purpose; the evaluation time-frame; and evaluation ethics. In this research, the action research-oriented strategy was used. The research data was generated during two Tanzanian field trips by utilising various data generation methods. Evaluation impacts and process use of evaluation were studied through the data received from the VET case, its two seminars and workshops organised for the MHCC staff and committee members, as well as from thematic interviews of some staff persons and written evaluative feedback given by the committee, staff members and an 11-participant group interview. Again, socio-economic VET impacts were collected through the data of 115 former students' written stories and background questionnaires, as well as of 11 former students' and 20 other evaluees' thematic interviews. The written data of the evaluation experiment was coded by using the theory-driven (or theory-directed) qualitative content analysis, on which the conclusions were based and drawn. The evaluation experiment at MHCC indicated that the chosen evaluation standpoint and paradigm, through the utilisation of various elements existing in the evaluation factor, affected evaluation use and evaluation impacts. The experiment contributed to impact; the evaluation was automatically brought into utilisation while evaluating due to its process use. The first-hand evaluative experience of the participants and of their institutions involved in the evaluation process could not "just be left on the shelf." Their individual, interpersonal and collective evaluative learning, while evaluating, inevitably contributed not only to immediate but also to long-term cognitive, affective, social, behavioural, even economic, and cultural changes at various levels of the development intervention, even outside the VET centre. Based on findings of this research, I suggested that the processual use of evaluation was a powerful tool and an accelerator of MHCC's change processes, even for those stakeholders whose evaluative minds were made up. This change in the pattern of thought, enlightenment ("mwanga"), enabled a shift in focus from the post- and past-oriented, history observing thinking, to the future-directed independent line of development action. This research data might imply that evaluation process, with its findings utilised simultaneously as evaluative learning sources, had long-term effects — maybe longer than the findings use alone can generate. These impacts could become the lifeblood at MHCC for reflection, quicker reactivity to the environment and on-going adaptation. This presented an explanation for how the VET institution MHCC could have been capable of being renewed continuously and transforming its activities, as needed, regarding its economy and the demands of surrounding society, as well as being self-supporting for over 20 years (which is unique in the educational sector worldwide, let alone in the developing countries, like Tanzania). In addition, with the experiment, the new knowledge was received about the evaluand, MHCC and its students, its evaluation practices, and MHCC's surrounding reality. Again, the VET centre's name was changed, new departments such as motor vehicle, electricity, as well as hotel management and tourism were launched, and new evening courses, further education and training in welding and fabrication, as well as computer and English language courses, were started. As the general conclusion of this research I state that NGOs still have an important role as VET providers of Tanzanian development interventions, for four reasons. First, because the country's general education level has dramatically deteriorated. Second, because of a lack of sufficient VET opportunities. Third, because in general VET was beneficial: it seemed to have had impacts not only on an individual's poverty reduction, but even more widely on the society. However, this data also provided surprising evidence that, in direct contradiction to Western linear thinking and assumptions about the enormous economic power and benefit of vocational skills for its acquirer gained in VET, even full-time employment did not function as a tool for alleviating poverty and automatically raising the person's living standards. Nevertheless, as was evidenced by the lives of these VET trainees, who experienced positive, significant, sustainable economic, social, and personal education impacts due to the development project MHCC, these material and immaterial socio-economic impact chains were positive and productive and seemed to have had very far-reaching and significant ramifications for the lives of extended families, peers, community members, and the Tanzanian society. A case in point was the informal "private apprenticeship training system" offered by the former students to their relatives, peers and community members; through which one MHCC graduate has unofficially "trained" over 50 persons. Indeed, these socio-economic impacts of education could have been intensified by resourcing and carrying out evaluations frequently as well as by feeding their results forward for the VET institution's service improvements (e.g., equipment or entrepreneurial courses for VET graduates). Fourth, the research indicated that jobs in the developing countries were offered in the informal sector and self-employment was, for the majority of graduates, the sole option to be employed. Hence, NGO-implemented VET, with their essential income-generating projects for the institution's sustainability (generally lacking from government-owned VET centres), could operate as an excellent learning environment, strengthening the entrepreneurial spirit. The research findings might have the following applications. First, the worrying trend towards evaluation non-use and/or deficient use is worth acknowledging. Second, evaluation commissioners, initiators, funders, and donors need to gain further knowledge about significant positive or prohibitive contextual, evaluation and human factors (with their related elements) that lie behind evaluation utilisation and impact. For instance, those contextual factors which are related to financial and political constraints and evaluation systems and which negatively affect evaluation utilisation and impacts must be revealed. Third, an attack against the inadequate use of evaluations could be launched among others with processual evaluation use. Fourth, in every evaluation policy and plan in an evaluation commissioning phase, concrete actions need to be made necessary for evaluation utilisation. A written plan on evaluation use with evaluation impacts intended should be demanded to be produced from every evaluation conducted with public funds before the evaluation commissioning phase. Fifth, evaluation use in the vocabulary of evaluation policies and plans should be reconceptualised. All the available key elements of the evaluation use — the evaluation commissioning, evaluation process (not solely evaluation findings) — should be maximally harnessed at all the evaluation levels, also in NGOs, due to the scarcity of funding opportunities available for evaluations, to bring maximal value to a target of the evaluation, its stakeholders and evaluation users. Sixth, evaluation utilisation should be instructed, encouraged and funded. Evaluation stakeholders and their organisations should be rewarded by evaluation commissioners and funders, if the evaluation is used and it contributes to impacts. Seventh, terms such as evaluation impact/impacts need to be clarified, to refer not only to positive evaluation consequences but also to negative, unintended impacts, which must also be tackled.
This paper examines the experiences of the World Bank Group in other countries, and explores its work in Iraq in light of its mandate and areas of impact. It outlines the objectives the Bank Group has sought to meet and the procedures used to adapt to the Iraqi context, while focusing on transparency, inclusiveness, and sustainability. While the Bank's current focus in Iraq is on reconstruction and essential services, the near term offers a chance to lay the groundwork for credible institutions of social inclusion, in addition to supporting sustainable reconstruction and reform. This paper looks at how Iraq, a country with ample natural and human capital, can look past the immediate needs of post-conflict reconstruction to an eventual return as a middle-income country that managed its own affairs and contributed assistance to other countries. Models for reconstruction are closely looked at as to how to move Iraq to country ownership. The paper also looks at how to adopt post conflict reconstruction experience and adapting it to Iraq. The final section of the paper deals with lessons of experience and lessons learned.
This article was co-published with the Guardian.Top Republican donor and TikTok investor Jeff Yass is connected to over $16 million in funding to anti-Muslim and pro-Israel groups that have advocated for a U.S. war with Iran and other militaristic policies in the Middle East, according to an investigation by the Guardian and Responsible Statecraft.Media reports on Yass, the billionaire co-founder of Susquehanna International Group, a trading and technology firm, have focused on his outsized role in the Republican Party, to which he is now the largest political donor in the 2024 election cycle, contributing more than $46 million thus far.Yass has also emerged as the biggest funder of a group targeting progressive representative Summer Lee (Pa.) in her primary race, suggesting an interest in influencing Democratic primary outcomes, not just in boosting Republicans.But little has been reported about his involvement in funding groups advocating a pro-Israel U.S. foreign policy, hawkish U.S. policies in the Middle East and support for theorists whom experts described as extreme anti-Muslim conspiracists.Leading Yass's philanthropy in the foreign policy space is $7.9 million contributed to Jerusalem Online University between 2014 and 2019 by a grant-making group at which he once served as one of three directors.A Jewish Daily Forward investigation into the group in 2011 found that the website promotes itself as a source of educational materials about the Middle East and Israel, but the website's actual message is far more biased, the Forward found."On its website and its promotional materials, Jerusalem Online U hardly portrays itself as a center for neutral academic inquiry," the Forward wrote. "In fact, it boasts an explicitly pro-Israel mission that seems distinctly at odds with academic principles. In one advertisement for its services, the Jerusalem Online U site's blog features a video of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu telling Congress last May that 'Israel is what is right' about the Middle East. The words 'Be a Part of What's Right' appear on screen as he speaks."The contributions came from the Claws Foundation, an entity at which Yass served as a director alongside Arthur Dantchik, a co-founder of Susquehanna and attorney Alan P Dye. Dye did not return calls for comment. The Kids Connect Charitable Fund — which does not list Yass or Dantchik as directors but listed the Claws Foundation as a "related tax-exempt organization" in an IRS filing and was identified as an arm of both men's philanthropy by Haaretz — contributed another $3.48 million to Jerusalem Online University's parent organization, Imagination Productions.The Claws Foundation also issued a $10,000 grant to Friends of the Israel Defense Forces in 2011 and $35,000 in grants, between 2010 and 2011, to the Center for Security Policy, an anti-Muslim and conspiracy theory-promoting group founded by Frank Gaffney, whom the Southern Policy Law Center describes as "one of America's most notorious Islamophobes" and the Anti-Defamation League describes as a chief promulgator of the conspiracy theory "that the US government has been infiltrated by the Muslim Brotherhood and that a number of political figures have actual ties to the group." The Center for Security Policy vice-president, Clare Lopez, has said: "When Muslims follow their doctrine they become jihadists."In 2013 to 2014, the Claws Foundation sent $250,000 to the David Horowitz Freedom Center, another central promoter of anti-Muslim conspiracy theories. Horowitz, whom the group is named after and who serves as its president, once complained that Muslims are a "protected species in this country" and said he's "wait[ing] for the day when the good Muslims step forward," at a Brooklyn College event in 2011."The fact Yass is donating to Gaffney and Horowitz's organizations shows how extreme his politics are," said Tommy Vietor, former National Security Council spokesperson under President Obama. "They are beyond Trump. They are OG conspiracy theorists. Gaffney in particular."The Claws Foundation also donated $100,000 to the Central Fund of Israel in 2014, a group that the New York Times described as a "clearinghouse" for settlement development in the Israeli-occupied West Bank."The Claws Foundation has contributed more than $300 million, overwhelmingly to children's hospitals, adult healthcare, education and the arts in the United States, and has never sought to influence U.S. foreign policy," said a spokesperson for Yass and Dantchik. "Moreover, $31 million of Claws contributions went to the Shalom Hartman Institute, one of whose important apolitical initiatives is building bridges between Jewish and Muslim communities. Focusing on a few de minimis contributions promotes a false narrative that fits a biased agenda."Yass's philanthropy also appears to bring Yass into close contact with efforts to influence U.S.-Israel and U.S.-Iran relations via advocacy and lobbying campaigns. A non-profit group, QXZ Inc, is the largest identifiable source of funding for the American Israel Public Affairs Committee's (AIPAC) efforts to obstruct the White House's nuclear diplomacy with Iran during Barack Obama's second presidential term.In 2015, QXZ Inc contributed $1.5 million to Citizens for a Nuclear Free Iran, AIPAC's advocacy group opposing the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), an agreement between the five permanent members of the U.N. Security council plus Germany and Iran to impose restrictions on Iran's nuclear program in exchange for Iran receiving some relief from nuclear-related sanctions.Vietor was dismissive of AIPAC's work opposing the Obama-era JCPOA but suggested that electing and influencing Trump became a goal of some Iran-deal opponents."[Funders of the anti-JCPOA campaign] lit that money on fire in 2015. They were incapable of beating Obama politically in terms of defeating the JCPOA in Congress so they changed tactics and went all in for Trump," said Vietor. "Trump chose to pull out of the JCPOA despite many of his advisers saying it would be a disaster and it has been. Iran is closer than ever to getting a nuclear weapon."Yass's ties to a group providing significant financial support to AIPAC's effort were unreported until now. QXZ's links to Yass were revealed when Strong Economy for Growth, a Massachusetts-based group, spent $1.2 million supporting a failed 2016 ballot question regarding lifting caps on charter schools. State campaign finance officials required the group to disclose the identity of its donors. Yass, via QXZ, was the largest funder of Strong Economy for Growth.QXZ's involvement in well-concealed funding of foreign policy advocacy continued in 2015 with a $250,000 contribution to neoconservative pundit Bill Kristol's Emergency Committee for Israel (ECI), a group that ran ads attacking Obama as "caving to Iran" with the JCPOA.The New Yorker's Connie Bruck profiled the group's strategies and reported that the ECI "sought to intimidate critics of Netanyahu, and Israel's most powerful American backers, for the escalating drive to war with Iran, and to damage Obama."Underscoring QXZ's commitment to the most militaristic and pro-Israel wings of the Republican party, the group contributed $1.05 million between 2018 and 2019 to the Republican Jewish Coalition, a club of hawkishly pro-Israel megadonors.A spokesperson for Yass did not comment on Yass's ties to QXZ but denied Yass's involvement in donations to the Emergency Committee for Israel, the Republican Jewish Coalition or Citizens for a Nuclear Free Iran."Jeff Yass has never directed QXZ to fund any such groups and any statement otherwise is false," said the spokesperson.Yass has said nothing about his foreign policy agenda in public remarks but the timeline of his meeting with Trump and Trump's subsequent reversal of his position on banning TikTok offers an early indication that Yass may already be an influential figure for the Republican nominee for the presidency.Trump has a track record of shifting positions on Israel and Iran to align with political megadonors. Only after securing the nomination in 2016 did Trump pivot to more militaristic positions in the Middle East — committing to withdrawing the U.S. from the JCPOA, moving the U.S. Embassy in Israel to Jerusalem and supporting an unconditionally pro-Israel U.S. approach to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict — positions in lockstep with his biggest political patrons in the general election, the late Sheldon Adelson and his wife, Miriam.Yass's spokesperson denied that Yass seeks influence with Trump on foreign policy matters."Jeff Yass has never discussed foreign policy with Donald Trump, has never contributed to Mr. Trump and has no plans to do so," said the spokesperson. "Mr. Yass's philanthropy is largely focused on school choice and has nothing to do with foreign policy.""As a libertarian, Jeff generally opposes American involvement in foreign affairs as evidenced by his support for Rand Paul and Thomas Massie," the spokesperson said.
Background. The importance of creating an affordable, high-quality and efficient Palliative and Hospice Care (PHC) System and Social Care Services for Palliative Care (SCSPC) is growing significantly due to the deep medical-demographic and social changes. In the context of reforms in the Healthcare and Social Care Services System and after the transfer of authority from the Rayon (district) level to the United Territorial Communities (UTC) level the problem of the optimal models of financing (budgeting) of social care services providing, including palliative care, substantiates. The purpose of the study is to analyze and generalize the modern models of PHC and SCSPC providing, to substantiate the social care services providing financing (budgeting) optimal models at the UTC level. Materials and methods. National and international normative-legal documents and literary sources, medical statistics data, methods of system and structural-functional analysis were used in the work. Results. The authors substantiate modern optimal models of social care services financing (budgeting) at the UTC level providing. The transition of the authority to finance the social care services providing from the Rayon (district) level to the UTC level requires the transition from the institution maintenance principle to the financing of the social care services results. The application of the "per capita" standards system is the basis for the introduction of the principle of "money follows a patient/client or service" and the Program-Target Method implementation needs further improvement. It is important to standardize and unify the costs by developing Passports for Social Care Services, as well as increase the amount of financial resources that can be involved in ensuring the social care services implementation, in particular: increasing revenues from the general fund of the UTC local budget, expanding the scope and conditions for the paid services use, the financial grants from donors attraction as an additional source of income, the use of social order mechanisms, etc., the application of the principle of public-private partnership, which has positively established itself in many countries of Eastern Europe. Conclusions. The urgency of the PHC and SCSPC System creating, and the problem of the normative-legal base developing and improving, and the PHC and SCSPC System interagency and inter-sectoral organizational models creating are among the Verkhovna Rada (Parliament) of Ukraine and the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine the priority activities directions, as evidenced by the existing legislative and sectoral legal acts. In the context of reforming the Healthcare and Social Care Services System and after the transfer of authority from the Rayon (district) level to the United Territorial Communities level the problem of the optimal models of social care services providing financing (budgeting), including palliative care, requiring a transition from the institution maintenance principle to financing the provided social care services results. Existing practice of the Program-Target Method application needs further improvement, while standardization and unification of expenses by passports of social care services in all types of legislation developing are of great importance. The most significant provision for strengthening the social care services financing in the communities is the expansion of the scope and conditions for the paid services use. Great prospects for the development of social care institutions are related to the principle of public-private partnership application. ; Актуальность. В связи с глубокими медико-демографическими и социальными изменениями существенно возрастает актуальность создания доступной, качественной и эффективной системы оказания паллиативной и хосписной помощи (ПХП) и социальной услуги по паллиативному уходу (СУПУ). Сегодня в условиях реформирования сферы здравоохранения и социальной защиты населения и после перехода полномочий от районного уровня к объединенным территориальным общинам (ОТО), также особую актуальность приобретает проблема обоснования оптимальных моделей финансирования (бюджетирования) медико-социальных и социальных услуг, в т. ч. паллиативного ухода. Целью работы является анализ и обобщение современных моделей оказания ПХП и СУПУ населению, обоснование оптимальных моделей финансирования (бюджетирования) социальных услуг на уровне ОТО. Материалы и методы. В работе были использованы национальные и международные нормативно-правовые документы и литературные источники, данные медицинской статистики, методы системного и структурно-функционального анализа. Результаты. В работе авторы обосновывают современные оптимальные модели финансирования (бюджетирования) оказания социальных услуг на уровне ОТО. Переход полномочий финансирования оказания социальных услуг от района к ОТО требует перехода от принципа содержания учреждений к финансированию результатов, то есть оплаты стоимости оказанных социальных услуг. Применение системы «капитационных» или «подушных» нормативов является основой внедрения принципа «деньги ходят за пациентом/клиентом или услугой», а внедрение программно-целевого метода требует дальнейшего совершенствования. Важное значение имеет стандартизация и унификация расходов путем разработки паспортов социальных услуг, а также увеличение объемов финансовых ресурсов, которые могут быть привлечены для обеспечения выполнения социальных услуг, это в частности: увеличение поступлений из общего фонда местного бюджета ОТО, расширение сферы и условий применения платных услуг, привлечение финансовых грантов от доноров в качестве дополнительного источника доходов, применение механизмов социального заказа и т. д., применение принципа государственно-частного партнерства, который положительно себя зарекомендовал во многих странах Восточной Европы. Выводы. В связи с глубокими медико-демографическими и социальными изменениями, которые обусловливают актуальность создания системы оказания ПХП и СУПУ, проблема развития и совершенствования нормативно-правовой базы и межведомственных и межсекторальных организационных моделей системы ПХП и СУПУ являются одними из приоритетных направлений деятельности Верховной Рады Украины и Кабинета Министров Украины, о чем свидетельствуют действующие законодательные и отраслевые нормативно-правовые акты. В условиях реформирования сферы здравоохранения и социальной защиты населения и после перехода полномочий от районного уровня к ОТО также особую актуальность приобретает проблема обоснования и внедрения оптимальных моделей финансирования (бюджетирования) медико-социальных и социальных услуг, в т. ч. и паллиативного ухода, требует перехода от принципа содержания учреждения к финансированию результатов оказанных социальных услуг. Существующая практика применения программно-целевого метода требует дальнейшего совершенствования, при этом, важное значение имеет стандартизация и унификация расходов путем разработки паспортов социальных услуг по всем определенным законодательством видам. Наиболее существенным резервом укрепления финансирования оказания социальных услуг в общинах является расширение сферы и условий оказания платных услуг. Большие перспективы развития учреждений социальной сферы связанные с применением принципа государственно-частного партнерства. ; Актуальність. У зв'язку із глибокими медико-демографічними та соціальними змінами суттєво зростає актуальність створення доступної, якісної та ефективної системи надання паліативної і хоспісної допомоги (ПХД) і соціальної послуги з паліативного догляду (СППД). Сьогодні в умовах реформування галузі охорони здоров'я та соціального захисту населення та після переходу повноважень від районного рівня до об'єднаних територіальних громад (ОТГ), також особливої актуальності набуває проблема обґрунтування оптимальних моделей фінансування (бюджетування) медико-соціальних і соціальних послуг, у т. ч. паліативного догляду. Метою роботи є аналіз та узагальнення сучасних моделей надання ПХД і СППД населенню, обґрунтування оптимальних моделей фінансування (бюджетування) соціальних послуг на рівні ОТГ. Матеріали та методи. У роботі були використані національні та міжнародні нормативно-правові документи і літературні джерела, дані медичної статистики, методи системного та структурно-функціонального аналізу. Результати. У роботі автори обґрунтовують сучасні оптимальні моделі фінансування (бюджетування) надання соціальних послуг на рівні ОТГ. Перехід повноважень фінансування надання соціальних послуг від району до ОТГ вимагає переходу від принципу утримання закладу до фінансування результатів, тобто оплати вартості наданих соціальних послуг. Застосування системи «капітаційних» або «подушних» нормативів є основою впровадження принципу «гроші ходять за пацієнтом/клієнтом або послугою», а впровадження програмно-цільового методу потребує подальшого удосконалення. Важливе значення має стандартизація та уніфікація витрат шляхом розробки паспортів соціальних послуг, а також збільшення обсягів фінансових ресурсів, що можуть бути залучені для забезпечення виконання соціальних послуг, це зокрема: збільшення надходжень із загального фонду місцевого бюджету ОТГ, розширення сфери та умов застосування платних послуг, залучення фінансових грантів від донорів як додаткового джерела доходів, застосування механізмів соціального замовлення тощо, застосування принципу державно-приватного партнерства, який позитивно себе зарекомендував у багатьох країнах Східної Європи. Висновки. У зв'язку з глибокими медико-демографічними та соціальними змінами, що зумовлюють актуальність створення системи надання ПХД і СППД, проблема розвитку та удосконалення нормативно-правової бази і міжвідомчих та міжсекторальних організаційних моделей системи ПХД і СППД є одними з пріоритетних напрямків діяльності Верховної Ради України та Кабінету Міністрів України, про що свідчать чинні законодавчі та галузеві нормативно-правові акти. В умовах реформування галузі охорони здоров'я та соціального захисту населення та після переходу повноважень від районного рівня до ОТГ також особливої актуальності набуває проблема обґрунтування та впровадження оптимальних моделей фінансування (бюджетування) медико-соціальних і соціальних послуг, у т. ч. і паліативного догляду, що вимагає переходу від принципу утримання закладу до фінансування результатів наданих соціальних послуг. Існуюча практика застосування програмно-цільового методу потребує подальшого удосконалення, при цьому, важливе значення має стандартизація та уніфікація витрат шляхом розробки паспортів соціальних послуг по всім визначеним законодавством видам. Найбільш суттєвим резервом щодо зміцнення фінансування надання соціальних послуг у громадах є розширення сфери та умов застосування платних послуг. Великі перспективи розвитку закладів соціальної сфери пов'язані із застосуванням принципу державно-приватного партнерства.
학위논문 (석사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 국제대학원 국제학과(국제지역학전공), 2020. 8. 김종섭. ; 이 연구는 아프리카가 유럽 연합 및 중국과 경제 및 개발 파트너십에 참여할 수 있는 방법을 분석한다. 실제로, 세계 무역기구에 가입한 이후 중국은 모든 지역에서 경제적 파트너십 망을 확장해왔기 때문에 해당 중국 프로젝트에 있어 아프리카 대륙도 포함되었다. 그 결과, 급속한 경제 성장과 아프리카 대륙에 대한 야심 찬 '욕구'는 구 아프리카 경제 파트너인 유럽과 미국에서 계속해서 논쟁과 의문의 대상이 되어 왔다. 따라서, 이 연구는 무역 수준, 투자 수준 및 아프리카 원조 금액이라는 세 가지 경제적 변수에 대한 비교 분석을 통해, 이전 파트너인 유럽 연합 및 미국에 의해 행해진 아프리카 프로젝트에 비해 중국 주도 하의 아프리카 프로젝트가 어떻게 다른지 이해하려고 시도하며, 경제 성장과 발전을 목표로 하는 아프리카 지도자에게 위 두 가지 유형의 파트너쉽으로부터 얻을 수 있는 유익한 교훈을 제안한다. 결과적으로 보자면, 아프리카와 이전 파트너인 유럽 연합 간의 경제적 파트너십 수준이 무역 수준의 증가를 통해 여전히 이어지고 있고, 아프리카에 대한 유럽의 투자가 막대하며, 유럽 연합은 아프리카의 외국 원조에 있어 가장 중요한 원조 파트너라는 사실에도 불구하고, 중국은 아프리카로 향하고 있다. 아프리카가 중국 국가 안보 전략 중 하나인 일대일로 ( 一帶一路, OBOR) 프로젝트, 즉 실크로드 경제 벨트의 6개 중추 지역 중 하나에 포함되어 있다는 사실과 중국의 급속한 경제 성장과 경제 네트워크의 확장된 공간은 아프리카 발전에 있어 주요 성과가 될 것이다. 따라서 유럽 식민지부터 이어져 온 파트너십과 더불어 중국 파트너십의 혜택을 받기 위해서는 아프리카 지도자들이 중국과 새로운 파트너십을 재고해야 한다. 이것은 아프리카 시장의 가치 사슬을 확대하고 통합 경제 구역의 프로젝트를 강화함으로써 해결 될 수 있다. 가장 중점적으로 지켜보아야 할 프로젝트는 여전히 아프리카 대륙 자유 무역 협정일 것이다. 이를 통해 아프리카 시장의 여러 대륙 단절 문제를 해결함으로써 아프리카는 시장의 경쟁력을 강화시키고 청년 층과 지역 인구를 대상으로 하는 지역 투자 유치 프로젝트를 촉진시킬 수 있다. ; This study attempts analyze how Africa can engage in economic and development partnerships with the European Union and China. Indeed, since its admission into the World Trade Organization, China has extended its web of economic partnership in all areas and in all regions - the African continent has not been therefore forgotten in this Chinese project. As a result, its rapid economic growth and its ambitious appetite for the African continent have continued to be the subject of debate and questioning in the circles of former African economic partners, namely Europe and America. Thus, through a comparative analysis of three economic variables - the level of trade, the level of investment, as well as the amount of aid to Africa, this study attempts to figure out the Chinese ambitions in Africa compared to the projects of former partners of the continent united in the European Union, and proposes some recommendations to African leaders for Africa to benefit from these two types of partnerships for its growth and economic development. Our results showed that the level of economic partnership between Africa and its former partners from the EU is still strong with the increase in the level of trade, and that European investments in Africa are huge, and the fact the EU is one of the major donors of Foreign aid to Africa. But, yet China is coming to Africa. And knowing that Africa is one of the key regions in the OBOR Chinese project as one of the Chinese national security strategy – Africa is included in one of the six land corridors of the Silk Road Economic Belt – the rapid economic growth and the extended space of its economic network will also be a major opportunity to Africa for economic development. Therefore, in order to get benefit from this Chinese partnership alongside that from the European, African leaders should rethink a new kind of partnership with China. This would be addressed by expanding the values chains of the African market and reinforce the project of an integrated economic zone. The main project to focus on is still the African Continental Free-trade Agreement; this would enable Africa to help address the multiple continental disconnects of African markets in the aim to make them more competitive and to ensure the promotion of local investment incubator projects for young people and local populations. ; Cette étude tente d'analyser les partenariats économiques et de développement africains avec, d'une part l'Union Européenne, et de l'autre avec la Chine. En effet, depuis son entrée au sein de l'Organisation Mondiale du Commerce, la Chine a étendu son réseau de partenariat économique dans tous les domaines et dans toutes les régions. Le continent africain n'a pas été oublié dans ce projet chinois. De ce fait, sa croissance économique rapide ainsi que son appétit économique ambitieux pour le continent africain n'ont cessé de faire l'objet de débats et de remises en question de sa stratégie économique auprès des anciens partenaires africains, à savoir l'Europe et les États-Unis. De ce qui précède, à travers une analyse comparative de trois variables économiques - le niveau de commerce, le niveau d'investissement ainsi que les montants alloués pour l'aide publique au développement, cette étude tente de comprendre les ambitions chinoises en Afrique par rapport aux liens économiques unissant l'Afrique à ses anciens partenaires réunis au seins de l'Union Européenne. Elle propose également quelques recommandations aux dirigeants africains pour que l'Afrique tire profit de ces deux partenariats pour sa croissance et son développement économiques. Nos résultats ont montré que même si le niveau de partenariat économique entre l'Afrique et ses anciens partenaires de l'UE reste fort et que les échanges et les investissements européens en Afrique soient toujours énormes, et le fait que l'UE soit le plus important pourvoyeur d'aide publique au développement en Afrique, la Chine s'installe petit à petit en Afrique. Ainsi, en prenant en compte le fait que l'Afrique est l'un des points clés du projet chinois OBOR (le projet Une Seule Ceinture, et Une Seule Route) comme étant l'une des stratégies de sécurité nationale de la Chine - l'Afrique est incluse dans l'un des six corridors terrestres de la ceinture économique de la « Route de la Soie » - la croissance économique rapide et l'espace étendu de son réseau économique sera également une opportunité majeure pour le développement économique de l'Afrique. Par conséquent, afin de tirer profit de ce partenariat chinois concomitamment avec les anciens partenariats coloniaux européens, les dirigeants africains devraient repenser un nouveau type de coopération avec la Chine et l'Europe, une stratégie tripartite mettant en commun les opportunités économiques de chaque partie. Ainsi, ceci devrait passer par l'élargissement des chaînes de valeurs du marché africain et le renforcement du projet d'intégration du marché économique africain et de ses facteurs de production. Le principal projet sur lequel se concentrer est alors l'Accord de Libre-échange Continental Africain. Cet accord permettra à l'Afrique de contribuer à résoudre les multiples déconnexions continentales de ses marchés afin de les rendre plus compétitifs et de promouvoir des projets incubateurs d'investissements locaux destinés aux jeunes et aux populations locales. En tenant compte de toutes ces recommandations, les dirigeants Africains, premiers intervenants dans ce partenariat chinois sauront ainsi faire gagner l'Afrique en matière de transfert de technologie, de promotion de la classe moyenne et d'un secteur productif de la chaîne de valeur, de création d'emplois et d'autonomisation des jeunes, de promotion de marchés concurrentiels. Et, l'Afrique pourra ainsi renforcer son secteur productif et augmenter sa croissance économique pour son développement. ; CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Background of the study 1 1.2. Significance and Objectives of the Study 2 1.3. Problematic and Hypotheses 4 1.4. Structure of the study 6 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 9 2.1. EU's and China's Cooperation Strategies with Africa 9 2.2. Impacts of EU's and China's Cooperation on economic growth in Africa 11 2.3. Effects of EU's and China's Economic Strategies on African development 13 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 15 3.1. Definition of the Comparative methodology 15 3.2. Research Framing and Analytical structure of the study 17 3.3. Data Collection 18 CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS 21 4.1. Trend of Trade between China and Africa versus Trend of Trade between EU and Africa 21 4.2. Trend of China's FDI in Africa versus Trend of EU's FDI in Africa 27 4.3. China Foreign aid to Africa vs EU's ODA to Africa 33 4.4. The EU-China relations: Competition or Cooperation 37 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS 41 5.1. Conlusion 41 5.2. Recommendations and Policy Implications 43 REFERENCES 47 ABSTRACTS 53 Korean 53 French 55 ; Master
Актуальность. В связи с глубокими медико-демографическими и социальными изменениями существенно возрастает актуальность создания доступной, качественной и эффективной системы оказания паллиативной и хосписной помощи (ПХП) и социальной услуги по паллиативному уходу (СУПУ). Сегодня в условиях реформирования сферы здравоохранения и социальной защиты населения и после перехода полномочий от районного уровня к объединенным территориальным общинам (ОТО), также особую актуальность приобретает проблема обоснования оптимальных моделей финансирования (бюджетирования) медико-социальных и социальных услуг, в т. ч. паллиативного ухода. Целью работы является анализ и обобщение современных моделей оказания ПХП и СУПУ населению, обоснование оптимальных моделей финансирования (бюджетирования) социальных услуг на уровне ОТО. Материалы и методы. В работе были использованы национальные и международные нормативно-правовые документы и литературные источники, данные медицинской статистики, методы системного и структурно-функционального анализа. Результаты. В работе авторы обосновывают современные оптимальные модели финансирования (бюджетирования) оказания социальных услуг на уровне ОТО. Переход полномочий финансирования оказания социальных услуг от района к ОТО требует перехода от принципа содержания учреждений к финансированию результатов, то есть оплаты стоимости оказанных социальных услуг. Применение системы «капитационных» или «подушных» нормативов является основой внедрения принципа «деньги ходят за пациентом/клиентом или услугой», а внедрение программно-целевого метода требует дальнейшего совершенствования. Важное значение имеет стандартизация и унификация расходов путем разработки паспортов социальных услуг, а также увеличение объемов финансовых ресурсов, которые могут быть привлечены для обеспечения выполнения социальных услуг, это в частности: увеличение поступлений из общего фонда местного бюджета ОТО, расширение сферы и условий применения платных услуг, привлечение финансовых грантов от доноров в качестве дополнительного источника доходов, применение механизмов социального заказа и т. д., применение принципа государственно-частного партнерства, который положительно себя зарекомендовал во многих странах Восточной Европы. Выводы. В связи с глубокими медико-демографическими и социальными изменениями, которые обусловливают актуальность создания системы оказания ПХП и СУПУ, проблема развития и совершенствования нормативно-правовой базы и межведомственных и межсекторальных организационных моделей системы ПХП и СУПУ являются одними из приоритетных направлений деятельности Верховной Рады Украины и Кабинета Министров Украины, о чем свидетельствуют действующие законодательные и отраслевые нормативно-правовые акты. В условиях реформирования сферы здравоохранения и социальной защиты населения и после перехода полномочий от районного уровня к ОТО также особую актуальность приобретает проблема обоснования и внедрения оптимальных моделей финансирования (бюджетирования) медико-социальных и социальных услуг, в т. ч. и паллиативного ухода, требует перехода от принципа содержания учреждения к финансированию результатов оказанных социальных услуг. Существующая практика применения программно-целевого метода требует дальнейшего совершенствования, при этом, важное значение имеет стандартизация и унификация расходов путем разработки паспортов социальных услуг по всем определенным законодательством видам. Наиболее существенным резервом укрепления финансирования оказания социальных услуг в общинах является расширение сферы и условий оказания платных услуг. Большие перспективы развития учреждений социальной сферы связанные с применением принципа государственно-частного партнерства. ; Background. The importance of creating an affordable, high-quality and efficient Palliative and Hospice Care (PHC) System and Social Care Services for Palliative Care (SCSPC) is growing significantly due to the deep medical-demographic and social changes. In the context of reforms in the Healthcare and Social Care Services System and after the transfer of authority from the Rayon (district) level to the United Territorial Communities (UTC) level the problem of the optimal models of financing (budgeting) of social care services providing, including palliative care, substantiates. The purpose of the study is to analyze and generalize the modern models of PHC and SCSPC providing, to substantiate the social care services providing financing (budgeting) optimal models at the UTC level. Materials and methods. National and international normative-legal documents and literary sources, medical statistics data, methods of system and structural-functional analysis were used in the work. Results. The authors substantiate modern optimal models of social care services financing (budgeting) at the UTC level providing. The transition of the authority to finance the social care services providing from the Rayon (district) level to the UTC level requires the transition from the institution maintenance principle to the financing of the social care services results. The application of the "per capita" standards system is the basis for the introduction of the principle of "money follows a patient/client or service" and the Program-Target Method implementation needs further improvement. It is important to standardize and unify the costs by developing Passports for Social Care Services, as well as increase the amount of financial resources that can be involved in ensuring the social care services implementation, in particular: increasing revenues from the general fund of the UTC local budget, expanding the scope and conditions for the paid services use, the financial grants from donors attraction as an additional source of income, the use of social order mechanisms, etc., the application of the principle of public-private partnership, which has positively established itself in many countries of Eastern Europe. Conclusions. The urgency of the PHC and SCSPC System creating, and the problem of the normative-legal base developing and improving, and the PHC and SCSPC System interagency and inter-sectoral organizational models creating are among the Verkhovna Rada (Parliament) of Ukraine and the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine the priority activities directions, as evidenced by the existing legislative and sectoral legal acts. In the context of reforming the Healthcare and Social Care Services System and after the transfer of authority from the Rayon (district) level to the United Territorial Communities level the problem of the optimal models of social care services providing financing (budgeting), including palliative care, requiring a transition from the institution maintenance principle to financing the provided social care services results. Existing practice of the Program-Target Method application needs further improvement, while standardization and unification of expenses by passports of social care services in all types of legislation developing are of great importance. The most significant provision for strengthening the social care services financing in the communities is the expansion of the scope and conditions for the paid services use. Great prospects for the development of social care institutions are related to the principle of public-private partnership application. ; Актуальність. У зв'язку із глибокими медико-демографічними та соціальними змінами суттєво зростає актуальність створення доступної, якісної та ефективної системи надання паліативної і хоспісної допомоги (ПХД) і соціальної послуги з паліативного догляду (СППД). Сьогодні в умовах реформування галузі охорони здоров'я та соціального захисту населення та після переходу повноважень від районного рівня до об'єднаних територіальних громад (ОТГ), також особливої актуальності набуває проблема обґрунтування оптимальних моделей фінансування (бюджетування) медико-соціальних і соціальних послуг, у т. ч. паліативного догляду. Метою роботи є аналіз та узагальнення сучасних моделей надання ПХД і СППД населенню, обґрунтування оптимальних моделей фінансування (бюджетування) соціальних послуг на рівні ОТГ. Матеріали та методи. У роботі були використані національні та міжнародні нормативно-правові документи і літературні джерела, дані медичної статистики, методи системного та структурно-функціонального аналізу. Результати. У роботі автори обґрунтовують сучасні оптимальні моделі фінансування (бюджетування) надання соціальних послуг на рівні ОТГ. Перехід повноважень фінансування надання соціальних послуг від району до ОТГ вимагає переходу від принципу утримання закладу до фінансування результатів, тобто оплати вартості наданих соціальних послуг. Застосування системи «капітаційних» або «подушних» нормативів є основою впровадження принципу «гроші ходять за пацієнтом/клієнтом або послугою», а впровадження програмно-цільового методу потребує подальшого удосконалення. Важливе значення має стандартизація та уніфікація витрат шляхом розробки паспортів соціальних послуг, а також збільшення обсягів фінансових ресурсів, що можуть бути залучені для забезпечення виконання соціальних послуг, це зокрема: збільшення надходжень із загального фонду місцевого бюджету ОТГ, розширення сфери та умов застосування платних послуг, залучення фінансових грантів від донорів як додаткового джерела доходів, застосування механізмів соціального замовлення тощо, застосування принципу державно-приватного партнерства, який позитивно себе зарекомендував у багатьох країнах Східної Європи. Висновки. У зв'язку з глибокими медико-демографічними та соціальними змінами, що зумовлюють актуальність створення системи надання ПХД і СППД, проблема розвитку та удосконалення нормативно-правової бази і міжвідомчих та міжсекторальних організаційних моделей системи ПХД і СППД є одними з пріоритетних напрямків діяльності Верховної Ради України та Кабінету Міністрів України, про що свідчать чинні законодавчі та галузеві нормативно-правові акти. В умовах реформування галузі охорони здоров'я та соціального захисту населення та після переходу повноважень від районного рівня до ОТГ також особливої актуальності набуває проблема обґрунтування та впровадження оптимальних моделей фінансування (бюджетування) медико-соціальних і соціальних послуг, у т. ч. і паліативного догляду, що вимагає переходу від принципу утримання закладу до фінансування результатів наданих соціальних послуг. Існуюча практика застосування програмно-цільового методу потребує подальшого удосконалення, при цьому, важливе значення має стандартизація та уніфікація витрат шляхом розробки паспортів соціальних послуг по всім визначеним законодавством видам. Найбільш суттєвим резервом щодо зміцнення фінансування надання соціальних послуг у громадах є розширення сфери та умов застосування платних послуг. Великі перспективи розвитку закладів соціальної сфери пов'язані із застосуванням принципу державно-приватного партнерства.
Актуальность. В связи с глубокими медико-демографическими и социальными изменениями существенно возрастает актуальность создания доступной, качественной и эффективной системы оказания паллиативной и хосписной помощи (ПХП) и социальной услуги по паллиативному уходу (СУПУ). Сегодня в условиях реформирования сферы здравоохранения и социальной защиты населения и после перехода полномочий от районного уровня к объединенным территориальным общинам (ОТО), также особую актуальность приобретает проблема обоснования оптимальных моделей финансирования (бюджетирования) медико-социальных и социальных услуг, в т. ч. паллиативного ухода. Целью работы является анализ и обобщение современных моделей оказания ПХП и СУПУ населению, обоснование оптимальных моделей финансирования (бюджетирования) социальных услуг на уровне ОТО. Материалы и методы. В работе были использованы национальные и международные нормативно-правовые документы и литературные источники, данные медицинской статистики, методы системного и структурно-функционального анализа. Результаты. В работе авторы обосновывают современные оптимальные модели финансирования (бюджетирования) оказания социальных услуг на уровне ОТО. Переход полномочий финансирования оказания социальных услуг от района к ОТО требует перехода от принципа содержания учреждений к финансированию результатов, то есть оплаты стоимости оказанных социальных услуг. Применение системы «капитационных» или «подушных» нормативов является основой внедрения принципа «деньги ходят за пациентом/клиентом или услугой», а внедрение программно-целевого метода требует дальнейшего совершенствования. Важное значение имеет стандартизация и унификация расходов путем разработки паспортов социальных услуг, а также увеличение объемов финансовых ресурсов, которые могут быть привлечены для обеспечения выполнения социальных услуг, это в частности: увеличение поступлений из общего фонда местного бюджета ОТО, расширение сферы и условий применения платных услуг, привлечение финансовых грантов от доноров в качестве дополнительного источника доходов, применение механизмов социального заказа и т. д., применение принципа государственно-частного партнерства, который положительно себя зарекомендовал во многих странах Восточной Европы. Выводы. В связи с глубокими медико-демографическими и социальными изменениями, которые обусловливают актуальность создания системы оказания ПХП и СУПУ, проблема развития и совершенствования нормативно-правовой базы и межведомственных и межсекторальных организационных моделей системы ПХП и СУПУ являются одними из приоритетных направлений деятельности Верховной Рады Украины и Кабинета Министров Украины, о чем свидетельствуют действующие законодательные и отраслевые нормативно-правовые акты. В условиях реформирования сферы здравоохранения и социальной защиты населения и после перехода полномочий от районного уровня к ОТО также особую актуальность приобретает проблема обоснования и внедрения оптимальных моделей финансирования (бюджетирования) медико-социальных и социальных услуг, в т. ч. и паллиативного ухода, требует перехода от принципа содержания учреждения к финансированию результатов оказанных социальных услуг. Существующая практика применения программно-целевого метода требует дальнейшего совершенствования, при этом, важное значение имеет стандартизация и унификация расходов путем разработки паспортов социальных услуг по всем определенным законодательством видам. Наиболее существенным резервом укрепления финансирования оказания социальных услуг в общинах является расширение сферы и условий оказания платных услуг. Большие перспективы развития учреждений социальной сферы связанные с применением принципа государственно-частного партнерства. ; Background. The importance of creating an affordable, high-quality and efficient Palliative and Hospice Care (PHC) System and Social Care Services for Palliative Care (SCSPC) is growing significantly due to the deep medical-demographic and social changes. In the context of reforms in the Healthcare and Social Care Services System and after the transfer of authority from the Rayon (district) level to the United Territorial Communities (UTC) level the problem of the optimal models of financing (budgeting) of social care services providing, including palliative care, substantiates. The purpose of the study is to analyze and generalize the modern models of PHC and SCSPC providing, to substantiate the social care services providing financing (budgeting) optimal models at the UTC level. Materials and methods. National and international normative-legal documents and literary sources, medical statistics data, methods of system and structural-functional analysis were used in the work. Results. The authors substantiate modern optimal models of social care services financing (budgeting) at the UTC level providing. The transition of the authority to finance the social care services providing from the Rayon (district) level to the UTC level requires the transition from the institution maintenance principle to the financing of the social care services results. The application of the "per capita" standards system is the basis for the introduction of the principle of "money follows a patient/client or service" and the Program-Target Method implementation needs further improvement. It is important to standardize and unify the costs by developing Passports for Social Care Services, as well as increase the amount of financial resources that can be involved in ensuring the social care services implementation, in particular: increasing revenues from the general fund of the UTC local budget, expanding the scope and conditions for the paid services use, the financial grants from donors attraction as an additional source of income, the use of social order mechanisms, etc., the application of the principle of public-private partnership, which has positively established itself in many countries of Eastern Europe. Conclusions. The urgency of the PHC and SCSPC System creating, and the problem of the normative-legal base developing and improving, and the PHC and SCSPC System interagency and inter-sectoral organizational models creating are among the Verkhovna Rada (Parliament) of Ukraine and the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine the priority activities directions, as evidenced by the existing legislative and sectoral legal acts. In the context of reforming the Healthcare and Social Care Services System and after the transfer of authority from the Rayon (district) level to the United Territorial Communities level the problem of the optimal models of social care services providing financing (budgeting), including palliative care, requiring a transition from the institution maintenance principle to financing the provided social care services results. Existing practice of the Program-Target Method application needs further improvement, while standardization and unification of expenses by passports of social care services in all types of legislation developing are of great importance. The most significant provision for strengthening the social care services financing in the communities is the expansion of the scope and conditions for the paid services use. Great prospects for the development of social care institutions are related to the principle of public-private partnership application. ; Актуальність. У зв'язку із глибокими медико-демографічними та соціальними змінами суттєво зростає актуальність створення доступної, якісної та ефективної системи надання паліативної і хоспісної допомоги (ПХД) і соціальної послуги з паліативного догляду (СППД). Сьогодні в умовах реформування галузі охорони здоров'я та соціального захисту населення та після переходу повноважень від районного рівня до об'єднаних територіальних громад (ОТГ), також особливої актуальності набуває проблема обґрунтування оптимальних моделей фінансування (бюджетування) медико-соціальних і соціальних послуг, у т. ч. паліативного догляду. Метою роботи є аналіз та узагальнення сучасних моделей надання ПХД і СППД населенню, обґрунтування оптимальних моделей фінансування (бюджетування) соціальних послуг на рівні ОТГ. Матеріали та методи. У роботі були використані національні та міжнародні нормативно-правові документи і літературні джерела, дані медичної статистики, методи системного та структурно-функціонального аналізу. Результати. У роботі автори обґрунтовують сучасні оптимальні моделі фінансування (бюджетування) надання соціальних послуг на рівні ОТГ. Перехід повноважень фінансування надання соціальних послуг від району до ОТГ вимагає переходу від принципу утримання закладу до фінансування результатів, тобто оплати вартості наданих соціальних послуг. Застосування системи «капітаційних» або «подушних» нормативів є основою впровадження принципу «гроші ходять за пацієнтом/клієнтом або послугою», а впровадження програмно-цільового методу потребує подальшого удосконалення. Важливе значення має стандартизація та уніфікація витрат шляхом розробки паспортів соціальних послуг, а також збільшення обсягів фінансових ресурсів, що можуть бути залучені для забезпечення виконання соціальних послуг, це зокрема: збільшення надходжень із загального фонду місцевого бюджету ОТГ, розширення сфери та умов застосування платних послуг, залучення фінансових грантів від донорів як додаткового джерела доходів, застосування механізмів соціального замовлення тощо, застосування принципу державно-приватного партнерства, який позитивно себе зарекомендував у багатьох країнах Східної Європи. Висновки. У зв'язку з глибокими медико-демографічними та соціальними змінами, що зумовлюють актуальність створення системи надання ПХД і СППД, проблема розвитку та удосконалення нормативно-правової бази і міжвідомчих та міжсекторальних організаційних моделей системи ПХД і СППД є одними з пріоритетних напрямків діяльності Верховної Ради України та Кабінету Міністрів України, про що свідчать чинні законодавчі та галузеві нормативно-правові акти. В умовах реформування галузі охорони здоров'я та соціального захисту населення та після переходу повноважень від районного рівня до ОТГ також особливої актуальності набуває проблема обґрунтування та впровадження оптимальних моделей фінансування (бюджетування) медико-соціальних і соціальних послуг, у т. ч. і паліативного догляду, що вимагає переходу від принципу утримання закладу до фінансування результатів наданих соціальних послуг. Існуюча практика застосування програмно-цільового методу потребує подальшого удосконалення, при цьому, важливе значення має стандартизація та уніфікація витрат шляхом розробки паспортів соціальних послуг по всім визначеним законодавством видам. Найбільш суттєвим резервом щодо зміцнення фінансування надання соціальних послуг у громадах є розширення сфери та умов застосування платних послуг. Великі перспективи розвитку закладів соціальної сфери пов'язані із застосуванням принципу державно-приватного партнерства.
The purpose of this note is to provide the monetary cost of various social safety net targeting schemes that can be deployed to reduce vulnerability and increase resilience. It is believed that gradually switching to the provision of social safety nets can reduce the chronic dependency on humanitarian (mainly food) aid. At the same time, it could help to alleviate reliance on patronage networks and switch a portion of the public spending from unproductive uses (e.g., military expenditure) toward strengthening the resilience and supporting the livelihoods of South Sudanese. In addition, a social safety net would address the fatigues of years of weak governance and ongoing efforts to find more direct, transparent ways to enable citizens to reap the benefits of independence and – once it materializes – peace.
Violent conflict is the multifaceted and cyclical problem that the international community is trying to grapple with. To date, there has been a clear hierarchy concerning what forms of violence are seen to matter most, with political violence that threatens the state taking pole position. In examining this argument, this paper sets out a number of issues relating to security and justice definitions. It will then examine some of the problems associated with placing conflict into a box-set typology: mass violence associated with war and genocide carries unique features but also spawns new challenges which are often being ignored. The paper will then examine in brief some of the measures used by communities, governmental actors and international partners in contending with violence before outlining some key conclusions and recommendations. In reading this paper two further points need be borne in mind: 1) this does not provide a comprehensive overview of violence and security - that is the role of the World Development Report (WDR) itself, and 2) this paper does not present fresh research, but more an overview, along with the other papers in the security-justice series, of some of the key issues confronting policy makers in the domain of security and development.
The state of intellectual freedom is, in many ways, both a Treflection of the degree of openness and inclusiveness of our societies and of the state of democracy. Academic freedom, in the words of Thandika Mkandawire, is, in truth, about the building of a new civilization. It is a site of struggle for democracy, and one could argue that where intellectual freedom really exists, authoritarianism and fundamentalism will find it more difficult to go unchecked. When, in November 1990, participants in a CODESRIA conference held in Kampala, Uganda, were adopting the Kampala Declaration on Intellectual Freedom and Social Responsibility, the continent was experiencing profound political changes, with authoritarian regimes collapsing one after the other, or receding as democratic space expanded with the struggles and intense pressures for democratic change coming from civil society and social movements. The state was then still seen as the main perpetrator of academic and intellectual freedom violations, but it certainly was no longer seen as the only institution or actor that was guilty of such restrictions. As can be seen in the conference papers and report1, most of the phenomena that we are witnessing more clearly today were already quite discernible then: groups based in civil society could harass scholars or public intellectuals for writing or making public statements that were considered to be contrary to religious principles, or to national interests, or to dominant social values, customs and 'traditions'. Donors could also restrict the freedom of research in many different ways. Within the academia itself, the violations of academic freedom could take forms ranging from sexual harassment, through the trading of grades for different kinds of favours, to student groups threatening academic staff or other students and wreaking havoc on university campuses. The triumph of neoliberalism, and dominant notions of political correctness, and the rise of fundamentalisms of different kinds have led to the shrinking of spaces for critical thinking, not only in society, but also on our campuses. What were emerging phenomena then have now become major problems, with university campuses like Garissa University College in Garissa, Kenya, and the Ahmed Baba library in Timbuktu being raided by armed fundamentalist groups or rebel movements. Disciplines like history are barely surviving. Although it is now recognized that higher education and research have been key to all the successful and sustainable structural transformation and development experiences of the past few decades, most policy makers of our continent tend to be dismissive of the social sciences and humanities. Yet without the social sciences and humanities, no deep understanding of global and local challenges, and therefore no genuine human and people-centered development and meaningful empowerment of civil society and ordinary citizens are possible. The good news is, as one of the participants in the conference held in Lilongwe, Malawi, in April this year to celebrate the 25th anniversary conference of the Kampala Declaration, rightly pointed out, there are provisions explicitly protecting academic freedom in the constitutions of fifteen African countries, and in many of these cases, the inspiration came from the Kampala Declaration. The part of the Kampala Declaration that is rarely mentioned, but which is equally important, is the part dealing with the social responsibility of academics and intellectuals, more generally. The number of professors and lecturers who pay insufficient attention to ethical issues is, unfortunately, very large. This could be anything from the neglect of teaching and the responsibility to supervise theses and dissertations and mentor graduate students and junior colleagues, to a total lack of interest in the issues and challenges facing the communities where the universities are located. Too large a number of academics are prioritizing moonlighting activities instead of their duties at the institutions where they are employed. Yet the defense of academic freedom and the autonomy of the institutions of higher learning are best done if they go with a strict adherence to ethics, accountability, and the fulfillment of the social responsibility of academics. The development of a vibrant knowledge economy in Africa is something that CODESRIA has always taken keen interest in and researched with relentless vigour over the years through its programmes. At its 14th CODESRIA General Assembly held in June 2015, which focused on the creation of Africa's futures in an era of global transformation, one of the key points over which there was a broad consensus is the need for research and new knowledge, and to critically interrogate the narrative and counter- narratives, not only on Africa's development, but also on innovations and technology as engines of growth and development in Africa. One critical issue today is, precisely, that of the private appropriation, out of power and profit motives, of knowledge produced through scholarship that has been funded with public resources, thus making the availability of that knowledge to African universities or African and southern development extremely difficult. The future of Africa's knowledge economy is, therefore, a subject that has continued to generate vigorous debate. In one of the articles featured in this issue of CODESRIA Bulletin, titled: Defining Structural Transformation in Africa, Carlos Lopes calls for a shift away from the present economic models in various African countries. He identifies poor investment in research and development as one of the banes of growth in Africa, in addition to several other political, social, environmental and economic factors. Henning Melber's article in this issue of the Bulletin: Development and Environment: The Challenges for Research Collaboration in and with Africa underscores the importance of new research and new knowledge for development while drawing attention to the gap in knowledge production between the North and the South. He however noted that ''relevant insights for local policy makers and communities in the South generated by new research end in peer reviewed journals whose commercial publishing priority remains prohibitive for access by those who might benefit most from it.'' The subject of restricted access to scientific knowledge and scholarly communication (which, in effect, is a form of restriction of research and academic freedom), which Melber decried in his article, was the focus of an international conference hosted by CODESRIA in Dakar, 30 March - 1 April 2016, with the theme: ''Open Access and the Future of the African Knowledge Economy''. The conference which drew participants from 20 countries in Africa and across the globe focussed on the value of open access to scholarly communication in an increasingly globalised knowledge economy. The urgent need for the African scientific community to engage the open access movement as a driver of change and development on the continent was emphasized. A call was also made for a stronger South-South dialogue and cooperation on open access and scholarly communication at the conference which also had a strong participation by UNESCO, the Latin America Council of Social Sciences (CLACSO), the Indian Citation Index, Africa Journals Online (AJOL), the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa, the Academy of Social Sciences of South Africa (ASSAF), and several other partner institutions such as the Human Sciences Research Council, the Nordic Africa Institute, and the African Studies Centre of Leiden. A report from the conference is included in this Bulletin. Also in this Bulletin, we have featured tributes to two of Africa's great scholars: Thandika Mkandawire and Helmi Sharawy, who are both among the founding fathers of CODESRIA. The tributes are in recognition of their long association with and service to CODESRIA, and the African social science community. Thandika is one of the leading global scholars of the day, whose devotion to the African cause and contribution to knowledge on the continent is very widely acknowledged. In the words of Jimi Adesina, ''Thandika was always driven by giving voice to Africans and elevating African voices. His was not simply being Africa-focused but facilitating the authentic interlocution for Africa and its peoples''. The Kampala Declaration was adopted during his tenure as executive secretary of CODESRIA. The theme chosen for the colloquium held in Malawi to celebrate Thandika the scholar, mentor, pan Africanist, institution-builder, friend, and eternal CODESRIA militant, was Thinking African: Epistemological Issues. Indeed, both as a CODESRIA leader and in his own work, Thandika has consistently engaged social science concepts and theories from a critical point of view, interrogating their significance for Africa and the continent's peoples. He has tried to enhance the visibility of African scholarship both within Africa and globally, and promoted scholarship that contributes to the enhancement of the freedom, well-being and dignity of the peoples of the continent. Helmi Sharawy is also one of the most illustrious leaders of our community who played a pioneering role in the development of CODESRIA, in the promotion of the study of Africa, and in the formation of a number of institutions and associations, such as the African Association of Political Science (AAPS). He was elected and served two terms as a member of CODESRIA's Executive Committee. Helmi has also been a great champion of African liberation. Many great leaders, such as Amilcar Cabral, Agostinho Neto, Eduardo Mondlane and others, who visited Cairo during the years when Gamal Abdel Nasser was the President, were invited to his home and enjoyed the hospitality of his family. On 11 May 2016, CODESRIA and the Arab and African Research Centre in Cairo organized a round table to celebrate Professor Helmi Sharawy. Some of the tributes to Sharawy and Mkandawire are published in this issue of the Bulletin. The people who have made, and continue to make, great contribution to scholarship in Africa and to the growth and development of CODESRIA are many. More celebrations, taking different forms, will therefore follow. We also invite articles on, or critically engaging the work of, great African intellectuals and their contributions for publication in the CODESRIA Bulletin, or in other CODESRIA journals. Bonne lecture!
Agriculture is important for most of the world's poor population not only as a source of income but defense against hunger. Over the last three decades, agricultural supply chain organizational structures in developing countries have increasingly become complex and transformed because of the emergence of competitive, fast-moving business environments. These changes have particularly affected several food value chains, creating in some cases positive effects, and resulting in the exclusion of smallholders who are unable to meet specific supply chain requirements. This counteracts the achievement of development goals by disrupting associated distributional effects to excluded smallholders in developing countries. Evidence suggests that affected smallholders respond by switching marketing channels and shifting to organizational network relationships. This consequently intensifies the formation of dualistic systems in which both modern and local value chains coexist. However, since the mid-1990s, the focus of development analysts and researchers has been on the expansion and inclusion of smallholders in modern value chains. This has resulted in total neglect of local value chains, which remain a significant source of income for many rural populations and ensure effective food delivery that meets culturally diverse needs in developing countries. Only recently has agribusinesses' and development analysts' attention been placed on local value chains yet, some key knowledge and research areas remain unaddressed. Indeed, our understanding of how local value chains are organized and function within dualistic systems remains generally limited. In particular, little is known about the role of socially constructed concepts such as gender-relations and decision-making power in driving value additions. Understanding these fundamentals is important for the postulation of policies for agricultural and local value chain upgrading and equitable distribution of wealth. Besides, smallholders continuously face external and internal contingencies that affect their competitiveness along food systems. Theory posits that the effects of changing business environments on smallholder performance can be mitigated by fitting supply chain network that includes vertical, horizontal and lateral relationships. However, the associations between these constructs as postulated theoretically remain generally underexplored, especially for smallholders in African food sectors. Frameworks and empirical analyses that holistically and simultaneously analyze these associations are rare. Furthermore, over the last two decades, there has been increasing attention of donors, governments and researchers to strengthen collection actions through producer groups in developing countries. Producer groups are widely viewed as valuable institutional arrangements for smallholders to cope with/overcome market inefficiencies arising from changing business environments. However, little is known about the effect of membership in producer groups on smallholder performance in fishery subsectors. Overall, bridging these gaps is important to understand and posit practical implications on how to promote alternative development models and smallholders' opportunities in dynamic food systems. On this account, this dissertation fills these gaps by analyzing the links between organizational structures, gender roles, and performance of smallholders in African local value chains. The dissertation consists of three main papers that are based on two types of data from the Nigerian shrimp and prawn sector. First, qualitative data was obtained between December 2017 and January 2018 from 48 respondents in three States namely; Akwa-Ibom, Delta and Lagos. The second data includes two sets of quantitative data obtained from the survey of 405 producers and 238 processors in Akwa-Ibom, Ondo and Lagos States between May and August 2018. The first paper aims to uncover how local value chains in dualistic food systems are organized, depicting the predominant governance themes, gender roles for value addition, and necessary upgrading strategies for smallholders in Africa. Failure of existing studies to capture the evolution and multiplicity of governance structures, and hidden social constructs has resulted in mixed findings on the organization and drivers of local value chains. Using qualitative data obtained from 3 in-depth focus group discussions and 21 key informant interviews, we rely on the global value chain approach to map local value chain's organization distinctively from modern value chains. We make a conceptual contribution by extending this approach to include a gendered dimension of the value web approach, which we developed. This allows for simultaneous analysis of the roles of governance schemes and hidden gender relations in driving local value chains. Our main results reveal that competitive traders, the mutual dependence between production and processing segments and strategic business activities of female processors were crucial for the chain's functioning. Results from the Net-maps show that the predominant marketing channel is long: producer–women processors/marketer–trader–retailer–consumer, however, analysis of the governance dimensions shows the importance of the relational governance between producers and women processors that allows for better coordination of supply and marketing activities at the supply-base. Further analysis of the gendered value-web highlights the vital roles women play in ensuring value additions and smooth flow of products along the chain. Women processors act as financial buffers for producers, points of contact and precursors to all midstream value additions in the value web. The second paper builds on the results and implications of the first paper. Here, we suggest a comprehensive quantitative research framework to determine the relationship between changing business contingencies, organizational supply chain networks and smallholder performance. While supply chain contingencies and organizational complexities have been widely studied in organizational theory literature, it only became a subject of quantitative analysis in recent times. Still, several conceptual and research shortcomings exist in the literature such as the neglect of the concurrent fit of organizational strategies to both external and internal contingencies, lack of comprehensive analysis of organizational networks, and less focus on multiple tiers. Hence, we use a variance-based structural equation model to analyze the quantitative data from producers and women processors. We first take a cue from contingent resource-based theory and netchain approach to conceptualize the influence of both external (market turbulence, technological progress, distrust and power asymmetry) and internal (human and financial resources) contingencies on organizational relationships and performance, extending an existing empirical model. We then empirically test the so-called "Contingency-Netchain-Performance" (CNP) framework, on two tiers to derive valid and comprehensive evidence comparable across the tiers. Results from the estimations indicate that both external and internal contingencies significantly influence adaptational change in organization supply chain network, which in turn contributes to smallholders' performance. All the smallholders' external contingencies influence the formation of tighter vertical coordination but their influences differ on horizontal and lateral relationships. More importantly, results reveal that smallholders' internal contingencies concurrently influence their organizational network structures and performance. However, the influence of both external and internal contingencies on organizational networks seems to differ across tiers while supply chain vertical relationships tend to intensify the formation of closer network structures. Several conceptual, theoretical and practical contributions emerged from the successful application of the CNP framework in this study. In the third paper, we examined the selectivity-corrected role of fisher groups on the capture and technical efficiency of artisanal shrimpers in Africa. We empirically identify factors that influence shrimpers' decision to belong to fisher groups and estimate the effect of membership on capture and technical efficiency. Methodological augmentation using Greene's stochastic production frontier method and propensity score matching that correct for selection bias, allows us to account for different technological set if any, and sample selection bias from both observed and unobserved factors. We use quantitative data of 353 producers that operate outboard engines, comprising of 95 members and 258 non-members. We found that the overall participation in fisher groups is positively determined by shrimpers' socioeconomic characteristics; female participation in shrimp-related groups; and infrastructural facilities like credit and tarmacked roads. The stochastic results reveal that technical efficiency scores remain consistently higher for members regardless of how biases were corrected. Although technical efficiency scores for members and nonmembers tend to be over-estimated if selectivity is not appropriately controlled, our findings suggest that participation in fisher groups is important for smallholders with below-average performance and positively related to increases in catch and technical efficiency. Important lessons and conclusions were derived from the results of this dissertation. The papers confirm that organizational network structures matter for smallholders' upgrading and local value chain development in Nigeria. Our results confirm strong influences from highly dynamic external and internal contingencies on the formation of dense and complex organizational network structures in which vertical and network relationships are dependent. By aligning their organizational network structure to fit changing external and internal contingencies, smallholders can create and remain competitive within dualistic sectors. However, associated concepts such as gender roles and internal contingencies across mutually dependent tiers are important to upgrade smallholders' activities. Furthermore, fisher groups is a valuable institutional arrangement as they tend to improve shrimpers' capture and technical efficiency, and might be crucial for attaining equitable distributional effects to smallholders with below-average economic performances. Relevant policy implications for smallholders' upgrading and local value chain development, as well as limitations of the study, are discussed in the papers.
This work was supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) within the framework of the e:Med research and funding concept (grant 01ZX1313A-2014). The ADVANCE study was supported by a grant from the Reynold's Foundation and NHLBI grant HL087647. Sample collection in the Cardiogenics Consortium (http://www.cardiogenics.eu/web/) was funded by the 6th Framework Program of the European Union (LSHM-CT-2006-037593). We thank all the participants and clinicians involved in the recruitment process at Cambridge and Leicester (UK), Luebeck and Regensburg (Germany), and Paris (France). CATHGEN was supported by NIH grants HL095987 and HL101621. The Cleveland Clinic Gene Bank study was funded by P01HL076491 (to S.L.H). EGCUT was supported by Estonian Research Council grant no. IUT20-60 and Research Roadmap grant no. 3.2.0304.11-0312 and by University Tartu grant no. ARENG SP1GV. The FGENTCARD-Functional Genomic diagnostic tools for coronary artery disease project was funded by an EU FP6 award. We thank the patients for agreeing to participate in the study. We thank Sonia Youhanna, Nour Moukalled and Bariaa Khalil for their help with subject recruitment and data collection. The work of FINCAVAS was supported by the Competitive Research Funding of the Tampere University Hospital (Grant 9M048 and 9N035), the Finnish Cultural Foundation, the Finnish Foundation for Cardiovascular Research, the Emil Aaltonen Foundation, Finland, and the Tampere Tuberculosis Foundation. The authors thank the staff of the Department of Clinical Physiology for collecting the exercise test data. The GerMIFS studies were supported by grants from the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) within the framework of NGFN and NGFN-plus (Atherogenomics) and e:Med research and funding concept (e:AtheroSysMed, grant 01ZX1313A-2014), the Fondation Leducq (CADgenomics: Understanding CAD Genes, 12CVD02), and the European Union Sixth Framework Programme FP6 (under grant agreement FP6-LIFESCIHEALTH (Cardiogenics)) and the Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013 under grant agreement n° HEALTH-F2-2013-601456 (CVgenes-at-target). The Heart Protection Study (HPS) (ISRCTN48489393) was supported by the UK Medical Research Council (MRC), British Heart Foundation, Merck and Co (manufacturers of simvastatin), and Roche Vitamins Ltd (manufacturers of vitamins). Genotyping was supported by a grant to Oxford University and CNG from Merck and Co. Jemma C. Hopewell acknowledges support from the British Heart Foundation (FS/14/55/30806). HPS acknowledges the National Blood Service (NBS) donors and UK Twin study for using as population controls. A full list of the investigators who contributed to the generation of the NBS data is available from www.wtccc.org.uk. Funding for the project was provided by the Wellcome Trust under award 07611. The UK Twin study was funded by the Wellcome Trust; European Community"s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013). The Helsinki Sudden Death Study (HSDS) was financially supported by EU's 7th Framework Programme (grant no. 201668 for AtheroRemo), the Tampere University Foundation, the Tampere University Hospital Medical Funds (grants X51001, 9M048 and 9N035 for Terho Lehtimäki, the Emil Aaltonen Foundation (Terho Lehtimäki, the Finnish Foundation of Cardiovascular Research (Terho Lehtimäki, Pekka J. Karhunen), the Pirkanmaa Regional Fund of the Finnish Cultural Foundation, the Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation, and the Tampere Tuberculosis Foundation (Terho Lehtimäki). LIFE-Heart is a part of the LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig. LIFE is funded by means of the European Union, by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and by means of the Free State of Saxony within the framework of the excellence initiative. The LOLIPOP study is supported by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Comprehensive Biomedical Research Centre Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, the British Heart Foundation (SP/04/002), the Medical Research Council (G0601966, G0700931), the Wellcome Trust (084723/Z/08/Z), the NIHR (RP-PG-0407-10371), European Union FP7 (EpiMigrant, 279143) and Action on Hearing (G51). We thank the participants and research staff who made the study possible. LURIC was supported by the 7th Framework Program (integrated project AtheroRemo, grant agreement number 201668 and RiskyCAD, grant agreement number 305739) of the European Union and by the INTERREG IV Oberrhein Program (Project A28, Genetic mechanisms of cardiovascular diseases) with support from the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the Wissenschaftsoffensive TMO. We extend our appreciation to the participants of the LURIC study and thank the LURIC study team who were either temporarily or permanently involved in patient recruitment as well as sample and data handling, in addition to the laboratory staff at the Ludwigshafen General Hospital and the Universities of Freiburg and Ulm, Germany. The MIGen study was funded by R01HL087676 from the US National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. The Mount Sinai IPM Biobank Program is supported by The Andrea and Charles Bronfman Philanthropies. It was in part supported by NHGRI U01HG007417. OHGS_A2, OHGS_B2, and OHGS_C2 were funded by Canadian Institutes of Health Research (# MOP-2380941 to R.M.), (#MOP82810, MOP77682 to R.R., A.F.S. & R.M.); Canada Foundation for Innovation (#11966 to R.R., R.M. & A.F.S.; Heart & Stroke Foundation of Canada (#NA6001, #NA6650 to R.M). PIVUS was supported by Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (Wallenberg Academy Fellow), European Research Council (ERC Starting Grant), Swedish Diabetes Foundation (grant no. 2013-024), Swedish Research Council (grant no. 2012-1397), and Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation (20120197). We thank the SNP&SEQ Technology Platform in Uppsala (www.genotyping.se) for excellent genotyping. The computations were performed on resources provided by SNIC through Uppsala Multidisciplinary Center for Advanced Computational Science (UPPMAX) under Project b2011036. PROCARDIS was supported by the European Community Sixth Framework Program (LSHM-CT- 2007-037273), AstraZeneca, the British Heart Foundation, the Swedish Research Council, the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation, the Torsten and Ragnar Söderberg Foundation, the Strategic Cardiovascular Program of Karolinska Institutet and Stockholm County Council, the Foundation for Strategic Research and the Stockholm County Council (560283). Research in SDS was partly supported by NIH grants -R01DK082766 funded by the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases and NOT-HG-11-009 funded by National Genome Research Institute, and VPR Bridge grant from University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, USA. Recruitment for THISEAS was partially funded by a research grant (PENED 2003) from the Greek General Secretary of Research and Technology; we thank all the dieticians and clinicians for their contribution to the project. TwinGene was supported by grants from the Ministry for Higher Education, the Swedish Research Council (M-2005-1112 and 2009-2298), GenomEUtwin (EU/QLRT-2001-01254; QLG2-CT-2002-01254), NIH grant DK U01-066134, Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (Wallenberg Academy Fellow), European Research Council (ERC Starting Grant), Swedish Diabetes Foundation (grant no. 2013-024), Swedish Research Council (grant no. 2012-1397), and Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation (20120197). We thank the SNP&SEQ Technology Platform in Uppsala (www. genotyping.se) for excellent genotyping. The computations were performed on resources provided by SNIC through Uppsala Multidisciplinary Center for Advanced Computational Science (UPPMAX) under Project b2011036. ULSAM was supported by Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (Wallenberg Academy Fellow), European Research Council (ERC Starting Grant), Swedish Diabetes Foundation (grant no. 2013-024), Swedish Research Council (grant no. 2012-1397), and Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation (20120197). We thank the SNP&SEQ Technology Platform in Uppsala (www.genotyping.se) for excellent genotyping. The computations were performed on resources provided by SNIC through Uppsala Multidisciplinary Center for Advanced Computational Science (UPPMAX) under Project b2011036. Recruitment for the WTCCC study was funded by the British Heart Foundation and genotyping by the Wellcome Trust. Themistocles L. Assimes was supported by an NIDDK career development award DK088942. Panos Deloukas's work forms part of the research themes contributing to the translational research portfolio of Barts Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit which is supported and funded by the National Institute for Health Research. Analysis was partly supported by BHF grant (to Panos Deloukas) RG/14/5/30893. Martin Farrall and Hugh Watkins acknowledge the support of the Wellcome Trust core award (090532/Z/09/Z) and Martin Farrall, Hugh Watkins and Theodosios Kyriakou, the BHF Centre of Research Excellence. Anuj Goel, Hugh Watkins and Theodosios Kyriakou acknowledge European Union Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013 under grant agreement no. HEALTH-F2-2013-601456 (CVGenes@Target) & and Anuj Goel, the Wellcome Trust Institutional strategic support fund. The UK Twin study was funded by the Wellcome Trust; European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007- 2013). PoBI samples from the Wellcome Trust funded People of the British Isles project. Sekar Kathiresan is supported by the Donovan Family Foundation, Fondation Leducq, MGH Research Scholar Award, and R01 HL107816. Andrew P. Morris is a Wellcome Trust Senior Fellow in Basic Biomedical Science, funded under grant WT098017. Christopher P. Nelson and Nilesh J. Samani are funded by the British Heart Foundation and Nilesh J. Samani is a UK NIUHR Senior Investigator. Christopher P. Nelson and Nilesh J. Samani are funded by the British Heart Foundation and Nilesh J. Samani is a UK NIUHR Senior Investigator. Samuli Ripatti was supported by the Academy of Finland Center of Excellence in Complex Disease Genetics (Grant No. 213506 and 129680), Academy of Finland (Grant No. 251217 and 285380), the Finnish foundation for Cardiovascular Research, the Sigrid Juselius Foundation and the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) through the BioSHaRE-EU (Biobank Standardisation and Harmonisation for Research Excellence in the European Union) project, grant agreement 261433. Alexandre F. R. Stewart is supported by operating grants from the Canadian Institute of Health Research and Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. Hong-Hee Won is supported by a postdoctoral award from the American Heart Association (15POST23280019).
Theoretical frameworks no longer explain our understanding of the new challenges faced by international development cooperation stakeholders. The end of the Cold War, the political affirmation of "emerging countries", and the growing activism of non-state actors (NGOs, private sector, foundations, academia, etc.) are shattering the traditional paradigm. Furthermore, the increasing importance of private flows alongside the relative stagnation of ODA is redefining traditional donor's role. In this sense, it is necessary to revitalize the analysis to comprehend this international phenomenon.Over the last twenty years, the economic success of emerging economies contrasts with the persisting inequalities and marginalization problems that they shelter. Despite the various challenges that they still face, these "Southern Providers" are increasing their cooperation programs. South-South Cooperation has risen steadily since the year 2000. In 2013 these flows represented a total of 23.5 USD billion, while Official Development Assistance of OECD countries attained 135.1 USD billion during the same year.Inside the so-called "Southern Providers", the scope is often overlooked or ignored. In Mexico for instance, the approval of a law in 2011 implemented a new international development cooperation system. The wide range of projects in Central America (considered by Mexican stakeholders as their "natural influence zone") are formulated to sit within a legal framework, while the law is planned to be extended beyond these type of projects. Given these renewed ambitions, there is a need to better understand what is being done by Mexico in this area. As such, it is estimated that Mexican cooperation flows accounted for 551 USD millions in 2013.In this respect, the current discrepancies between traditional and South-South Cooperation raises several issues. If traditional donors' practices are discussed within the Development Assistance Committee of the OECD, those of Southern Providers remain out of reach. Therefore, the classic international aid architecture is being eroded.Proposing new analytical frameworks has become necessary. In this regard, the international environment following the adoption of the Post-2015 Development Agenda cannot be capitalised upon with outdated concepts. As a central part of this thesis, the concept of "configuration" formulated by Norbert Elias allows us to understand the phenomenon further. In this sense, the analysis of the new configuration of international development cooperation aims to understand a new distribution of power between relevant stakeholders. While the "architecture" needs to be conceived and planned, a "configuration" has a dynamic nature, and is shaped by the players' strategies to increase their power. The result is a configuration defined by the positioning of actors within the common space, and the international scene.This research is structured in three parts. First, it explains the new configuration of international cooperation for development. Second, it analyses Mexico's "systemic responsibilities" as an emerging country towards Central American countries. Finally, it addresses Mexican South-South Cooperation, in the context of the implementation of its new international development cooperation system. ; La gama de conceptos disponibles ya no es suficiente para comprender los nuevos retos que enfrentan los actores que operan dentro de la cooperación internacional para el desarrollo. El fin de la Guerra Fría, la afirmación política de los "países emergentes" y el creciente activismo de los actores no-estatales (ONG, sector privado, fundaciones, universidades, etc…) han modificado la dinámica que regía las relaciones internacionales durante los años 90. Aunado a esto, la importancia de los flujos privados ante el estancamiento de la Ayuda Oficial al Desarrollo (AOD) está redefiniendo el rol de los donantes tradicionales. En este sentido, es necesario proponer nuevos marcos conceptuales que nos permitan analizar este fenómeno internacional.A pesar de los múltiples desafíos en términos de desigualdad y pobreza a los que se enfrentan, los "Cooperantes del Sur" están ampliando sus programas de cooperación. En consecuencia, la Cooperación Sur-Sur ha aumentado en forma constante desde el año 2000. En el 2013, estos flujos representaron un total de 23,5 mil millones de dólares, mientras que la AOD ascendió a 135 mil millones de dólares durante el mismo año. Esta tendencia puede a veces ser percibida por los donantes tradicionales como una amenaza.Al interior de los llamados « Cooperantes del Sur », el alcance de las políticas de cooperación a menudo se pasa por alto o es ignorado. Es el caso de México, en donde la entrada en vigor de una ley en el 2011 estableció un nuevo sistema de cooperación internacional para el desarrollo. Formulada para aumentar la eficacia de los proyectos llevados a cabo en Centroamérica (subregión considerada la "zona natural de influencia" de México), la ley favorece la implementación de proyectos de cooperación en otras partes del mundo. Frente estas ambiciones renovadas, es necesario estudiar las acciones del país en el campo. Como tal, se estima que la cooperación mexicana se elevó a aproximadamente 551 millones de dólares en el 2013.Desde este punto de vista, la actualización de la escisión entre la cooperación tradicional y la Cooperación Sur-Sur plantea varios problemas. Si las prácticas de los donantes tradicionales son discutidas y son objeto de concertación dentro del Comité de Asistencia para el Desarrollo de la OCDE, aquellas relativas a la Cooperación Sur-Sur permanecen fuera de su alcance. Por lo tanto, nos encontramos ante la erosión progresiva de la arquitectura clásica de la ayuda internacional para el desarrollo.Proponer nuevos puntos de referencia se vuelve necesario. A partir de aquí, la coyuntura que resultó de la adopción de la Agenda de Desarrollo post-2015 requiere la adopción de marcos teóricos alternativos. Para esta tesis, la noción de "configuración", formulada por Norbert Elias, nos permite entender el fenómeno desde otro enfoque. El análisis de la "nueva configuración de la cooperación internacional para el desarrollo post-2015", es un intento por comprender la nueva distribución del poder entre los actores que la conforman. La "configuración post-2015" es de naturaleza dinámica, moldeada por las estrategias de los actores que la constituyen, cuyo objetivo es aumentar su margen de maniobra. Se trata en definitiva de una "configuración particular", definida por el posicionamiento de los actores internacionales. ; L'éventail de concepts disponibles aujourd'hui, n'est plus pertinent pour comprendre les nouveaux enjeux auxquels sont confrontés les acteurs qui agissent au sein de la coopération internationale pour le développement. La fin du contexte bipolaire d'où elle est le résultat, l'affirmation politique des « pays émergents » et l'activisme croissant des acteurs non-étatiques (ONG, secteur privé, fondations, universitaires, etc…) bousculent les dynamiques depuis les années 90. Puis, l'importance des flux privés face à la stagnation relative des montants d'APD redéfini le rôle des donateurs traditionnels. Dans ce sens, il est nécessaire de reconsidérer le cadre d'analyse afin de comprendre ce phénomène international. Malgré les nombreux défis en termes d'inégalités et de pauvreté auxquels ils doivent encore faire face, ces « Coopérants du Sud » sont en train d'étendre leurs programmes de coopération. Par conséquent, la Coopération Sud-Sud n'a cessé d'augmenter depuis les années 2000. C'est ainsi qu'en 2013, ces flux ont représenté un total de 23,5 milliards de dollars, tandis que l'Aide Publique au Développement des pays de l'OCDE s'est élevée à 135,1 milliards de dollars pendant la même année. Ce constat peut parfois être perçu par les donateurs traditionnels comme une menace. A l'intérieur de ceux qu'on appelle les « Coopérants du Sud », l'ampleur des politiques de coopération est souvent méconnue voire ignorée. C'est le cas du Mexique, où l'entrée en vigueur d'une loi en 2011 a mis en place un nouveau système de coopération internationale pour le développement. Formulée pour asseoir sur des bases juridiques les projets qu'il mène en Amérique Centrale (considérée par les acteurs politiques mexicains comme leur « zone d'influence naturelle »), cette loi prévoit d'étendre ce type d'actions au-delà. Face à ces ambitions renouvelées, il y a un besoin pour mieux comprendre ce qui est fait par le Mexique dans ce domaine. A ce titre, on estime qu'en 2013 la coopération du Mexique s'élève à environ 551 millions de dollars.De ce point de vue, la mise à jour du clivage entre la coopération traditionnelle et la Coopération Sud-Sud soulève plusieurs problématiques. Si les pratiques des donateurs traditionnels sont discutées et font l'objet d'une concertation au sein du Comité d'Aide au Développement de l'OCDE, celles relatives aux Coopérants du Sud restent hors de sa portée. De ce fait, l'architecture classique de l'aide internationale pour le développement est en train d'être bouleversée. Proposer de nouveaux cadres d'analyse devient alors nécessaire. De ce point de vue, le nouvel environnement issu de l'adoption de l'Agenda de Développement Post-2015 nécessite d'adopter de nouveaux cadres théoriques. Dans cette thèse, la notion de « configuration », formulée par Norbert Elias, nous permet d'appréhender le phénomène autrement. Dans ce sens, analyser la nouvelle configuration de la coopération internationale pour le développement, c'est tenter de comprendre une nouvelle répartition des forces entre tous les acteurs présents. La « configuration » actuelle est de nature dynamique, et elle est modelée par les stratégies des acteurs qui la constituent afin d'augmenter leur marge de manœuvre. Il s'agit d'une configuration qui est définie par la position des acteurs dans l'espace commun qu'est la scène internationale.
