Suchergebnisse

The words "there is nothing certain in this world except death and taxes" proclaimed by Benjamin Franklin do not lose meaning after more than two centuries. Let us leave the problem of death or life to another publication and discuss taxes. A bit different from usual. I will disappoint a reader, an analyst or a government representative who sees taxes together through the prism of the base and the tariff, but does not ask the question "why?". For decades, the psychological motives of consumers have been discovered and established as a way to economic science. And taxes are not an exception here, but there is little due cause, especially in practice. And unnecessarily, because the work here would make it possible to enrich the arum of the state — all of us

The words "there is nothing certain in this world except death and taxes" proclaimed by Benjamin Franklin do not lose meaning after more than two centuries. Let us leave the problem of death or life to another publication and discuss taxes. A bit different from usual. I will disappoint a reader, an analyst or a government representative who sees taxes together through the prism of the base and the tariff, but does not ask the question "why?". For decades, the psychological motives of consumers have been discovered and established as a way to economic science. And taxes are not an exception here, but there is little due cause, especially in practice. And unnecessarily, because the work here would make it possible to enrich the arum of the state — all of us

The conservation of anatomical pieces goes back five thousand years, beyond ancient Egypt for political and religious purposes. In the 12th century, with the appearance of the University, new techniques were implemented as the corpse became a necessary tool for teaching. During the last two centuries, since the year of its discovery in 1867, formaldehyde has been used as the main source for conservation. However, several years ago, anatomy laboratories around the world have resorted to new techniques and mixtures in order to reduce its use and its reported negative effects on health, such as cancer. This work shows the obtaining of anatomical pieces, by means of the Chilean Conservative Fixative Solution (SFCCh), its process, analysis and experience are described in the following pages.

Abstract
Estimates of historical workers' annual incomes suffer from the fundamental problem that they are inferred from day wage rates without knowing how many days of work day-labourers undertook per year. We circumvent the problem by building an income series based on the payments made to workers employed by the year rather than by the day. Our data suggest that earlier annual income estimates based on day wages overestimate medieval labour incomes but underestimate labour incomes during the Industrial Revolution. Our revised estimates indicate that modern economic growth began more than two centuries earlier than commonly thought and was driven by an 'Industrious Revolution'. They also suggest that the current global downturn in labour's share is not exceptional but fits within the range of historical fluctuations.

This special issue of the journal Asian studies is dedicated to the Sinicization of Marxism as a paradigm for research on Marxist philosophy in contemporary China. There are several reasons for choosing this topic, and are by no means limited to the fact that just a few months ago, on May 5th 2018, we celebrated Karl Marx's bicentenary. As far as Marx in our time is concerned, my impression is that over these two centuries he was maturing, a bit like a noble cheese or a vintage wine not appropriate for Dionysian parties or guzzling at the firing lines. Rather, he is a stimulating companion for profound thought about the meanings of modernity and especially of human emancipation, an issue which remains of significance for the contemporary world.

Introduction to a volume of RCC Perspectives, edited by V. Taylor and H. Chappells. The volume offers case studies of energy transitions within everyday environments over the last two centuries, from Europe to South Asia, to North and Latin America. Together, the contributions in this issue address the spatial, material, and social dimensions of energy transitions and foreground energy users as meaningful agents of change. But energy transitions have typically proved to be a slow and uneven process, often fraught with contention, and there is still much to learn about how "energyscapes" are politicized and culturally nuanced. This volume proposes that an understanding of domestic energy transitions of the past will better equip us to navigate the uncertainties of a lower-carbon future.

Our understanding of the Holy roman empire has been transformed in the last fifty years. the older, 'Borussian interpretation' dismissed the empire in its last two centuries as moribund and doomed to be supplanted by dynamic, centralizing 'power states' like Prussia. A succession of historians since the 1960s have identified how imperial institutions performed important coordinating functions, repelled external attacks, resolved internal conflicts, and safeguarded an impressive and surprisingly robust range of individual and corporate rights for ordinary inhabitants. More recently, some have suggested this positive reappraisal presents the old empire as a blueprint for the German Federal republic or the european Union. Others prefer to characterize the empire as, at best, only 'partially modernized' and still defective in comparison with most other, especially western european countries.

Abstract
Joseph Rosh ha-Seder was a renowned copyist and Talmud scholar in 12th century Egypt. His personal hand-lists of quotations and notes, found in the Cairo Genizah, serve to reconstruct the outline of many of his literary projects. This article presents an analysis of one such fragment, containing several nonconsecutive Talmud commentaries which may be attributed to the geonic academies in Baghdad. Among the questions raised to guide future research are: To what end did these commentaries serve the compiler? What can be learned from the language of the commentaries (Judeo-Arabic as opposed to Hebrew)? What can this fragment tell us about the proliferation of geonic commentaries over the course of two centuries? What can this fragment tell us of Joseph's own literary capabilities and plans?

This paper draws on the narrative of a Samburu woman, whom we call Sasha, from northern Kenya. She has been living with recto- and vesico-vaginal fistula for more than ten years. Her homeland is characterized by abject poverty, patriarchy and traditional practices involving witchcraft, which is intertwined with the teachings of Christian evangelist missionaries that traverse the last two centuries. Sasha's research interview offered representations of the broader social and political aspects affecting women with vaginal fistula and how this influences their lived experiences. We suggest that this condition is more than a biomedical issue, which we explain through our interpretive feminist analysis of Sasha's story. An African feminist lens enables attention towards the influences of patriarchy, African ethnicities and underdevelopment of the African continent.

The paper dwells on the role of the regional national non-governmental organization in forming of civil society in Russian Federation and their place in the system of regional relationships and political practices in last two centuries. The author analyses citizen's participation in national non-governmental organizations as a result of a possibility of realization of a social and cultural interests and as a mechanism of interaction with government body, educational and cultural institutions ; В статье рассматривается роль региональных национальных общественных организаций в формировании гражданского общества в Российской Федерации. Определяется роль и место национальных общественных организаций в системе региональных связей и политической практике последних двух десятилетий. Участие граждан в национальных общественных объединениях рассматривается как возможность реализации общественных и культурных интересов и как механизм взаимодействия с органами власти, образовательными и культурными учреждениями

Does the enumeration of ethnic, racial, and/or religious categories on national household censuses increase the likelihood of conflict? The authors propose a theory of intergroup relations that emphasizes the conflictual effects of institutionalizing boundaries between social identity groups. The article investigates the relationship between counting and various forms of conflict with an original, global data set that classifies the type of enumeration used in more than one thousand census questionnaires in more than 150 countries spanning more than two centuries. Through a series of cross-national statistical analyses, the authors find a robust association between enumeration of ethnic cleavages on the census and various forms of competition and conflict, including violent ethnic civil war. The plausibility of the theory is further demonstrated through case study analysis of religious conflict in India.

Two centuries of Greek debt crises highlight the pitfalls of relying on external financing. Since its independence in 1829, the Greek government has defaulted four times on its external creditors - with striking historical parallels. Each crisis is preceded by a period of heavy borrowing from foreign private creditors. As repayment difficulties arise, foreign governments step in, help to repay the private creditors, and demand budget cuts and adjustment programs as a condition for the official bailout loans. Political interference from abroad mounts and a prolonged episode of debt overhang and financial autarky follows. We conclude that these cycles of external debt and dependence are a perennial theme of Greek history, as well as in other countries that have been "addicted" to foreign savings.

В статье рассматривается роль региональных национальных общественных организаций в формировании гражданского общества в Российской Федерации. Определяется роль и место национальных общественных организаций в системе региональных связей и политической практике последних двух десятилетий. Участие граждан в национальных общественных объединениях рассматривается как возможность реализации общественных и культурных интересов и как механизм взаимодействия с органами власти, образовательными и культурными учреждениями. ; The paper dwells on the role of the regional national non-governmental organization in forming of civil society in Russian Federation and their place in the system of regional relationships and political practices in last two centuries. The author analyses citizen's participation in national non-governmental organizations as a result of a possibility of realization of a social and cultural interests and as a mechanism of interaction with government body, educational and cultural institutions.

Until quite recently, Latin American countries widely assumed that legal discrimination against ethno-racial groups was a practice that took place elsewhere but not in the region. Somehow, the articulations between law and racial inequality remained successfully covered for almost two centuries. By tracing how such articulations could be hidden for so long, this article changes the focus on domestic legislation and offers a legal transnational approach for the analysis of the multi-scale intercrossing of racial discourses through law. It aims to elucidate the chronological and epistemic concurrence between different legal projects of racial stratification operating in different world areas and to expose the crucial role that law played in the racialization of society under colonial rule, and the continuities of such role in Latin America until the twentieth century.