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Author's introductionWhile teaching about racism can be challenging in a number of respects, the concept of 'racism' is not a particularly difficult concept to teach or to learn. Controversies occur primarily over how or when the concept should be applied, rather than over its basic meaning. The situation can be quite different for extensions of the concept of racism, including 'institutional racism' and a variety of other new racisms. It can often be difficult to convey to students, or even to understand oneself, exactly what authors are referring to by such terms. Addressing how or why the terms are confusing and controversial can potentially add to the confusion and controversy. While I have suggested in the past that a clear understanding of institutional racism will involve understanding the confusions or controversies surrounding the term, this type of pedagogy is not always effective or appreciated. Instructors should carefully consider whether to address institutional racism in undergraduate courses, and if so, how to make the course material as accessible as possible, including time for fielding questions. My own coverage of institutional racism with undergraduates has been motivated in part because textbooks raise the issue in such a manner as appeals to some students, but without effectively defining and explaining the meaning and significance of the term.In my experience, it is very helpful to illustrate the institutional nature of institutional racism with a variety of examples of social institutions which are implicated in reproducing racial inequality (e.g., institutions associated with criminal justice, with education, and with real estate). It is also very helpful to emphasize that institutional racism is claimed most often when no direct racism is apparent. Although slavery was a racist institution, references to institutional racism frequently mean to draw attention to more indirect forms of racism, in contemporary society. Although institutional leaders or staff may be racist, many authors distinguish between the problem of individual racism in institutional contexts ('bad apples') and the problem of institutional racism, which is more subtle and more pervasive. So the concept 'institutional racism' is frequently meant to refer to something more specific than racist institutions, and also something more specific than racism within institutions, getting at the role of many social institutions in the reproduction of racial inequality by means that can appear quite professional and race‐neutral and impersonal.It is important to emphasize to students that they look in any particular source for what the author has to say about the meaning and significance of the term 'institutional racism', or related terms for new racisms. Unfortunately, many authors can employ such terms without clearly addressing their meaning or significance. For students who are up to the challenge, it can be quite effective to start by distinguishing the conventional individualist understanding of racism as a type of belief or motive, from institutional disparate impact by race, the latter defined simply in terms of an institution's unequal racial outcomes (unequal graduation rates, unequal arrest rates, etc.). While institutional disparate impact can be caused by racism, in the conventional sense of racist beliefs or motives, there are other potential explanations for institutional disparate impact on racial minorities, whether in terms of social attributes which can be highly correlated with race, such as family wealth, or in terms of differential rates of behavior across racial categories, as is the case with robbery in the contemporary USA (as acknowledged by a variety of critical race scholars, in light of pronounced statistical differences). Once one has communicated that institutional disparate impact by race may be, but is not necessarily, caused by racist beliefs or motives among institutional leadership or staff, the concept of institutional racism can be introduced. Essentially, the concept of institutional racism is defined in such a manner, for example, by reference to racial inequalities in institutional outcomes, as to blur the distinctions between racism and disparate impact. In this way, institutional disparate impact is reconceived as a new type of racism, putting aside questions about what is going on in the institutions to produce disparate impact, and frequently dismissing appearances of professional personnel and color‐blind policies as misleading or irrelevant. For courses in the social sciences and in law, especially, it can be very effective to suggest that many important questions about the nature of the people and the processes which produce disparate impacts are displaced by the way institutional racism is defined or inferred. By contrast, social science should be interested in studying what is going on in these institutions to produce or reproduce racial inequalities for citizens or clients, and legal scholarship should be asking about legal standards of proof, which often address questions of intent which are not addressed by claims of institutional racism.Focus questionsWhat does 'institutional racism' mean?How is 'institutional racism' different from more conventional and older understandings of racism?Is the term 'institutional racism' useful for the purposes of social criticism?Is the term 'institutional racism' useful for the purposes of social science?Author recommendsCarmichael, Stokely and Charles Hamilton. 1967. Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America. New York, NY: Random House.This is the original inspiration of the institutional racism literature and influential more generally on the literature addressing 'new racisms', especially the first chapter, which remains an engaging and relevant discussion despite being dated in some respects.Cashmore, Ellis. 1996. Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations 4th ed. New York, NY: Routledge.This provides succinct entries on a variety of relevant terms, including a very respectable entry on 'institutional racism'. It is potentially useful for students and/or as reference material for course/lecture preparation.Feagin, Joe, and Clairece Feagin. 1986. Discrimination American Style: Institutional Racism and Sexism 2nd ed. Malabar, FL: Krieger.This work addresses both institutional racism and sexism, and with substantial discussion of multiple institutional contexts. The second chapter, on institutionalized discrimination, provides one of the most sophisticated social–scientific statements on institutional racism.Leach, Colin. 2005. 'Against the Notion of a "New Racism" '. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology 15: 432–445.This article smartly challenges the conventional wisdom that there is a marked historical discontinuity between 'old racism' and 'new racism', and also goes beyond the conventional focus on one national context, suggesting the need for a more historically informed and comparative understanding of racism.Marger, Martin. 2007. Social Inequality: Patterns and Processes 4th ed. McGraw Hill.This textbook provides coverage of social inequality generally, including relations between different social dimensions of inequality. There are two chapters covering racial/ethnic differentiation and racial/ethnic stratification. Importantly, this text covers issues which go well beyond race but are essential for understanding racial inequality, such as stratification and social mobility, and ideology and the legitimation of inequality. Marger's coverage is noteworthy for being both accessible in style and reliable in substance. McGraw Hill can customize textbooks as well through Primis Online (e.g., by publishing versions with only the chapters you will assign, or mixing selected content from different textbooks; e.g., from Marger's text and Newman's text discussed below), often with significant savings, making it more practical to assign readings from multiple sources.Miles, Robert. 1989. Racism. New York, NY: Routledge.This succinct book includes one of the most notable critical discussions of the concept 'institutional racism', as well as providing an important critical perspective linking racism to class relations and capitalism.Newman, David. 2007. Identities and Inequalities: Exploring the Intersections of Race, Class, Gender and Sexuality. New York: McGraw‐Hill.This is a noteworthy textbook in social inequalities, with a discussion of institutional discrimination (pp. 181–184) which is substantive but accessible for undergraduates.Smith, Robert. 1995. Racism in the Post‐Civil Rights Era: Now You See It, Now You Don't. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Smith provides one of the more sustained and thoughtful discussions of institutional racism in the last generation of scholarship, including crucial attention to matters of class as well as race, and examples across many institutional contexts in the USA.Tonry, Michael. Malign Neglect: Race, Crime, and Punishment in America. 1995. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.This book may be of interest as illustrating a critical analysis of institutional disparate impact upon racial minorities, in a manner that attends to important questions of policy analysis frequently overlooked in the 'new racism' literature. Tonry suggests, for example, that the disparate impact of US criminal justice policies upon African Americans is often due more to malign neglect than purposeful discrimination. In this manner, Tonry attends to the same type of problem identified in the new racism literature, namely institutional disparate impact upon racial minorities, but with more attention to what drives institutional policies and practices, and how exactly the relevant institutions and policymakers might be culpable even if racial disparate impact is unintentional. Such an analysis arguably makes for more illuminating, compelling and constructive critical analysis.Video resourcesThe Public Broadcasting Service sells a three‐part documentary from California Newsreel titled 'Race: The Power of an Illusion.' The first 'volume' deals especially with the science of racial categories, the second with American history and society through the 19th century, and the third with 20th century American history and society. Each is just under 1 hour in length. The series is complemented by a very useful companion website (see below) which includes transcripts of the videos, among many other resources. The third 'volume', while not addressing the concept of institutional racism specifically, provides a very accessible and effective lesson about the relevance of race for understanding social inequality in recent US history and society. For purposes of addressing institutional racism, specifically, course instructors may want to build on the third video's coverage of the correlation between racial and class inequalities, including the inter‐generational reproduction of inequalities. This would be an opportunity to discuss the many social disadvantages related to class position and family wealth, and whether disadvantages of an economic nature, which apply to many poor whites and don't apply to many middle class blacks, are examples of 'institutional racism'. Specific institutions and institutional policies are also illustrated, especially immigration and citizenship laws which affected, e.g., South Asian and Japanese immigrants to the USA, and financial and real estate practices of red‐lining and blockbusting, and to a lesser extent 'urban renewal', which have affected African Americans. With respect to real estate, the third video facilitates a discussion comparing different types of racial disadvantage associated with quite different institutional contexts, including blatant racial exclusion in a large suburban housing development, and a variety of practices (red‐lining, blockbusting, white flight) which can have financial rationales or motives while nevertheless reproducing racial inequalities and segregation.Online materialsMost on‐line materials on institutional racism are useful only as examples of common usage, and are susceptible to the same criticisms noted in the article, 'The Neglected Social Psychology of Institutional Racism'.One useful resource which addresses a variety of issues relevant to racism, although not the issue of institutional racism specifically, is the companion web‐site to the three‐part documentary by California Newsreel, 'Race: The Power of an Illusion', made available by the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS; http://www.pbs.org/race/000_General/000_00‐Home.htm).This site links to a wealth of background readings, which are divided into three categories: science, history, and society, roughly corresponding to the three 'volumes' of the video series, respectively. Generally, readings from the science section can be used to discredit the belief that racial classifications are biological in nature, readings from the history section can be used to instruct students on how to understand racial classifications as historical and social constructions of a political, legal, and ideological nature, and readings in the society section can be used to illustrate the role of a variety of American institutions in causing and perpetuating racial inequality, above and beyond issues of individual racism.Note
* Correspondence address: Kent State University. Email: tjberard@alumni.reed.edu

"El proyecto de investigación "Cuando las y los jóvenes participan: una mirada a sus problemáticas", presenta el proceso y los resultados de una intervención realizada con estudiantes de nivel secundaria, en el que se describen y analizan los efectos de la implementación de un proyecto participativo. El proyecto utilizó la metodología del Aprendizaje Basado en Servicio (APS) la cual impulsó la participación de las y los jóvenes, dándoles voz y posibilitando que construyeran en colectivo el conocimiento de su realidad, influyendo en su involucramiento para así permitirles identificar, ordenar, jerarquizar y priorizar los problemas y obstáculos que les aquejan e impiden su desarrollo, brindándoles herramientas que les hicieran repensarse como sujetos de derechos, para que posteriormente propusieran e implementaran alternativas de solución dirigidas a su comunidad, detonando así ciudadanías juveniles que redunden en procesos democráticos, autónomos y solidarios. Los resultados muestran que las principales problemáticas identificadas por las y los jóvenes participantes versan sobre el ejercicio de su sexualidad. Mucho se ha discutido respecto a ello, sin embargo hasta el momento no se han encontrado soluciones o alternativas ni sociales, ni políticas, ni educativas para prevenir o por lo menos disminuir dichas problemáticas. A nivel educativo se tienen grandes retos para enfrentar este tema en el aula, que van desde un currículo deficiente, la falta de formación docente, la negación, el miedo o el poco interés institucional, lo cual ha tenido repercusiones negativas en la población juvenil, por lo que este proyecto plantea como alternativa de solución la implementación de proyectos participativos que les garanticen a las y los jóvenes igualdad de derechos y oportunidades." ; "The research project ""When young people participate: a look at their problems"", presents the process and results of an intervention carried out with secondary school students, in which the effects of the implementation of a project are described and analyzed. The project used the methodology of Service-Based Learning (APS) which promoted the participation of young people, giving them a voice and enabling them to collectively build their knowledge of their reality, influencing their involvement in order to allow them to identify, order, prioritize and prioritize the problems and obstacles that afflict them and impede their development, providing tools that made them rethink as subjects of rights, so that they could later propose and implement alternative solutions aimed at their community, thus detonating youthful citizenships that result in democratic, autonomous processes and solidarity. The results show that the main problems identified by the young participants are about the exercise of their sexuality. Much has been discussed about it, however so far no solutions have been found or social, or political, or educational alternatives to prevent or at least reduce these problems. At the educational level there are great challenges to face this issue in the classroom, ranging from a deficient curriculum, the lack of teacher training, denial, fear or little institutional interest, which has had negative repercussions on the youth population, so this project raises as an alternative solution the implementation of participatory projects that guarantee young people equal rights and opportunities."

La omisión de las autoridades a sus deberes de gestión ha sido un problema de investigación desde las ciencias sociales, y en particular el derecho, pues es la norma violentada la que nos da un problema de gestión. Ante la omisión de la autoridades, el gobernado se queda en un estado de indefensión que la doctrina no ha estudiado lo suficiente. En la investigación que se realiza en la Maestría en Ciencias Jurídicas de la Facultad de Derecho de la Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, se propone este tema, y se plantea el interés legítimo a través del amparo indirecto tramitado ante un juez de distrito del poder judicial de la federación como la forma en que se pueda "obligar" a la autoridad a dar cumplimiento con su obligación de hacer. Como ejemplos de la inactividad de la autoridad podemos citar de manera muy general el artículo tercero de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, que establece la educación obligatoria para los niveles básico y medio superior de la educación, pero que en la práctica podemos apreciar que no se cumplen dichos mandatos constitucionales. Ahora bien, el problema residen en la forma en que el gobernado ante estas omisiones, pueda por un lado, acreditar que dicha omisión le causa una afectación real, y como llevar esa afectación al terreno judicial, y que la autoridad judicial pueda "obligar" al poder ejecutivo a dar cumplimiento con los mandamientos constitucionales, los problemas de rangos, presupuestos, planes, programas y afectaciones particulares, se tornan interesantes para la investigación. ; The omission of the authorities to their management duties has been a research problem from the social sciences, and in particular the law, since it is the violated norm that gives us a management problem. Faced with the omission of the authorities, the governed remains in a state of defenselessness that the doctrine has not studied enough. In the research that is carried out in the Master in Legal Sciences of the Law School of the Autonomous University of Querétaro, this topic is proposed, and the legitimate interest is raised through the indirect protection processed before a district judge of the judicial power of the federation as the way in which the authority can be "compelled" to comply with its obligation to do. As examples of the inactivity of the authority we can quote in a very general way the third article of the Political Constitution of the United States of Mexico, which establishes compulsory education for the basic and upper secondary levels of education, but which in practice we can appreciate that these constitutional mandates are not met. Now, the problem lies in the way in which the governed before these omissions, can on the one hand, prove that this omission causes a real affectation, and how to take that affectation to the judicial field, and that the judicial authority can "force" the executive power to comply with the constitutional injunctions, the problems of ranges, budgets, plans, programs and particular affectations, become interesting for the investigation.

Many studies have found that countries with union-administered unemployment insurance have higher rates of unionization than countries with state-administered unemployment insurance. With data going further back in history, this paper demonstrates that the introduction of so-called "Ghent systems" had no effect on unionization rates. We argue that the Ghent effect identified by the existing literature came about as a result of increasing state subsidization and benefit generosity in the 1950s and 1960s. Exploring the partisan politics partisan politics of unemployment insurance, we show that progressive Liberals ("Social Liberals") favored Ghent designs while Social Democrats favored state-administered unemployment insurance before the Second World War. We also present some evidence suggesting that Left governments, inheriting Ghent systems that were not of their choosing, promoted state subsidization in the postwar era and thus helped generate the Ghent effect identified by the existing literature.

"En México, a principios del sexenio 2012-2018 se implantaron reformas estructurales, entre las que causaron mayor politización se encuentra la Reforma Educativa por el impacto que tuvo en el Sindicato Nacional de Trabajadores de la Educación (SNTE), gremio constituido desde hace 77 años. Este Sindicato continúa con la titularidad de las relaciones colectivas de trabajo al nivel federal y entidades federativas. Así mismo, dicha institución ha enfrentado cambios tanto en la política federal como en materia educativa, tal es el caso del Acuerdo Nacional para la Modernización de la Educación Básica y Normal (ANMEB) firmado en mayo de 1992, en donde la descentralización representó un riesgo al carácter unitario y nacional del Sindicato, pero no sucedió así, al contrario, este logró fortalecerse durante el periodo de estudio de esta investigación de 1992 al 2013, 21 años de conquistas laborales, profesionales, sociales y políticas. Además, en dicho periodo se implementó la Alianza por la Calidad de la Educación (ACE, 2008), antesala a la reforma estructural en materia educativa en 2013. El objetivo fundamental de esta investigación es estudiar cómo los líderes sindicales llegan a constituirse en sector profesionalizado, al analizar la formación y trayectorias en cargos sindicales (S), técnico-administrativos (TA) y cargos de elección popular (EP) por cualquier partido político."

La degradación y la deforestación son dos procesos que provocan la pérdida de recursos naturales a diversas escalas. Las causas están asociadas a variables sociales, económicas, políticas y ambientales, las cuales han sido ampliamente estudiadas en procesos de deforestación en ecosistemas tropicales. En Baja California Sur, la extracción de recursos forestales maderables es una práctica antigüa y de subsistencia para la población rural; sin embargo las causas y efectos están poco documentados. En el presente estudio se evaluó la magnitud y causas asociadas a la extracción de estos recursos, como un proceso de degradación en la Cuenca San José del Cabo, B.C.S. A partir de los muestreos en campo se registraron 21 especies cortadas (tocones) y/o podadas (ramas) empleadas para construcción y combustible, 43% pertenecen a la familia Leguminosae. La densidad fue de 49 tocones/ha y 21 individuos podados/ha. La especie más cortada fue Senna atomaria y podada (ramas) Tecoma stans. Las causas de extracción se obtuvieron con Modelos de Regresión Lineal Múltiple, de 21 variables analizadas. La posición geográfica, pendiente, exposición y tenencia de la tierra fueron las variables asociadas a la corta (F4,82 = 8.3170, p<.000, y R2 =.28). Para la poda fueron la posición geográfica, pendiente, tenencia de la tierra y número de viviendas que cocinan con leña y gas (F4,82 = 12.61, p<.000, y R2 =.43). El consumo de leña en la región se estimó en 110 kg/rancho/mes, esta madera proviene principalmente de madera muerta. Del análisis de densidad de especies forestales maderables útiles en pie se obtuvo un total de 649 ind/ha, variando considerablemente entre las especies, lo que permiten concluir que para la mayoría de las especies maderables útiles la extracción de recursos forestales maderables es menor que la disponibilidad, así mismo las variables asociadas indican que la extracción está en función de la distribución de los recursos, bajas pendientes y de la tenencia de la tierra. ; Degradation and deforestation lead to the loss of natural resources on different scales. The causes are related to social, economic, political, and environmental variables, which have been widely studied in processes of deforestation in tropical ecosystem. Extraction of forest resources is a subsistence industry, a traditional practice among the rural populations of Baja California Sur. Because this activity is not well documented, this study evaluated the magnitude and causes associated with extraction of these resources in the San Jose del Cabo drainage basin in the state. We recorded 21 species of cut and pruned trees and shrubs used for construction and fuel, 43% of these species belonging to the Leguminosae family. We estimated a density of 49 stumps/ha and 21 pruned trees/ha. The most frequently cut tree (stump) was Senna atomaria and the most frequently pruned plant (branches) was Tecoma stans. The factors associated with extraction were obtained with linear multiple regression models of 21 variables. Geographic position, slope, exposure, and land tenure were associated with cutting (F4,82= 8.3170, p<.000, and R2 =0.28). To pruning, the important variables were geographic position, slope, land tenure, and number of houses cooking with firewood and gas (F4,82 = 12.61, p<.000, and R2 =0.43). Estimated consumption of firewood was 110 kg firewood/farm/month, which principally came from dead wood. From the analysis of density of living timber trees and shrubs, we estimated 649 ind/ha, which varied among species. The results allowed us to conclude that, for most of the exploited species, extraction is lower than availability. Associated variables related to causes of extraction are the distribution of the individual trees and shrubs, gentler slopes, and land tenure.

Resumen en español: "En este trabajo analizamos el proceso de innovación en la economía campesina rural. Este proceso no necesariamente es generado por la fuerza de conocimiento y tecnología occidental, sino por la misma dinámica cultural, económica y política de la sociedad rural. Se discute dos lógicas y formas de entender la innovación rural: la innovación con base social y cultural de los campesinos, y la innovación con base científica y tecnológica occidental. El enfoque metodológico utilizado fue la teoría fundamentada, con carácter inductivo y participativo en el proceso de diseño y ejecución de proyectos de diversificación productiva en comunidades rurales de Oxchuc, Chiapas. " ; Resumen en inglés: "In this article we analyze the processes of innovation in a rural peasant economy. This process is not necessarily generated by the impulse of Western knowledge and technology, but rather by rural society's own cultural, economical and political dynamics. Two logics and forms of understanding rural innovation are discussed: peasants' social and culturally-based innovation, and Western scientific and technologically-based innovation. The methodological approach is Grounded Theory, with an inductive and participative character in the process involving productive diversification projects in rural communities of Oxchuc, Chiapas. "

Resumen en español: "En este trabajo analizamos el proceso de innovación en la economía campesina rural. Este proceso no necesariamente es generado por la fuerza de conocimiento y tecnología occidental, sino por la misma dinámica cultural, económica y política de la sociedad rural. Se discute dos lógicas y formas de entender la innovación rural: la innovación con base social y cultural de los campesinos, y la innovación con base científica y tecnológica occidental. El enfoque metodológico utilizado fue la teoría fundamentada, con carácter inductivo y participativo en el proceso de diseño y ejecución de proyectos de diversificación productiva en comunidades rurales de Oxchuc, Chiapas. " ; Resumen en inglés: "In this article we analyze the processes of innovation in a rural peasant economy. This process is not necessarily generated by the impulse of Western knowledge and technology, but rather by rural society's own cultural, economical and political dynamics. Two logics and forms of understanding rural innovation are discussed: peasants' social and culturally-based innovation, and Western scientific and technologically-based innovation. The methodological approach is Grounded Theory, with an inductive and participative character in the process involving productive diversification projects in rural communities of Oxchuc, Chiapas. "

Esta investigación presenta una propuesta de política pública eléctrica basada en la aplicación de un mecanismo que provee incentivos para la inversión en expansión de redes en el sistema eléctrico de la provincia de Ontario. Tal mecanismo combina tanto un enfoque de mercado como uno regulatorio. Se basa en el rebalanceo (compensación) de una tarifa en dos partes dentro de un contexto de mercado eléctrico mayorista a la par de la fijación de precios nodales. La expansión de la red se lleva a través de subastas de derechos financieros de transmisión para las líneas congestionadas. El mecanismo se prueba para una red de transmisión simplificada de diez zonas eléctricas interconectadas, diez nodos, once líneas y setenta y ocho generadores en la provincia de Ontario. La simulación se realiza en un escenario de hora pico y no pico. Considerando ponderadores de Laspeyres, los resultados muestran que los precios convergen al costo marginal de generación, la renta de congestión disminuye, y el bienestar social se incrementa. Con esto, los gobiernos reducirán los subsidios y transferencias al servicio público eléctrico y podrán redistribuir el gasto social.

Resumen en español: "Con este trabajo intentamos reflexionar sobre el proceso migratorio, a partir de la información empírica recabada recientemente con los desplazados. Precisamente ahora, cuando vemos incrementarse los movimientos poblacionales con destino al norte —como una respuesta indígena y rural— ante la falta de oportunidades en el campo o la ciudad. La migración la encontramos relacionada con procesos que están determinando la redefinición de la identidad de los actores sociales y la comunalidad indígena. Es decir, entre los factores que están presentes en la explicación de los movimientos de población en la región, destacan procesos de colonización y lucha por la tierra, expulsiones de familias de sus comunidades de origen por su afiliación religiosa, y los conflictos políticos y militares. " ; Resumen en inglés: "This article reflects on the migration process in the light of the empirical data from displaced population in this areas. Precisely today, when we observe an increasing migration towards the North —as a rural and indigineous response— due to the lack of opportunities in the country and cities. Migration is closely related to processes which are determining the redefinition of identity of social actors and i ndigineous community. That is, among the factors explaining movements in population the most outstanding are: the processes of colonization the struggle for land, expulsions of families and of their communities of origin for their religious affiliation, and political and military conflicts. "

Resumen en español: "Con este trabajo intentamos reflexionar sobre el proceso migratorio, a partir de la información empírica recabada recientemente con los desplazados. Precisamente ahora, cuando vemos incrementarse los movimientos poblacionales con destino al norte —como una respuesta indígena y rural— ante la falta de oportunidades en el campo o la ciudad. La migración la encontramos relacionada con procesos que están determinando la redefinición de la identidad de los actores sociales y la comunalidad indígena. Es decir, entre los factores que están presentes en la explicación de los movimientos de población en la región, destacan procesos de colonización y lucha por la tierra, expulsiones de familias de sus comunidades de origen por su afiliación religiosa, y los conflictos políticos y militares. " ; Resumen en inglés: "This article reflects on the migration process in the light of the empirical data from displaced population in this areas. Precisely today, when we observe an increasing migration towards the North —as a rural and indigineous response— due to the lack of opportunities in the country and cities. Migration is closely related to processes which are determining the redefinition of identity of social actors and i ndigineous community. That is, among the factors explaining movements in population the most outstanding are: the processes of colonization the struggle for land, expulsions of families and of their communities of origin for their religious affiliation, and political and military conflicts. "