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What explains affective polarization among voters and societal groups? Much of the existing literature focusing on mass political polarization in modern democracies originates in the US, where studies have shown that, while ideological separation has grown, political conflict increasingly reflects social identity divisions rather than policy disagreements, resulting in affective polarization. We focus on explaining such polarization in a multi-party context. Drawing on social identity theory and intergroup threat theory, we hypothesize that individuals who perceive an intergroup threat show stronger intergroup differentiation and increased affective polarization. We analyze the influence of perceived threat on affective polarization drawing on two large-scale representative surveys in Sweden (N = 1429 and 1343). We show that individual-level affective polarization is related to perceived intergroup threats among the voters in both studies, measuring affective polarization using social distance, negative trait attribution, and party like-dislike ratings. ; peerReviewed ; publishedVersion

1. Taarifa na Mapenddekezo ya Tume Kuhusu Mfumo wa Siasa Nchini Tanzania (Engl.: Report and recommendations of the commission on the political system in Tanzania). - 1992. - VIII,165,V S.; 2. Majedwali ya Matokeo ya Uratibu wa Maoni ya Wananchi (Engl.: Tables and statistics on the outcome of the process of opinion collection from the people). - 1992. - VII,125,XII S. : zahlr. Tab.; 3. Baadhi ya Sheria Zinazohitaji Kufutwa au Kufanyiwa Marekebisho (Engl.: Some laws which need to be repealed or rectified). - 1992.- V,103 S

THIS PAPER PROPOSES A METHOD TO MEASURE VOTING DEALING WITH MULTI-PARTY SYSTEMS. USING SIMPLE VECTOR ALGEBRA, THE METHOD EMPLOYS DATA WHICH CONSISTS OF 450 DIVISIONS OF FINNISH PARLIAMENT FROM 1964 TO 1966. AN ATTEMPT IS MADE TO INTERPRET THE RESULTS BY TAKING INTO CONSIDERATION THE SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FINNISH POLITICAL SYSTEM AND THE COUNTRY'S POLITICAL DYNAMICS.

1,4. The commission recommendations: fundamental principles of democracy. - 1992. - 78 S

ABSTRACTMost measures of legislative voting behavior have been created to suit two‐party systems. Many special characteristics of multi‐party systems (e.g. coalition formation) can thus not be taken into account sufficiently. Consequently, there has been an increasing interest in methods that especially fit multi‐party systems. This article proposes one such method and illustrates it visually by simple vector algebra.The method is applied to data which consist of 450 divisions of the Finnish Parliament from 1964 to 1966. An attempt is made to interpret the results by taking into consideration the special characteristics of the Finnish political system and the country's political dynamics. The interpretation also uses Gunnar Sjöblom's classification of the basic goals of political parties. Finally, the observations concerning political coalition theory are condensed into broader generalizations, which, however, need further study.

What explains conflict between various societal groups and polarization among voters? Much of the existing literature focusing on mass political polarization in modern democracies originates in the US, where studies have shown that while ideological separation has grown, political conflict increasingly reflects social identity divisions rather than policy disagreements, resulting in affective polarization. We focus on explaining such polarization in a multi-party context. Drawing on social identity theory and intergroup threat theory, we hypothesize that individuals who perceive an intergroup threat show stronger intergroup differentiation and increased affective polarization. We analyze the influence of perceived threat on affective polarization drawing on two large-scale representative surveys in Sweden (N = 1429 and 1343). We show that individual-level affective polarization is related to perceived intergroup threats among the voters in both studies, measuring affective polarization using social distance, negative trait attribution, and party like-dislike ratings.

This book discusses in full the economic, social, and cultural background of modern Turkey's political system. Beginning with a historical sketch of the problems of the Ottoman Empire that gave rise to the early reform movement, Professor Karpat describes the eventual formation of the Republic and the consequent economic and social changes and the international political developments conditioned by the Second World War. In the central portion of the book he focuses attention on postwar political developments, with special emphasis on the critical period from 1945 to 1950. Originally published in 1959. The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These paperback editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905.