Suchergebnisse

Problem setting. The formation and development of Ukraine as a democratic state, its integration into the world and European structures requires a rethinking of the nature, place and role of public administration under the current conditions at the enterprises of the transport and road complex. The legislation of Ukraine defines the purpose and tasks of the public administration in the field of transport on the principles enshrined in the Constitution of Ukraine and sufficiently covered in the legal literature.Along with fuel and energy and raw material complexes, metallurgy, the military industry, transport is a sector of the economy, critical in terms of meeting public needs and ensuring the sustainable operation of the economic complex as a whole. This is reflected in the following:– implementation of transport projects directly touches on the issues of development of productive powers and populated areas, use of natural resources, expenditures of budgets of all levels. Transport infrastructure is one of the most fundraising sectors of the national economy;– transport is objectively an area of increased technogenic risk and increased vulnerability to terrorist attacks. Transport is the second most important source of environmental pollution after energy and one of the main consumers of insoluble natural resources;– decision in the field of transport development is one of the priorities of the state;– wrong decisions in the field of transport development can lead to irreversible negative consequences, disturb the stability of socio-economic development and have threats to the national security of Ukraine.Therefore, the coverage of the main priorities of the national public administration in the field of transport are and will remain relevant.Recent research and publications analysis. Scientific works of V. Andresyuk, L. Artyushin, A. Galchinsky, B. Gurne, Zh. Ziter, O. Ignatenko, V. Lisnichi, A. Lozhachevskaya, G. Mishchenko, V. Opryshko, M. Onishchuk, I. Pakhomov, Y. Paschenko, V. Razvadovsky, V. Ryzhikh, A. Savchenko, A. Semenchenko, V. Skuratovsky, D. Timokhi, A. Tkachenko, V. Yurchishin are important for the study of the problem of state control of transport systems.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. A necessary prerequisite for the reliable and efficient functioning of the transport industry is the awareness of the importance of transport for the national security of Ukraine, as well as for the interests of society and every citizen, by representatives of the state authorities and the public. In the difficult conditions of world economic processes in Ukraine and European integration, effective public administration of the transport industry is needed, which would take into account geopolitical aspects in the country, the features of the industry and its role in the processes of economic and social transformations, and would enable its development, ensure competitiveness. That is why the issues of public administration in the transport sector need improvement.Paper main body. The state management of transport activity is carried out by conducting and implementing economic (tax, financial, credit, tariff, investment) and social policies, including provision of subsidies for passenger transportation. The basis of public administration of the transport system is a unified transport policy of Ukraine, which must be closely coordinated with the strategy of socio-economic development of the country.Governing bodies exert managerial influence through legal methods that understand the way management functions are performed in accordance with the requirements of applicable law and legal doctrine. The organizational and legal basis of public transport management is the system of state authorities and local self-government, endowed with managerial competence for transport of Ukraine.Management of the transport system of Ukraine is carried out on a branch-territorial basis. Structural reforms in transport aim at developing and improving market relations, reducing the direct involvement of the state in transport and reducing the monopoly sector.The main purpose of public administration is to exercise executive power, in the process of which the tasks, functions and interests of the state are realized. However, direct management of economic, socio-cultural and administrative-political activities is characterized by administrative activities.The state transport management of Ukraine is based on relevant legal framework, which is divided into regulatory and organizational law.Public administration in the field of transport is carried out by: the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, local Councils of People's Deputies and other specially authorized bodies in accordance with their competence.The Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, the activity of which is directed and coordinated by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, is the main body in the system of central bodies of executive power, which ensures the implementation of the state policy in the field of transport, in the sphere of using the Ukrainian airspace and navigation and hydrographic navigation.Let's briefly consider the main priorities of public administration in the main modes of transport.The State Railway Administration (Ukrzaliznytsia) is a public administration body for public use and a legal entity and reports to the Ministry of Infrastructure.The State Aviation Transport Department (Ukraviatrans) is a public administration body that reports to and acts within the Ministry of Infrastructure.The State Department of Maritime and River Transport (Ukrmorrichflot) is a public administration body in the field of maritime and inland waterway transport, which reports to the Ministry of Infrastructure and operates within it.The State Department of Road Transport (Ukravtotrans) is a public administration body in the field of road transport and operates within and reports to the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine.Public administration in the field of pipeline transport is carried out by the Ministry of Fuel and Energy of Ukraine, as well as local state executive authorities and local self-government bodies within their competence.The governing bodies may exercise only those powers which are within their competence. In the process of exercising their competence, management bodies have the right to issue normative acts, which can be attributed to a legal type of management activity.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. 1. The priorities of public administration in the field of transport are the improvement (reorganization) of organizational-power, executive-administrative activity of public administration bodies.2. The priority functions of public administration in the field of transport are the external manifestation of the properties of the management entity.3. The priority areas of the national public administration system in the field of transport are to improve and align the basic functions of the transport industry with European standards.The prospects for further exploration are the improvement of public administration in all modes of transport, taking into account the entry into the European transport system. Problem setting. The formation and development of Ukraine as a democratic state, its integration into the world and European structures requires a rethinking of the nature, place and role of public administration under the current conditions at the enterprises of the transport and road complex. The legislation of Ukraine defines the purpose and tasks of the public administration in the field of transport on the principles enshrined in the Constitution of Ukraine and sufficiently covered in the legal literature.Along with fuel and energy and raw material complexes, metallurgy, the military industry, transport is a sector of the economy, critical in terms of meeting public needs and ensuring the sustainable operation of the economic complex as a whole. This is reflected in the following:– implementation of transport projects directly touches on the issues of development of productive powers and populated areas, use of natural resources, expenditures of budgets of all levels. Transport infrastructure is one of the most fundraising sectors of the national economy;– transport is objectively an area of increased technogenic risk and increased vulnerability to terrorist attacks. Transport is the second most important source of environmental pollution after energy and one of the main consumers of insoluble natural resources;– decision in the field of transport development is one of the priorities of the state;– wrong decisions in the field of transport development can lead to irreversible negative consequences, disturb the stability of socio-economic development and have threats to the national security of Ukraine.Therefore, the coverage of the main priorities of the national public administration in the field of transport are and will remain relevant.Recent research and publications analysis. Scientific works of V. Andresyuk, L. Artyushin, A. Galchinsky, B. Gurne, Zh. Ziter, O. Ignatenko, V. Lisnichi, A. Lozhachevskaya, G. Mishchenko, V. Opryshko, M. Onishchuk, I. Pakhomov, Y. Paschenko, V. Razvadovsky, V. Ryzhikh, A. Savchenko, A. Semenchenko, V. Skuratovsky, D. Timokhi, A. Tkachenko, V. Yurchishin are important for the study of the problem of state control of transport systems.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. A necessary prerequisite for the reliable and efficient functioning of the transport industry is the awareness of the importance of transport for the national security of Ukraine, as well as for the interests of society and every citizen, by representatives of the state authorities and the public. In the difficult conditions of world economic processes in Ukraine and European integration, effective public administration of the transport industry is needed, which would take into account geopolitical aspects in the country, the features of the industry and its role in the processes of economic and social transformations, and would enable its development, ensure competitiveness. That is why the issues of public administration in the transport sector need improvement.Paper main body. The state management of transport activity is carried out by conducting and implementing economic (tax, financial, credit, tariff, investment) and social policies, including provision of subsidies for passenger transportation. The basis of public administration of the transport system is a unified transport policy of Ukraine, which must be closely coordinated with the strategy of socio-economic development of the country.Governing bodies exert managerial influence through legal methods that understand the way management functions are performed in accordance with the requirements of applicable law and legal doctrine. The organizational and legal basis of public transport management is the system of state authorities and local self-government, endowed with managerial competence for transport of Ukraine.Management of the transport system of Ukraine is carried out on a branch-territorial basis. Structural reforms in transport aim at developing and improving market relations, reducing the direct involvement of the state in transport and reducing the monopoly sector.The main purpose of public administration is to exercise executive power, in the process of which the tasks, functions and interests of the state are realized. However, direct management of economic, socio-cultural and administrative-political activities is characterized by administrative activities.The state transport management of Ukraine is based on relevant legal framework, which is divided into regulatory and organizational law.Public administration in the field of transport is carried out by: the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, local Councils of People's Deputies and other specially authorized bodies in accordance with their competence.The Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, the activity of which is directed and coordinated by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, is the main body in the system of central bodies of executive power, which ensures the implementation of the state policy in the field of transport, in the sphere of using the Ukrainian airspace and navigation and hydrographic navigation.Let's briefly consider the main priorities of public administration in the main modes of transport.The State Railway Administration (Ukrzaliznytsia) is a public administration body for public use and a legal entity and reports to the Ministry of Infrastructure.The State Aviation Transport Department (Ukraviatrans) is a public administration body that reports to and acts within the Ministry of Infrastructure.The State Department of Maritime and River Transport (Ukrmorrichflot) is a public administration body in the field of maritime and inland waterway transport, which reports to the Ministry of Infrastructure and operates within it.The State Department of Road Transport (Ukravtotrans) is a public administration body in the field of road transport and operates within and reports to the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine.Public administration in the field of pipeline transport is carried out by the Ministry of Fuel and Energy of Ukraine, as well as local state executive authorities and local self-government bodies within their competence.The governing bodies may exercise only those powers which are within their competence. In the process of exercising their competence, management bodies have the right to issue normative acts, which can be attributed to a legal type of management activity.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. 1. The priorities of public administration in the field of transport are the improvement (reorganization) of organizational-power, executive-administrative activity of public administration bodies.2. The priority functions of public administration in the field of transport are the external manifestation of the properties of the management entity.3. The priority areas of the national public administration system in the field of transport are to improve and align the basic functions of the transport industry with European standards.The prospects for further exploration are the improvement of public administration in all modes of transport, taking into account the entry into the European transport system. ; Розглянуто основні пріоритети та роль вітчизняної системи державного управління в галузі транспорту загалом і за основними видами транспорту зокрема. Доведено провідну роль державного управління в галузі транспорту. Визначено пріоритети державного управління в галузі транспорту, його основні функції та напрями.

Problem setting. The formation and development of Ukraine as a democratic state, its integration into the world and European structures requires a rethinking of the nature, place and role of public administration under the current conditions at the enterprises of the transport and road complex. The legislation of Ukraine defines the purpose and tasks of the public administration in the field of transport on the principles enshrined in the Constitution of Ukraine and sufficiently covered in the legal literature.Along with fuel and energy and raw material complexes, metallurgy, the military industry, transport is a sector of the economy, critical in terms of meeting public needs and ensuring the sustainable operation of the economic complex as a whole. This is reflected in the following:– implementation of transport projects directly touches on the issues of development of productive powers and populated areas, use of natural resources, expenditures of budgets of all levels. Transport infrastructure is one of the most fundraising sectors of the national economy;– transport is objectively an area of increased technogenic risk and increased vulnerability to terrorist attacks. Transport is the second most important source of environmental pollution after energy and one of the main consumers of insoluble natural resources;– decision in the field of transport development is one of the priorities of the state;– wrong decisions in the field of transport development can lead to irreversible negative consequences, disturb the stability of socio-economic development and have threats to the national security of Ukraine.Therefore, the coverage of the main priorities of the national public administration in the field of transport are and will remain relevant.Recent research and publications analysis. Scientific works of V. Andresyuk, L. Artyushin, A. Galchinsky, B. Gurne, Zh. Ziter, O. Ignatenko, V. Lisnichi, A. Lozhachevskaya, G. Mishchenko, V. Opryshko, M. Onishchuk, I. Pakhomov, Y. Paschenko, V. Razvadovsky, V. Ryzhikh, A. Savchenko, A. Semenchenko, V. Skuratovsky, D. Timokhi, A. Tkachenko, V. Yurchishin are important for the study of the problem of state control of transport systems.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. A necessary prerequisite for the reliable and efficient functioning of the transport industry is the awareness of the importance of transport for the national security of Ukraine, as well as for the interests of society and every citizen, by representatives of the state authorities and the public. In the difficult conditions of world economic processes in Ukraine and European integration, effective public administration of the transport industry is needed, which would take into account geopolitical aspects in the country, the features of the industry and its role in the processes of economic and social transformations, and would enable its development, ensure competitiveness. That is why the issues of public administration in the transport sector need improvement.Paper main body. The state management of transport activity is carried out by conducting and implementing economic (tax, financial, credit, tariff, investment) and social policies, including provision of subsidies for passenger transportation. The basis of public administration of the transport system is a unified transport policy of Ukraine, which must be closely coordinated with the strategy of socio-economic development of the country.Governing bodies exert managerial influence through legal methods that understand the way management functions are performed in accordance with the requirements of applicable law and legal doctrine. The organizational and legal basis of public transport management is the system of state authorities and local self-government, endowed with managerial competence for transport of Ukraine.Management of the transport system of Ukraine is carried out on a branch-territorial basis. Structural reforms in transport aim at developing and improving market relations, reducing the direct involvement of the state in transport and reducing the monopoly sector.The main purpose of public administration is to exercise executive power, in the process of which the tasks, functions and interests of the state are realized. However, direct management of economic, socio-cultural and administrative-political activities is characterized by administrative activities.The state transport management of Ukraine is based on relevant legal framework, which is divided into regulatory and organizational law.Public administration in the field of transport is carried out by: the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, local Councils of People's Deputies and other specially authorized bodies in accordance with their competence.The Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, the activity of which is directed and coordinated by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, is the main body in the system of central bodies of executive power, which ensures the implementation of the state policy in the field of transport, in the sphere of using the Ukrainian airspace and navigation and hydrographic navigation.Let's briefly consider the main priorities of public administration in the main modes of transport.The State Railway Administration (Ukrzaliznytsia) is a public administration body for public use and a legal entity and reports to the Ministry of Infrastructure.The State Aviation Transport Department (Ukraviatrans) is a public administration body that reports to and acts within the Ministry of Infrastructure.The State Department of Maritime and River Transport (Ukrmorrichflot) is a public administration body in the field of maritime and inland waterway transport, which reports to the Ministry of Infrastructure and operates within it.The State Department of Road Transport (Ukravtotrans) is a public administration body in the field of road transport and operates within and reports to the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine.Public administration in the field of pipeline transport is carried out by the Ministry of Fuel and Energy of Ukraine, as well as local state executive authorities and local self-government bodies within their competence.The governing bodies may exercise only those powers which are within their competence. In the process of exercising their competence, management bodies have the right to issue normative acts, which can be attributed to a legal type of management activity.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. 1. The priorities of public administration in the field of transport are the improvement (reorganization) of organizational-power, executive-administrative activity of public administration bodies.2. The priority functions of public administration in the field of transport are the external manifestation of the properties of the management entity.3. The priority areas of the national public administration system in the field of transport are to improve and align the basic functions of the transport industry with European standards.The prospects for further exploration are the improvement of public administration in all modes of transport, taking into account the entry into the European transport system. Problem setting. The formation and development of Ukraine as a democratic state, its integration into the world and European structures requires a rethinking of the nature, place and role of public administration under the current conditions at the enterprises of the transport and road complex. The legislation of Ukraine defines the purpose and tasks of the public administration in the field of transport on the principles enshrined in the Constitution of Ukraine and sufficiently covered in the legal literature.Along with fuel and energy and raw material complexes, metallurgy, the military industry, transport is a sector of the economy, critical in terms of meeting public needs and ensuring the sustainable operation of the economic complex as a whole. This is reflected in the following:– implementation of transport projects directly touches on the issues of development of productive powers and populated areas, use of natural resources, expenditures of budgets of all levels. Transport infrastructure is one of the most fundraising sectors of the national economy;– transport is objectively an area of increased technogenic risk and increased vulnerability to terrorist attacks. Transport is the second most important source of environmental pollution after energy and one of the main consumers of insoluble natural resources;– decision in the field of transport development is one of the priorities of the state;– wrong decisions in the field of transport development can lead to irreversible negative consequences, disturb the stability of socio-economic development and have threats to the national security of Ukraine.Therefore, the coverage of the main priorities of the national public administration in the field of transport are and will remain relevant.Recent research and publications analysis. Scientific works of V. Andresyuk, L. Artyushin, A. Galchinsky, B. Gurne, Zh. Ziter, O. Ignatenko, V. Lisnichi, A. Lozhachevskaya, G. Mishchenko, V. Opryshko, M. Onishchuk, I. Pakhomov, Y. Paschenko, V. Razvadovsky, V. Ryzhikh, A. Savchenko, A. Semenchenko, V. Skuratovsky, D. Timokhi, A. Tkachenko, V. Yurchishin are important for the study of the problem of state control of transport systems.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. A necessary prerequisite for the reliable and efficient functioning of the transport industry is the awareness of the importance of transport for the national security of Ukraine, as well as for the interests of society and every citizen, by representatives of the state authorities and the public. In the difficult conditions of world economic processes in Ukraine and European integration, effective public administration of the transport industry is needed, which would take into account geopolitical aspects in the country, the features of the industry and its role in the processes of economic and social transformations, and would enable its development, ensure competitiveness. That is why the issues of public administration in the transport sector need improvement.Paper main body. The state management of transport activity is carried out by conducting and implementing economic (tax, financial, credit, tariff, investment) and social policies, including provision of subsidies for passenger transportation. The basis of public administration of the transport system is a unified transport policy of Ukraine, which must be closely coordinated with the strategy of socio-economic development of the country.Governing bodies exert managerial influence through legal methods that understand the way management functions are performed in accordance with the requirements of applicable law and legal doctrine. The organizational and legal basis of public transport management is the system of state authorities and local self-government, endowed with managerial competence for transport of Ukraine.Management of the transport system of Ukraine is carried out on a branch-territorial basis. Structural reforms in transport aim at developing and improving market relations, reducing the direct involvement of the state in transport and reducing the monopoly sector.The main purpose of public administration is to exercise executive power, in the process of which the tasks, functions and interests of the state are realized. However, direct management of economic, socio-cultural and administrative-political activities is characterized by administrative activities.The state transport management of Ukraine is based on relevant legal framework, which is divided into regulatory and organizational law.Public administration in the field of transport is carried out by: the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, local Councils of People's Deputies and other specially authorized bodies in accordance with their competence.The Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, the activity of which is directed and coordinated by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, is the main body in the system of central bodies of executive power, which ensures the implementation of the state policy in the field of transport, in the sphere of using the Ukrainian airspace and navigation and hydrographic navigation.Let's briefly consider the main priorities of public administration in the main modes of transport.The State Railway Administration (Ukrzaliznytsia) is a public administration body for public use and a legal entity and reports to the Ministry of Infrastructure.The State Aviation Transport Department (Ukraviatrans) is a public administration body that reports to and acts within the Ministry of Infrastructure.The State Department of Maritime and River Transport (Ukrmorrichflot) is a public administration body in the field of maritime and inland waterway transport, which reports to the Ministry of Infrastructure and operates within it.The State Department of Road Transport (Ukravtotrans) is a public administration body in the field of road transport and operates within and reports to the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine.Public administration in the field of pipeline transport is carried out by the Ministry of Fuel and Energy of Ukraine, as well as local state executive authorities and local self-government bodies within their competence.The governing bodies may exercise only those powers which are within their competence. In the process of exercising their competence, management bodies have the right to issue normative acts, which can be attributed to a legal type of management activity.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. 1. The priorities of public administration in the field of transport are the improvement (reorganization) of organizational-power, executive-administrative activity of public administration bodies.2. The priority functions of public administration in the field of transport are the external manifestation of the properties of the management entity.3. The priority areas of the national public administration system in the field of transport are to improve and align the basic functions of the transport industry with European standards.The prospects for further exploration are the improvement of public administration in all modes of transport, taking into account the entry into the European transport system. ; Розглянуто основні пріоритети та роль вітчизняної системи державного управління в галузі транспорту загалом і за основними видами транспорту зокрема. Доведено провідну роль державного управління в галузі транспорту. Визначено пріоритети державного управління в галузі транспорту, його основні функції та напрями.

Overall purpose of the study While literature highlights the growing importance of, and opportunities in, emerging markets (Joosub & Coldwell, 2016; Boateng, Wang & Wang, 2017; Oguji & Owusu, 2017), there is also significant research regarding the risks associated with these markets (Khanna & Palepu, 2010; Luiz & Ruplal, 2013). These risks arise from differences in geographies, cultures, institutions, governance, languages, performance and economic structures, making the internationalisation strategies of African multinationals into other African countries complex and challenging. Despite these difficulties, African countries still promote trade within the continent. The 2018 African Continental Free Trade Area agreement, for example, promotes intra-regional trade in order to stimulate economic activity and increase development on the continent. South Africa, being the most developed economy on the continent, seems to be leading in doing business with other African countries, having a number of its home-grown multinationals internationalising on the continent. Success stories such as MTN, Shoprite, SAB Miller and Pick' n Pay have taken their operations into other countries in Africa, however what is not clear is how they have successfully applied their internationalisation strategies. Unlike research by Boateng et al. (2017) on how Chinese multinationals are using mergers and acquisitions as their entry mode, and Buckley's (2018) findings on Indian firms targeting countries with English as their official language, little research has been conducted on how South African companies are expanding outside their national borders. This research thus sought to explore the processes by which South African companies implement their internationalisation strategies into other African countries. Research problem As firms internationalise, they choose markets that are physically and psychically close based on their internationalisation experience. Previous literature shows that larger firms are better able to absorb the initial cost of internationalisation and opt for a higher degree of control (Dunning, 1988), yet not much research have been done on the African continent to explore how companies deal with psychic distance, firm resources and strategic choice in their internationalisation strategies. Studies conducted outside the continent in psychically distant locations show that firms design boundaries to protect their internal resources and capabilities from unintended spill overs, and look for local partner organisations that wield substantial capability to fill voids (Dunning, 1988). In addition, Barney (1991) argued that firms seek to exploit their rare, valuable and inimitable resources to gain a competitive advantage. Psychic distance research has been conducted on Chinese (Boateng, et al., 2017) and Indian firms (Buckley, 2018), however in Africa, where the cultural, institutional, economic and geographic distances are huge, not much evidence is available. There is also a variety of research on firm resources and strategic choices for Chinese and Indian firms, including how they are using leadership, technical talent, cheap labour (Contractor, 2013), financial resources, government to government relationships (Cheru & Obi, 2011) and home knowledge to enter African markets (Khanna & Palepu, 2010). As some South African businesses have failed in their internationalisation strategies on the continent, it is thus important to understand how those companies that have succeeded, did so. Design of the study A multi-method sequential explanatory approach (Ivankova, Creswell & Stick, 2006), comprised of a survey followed by case studies of internationalising South African companies, was used. The survey participants and firms were purposefully selected based on their roles in the internationalisation strategies, and the results of the survey were used to identify cases for the second phase of the research. An insurer and a bank with a total market capitalisation of R442b (JSE, 2017), representing 41% of the survey population, were selected as case studies. These cases were adopted to understand the internationalisation phenomenon in specific companies, while the research questions focussed on South African multinational enterprises (MNEs) that already had operations in other African markets. Empirical evidence from both the survey results and the two case studies were used to address the research questions. Findings This study revealed that South African multinationals face intense competition from local competitors in the rest of Africa, so they have to craft and adapt specific strategies during their expansions. This research confirmed the findings of previous studies by showing that the internationalisation of banks and insurance companies follow largely similar patterns (Focarelli & Pozzolo, 2008). Further, the case studies indicate complexities such as the need for local legitimacy, the tacitness of local cultures, and protracted implementation periods that cannot be explained by traditional FDI theories. For these reasons, the companies develop non-market resources such as spending periods of time in the potential host country before setting up operations to gather information and build hands-on market intelligence based on the experiential knowledge of the host country market. The bank case study, whose first wave of internationalisation, as with other major banks, was in the late 1800, uses the ownership entry mode. While literature has shown that companies acquire local partners when there are high psychic distances, because bank services require a high degree of information, information transfer and trust (Mulder & Westerhuis, 2015, cited in Fischer & Hasselknippe, 2017), risk management is very important. Firm resources such as good governance and ethical leadership are key for success. This case study revealed that because bank values such as integrity and accountability are global, a subsidiary's aptitude to demonstrate its ability to work within a country culture while retaining the values of the bank earns respect from regulators and customers and increases market share. In addition, it extended research conducted by Contractor (2013) on expatriates and Harvey, Speier & Novicevic (1999)'s findings on diasporas from home countries, by finding that the bank builds a pool of skilled African Diaspora, who are citizens of the host market, to manage and facilitate the integration process and bridge the cultural gap, thereby shortening the transient period. While literature has shown that banks and insurance companies follow similar internationalisation patterns (Focarelli & Pozzolo, 2008), the insurer, an internationalisation latecomer, adopted the partnership entry mode using learnings from "small deals" to achieve its ambition of being the Pan African financial services company. Although literature shows latecomers using entry modes such as mergers and acquisitions (Oguji & Owusu, 2017) and leapfrogging into innovation value chains (Ray, Ray & Kumar, 2017), this particular study indicates that the insurer used the partnership mode to minimise risks caused by the latecomer effect. While the bank has had experience in internationalisation for almost two centuries and has operations in 20 countries, the insurer only actively started internationalising 15 years ago but has operations in 35 countries. Focarelli and Pozzolo (2008) found that accessibility to domestic markets by foreign investors is greater for insurance companies than banks, while this study found that the insurer has greater accessibility to African markets through the adoption of the partnership model, which mitigates the risk of high cultural distances. These findings were not found in the literature reviewed for this study, and therefore offer opportunities for further research. Regardless of whether an ownership-based or a partnership-based model is used, distance and cultural integration are important determinants for both the bank and the insurer (Focarelli & Pozzolo, 2008. Although the cases in this study revealed similar internationalisation patterns, such as starting in psychically close locations (Johanson & Vahlne, 1977), using financial resources to sponsor the protracted implementation of the strategy (Dunning, 1988) and having local management run the business in the host country (Barney, Ketchen & Wright, 2011), they differed in entry mode, timing of entry and decision-making processes. In addition, this study revealed that both companies' inflection points were characterised by a continuous commitment of resources, hoping that they would get signals to either exit or scale up with minimal reputational damage. Contributions to research Theory A major contribution of this research pertains to the new research context of Africa. Most literature have focused on how global companies expanded into emerging markets (Enderwick, 2009; Khanna & Palepu, 2010), and more recently how companies from emerging markets like China and India (Boateng, et al., 2017; Buckley, 2018) have expanded globally. However, little has been done to understand how African corporates tackle such expansions. Africa, with its 56 countries and domestic institutions of a multi ethnic, multi-language (more than 500 for Nigeria alone), multi religious, multicultural and diverse colonial histories, offers a rich setting in which to study the influences of psychic distance and firm resources on internationalisation. The findings based on the African context for South African firms therefore provide important direct and practical implications for firms from other African economies. The conceptualisation of this study provides an insightful lens into the influence of psychic distance, firm resources and strategic choice on internationalisation processes, which is unexplored territory. With scant literature on Africa as an emerging continent, this study provides some empirical and case evidence for these propositions and contributes a basis for further research. Methodologically, this research extends the findings of Luiz and Ruplal (2013) by examining a number of sectors as opposed to a focus on mining companies alone. The research further contributes to a better understanding of internationalisation strategies by incorporating literature, case studies and a survey, as opposed to simply a survey as per Joosub and Coldwell (2016). The choice of case studies presented an opportunity to compare the internationalisation processes of an ownership-based first mover to a partnership-based latecomer, using firm resources as an enabler. Previous studies (Herrmann & Dotta, 2002; Wood, et al., 2011; Williams & Grégoire, 2014) have shown that MNEs send expatriates with international experience to manage operations in host countries. Harvey et al. (1999) provided a more nuanced view by observing that MNEs send people from diasporas to host countries as network agents, given their global consciousnesses and familiarity with the home cultures. This research, however, shows that due to the relationship-rich African cultures and the tacitness of host country knowledge, the bank (ownership model) specifically targeted and upskilled a pool of citizens of the potential host countries at the parent operation, who were subsequently deployed to bridge cultural gaps during implementation, thereby increasing the MNE's internationalisation capability. Emerging market firms' internationalisation is driven by intangible resources based on learning, linking and leveraging (Ray, et al., 2017). Although this study was exploratory in nature, the two case studies have shown a consistent pattern of an adaptive management cycle when setting up operations in other African countries. Due to the huge psychic distance encountered by these companies, they make use of repetitive and protracted planning and implementation processes. This increases the transient period and costs, yet the companies are willing to pay them to protect their reputations until they find signals to either exit or scale up. This finding regarding the existence of a transient period is not apparent in other literature. Even though Zhou and Li (2010), in their study of how strategic orientations influence dynamic capabilities, found that a firm's external interactions with customers and competitors in host countries affect its internal resource assortment and reconfiguration, they did not specifically deal with the issue of a transient period. Previous research indicated that firms look for partner organisations that wield substantial capability to fill voids (Dunning, 1988), that successful partnerships are built on trust which results in greater information sharing (Dyer, 1997), and that the selection of a local partner is informed by robust market assessment (Khanna & Palepu, 2010). This research confirms these findings by showing that spending time in the host country, doing due diligence on partner Board members, and providing a joint cultural induction of both partners' executives in the parent organisation, ensures strategic alignment with partners from the onset. Practice Despite South African firms having huge resources, literature has not overtly mentioned the nonmarket capabilities that such EMNEs build when localising their businesses to suit local market conditions. Businesses utilising the ownership model combat the liability of foreignness by acquiring a local business with ethical leadership, whilst companies using the partnership model find partners with similar values. This research contributes to the existing body of knowledge on practical internationalisation strategies into developing markets with high psychic distance. Although it is an exploratory study, it clarifies the strategic considerations that EMNEs contemplate during planning, as well as when assessing their entry strategies, implementing and integrating their resources, and in rare cases, how they exit such markets. Limitations of the study Like most empirical studies that are exploratory in nature, there are limitations to the conclusions that can be drawn, which constrain the generalisability of this study: • The study was heavily weighted to certain industry sectors - primarily financial services - which have a presence in other African countries. The obvious question is to what extent its findings are relevant to other industries? • For the two cases, the knowledge of the participants regarding how their organisations plan and implement their strategies could have been diverse, but the information was limited to those interviewed. • The volatility of African markets is very high, so between the time of embarking on the research and consolidating the results and findings, some institutional context could have changed, such as the impact of the weakening of the resources sector on Nigeria and Angola. Suggestions for future research • The case studies were restricted to financial services, thus a study of more industry sectors using additional case studies would be valuable to extend the results of this research effort. • Hoskisson, Eden, Lau & Wright (2000) argued that the process "emerging economies" takes place over a long time and multinationals' experimentation and learning is likely to be imperfect. Further research is thus needed to generate conclusive longitudinal empirical evidence theory in this area. • The growing Chinese FDI in Africa is often driven by the Chinese government's "Going Out" policy, which was established to support firms as they internationalise. Although South Africa has a "Trade Invest Africa" policy, companies in the study were oblivious to this government support. It is not clear whether South African companies have an advantage on the continent and how competition from Chinese companies, being embraced by African governments, impact South African MNEs' internationalisation strategies into the rest of Africa.

In this era of startling developments in the medical field there remains a serious worry about the hazardous potential of various by products which if not properly addressed can lead to consequences of immense public concern. Hospitals and other health care facilities generate waste products which are evidently hazardous to all those exposed to its potentially harmful effects. Need for effective legislation ensuring its safe disposal is supposed to be an integral part of any country's health related policy. This issue is of special importance in developing countries like Pakistan which in spite of framing various regulations for safeguarding public health, seem to overlook its actual implementation. The result unfortunately is the price wehave to pay not only in terms of rampant spread of crippling infections but a significant spending of health budget on combating epidemics which could easily have been avoided through effective waste disposal measures in the first place. Waste classified under the heading 'bio-hazardous' includes any infectious or potentially infectious material which can be injurious or harmful to humans and other living organisms. Amongst the many potential sources are the hospitals or other health delivery centres which are ironically supposed to be the centres of infection control and treatment. Whilst working in these setups, health care workers such as doctors, nurses, paramedical staff and sanitation workers are actually the ones most exposed and vulnerable to these challenges. Biomedical waste may broadly be classified into Infectious and toxic waste. Infectious waste includes sharps, blood, body fluids and tissues etcwhile substances such as radioactive material and by-products of certain drugs qualify as toxic waste. Furthermore health institutions also have to cater for general municipal waste such as carton boxes, paper and plastics. The World Health Organisation has its own general classification of hospital waste divided into almost eight categories of which almost 15% (10% infectious and 5% toxic) is estimated to be of a hazardous nature while the remaining 85% is general non hazardous content.1A recent study from Faisalabad, Pakistan has estimated hospital waste generation around 1 to 1.5 kg / bed /day for public sector hospitals in the region,2while figures quoted from neighbouring India are approximately 0.5 to 2 KG / hospital bed /day.3 Elsewhere in the world variable daily hospital waste production has been observed ranging from as low as 0.14 to 0.49 kg /day in Korea4 and 0.26 to 0.89 kg/day in Greece5to as high as 2.1 to 3.83 kg/day in Turkey6 and 0.84 to 5.8 kg/day in Tanzania.7Ill effects of improper management of hospital waste can manifest as nosocomial infections or occupational hazards such as needle stick injuries. Pathogens or spores can be borne either through the oro-faecal or respiratory routes in addition to direct inoculation through contact with infected needles or sharps. Environmental pollution can result from improper burning of toxic material leading to emission of dioxins, particulate matter or furans into the air. The habitat can also be affected by illegal dumping and landfills or washing up of medical waste released into the sea or river. Potential organisms implicated in diseases secondary to mismanagement of hospital waste disposal include salmonella, cholera, shigella, helminths, strep pneumonia, measles, tuberculosis, herpesvirus, anthrax, meningitis, HIV, hepatitis and candida etc. These infections can cause a considerable strain on the overall health and finances of the community or individuals affected. The basic principal of Public health management i.e 'prevention is better than cure' cannot be more stressed in this scenario as compared to any other health challenge. Health facilities must have a clear policy on hazardous waste management. To ensure a safe environment hospitals need to adopt and implement international and local systems of waste disposal. Hospital waste management plan entails policy and procedures addressing waste generation, accumulation, handling, transportation, storage, treatment and disposal. Waste needs to be collected in marked containers usually colour coded and leak proof. Segregation at source is of vital importance. The standard practice in many countries is the Basic Three Bin System ie to segregate the waste into RED bags/ boxes for sharps, YELLOW bags for biological waste and BLUE or BLACK ones for general/ municipal waste. All hospital staff needs to be trained in the concept of putting the right waste in relevant containers/ bags. They need to know that more than anything else this practice is vital for their own safety. The message can be reinforced through appropriate labelling on the bins and having posters with simple delineations to avoid mixing of different waste types. Sharps essentially should be kept in rigid, leak and puncture-resistant containers which are tightly lidded and labelled. Regular training sessions for nurses and cleaning staff can be organised as they are the personnel who are more likely to deal with waste disposition at the level of their respective departments. Next of course is transportation of waste products to the storage or disposal. Sanitary staff and janitors must be aware of the basic concepts of waste handling and should wear protective clothing, masks and gloves etc, besides ensuring regular practice of disinfection and sterilization techniques.8Special trolleys or vehicles exclusively designed and reserved for biomedical waste and operated by trained individuals should be used for transportation to the dumping or treatment site. Biomedical waste treatment whether on site or off site is a specialised entity involving use of chemicals and equipment intended for curtailing the hazardous potential of the material at hand. Thermal treatment via incinerators, not only results in combustion of organic substances but the final product in the form of non-toxicash is only 10 to 15% of the original solid mass of waste material fed to the machine. Dedicated autoclaves and microwaves can also be used for the purpose of disinfection. Chemicals such as bleach, sodium hydroxides, chlorine dioxide and sodiumhypochlorite are also effective disinfectants having specialised indications. Countries around the world have their own regulations for waste management. United Kingdom practices strict observance of Environmental protection act 1990, Waste managementlicensing regulations 1994 and Hazardous waste regulations 2005 making it one of thesafest countries in terms of hazardous waste disposal. Similar regulations specific for each state have been adopted in United States following passage of the Medical Waste tracking act 1988. In Pakistan, every hospital must comply with the Waste Management Rules 2005 (Environment Protection Act 1997), though actual compliance is far from satisfactory. It is high time that the government and responsible community organisations shape up to seriously tackle the issue of bio hazardous waste management through enforcement of effective policies and standard operating procedures for safeguarding the health and lives of the public in general and health workers in particular. Outbreaks, defined as excess cases of a particular disease or illness which outweighs the response capabilities, have the capacity to overwhelm health care facilities and need timely response and attention to details in order to avoid potentially disastrous sequelae . In this day and age when improvement in public health practices have significantly curtailed outbreak of various diseases, certain viral illnesses continue to make headlines. One of the notable vector borne infectious disease affecting significant portions of south east Asia in the early part of twenty first century is 'Dengue fever'. Dreaded as it is by those suffering from the illness, a lot of the hysteria created is secondary to a lack of education and understanding of the nature of the disease and at times a result of disinformation campaign for vested interests by certain political and media sections.'Dengue' in fact is a Spanish word, assumed to have originated from the Swahili phrase -ka dinga peppo -which describes the disease as being caused by evil spirit. 1 Over the course of time it has been called 'breakbone fever', 'bilious vomiting fever', 'break heart fever', 'dandy fever', 'la dengue' and 'Phillipine, Thai and Singapore hemorrhagic fever' Whilst the first reported case referring to dengue fever as a water poison spread by flying insects, exists in the Chinese medical encyclopedia from Jin Dynasty (265-420 AD), the disease is believed to have disseminated from Africa with the spread of the primary vector, aedes egypti, in the 15th to 19th century as a result of globalisation of slave trade 45In 80% of the patients affected by this condition the presentation is rather insidious and at best characterized by mild fever. The classical 'Dengue fever' present in about 5% of the cases is characterized by high temperature, body aches, vomiting and at times a skin rash. The disease may regresses in two to seven days. However inrare instances (<5%) it may develop into more serious conditions such as Dengue hemorrhagic fever whereby the platelet count is significantly reduced leading to bleeding tendencies and may even culminate in a more life threatening presentation i.e Dengue shock syndrome.6To understand the actual dynamics of Dengue epidemic it is important to understand the mode of its spread in affected areas. Aedes mosquito (significantly Aedes Egypti) acts a vector for this disease. Early morning and evening times7 are favoured by these mosquitos to feed on their prey. There is some evidence that the disease may be transmitted via blood products and organ donation. 8 Moreover vertical transmission (mother to child) has also been reported 9Diagnostic investigations include blood antigen detection through NS-I or nucleic acid detection via PCR. IO Cell cultures and specific serology may also be used for confirming the underlying disease. Whilst sporadic and endemic cases are part of routine medical practice and may not raise any alarm bells, outbreaks certainly need mobilization of appropriate resources for effective control. Needless to say 'prevention is better than cure' and should be the primary target of the health authorities in devising strategies for disease control.The WHO recommended 'Integrated Vector control programme', lays stress on social mobilisation and strengthening of public health bodies, coherent response of health and related departments and effective capacity building of relevant personnel and organisations as well as the community at risk. For Aedes Egypti the primary control revolves around eliminating its habitats such as open sources of water. In a local perspective in our city Peshawar, venue of the recent dengue epidemic, it may be seen in the form of incidental reservoirs such as receptacles and tyres dumped in open areas such as roof tops with rain water accumulating in them and provtdjng excellent breeding habitats, Larvicidal and insecticides may be added to more permanent sources such as watertanks and farm lands. There is not much of a role for spraying with organophosphorous agents which is at times resorted to for public consumption. Public education is the key to any effective strategy which must highlight the need for wearing clothing that fully covers the skin, avoiding unnecessary early morning and evening exposure to vector agents, application of insect repellents and use of mosquito nets. It is also important not to panic if affliction with the disease is suspected as in a vast majority of instances it is a self limiting illness without any long term harmful effects and needs simple conservative management like antipyretics and analgesics.An important consideration for responsible authorities in a dengue epidemic is to ensure that maximum management facilities for simple cases are provided at the community level through primary and secondary health care facilities and that the tertiary care hospitals are not inundated with all sort of patients demanding consultation. These later facilities should be reserved for those patients who end up with any complications or more severe manifestation of the disease.Research is underway to develop an ideal vaccine for Dengue fever. In 2016, a vaccine by the name 'Dengvaxia' was marketed in Phillipines and Indonesia. However with development of new serotypes of the virus, its efficacy has been somewhat compromised.As for treatment , there are no specific antiviral drugs. Management is symptomatic revolving mainly around oral and intravenous hydration. Paracetamol (Acetaminophen) is used for fever as compared to NSAIDS such as Ibuprophen infusion as well as blood and platelet transfusion.Data to date shows that slightly more than twenty three thousand people have been diagnosed with dengue over the past three months ie August to October there is a lower risk of bleeding with the former. Those with more severe form of the disease may need Dextran 2017, in Peshawar, Pakistan with around fourteen thousand needing admission and about sixty nine recorded deaths. The mortality is well within the acceptable international standards of less than 1% for the disease. In the backdrop of all the debate surrounding the current epidemic, one can infer that such outbreaks are best addressed with effective planningwell ahead of the time before the disease threatens to spiral out of control. Simple measures such as covering water storage facilities, using larvicidals where practical, use of insect repellents, mosquito nets and avoiding unnecessary exposure can offerthe best protection. Public health messages via print and electronic media can help educate people in affected areas and allay any anxiety building up from a fear of developing life threatening complications. Health department must mobilise all its resources to ensure local management of diagnosed patients with simple dengue fever and facilitate hospital admission only for those suffering from more severe form of the disease. Moreover the media hype into such situations needs to be addressed through constant updates and discouraging any negative politicking on the issue. To sum up Dengue fever is not really an affliction to be dreaded provided it is viewed and managed in the right perspective.

In this era of startling developments in the medical field there remains a serious worry about the hazardous potential of various by products which if not properly addressed can lead to consequences of immense public concern. Hospitals and other health care facilities generate waste products which are evidently hazardous to all those exposed to its potentially harmful effects. Need for effective legislation ensuring its safe disposal is supposed to be an integral part of any country's health related policy. This issue is of special importance in developing countries like Pakistan which in spite of framing various regulations for safeguarding public health, seem to overlook its actual implementation. The result unfortunately is the price wehave to pay not only in terms of rampant spread of crippling infections but a significant spending of health budget on combating epidemics which could easily have been avoided through effective waste disposal measures in the first place. Waste classified under the heading 'bio-hazardous' includes any infectious or potentially infectious material which can be injurious or harmful to humans and other living organisms. Amongst the many potential sources are the hospitals or other health delivery centres which are ironically supposed to be the centres of infection control and treatment. Whilst working in these setups, health care workers such as doctors, nurses, paramedical staff and sanitation workers are actually the ones most exposed and vulnerable to these challenges. Biomedical waste may broadly be classified into Infectious and toxic waste. Infectious waste includes sharps, blood, body fluids and tissues etcwhile substances such as radioactive material and by-products of certain drugs qualify as toxic waste. Furthermore health institutions also have to cater for general municipal waste such as carton boxes, paper and plastics. The World Health Organisation has its own general classification of hospital waste divided into almost eight categories of which almost 15% (10% infectious and 5% toxic) is estimated to be of a hazardous nature while the remaining 85% is general non hazardous content.1A recent study from Faisalabad, Pakistan has estimated hospital waste generation around 1 to 1.5 kg / bed /day for public sector hospitals in the region,2while figures quoted from neighbouring India are approximately 0.5 to 2 KG / hospital bed /day.3 Elsewhere in the world variable daily hospital waste production has been observed ranging from as low as 0.14 to 0.49 kg /day in Korea4 and 0.26 to 0.89 kg/day in Greece5to as high as 2.1 to 3.83 kg/day in Turkey6 and 0.84 to 5.8 kg/day in Tanzania.7Ill effects of improper management of hospital waste can manifest as nosocomial infections or occupational hazards such as needle stick injuries. Pathogens or spores can be borne either through the oro-faecal or respiratory routes in addition to direct inoculation through contact with infected needles or sharps. Environmental pollution can result from improper burning of toxic material leading to emission of dioxins, particulate matter or furans into the air. The habitat can also be affected by illegal dumping and landfills or washing up of medical waste released into the sea or river. Potential organisms implicated in diseases secondary to mismanagement of hospital waste disposal include salmonella, cholera, shigella, helminths, strep pneumonia, measles, tuberculosis, herpesvirus, anthrax, meningitis, HIV, hepatitis and candida etc. These infections can cause a considerable strain on the overall health and finances of the community or individuals affected. The basic principal of Public health management i.e 'prevention is better than cure' cannot be more stressed in this scenario as compared to any other health challenge. Health facilities must have a clear policy on hazardous waste management. To ensure a safe environment hospitals need to adopt and implement international and local systems of waste disposal. Hospital waste management plan entails policy and procedures addressing waste generation, accumulation, handling, transportation, storage, treatment and disposal. Waste needs to be collected in marked containers usually colour coded and leak proof. Segregation at source is of vital importance. The standard practice in many countries is the Basic Three Bin System ie to segregate the waste into RED bags/ boxes for sharps, YELLOW bags for biological waste and BLUE or BLACK ones for general/ municipal waste. All hospital staff needs to be trained in the concept of putting the right waste in relevant containers/ bags. They need to know that more than anything else this practice is vital for their own safety. The message can be reinforced through appropriate labelling on the bins and having posters with simple delineations to avoid mixing of different waste types. Sharps essentially should be kept in rigid, leak and puncture-resistant containers which are tightly lidded and labelled. Regular training sessions for nurses and cleaning staff can be organised as they are the personnel who are more likely to deal with waste disposition at the level of their respective departments. Next of course is transportation of waste products to the storage or disposal. Sanitary staff and janitors must be aware of the basic concepts of waste handling and should wear protective clothing, masks and gloves etc, besides ensuring regular practice of disinfection and sterilization techniques.8Special trolleys or vehicles exclusively designed and reserved for biomedical waste and operated by trained individuals should be used for transportation to the dumping or treatment site. Biomedical waste treatment whether on site or off site is a specialised entity involving use of chemicals and equipment intended for curtailing the hazardous potential of the material at hand. Thermal treatment via incinerators, not only results in combustion of organic substances but the final product in the form of non-toxicash is only 10 to 15% of the original solid mass of waste material fed to the machine. Dedicated autoclaves and microwaves can also be used for the purpose of disinfection. Chemicals such as bleach, sodium hydroxides, chlorine dioxide and sodiumhypochlorite are also effective disinfectants having specialised indications. Countries around the world have their own regulations for waste management. United Kingdom practices strict observance of Environmental protection act 1990, Waste managementlicensing regulations 1994 and Hazardous waste regulations 2005 making it one of thesafest countries in terms of hazardous waste disposal. Similar regulations specific for each state have been adopted in United States following passage of the Medical Waste tracking act 1988. In Pakistan, every hospital must comply with the Waste Management Rules 2005 (Environment Protection Act 1997), though actual compliance is far from satisfactory. It is high time that the government and responsible community organisations shape up to seriously tackle the issue of bio hazardous waste management through enforcement of effective policies and standard operating procedures for safeguarding the health and lives of the public in general and health workers in particular. Outbreaks, defined as excess cases of a particular disease or illness which outweighs the response capabilities, have the capacity to overwhelm health care facilities and need timely response and attention to details in order to avoid potentially disastrous sequelae . In this day and age when improvement in public health practices have significantly curtailed outbreak of various diseases, certain viral illnesses continue to make headlines. One of the notable vector borne infectious disease affecting significant portions of south east Asia in the early part of twenty first century is 'Dengue fever'. Dreaded as it is by those suffering from the illness, a lot of the hysteria created is secondary to a lack of education and understanding of the nature of the disease and at times a result of disinformation campaign for vested interests by certain political and media sections.'Dengue' in fact is a Spanish word, assumed to have originated from the Swahili phrase -ka dinga peppo -which describes the disease as being caused by evil spirit. 1 Over the course of time it has been called 'breakbone fever', 'bilious vomiting fever', 'break heart fever', 'dandy fever', 'la dengue' and 'Phillipine, Thai and Singapore hemorrhagic fever' Whilst the first reported case referring to dengue fever as a water poison spread by flying insects, exists in the Chinese medical encyclopedia from Jin Dynasty (265-420 AD), the disease is believed to have disseminated from Africa with the spread of the primary vector, aedes egypti, in the 15th to 19th century as a result of globalisation of slave trade 45In 80% of the patients affected by this condition the presentation is rather insidious and at best characterized by mild fever. The classical 'Dengue fever' present in about 5% of the cases is characterized by high temperature, body aches, vomiting and at times a skin rash. The disease may regresses in two to seven days. However inrare instances (<5%) it may develop into more serious conditions such as Dengue hemorrhagic fever whereby the platelet count is significantly reduced leading to bleeding tendencies and may even culminate in a more life threatening presentation i.e Dengue shock syndrome.6To understand the actual dynamics of Dengue epidemic it is important to understand the mode of its spread in affected areas. Aedes mosquito (significantly Aedes Egypti) acts a vector for this disease. Early morning and evening times7 are favoured by these mosquitos to feed on their prey. There is some evidence that the disease may be transmitted via blood products and organ donation. 8 Moreover vertical transmission (mother to child) has also been reported 9Diagnostic investigations include blood antigen detection through NS-I or nucleic acid detection via PCR. IO Cell cultures and specific serology may also be used for confirming the underlying disease. Whilst sporadic and endemic cases are part of routine medical practice and may not raise any alarm bells, outbreaks certainly need mobilization of appropriate resources for effective control. Needless to say 'prevention is better than cure' and should be the primary target of the health authorities in devising strategies for disease control.The WHO recommended 'Integrated Vector control programme', lays stress on social mobilisation and strengthening of public health bodies, coherent response of health and related departments and effective capacity building of relevant personnel and organisations as well as the community at risk. For Aedes Egypti the primary control revolves around eliminating its habitats such as open sources of water. In a local perspective in our city Peshawar, venue of the recent dengue epidemic, it may be seen in the form of incidental reservoirs such as receptacles and tyres dumped in open areas such as roof tops with rain water accumulating in them and provtdjng excellent breeding habitats, Larvicidal and insecticides may be added to more permanent sources such as watertanks and farm lands. There is not much of a role for spraying with organophosphorous agents which is at times resorted to for public consumption. Public education is the key to any effective strategy which must highlight the need for wearing clothing that fully covers the skin, avoiding unnecessary early morning and evening exposure to vector agents, application of insect repellents and use of mosquito nets. It is also important not to panic if affliction with the disease is suspected as in a vast majority of instances it is a self limiting illness without any long term harmful effects and needs simple conservative management like antipyretics and analgesics.An important consideration for responsible authorities in a dengue epidemic is to ensure that maximum management facilities for simple cases are provided at the community level through primary and secondary health care facilities and that the tertiary care hospitals are not inundated with all sort of patients demanding consultation. These later facilities should be reserved for those patients who end up with any complications or more severe manifestation of the disease.Research is underway to develop an ideal vaccine for Dengue fever. In 2016, a vaccine by the name 'Dengvaxia' was marketed in Phillipines and Indonesia. However with development of new serotypes of the virus, its efficacy has been somewhat compromised.As for treatment , there are no specific antiviral drugs. Management is symptomatic revolving mainly around oral and intravenous hydration. Paracetamol (Acetaminophen) is used for fever as compared to NSAIDS such as Ibuprophen infusion as well as blood and platelet transfusion.Data to date shows that slightly more than twenty three thousand people have been diagnosed with dengue over the past three months ie August to October there is a lower risk of bleeding with the former. Those with more severe form of the disease may need Dextran 2017, in Peshawar, Pakistan with around fourteen thousand needing admission and about sixty nine recorded deaths. The mortality is well within the acceptable international standards of less than 1% for the disease. In the backdrop of all the debate surrounding the current epidemic, one can infer that such outbreaks are best addressed with effective planningwell ahead of the time before the disease threatens to spiral out of control. Simple measures such as covering water storage facilities, using larvicidals where practical, use of insect repellents, mosquito nets and avoiding unnecessary exposure can offerthe best protection. Public health messages via print and electronic media can help educate people in affected areas and allay any anxiety building up from a fear of developing life threatening complications. Health department must mobilise all its resources to ensure local management of diagnosed patients with simple dengue fever and facilitate hospital admission only for those suffering from more severe form of the disease. Moreover the media hype into such situations needs to be addressed through constant updates and discouraging any negative politicking on the issue. To sum up Dengue fever is not really an affliction to be dreaded provided it is viewed and managed in the right perspective.

Purpose: studying of life quality indicators at elderly patients with osteoarthritis using international EuroQol questionnaire for evaluate of efficiency of sanatorium treatment.Materials and methods. 72 patients have been included in study at the age from 60 till 78 years, mean age was 67,6±8,7 years. Patients have been divided by method of randomization on two groups. Patients of one of groups in addition passed rehabilitation in sanatorium conditions for 18–21 days. Assessment of life quality related to health was conducted with use of international questionnaire EuroQol-5D-European Quality of Life instrument (EQ-5D).Results. At all patients with osteoarthritis health problems of varying degree have been revealed. In 12 months according to the questionnaire, reliable positive dynamics of life quality was observed at patients passing sanatorium treatment at the expense of improvement of ability to movement, reduce pain and discomfort and increase daily activity.Conclusions. Having of sanatorium stage of rehabilitation in complex treatment of osteoarthritis allows affect quality of life and keep remission for a longer period in comparison with outpatient treatment.KEY WORDS: quality of life, sanatorium treatments, osteoarthritis.Osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the most common disorders of the muscle-skeletal system, especially in the elderly age group ( in every third elderly person, reaching 70% among those who have over 65 years). During the natural aging occurs involutional changes in the connective tissue, especially in the tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bone tissue, in the walls of blood vessels, muscles [2]. Thus aging of body contributes to the accumulation of diseases. During the examination in elderly and senile patients were diagnosed from three to five different diseases. Modern elderly person is - a unique clinical phenomenon from the point of view on availability and the combination of its diverse in character and course of diseases that are competing for their prognostic significance and impact on quality of life. OA attributed to diseases with high comorbidity, and founded that patients with OA have a significantly higher risk of comorbid conditions than patients who do not suffering from OA [4].Clinical experience and numerous publications data suggest that OA is often associated with subsequent somatic disorders: hypertension, coronary heart disease, obesity, diabetes, lung diseases (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) and gastro- intestinal tract diseases. The greatest burden on society observed in cases of combination OA and osteodeficiency (osteopenia, osteoporosis (OP)), which significantly decreses the quality of life [5].Quality of life - integrated description of physical, psychological, emotional and social functioning of a person based on its subjective perception. Assessment of quality of life at modern stage have more increasing strong position in medicine, reflecting on the one hand, the presence of new medical technologies that do not affect the life expectancy, but significantly improve its quality, and from the other hand - expanding activity of the patient, increasing of its role in choice of methods of diagnostic and treatment [9].When selecting the questionnaires it is important to consider that to be used in a clinical studying suitable only those that give results of the evaluation quality of life in a form of a single summary score from 0 to 1.0. These includes a generic questionnaire EQ-5D (EuroQol) [8]. This general questionnaire is easy to fill , widely used in different countries and gives during the processing of collected data single score to measure the quality of life, represented by values between 0 and 1, which also provides the possibility of its using in clinical trials. This questionnaire is widely used in various clinical situations , including in assessing the quality of life patients with rheumatic diseases [7].The aging process is controversial, because on the background of regression processes - atrophy, degradation, etc., develops progressive trends of creating the new compensatory-adaptive mechanisms to maintain homeostasis in an aging body, which, however, does not fully offset the growing phenomena of degradation [2]. It should be noted that the adaptive capacity of the aging body is reduced, the possibility of development various diseases increases. In this context, particularly important in cases of illness in the elderly patient is the role of sanogenetic mechanisms, their stimulation and support. A special interest belongs to the sanatorium stage of rehabilitation, whose mission is the prevention of disease progression, stimulation of compensatory capacity of the muscle-skeletal system and the possible restoration of joint function.Spa treatment has a special place in the treatment and preventive care of elderly patients , as a stage in the system of rehabilitation of many chronic diseases. Multi-disciplinary nature of medical rehabilitation in spa conditions, a wide range of rehabilitation methods can embrace patients of all age groups with the most common diseases [1].Compared with medication treatment, natural and artificial physical factors, when they are properly used, characterized by the absence of allergies, lower incidence and severity of side effects, the ability of positively influencing on the number of pathological processes and the whole body, thus helping to improve the quality of life and are important in the prevention of premature aging [2]. In the resort conditions further rehabilitation is indicated for patients with initial stages of OA, disabled (groups I and II), patients with resistant synovitis and comorbidity with the possibility of self-servicing (including general contraindications for a spa treatment) [3].The aim of the study. To investigate the quality of life in elderly patients with osteoarthritis using international EuroQol questionnaire to evaluate the effectiveness of spa treatment.Materials and methods. In study were included 72 patients aged from 60 to 78 years, middle age was 67,6 ± 8,7 years. Among the patients predominates women - 88.4 %. I radiographic stage of osteoarthritis by J.H. Kellgren-Lawrence [ 6] was diagnosed in 23,3 % of patients , II stage - in 76,7 %. In the view of modern geriatric approaches applying of the physical factors in patients with OA who were in the spa rehabilitation stage in the appointment of balneotherapeutic procedures we gave preference to ultrasonic inhalation of mineral waters and baths , from physiotherapy usually prescribed magnetic-lazer therapy, interferential therapy, patients also performed massage and physical rehabilitation . In order to prevent climate-adaptational and reaclimate-adaptational reactions and optimization process of climate-adaptation were included into the treatment complex ( based on established risk factors) adaptogens and treatment procedures that have adaptogenic action ( phytoaeroionisation , singlet-oxygen therapy). In the process of rehabilitation treatment in sanatorium conditions , we have selected the most effective combination of different methods of rehabilitation , which caused the most significant treatment effectiveness : a combination of balneotherapy , physiotherapy and exercise therapy. To improve continuity during medical rehabilitation, at discharging from the sanatorium patients were given written (in the form of special attractions ) recommendatitons about further treatment, lifestyle, physical activity, diet etc.By the method of randomization, patients were divided into two groups. A marked difference for the main source of clinical and functional parameters between the groups were not observed. The control group consisted of 14 patients of the same age without joint pathology. Treatment regimens differed between the studying groups the presence in one of the groups sanatorium stage of rehabilitation. In the first group (n=34) patients received Structum 500 mg 2 times a day ( within 6 months of the year ) and courses of NSAID, including mainly patients treated with meloxicam ( at a dose of 7,5 mg/d) or nimesulide (in dose of 100-200 mg/d) for 7-10 days during worcening. The patients of the second group (n=38) during the 18-21 day were on spa treatment ( once a year ), in the scheme of rehabilitation were: sitting hydrogen sulfide baths, a concentration of 80 mg/L for 10 minutes at a temperature of 360C , the course of 8 procedures every other day or ultrasonic inhalation by hydrogen sulfide water, period of 5 minutes; blue clay applications every other day at 260C temperature; interferential therapy and magnet-lazer therapy on the affected joints to 8 treatments alternately every other day ; pneumomassage ; classes of physical rehabilitation therapy, aromatherapy , singlet -oxygen therapy . After the sanatorium stage of rehabilitation patients are taking drugs containing chondroitin sulfate (within 6 months of the year), at worcening of NSAIDs.Assessment quality of life related to health , was conducted using an international EuroQol-5D-European Quality of Life instrument (EQ-5D), which consists of two parts. At first part the patient self- assessed his condition by 5 parameters: mobility, self-care , usual activities, pain and discomfort , anxiety and depression. In each variant patients could give three possible answers : No problem - 1 , there is some problem - 2, much of the problem - 3. In the second part of the questionnaire , patients assessed their health on a scale from 0 to 100 on the VAS, the so-called thermometer , where 0 means the worst condition , 100 - the best state of health of the patient. This part of the questionnaire is a quantitative assessment of general health.Statistical analysis of the results was done in the department of statistical system research at SHEE "Ternopil State Medical University by I. Y. Gorbachevsky Ministry of Health of Ukraine" in the software package Statsoft STATISTIC. To determine the reliability of the differences in the change of certain indicators were used parametric and non-parametric methods: criterion Wilkoksona, two-sided Fisher's criterion. A significant differences were considered when the degree of probability of error-free prognosis is (p) 95% (p <0.05). Results and discussion. General description of the health status of patients studied with OA according to EQ-5D questionnaire is given in the table.In all patients with osteoarthritis were found health problems of different severity degrees. Mostly suffers ability to travel and daily activity . This data confirms that the OA in the elderly age reduces quality of life. After 12 months, according to questionnaire, health status was different in two groups . Reliable positive trend was in patients from the second group 57,9 % (p < 0,05), as a result of improving the ability to travel in space , reducing pain and discomfort and increasing of daily activity.According to the second part of the questionnaire EQ-5D, at baseline, most patients had reduced general health assessment : the first group to 51,91 ± 1,07 ( median for «thermometer» EQ 52 points ) in the second group to 50,65 ± 1,17 ( median 48,5 points) in comparison with the best state of possible health. 12 months after the sanatorium stage of rehabilitation of patients with repeated testing were produced the following results : The average index quality of life on the " thermometer " EQ-5D questionnaire in the first group of patients was 54,76 ± 1,23 ( median - 56 points), the second group was 69,28 ± 0,89 ( median - 70 points), reliability differences is high : p < 0,001.In the category quality of life most of all patients reacted on the presence of sanatorium stage of rehabilitation in the category " movement in space " ( GPA retesting 1,60 ± 0,08, p < 0,001), " daily activity " ( GPA retesting 1 68 ± 0,07, p < 0,001), " pain / discomfort " ( GPA retesting 1,92 ± 0,08, p < 0,001), " anxiety / depression ( GPA retesting 1 52 ± 0,08, p < 0,05).Thus, the data suggested that in elderly patients with OA who were once a year on a spa treatment and took over 6 months structure-modification drugs significantly upgraded quality of life during 12 months.Conclusions1. Based on the analysis were founded that elderly patients with OA who underwent rehabilitation treatment in sanatorium- health resorts have continued improving quality of life in comparison with patients who were treated only in outpatient conditions.2. Availability sanatorium stage of rehabilitation in the treatment of elderly patients with OA contributes more complex influence on the human organism.3. Multi-disciplinary nature of medical rehabilitation in spa conditions , a wide range of used restorative treatment methods can affect the quality of life and maintain remission for more longer period in comparison with outpatient treatment.4. Monitoring the quality of life can not only control the functional state of the organism in the elderly aged people at various stages of treatment , but also to properly evaluate the effectiveness of treatment , and, if necessary, to carry out the correction of rehabilitation activities .Perspectives for future research. Aimed at studying the impact of rehabilitative and preventive measures on the quality of life in elderly patients with osteoarthritis at other stages of rehabilitation. Further work in this direction is reasonable and economically justified.REFERENCES1. Golyachenko A.O., Martynyuk V.I., Bakalyuk T.G. Medical rehabilitation in the spa conditions // Journal of research. - 2007 . - № 4. - P. 8-9.2. Kazymyrko V.K., KovalenkoV.N., Flehontova V.V. Involutional osteoarthritis and osteoporosis. - Donetsk: Publisher Zaslavsky A.J., 2011. - 724 p.3. Kovalenko V.N., Bortkiewicz A.P. Osteoarthritis . Practical guidance . - K.: Moryon , 2005. - 592 p.4. Mendel O.I., Naumov A.V., Alekseeva L.I. et al Osteoarthritis as a factor of risk in cardio-vascular catastrophes // Ukrainian Journal of Rheumatology . - 2010 . - № 3. - P. 68-73.5. Povoroznyuk V.V. Osteoarthritis // Art of treatments. - 2004 . - № 3. - P.16 -23.6 . Altman R., Asch E., Bloch D. et al. 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Med Econ. - 2010 . - № 1. - P. 571-581. ; Мета: вивчення показників якості життя у хворих похилого віку на остеоартроз з використанням міжнародного запитальника EuroQol для оцінки ефективності санаторно-курортного лікування.Матеріали і методи. У дослідження було включено 72 пацієнти віком від 60 до 78 років, середній вік склав 67,6±8,7 року. Методом рандомізації пацієнтів було розподілено на дві групи. Пацієнти однієї з груп додатково проходили реабілітацію в умовах санаторію протягом 18-21 дня. Оцінка якості життя, пов'язаного зі здоров'ям, проводилась з використанням міжнародного запитальника EuroQol-5D-European Quality of Life instrument (EQ-5D).Результати. У всіх хворих на остеоартроз виявлено проблеми зі здоров'ям різного ступеня. Через 12 місяців за даними запитальника достовірна позитивна динаміка якості життя спостерігалася у пацієнтів, що проходили санаторно-куротне лікування, за рахунок покращення здатності до пересування, зменшення болю і дискомфорту та збільшення повсякденної активності.Висновки. Наявність санаторно-курортного етапу реабілітації у комплексному лікуванні остеоартрозу дозволяє вплинути на якість життя та зберегти ремісію на більш тривалий термін порівняно з амбулаторним лікуванням.КЛЮЧОВІ СЛОВА: якість життя, санаторно-курортне лікування, остеоартроз.

The article is devoted to the historical-philosophical analysis of the problem of ambivalence as a fundamental principle of Derrida's philosophical thinking. It shows how such primordial philosophical questions as ones of limits of philosophies and of limits of philosophy define the basic problem dimensions of Derridean conception. It consideres the correlation of the theme of marginality with both the problem of Derrida's cultural self-identification and the idea of the metaphoricity of language as the initial premise of différance logic. Also the article examines the role of transcendentalistic implications in Derridean thought that determine a his-torical and philosophical context of Derrida's philosophy. The analogy between quasi-transcendental and metaphorical aspects of deconstructive thinking is drawn. The identifica-tion of Jewish and metaphorical in Derrida's conception is demonstrated. The author introduces the concept of "literal metaphor" as the quintessence of Derrida's philosophical thought which structures its basic forms, namely: aporia, hyperbole, question, commentary. ; Статья посвящена историко-философскому анализу проблемы амбивалентности как фундаментального принципа философского мышления Деррида. Показывается, каким образом исконные для истории философии вопросы – границ философий и границ философии – определяют основные проблемные измерения дерридианской концепции. Рассматривается корреляция темы пограничности как с проблемой культурной самоидентификации Деррида, так и с идеей метафоричности языка как исходного посыла логики différance. Анализируется роль трансценденталистских импликаций в дерридианской мысли, определяющих историко-философский контекст последней. Проводится аналогия между квази-трансцендентальным и метафорическим аспектами деконструктивного мышления, демонстрируется отождествление еврейского и метафорического в концепции Деррида. Вводится понятие "буквальной метафоры" как квинтэссенции философской мысли Деррида, структурирующей ее базовые формы: апорию, ги-перболу, вопрос, комментарий.СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫАвтономова (2011): Автономова, Н. Философский язык Жака Деррида. Москва: РОССПЭН, 2011, 506 с.Арутюнова (1990): Арутюнова, Н. «Метафора и дискурс». В: Теория метафоры: Сборник. Ред. Н. Д. Арутюнова, М. А. Журинская. Москва: Прогресс, 1990, С. 5–32.Блюменберг (2005): Блюменберг, Г. Світ як книга. Пер. з нім. В. Єрмоленка. К.: Лібра, 2005, 544 с.Деррида (1992): Деррида, Ж. «Письмо к японскому другу». Пер. с фр. А. Гараджи. В: Вопросы философии. 1992, № 4, С. 53–57.Деррида (2000a): Деррида, Ж. О грамматологии. Пер. с фр. Н. Автономовой.– Москва: Ad Marginem, 2000a, 512 с.Деррида (2000b): Деррида, Ж. «Различание». Пер. с фр. В. Лапицкого. В: Деррида Ж. Письмо и различие. Санкт-Петербург: Академический проект, 2000b, С.377–402.Деррида (2000с): Деррида, Ж. «Сила и значение». Пер. с фр. С. Фокина. В: Деррида Ж. Письмо и различие. Санкт-Петербург: Академический проект, 2000c. С. 7–42.Деррида (2000d): Деррида, Ж. «Эдмон Жабе и вопрос книги». In: Деррида Ж. Письмо и различие. Пер. с фр. В. Лапицкого. Санкт-Петербург: Академический проект, 2000d, С. 83–99.Деррида (2000е): Деррида, Ж. «Эллипс». Пер. с фр. В. Лапицкого. В: Деррида Ж. Письмо и различие. Санкт-Петербург: Академический проект, 2000e, С. 369–374.Деррида (2011): Деррида, Ж. «Монолингвизм Другого или протез первоначала». Глава седьмая. Пер. с фр. Н. Автономовой. В: Автономова Н.С. Философский язык Жака Деррида. Москва: РОССПЭН, 2011, С. 445–471.Деррида (2012): Деррида, Ж. Поля философии. Пер. с фр. Д. Кралечкина. Москва: Академический проект, 2012, 376 с.Деррида = КИ: Деррида, Ж. Кроме имени. Пер. с фр. Н. Шматко. В: Электронный ресурс. Режим доступа: http://www.gumer.info/bogoslov_Buks/Philos/derrid/Деррида, Хартман: Деррида, Ж., Хартман, Д., Изер, В. Деконструкция: триалог в Иерусалиме. Пер. с англ. В. Мерлина. В: Электронный ресурс. 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Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse UP, 2001, (viii) 201 p. ; Статтю присвячено історико-філософському аналізу проблеми амбівалентності як фундаментального принципу філософського мислення Дерида. Демонструється, в який спосіб споконвічні для історії філософії питання – меж філософій та меж філософії – визначають основні проблемні виміри деридіанської концепції. Розглядається кореляція теми пограничності як із проблемою культур-ної самоідентифікації Дерида, так і з ідеєю метафоричності мови як вихідного засновку логіки différance. Аналізується роль трансценденталістських імплікацій в деридіанській думці, що визначають історико-філософський контекст останньої. Проводиться аналогія між квазі-трансцендентальним та метафоричним аспектами деконструктивного мислення, демонструється ототожнення єврейського та метафоричного в концепції Дерида. Уведено поняття «буквальної метафори» як квінтесенції філософської думки Дерида, що структурує її базові форми: апорію, гіперболу, питання, коментар.СПИСОК ЛІТЕРАТУРИАвтономова (2011): Автономова, Н. Философский язык Жака Деррида. Москва: РОССПЭН, 2011, 506 с.Арутюнова (1990): Арутюнова, Н. «Метафора и дискурс». В: Теория метафоры: Сборник. Ред. Н. Д. Арутюнова, М. А. Журинская. Москва: Прогресс, 1990, С. 5–32.Блюменберг (2005): Блюменберг, Г. Світ як книга. Пер. з нім. В. Єрмоленка. К.: Лібра, 2005, 544 с.Деррида (1992): Деррида, Ж. «Письмо к японскому другу». Пер. с фр. А. Гараджи. В: Вопросы философии. 1992, № 4, С. 53–57.Деррида (2000a): Деррида, Ж. О грамматологии. Пер. с фр. Н. Автономовой.– Москва: Ad Marginem, 2000a, 512 с.Деррида (2000b): Деррида, Ж. «Различание». Пер. с фр. В. Лапицкого. В: Деррида Ж. Письмо и различие. Санкт-Петербург: Академический проект, 2000b, С.377–402.Деррида (2000с): Деррида, Ж. «Сила и значение». Пер. с фр. С. Фокина. В: Деррида Ж. 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Purpose: studying of life quality indicators at elderly patients with osteoarthritis using international EuroQol questionnaire for evaluate of efficiency of sanatorium treatment.Materials and methods. 72 patients have been included in study at the age from 60 till 78 years, mean age was 67,6±8,7 years. Patients have been divided by method of randomization on two groups. Patients of one of groups in addition passed rehabilitation in sanatorium conditions for 18–21 days. Assessment of life quality related to health was conducted with use of international questionnaire EuroQol-5D-European Quality of Life instrument (EQ-5D).Results. At all patients with osteoarthritis health problems of varying degree have been revealed. In 12 months according to the questionnaire, reliable positive dynamics of life quality was observed at patients passing sanatorium treatment at the expense of improvement of ability to movement, reduce pain and discomfort and increase daily activity.Conclusions. Having of sanatorium stage of rehabilitation in complex treatment of osteoarthritis allows affect quality of life and keep remission for a longer period in comparison with outpatient treatment.KEY WORDS: quality of life, sanatorium treatments, osteoarthritis.Osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the most common disorders of the muscle-skeletal system, especially in the elderly age group ( in every third elderly person, reaching 70% among those who have over 65 years). During the natural aging occurs involutional changes in the connective tissue, especially in the tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bone tissue, in the walls of blood vessels, muscles [2]. Thus aging of body contributes to the accumulation of diseases. During the examination in elderly and senile patients were diagnosed from three to five different diseases. Modern elderly person is - a unique clinical phenomenon from the point of view on availability and the combination of its diverse in character and course of diseases that are competing for their prognostic significance and impact on quality of life. OA attributed to diseases with high comorbidity, and founded that patients with OA have a significantly higher risk of comorbid conditions than patients who do not suffering from OA [4].Clinical experience and numerous publications data suggest that OA is often associated with subsequent somatic disorders: hypertension, coronary heart disease, obesity, diabetes, lung diseases (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) and gastro- intestinal tract diseases. The greatest burden on society observed in cases of combination OA and osteodeficiency (osteopenia, osteoporosis (OP)), which significantly decreses the quality of life [5].Quality of life - integrated description of physical, psychological, emotional and social functioning of a person based on its subjective perception. Assessment of quality of life at modern stage have more increasing strong position in medicine, reflecting on the one hand, the presence of new medical technologies that do not affect the life expectancy, but significantly improve its quality, and from the other hand - expanding activity of the patient, increasing of its role in choice of methods of diagnostic and treatment [9].When selecting the questionnaires it is important to consider that to be used in a clinical studying suitable only those that give results of the evaluation quality of life in a form of a single summary score from 0 to 1.0. These includes a generic questionnaire EQ-5D (EuroQol) [8]. This general questionnaire is easy to fill , widely used in different countries and gives during the processing of collected data single score to measure the quality of life, represented by values between 0 and 1, which also provides the possibility of its using in clinical trials. This questionnaire is widely used in various clinical situations , including in assessing the quality of life patients with rheumatic diseases [7].The aging process is controversial, because on the background of regression processes - atrophy, degradation, etc., develops progressive trends of creating the new compensatory-adaptive mechanisms to maintain homeostasis in an aging body, which, however, does not fully offset the growing phenomena of degradation [2]. It should be noted that the adaptive capacity of the aging body is reduced, the possibility of development various diseases increases. In this context, particularly important in cases of illness in the elderly patient is the role of sanogenetic mechanisms, their stimulation and support. A special interest belongs to the sanatorium stage of rehabilitation, whose mission is the prevention of disease progression, stimulation of compensatory capacity of the muscle-skeletal system and the possible restoration of joint function.Spa treatment has a special place in the treatment and preventive care of elderly patients , as a stage in the system of rehabilitation of many chronic diseases. Multi-disciplinary nature of medical rehabilitation in spa conditions, a wide range of rehabilitation methods can embrace patients of all age groups with the most common diseases [1].Compared with medication treatment, natural and artificial physical factors, when they are properly used, characterized by the absence of allergies, lower incidence and severity of side effects, the ability of positively influencing on the number of pathological processes and the whole body, thus helping to improve the quality of life and are important in the prevention of premature aging [2]. In the resort conditions further rehabilitation is indicated for patients with initial stages of OA, disabled (groups I and II), patients with resistant synovitis and comorbidity with the possibility of self-servicing (including general contraindications for a spa treatment) [3].The aim of the study. To investigate the quality of life in elderly patients with osteoarthritis using international EuroQol questionnaire to evaluate the effectiveness of spa treatment.Materials and methods. In study were included 72 patients aged from 60 to 78 years, middle age was 67,6 ± 8,7 years. Among the patients predominates women - 88.4 %. I radiographic stage of osteoarthritis by J.H. Kellgren-Lawrence [ 6] was diagnosed in 23,3 % of patients , II stage - in 76,7 %. In the view of modern geriatric approaches applying of the physical factors in patients with OA who were in the spa rehabilitation stage in the appointment of balneotherapeutic procedures we gave preference to ultrasonic inhalation of mineral waters and baths , from physiotherapy usually prescribed magnetic-lazer therapy, interferential therapy, patients also performed massage and physical rehabilitation . In order to prevent climate-adaptational and reaclimate-adaptational reactions and optimization process of climate-adaptation were included into the treatment complex ( based on established risk factors) adaptogens and treatment procedures that have adaptogenic action ( phytoaeroionisation , singlet-oxygen therapy). In the process of rehabilitation treatment in sanatorium conditions , we have selected the most effective combination of different methods of rehabilitation , which caused the most significant treatment effectiveness : a combination of balneotherapy , physiotherapy and exercise therapy. To improve continuity during medical rehabilitation, at discharging from the sanatorium patients were given written (in the form of special attractions ) recommendatitons about further treatment, lifestyle, physical activity, diet etc.By the method of randomization, patients were divided into two groups. A marked difference for the main source of clinical and functional parameters between the groups were not observed. The control group consisted of 14 patients of the same age without joint pathology. Treatment regimens differed between the studying groups the presence in one of the groups sanatorium stage of rehabilitation. In the first group (n=34) patients received Structum 500 mg 2 times a day ( within 6 months of the year ) and courses of NSAID, including mainly patients treated with meloxicam ( at a dose of 7,5 mg/d) or nimesulide (in dose of 100-200 mg/d) for 7-10 days during worcening. The patients of the second group (n=38) during the 18-21 day were on spa treatment ( once a year ), in the scheme of rehabilitation were: sitting hydrogen sulfide baths, a concentration of 80 mg/L for 10 minutes at a temperature of 360C , the course of 8 procedures every other day or ultrasonic inhalation by hydrogen sulfide water, period of 5 minutes; blue clay applications every other day at 260C temperature; interferential therapy and magnet-lazer therapy on the affected joints to 8 treatments alternately every other day ; pneumomassage ; classes of physical rehabilitation therapy, aromatherapy , singlet -oxygen therapy . After the sanatorium stage of rehabilitation patients are taking drugs containing chondroitin sulfate (within 6 months of the year), at worcening of NSAIDs.Assessment quality of life related to health , was conducted using an international EuroQol-5D-European Quality of Life instrument (EQ-5D), which consists of two parts. At first part the patient self- assessed his condition by 5 parameters: mobility, self-care , usual activities, pain and discomfort , anxiety and depression. In each variant patients could give three possible answers : No problem - 1 , there is some problem - 2, much of the problem - 3. In the second part of the questionnaire , patients assessed their health on a scale from 0 to 100 on the VAS, the so-called thermometer , where 0 means the worst condition , 100 - the best state of health of the patient. This part of the questionnaire is a quantitative assessment of general health.Statistical analysis of the results was done in the department of statistical system research at SHEE "Ternopil State Medical University by I. Y. Gorbachevsky Ministry of Health of Ukraine" in the software package Statsoft STATISTIC. To determine the reliability of the differences in the change of certain indicators were used parametric and non-parametric methods: criterion Wilkoksona, two-sided Fisher's criterion. A significant differences were considered when the degree of probability of error-free prognosis is (p) 95% (p <0.05). Results and discussion. General description of the health status of patients studied with OA according to EQ-5D questionnaire is given in the table.In all patients with osteoarthritis were found health problems of different severity degrees. Mostly suffers ability to travel and daily activity . This data confirms that the OA in the elderly age reduces quality of life. After 12 months, according to questionnaire, health status was different in two groups . Reliable positive trend was in patients from the second group 57,9 % (p < 0,05), as a result of improving the ability to travel in space , reducing pain and discomfort and increasing of daily activity.According to the second part of the questionnaire EQ-5D, at baseline, most patients had reduced general health assessment : the first group to 51,91 ± 1,07 ( median for «thermometer» EQ 52 points ) in the second group to 50,65 ± 1,17 ( median 48,5 points) in comparison with the best state of possible health. 12 months after the sanatorium stage of rehabilitation of patients with repeated testing were produced the following results : The average index quality of life on the " thermometer " EQ-5D questionnaire in the first group of patients was 54,76 ± 1,23 ( median - 56 points), the second group was 69,28 ± 0,89 ( median - 70 points), reliability differences is high : p < 0,001.In the category quality of life most of all patients reacted on the presence of sanatorium stage of rehabilitation in the category " movement in space " ( GPA retesting 1,60 ± 0,08, p < 0,001), " daily activity " ( GPA retesting 1 68 ± 0,07, p < 0,001), " pain / discomfort " ( GPA retesting 1,92 ± 0,08, p < 0,001), " anxiety / depression ( GPA retesting 1 52 ± 0,08, p < 0,05).Thus, the data suggested that in elderly patients with OA who were once a year on a spa treatment and took over 6 months structure-modification drugs significantly upgraded quality of life during 12 months.Conclusions1. Based on the analysis were founded that elderly patients with OA who underwent rehabilitation treatment in sanatorium- health resorts have continued improving quality of life in comparison with patients who were treated only in outpatient conditions.2. Availability sanatorium stage of rehabilitation in the treatment of elderly patients with OA contributes more complex influence on the human organism.3. Multi-disciplinary nature of medical rehabilitation in spa conditions , a wide range of used restorative treatment methods can affect the quality of life and maintain remission for more longer period in comparison with outpatient treatment.4. Monitoring the quality of life can not only control the functional state of the organism in the elderly aged people at various stages of treatment , but also to properly evaluate the effectiveness of treatment , and, if necessary, to carry out the correction of rehabilitation activities .Perspectives for future research. Aimed at studying the impact of rehabilitative and preventive measures on the quality of life in elderly patients with osteoarthritis at other stages of rehabilitation. Further work in this direction is reasonable and economically justified.REFERENCES1. Golyachenko A.O., Martynyuk V.I., Bakalyuk T.G. Medical rehabilitation in the spa conditions // Journal of research. - 2007 . - № 4. - P. 8-9.2. Kazymyrko V.K., KovalenkoV.N., Flehontova V.V. Involutional osteoarthritis and osteoporosis. - Donetsk: Publisher Zaslavsky A.J., 2011. - 724 p.3. Kovalenko V.N., Bortkiewicz A.P. Osteoarthritis . Practical guidance . - K.: Moryon , 2005. - 592 p.4. Mendel O.I., Naumov A.V., Alekseeva L.I. et al Osteoarthritis as a factor of risk in cardio-vascular catastrophes // Ukrainian Journal of Rheumatology . - 2010 . - № 3. - P. 68-73.5. Povoroznyuk V.V. Osteoarthritis // Art of treatments. - 2004 . - № 3. - P.16 -23.6 . Altman R., Asch E., Bloch D. et al. The American College of Rheumatology criteria for the classification and reporting of osteoarthritis of the knee // Arthritis Rheum. - 1986 . - № 29. - P. 1039-1049 .7 . Harrison M.J., Davies L.M., Bansback N.J. et al. The comparative responsiveness of the EQ-5D and SF-6D to change in patients with inflammatory arthritis // Qual Life Res. - 2009 . - № 18. - P. 1195-1205.8 . Herdman M., Gudex C., Lloyd A., et al. Development and preliminary testing of the new five-level version of EQ-5D (EQ-5D-5L) // Qual Life Res. - 2011 . - № 20 . - P. 1727-1736.9 . Langley P., Muller-Schwefe G., Nicolaou A., Liedgens H., Pergolizzi J., Varrassi G. The societal impact of pain in the European Union: health-related quality of life and healthcare resource utilization // J. Med Econ. - 2010 . - № 1. - P. 571-581. ; Мета: вивчення показників якості життя у хворих похилого віку на остеоартроз з використанням міжнародного запитальника EuroQol для оцінки ефективності санаторно-курортного лікування.Матеріали і методи. У дослідження було включено 72 пацієнти віком від 60 до 78 років, середній вік склав 67,6±8,7 року. Методом рандомізації пацієнтів було розподілено на дві групи. Пацієнти однієї з груп додатково проходили реабілітацію в умовах санаторію протягом 18-21 дня. Оцінка якості життя, пов'язаного зі здоров'ям, проводилась з використанням міжнародного запитальника EuroQol-5D-European Quality of Life instrument (EQ-5D).Результати. У всіх хворих на остеоартроз виявлено проблеми зі здоров'ям різного ступеня. Через 12 місяців за даними запитальника достовірна позитивна динаміка якості життя спостерігалася у пацієнтів, що проходили санаторно-куротне лікування, за рахунок покращення здатності до пересування, зменшення болю і дискомфорту та збільшення повсякденної активності.Висновки. Наявність санаторно-курортного етапу реабілітації у комплексному лікуванні остеоартрозу дозволяє вплинути на якість життя та зберегти ремісію на більш тривалий термін порівняно з амбулаторним лікуванням.КЛЮЧОВІ СЛОВА: якість життя, санаторно-курортне лікування, остеоартроз.

Vážení čtenáři,S potěšením vám oznamujeme, že po několika měsících intenzivní práce je první anglické číslo Envigogiky na světě – a může být vypuštěno do světa. Envigogika se od roku 2006 postupně stává důležitou platformou pro komunikaci a šíření znalostí v oblasti environmentálního vzdělávání či vzdělání pro udržitelný rozvoj. Dosud byly publikovány "anglické verze" časopisu formou přehledů anglických abstraktů, samozřejmě s několika výjimkami plně anglických textů.Nyní, v roce 2013, jsme pokročili zásadním způsobem kupředu – začínáme publikovat plně anglická čísla časopisu vedle čísel víceméně pouze českých (a slovenských). To je možné zaprvé díky stále vzrůstajícímu počtu autorů: učitelé různých stupňů, kteří se o naše témata zajímají, se jimi také stále více zabývají v praxi. Mají potřebu reflektovat svou činnost, sdělovat si navzájem své zkušenosti; někteří dokonce plánují svůj výzkum tak, aby se pak o jeho výsledky mohli podělit s našimi čtenáři – to vše samozřejmě podporuje rozvoj této oblasti. Naši autoři tak postupně vytvářejí společnou "zásobárnu vědění", a sdělují si informace potřebné pro spolupráci a společné aktivity. Za druhé, a zde je třeba vyjádřit opravdovou vděčnost, nám pomáhají také četní anonymní recenzenti. V procesu nezávislého posuzování (peer-review) na sebe berou část odpovědnosti za publikované články, a také díky jim pak vidíme, jak celková úroveň našich textů postupně roste. Ochota vést tuto (kritickou) diskusi, a vývoj média, kde probíhá, nám pak nyní umožnily vykročit na mezinárodní scénu.Toto první anglické číslo Envigogiky je zaměřeno na environmentální vzdělávání (EV), vzdělávání pro udržitelný rozvoj (VUR), či vytváření obecného povědomí o environmetálních problémech; týká se i jejich širšího kulturního kontextu a politických podmínek ve specificky českém prostředí. S ohledem na udržitelný rozvoj společnosti se soustavně zabýváme jeho bariérami – které brání hlubším změnám ve společenských zvyklostech a pravidlech, životním stylu, nebo eticky podložených přístupech a způsobech rozhodování; soustřeďujeme se na naši oblast expertizy, kde čerstvé myšlenky, metody výuky/učení, nové postupy hodnocení atd. mohou být inspirací pro kritický pohled na systém vzdělávání jako takový. Snažíme se stát součástí mezinárodního společenství EV i VUR, přičemž současně očekáváme jeho podporu; všechny zásadnější změny či inovace jsou totiž založeny na širších diskusích (v našem případě vedených v evropském měřítku), teoretických úvahách, sdílených strategiích a společných iniciativách. A také doufáme v podíl zahraničních kolegů (z dalších zemí střední a východní Evropy jakož i odjinud) na obsahu i přípravě dalších čísel Envigogiky.Během posledních týdnů jsme také usilovali o zlepšení formy časopisu, a tím i jeho postavení mezi časopisy v mezinárodním měřítku. Součástí tohoto vývoje bylo převedení celého obsahu Envigogiky z původního systému (Joomla) do nového, tzv. Open Journal System (OJS) [1] – "otevřeného" systému pro správu a publikování časopisů. Tento systém pomáhá v každé fázi publikačního procesu: od zasílání/přijímání příspěvků, přes recenzní řízení a publikační proces v elektronickém prostředí, až po indexování.Využití OJS znamená pro Envigogiku kvalitativní krok kupředu – nyní se metadata z jednotlivých článků okamžitě načtou do EndNote, Zotera a dalších systémů správy referencí; časopis je již v tuto chvíli indexoán v Google Scholaru, a v nejbližší budoucnosti jej plánujeme zařadit do dalších důležitých databází jako např. DOAJ atd. Ve spolupráci s vydavatelstvím Karolinum Univerzity Karlovy v Praze bude Envigogika také zařazena do databáze CrossRef a každý článek získá své jedinečné číslo DOI.V následujících letech tak bude připraveno několik anglických čísel časopisu, a ty ponesou v názvu pro snadnou orientaci označení "ENGLISH ISSUE". Na základě zkušeností z tohoto období se pak rozhodneme, zda ve vydávání na jedné straně čistě anglických, na straně druhé českých/slovenských čísel pokračovat, nebo zda se v budoucnu vrátíme k číslům dvojjazyčným, například tematicky zaměřeným.Ale nyní se můžete podívat do obsahu tohoto prvního anglického čísla Envigogiky: V textu Jana Činčery si můžete přečíst o hodnocení interaktivní výstavy určené pro středoškolské studenty, která se zaměřuje na globální problémy a zodpovědnost konzumentů. Autor, který sledoval její působení na třech školách, dochází k zajímavému závěru: i když byla výstava úspěšná z hlediska zaujetí studentů a napomohla zvýšení jejich povědomí o daných problémech, někteří studenti ji hodnotili jako manipulativní, zatímco v jiných vyvolala pocit bezmoci. V článku je navržena změna strategie výuky a provádění aktivit týkajících se globálních problémů. Vzdělávací aspekty kurzu Environmentální ekonomie a politiky vyučovaného na Vysoké škole ekonomické v Praze zkoumal Petr Šauer a Martin Zahradník. Výzkum se zaměřil na postoje studentů vůči životnímu prostředí a na jejich hodnocení různých částí kurzu; snažil se odpovědět na otázku, v čem byl pro studenty kurz přínosný, jaké preferovali informační zdroje a jakou roli v jejich přístupu ke studiu sehrál zájem o stav životního prostředí. Autoři dospěli k závěru, že environmentální ekonomii považují za užitečnou jak studenti klasifikovaní jako "environmentalisté", tak i "ne-environmentalisté" (či dokonce "anti- environmentalisté"). V závěru diskutují klíčové faktory pro udržení zájmu studentů a možnosti analýzy tzv. přístupů ke studiu (learning strategies). Mezigeneračními rozdíly v osobním vztahu k přírodě se zabývá Markéta Vacínová a Tomáš Matějček . Sledují žáky a jejich rodiče z hlediska jejich vztahu k přírodě a zjišťují určité rozdíly v jejich osobním přístupu: zatímco žáci dávají přednost "moderním" aktivitám, jejich rodiče praktikují spíše více "tradiční" činnosti. Článek Anny Poláškové poskytuje pohled na environmentální gramotnost a postoje mladých technicky orientovaných českých studentů na farmaceutické fakultě, kteří se připravují na profese mimo oblast ekologie. Autorka věří, že environmentální gramotnost a povědomí univerzitních studentů v technických oborech jsou velmi důležité, protože právě na úrovni manažerů a vedoucích pracovníků vznikají politiky, které jsou více, či méně, šetrné k životnímu prostředí. Zjišťuje převážně pozitivní vztah k ochraně přírody a vzdělávání u těchto více techniky orientovaných studentů a studentek; na druhé straně úroveň environmentálních znalostí získaných během středoškolského vzdělání hodnotí jako v mnoha případech nízkou.V rubrice Informace připomínají Andrew Barton a Jan Vávra konferenci "Naše společná přítomnost (Our Common Present) - Jaké jsou současné výzvy Střední Evropy?", která se konala 24. dubna 2013 se na Filozofické fakultě Univerzity Karlovy v Praze; představují hlavní přednášející, jejich příspěvky a závěry z konference. První z autorů píše též o mezinárodní konferenci "Transdisciplinární výzkum udržitelnosti v Evropě" (23.-24. května 2013, UK), kde byl diskutován tento hraniční prostor ve vědě a byla též formulována doporučení pro Evropskou komisi utvářející budoucí vědecké příležitosti v transdisciplinární oblasti.Přejeme vám inspirativní čteníZa redakci EnvigogikyV Praze 28.8.2013Zvláštní poděkování patří všem, kteří přispěli k procesu publikování na straně vydavatele, včetně Univerzity Karlovy, která bude zajišťovat archivaci Envigogiky a vydávání čísel DOI pro texty v dalších číslech. Redakční tým chce také poděkovat těm, kteří pro tento krok poskytli finanční podporu, zvláště projektu Mezioborová síť spolupráce pro policy development v oblasti udržitelného rozvoje (MOSUR) financovanému Evropským sociálním fondem (ESF OPVK), jehož prostřednictvím jsou vydávána čísla od roku 2011, a v jehož rámci bylo též zahájeno vydávání anglické verze časopisu.[1] OJS je systém tzv. open source software vyvinutý v rámci projektu Public Knowledge Project (http://pkp.sfu.ca), který je financován kanadskou vládou, a který je poskytnut celosvětově všem časopisům – umožňuje jim publikovat formou, tzv. open access, tj. přístup k plným verzím článků není nijak omezen . V současné době jej využívá 12 000 vědeckých časopisů po celém světě. ; Dear readers,We are very pleased to announce that after several months of intense work the first fully English issue of the journal Envigogika is ready to be shared with the community of those interested in the field we strive to systematically cultivate! Envigogika has been an important communication and knowledge-sharing platform on educational topics regarding the environment and sustainability in the Czech- and Slovak-speaking professional community since 2006. English abstracts were previously included, but full texts were available predominantly in Czech and Slovak (with a few exceptions in English).Now, in 2013, the journal is taking a big leap forward by starting publication of additional issues in English alongside the Czech/Slovak issues. This is possible thanks to teachers at various educational levels in the Czech Republic involved in environmental education/ESD who are becoming more active and fostering a dialogue in this field that will support its ongoing development.The number of authors from different disciplinary backgrounds that publish their articles in Envigogika is growing, and some of them even plan their research with regard to our readership. We are happy that these authors thus contribute to a common pool of knowledge, share their experiences "from the field" and provide up-to-date information necessary for joint initiatives. We are also grateful to have numerous anonymous reviewers who are willing to undertake the difficult task of contributing to the quality of the published articles. Thus, we feel that the quality of our articles has been consistently improving since the journal's inception, which has also enabled us to step onto the international stage recently.This first English issue is primarily focused on the specific context of the Czech Republic: not only environmental education (EE) and education for sustainable development (ESD), but also awareness raising and the wider cultural context and political conditions necessary to achieve a transition towards sustainability. We are constantly challenging historically constructed and economically justified barriers to this development that also prevent deeper changes to habits, customs, lifestyles and ethical approaches; we concentrate on our field of expertise where fresh new ideas, teaching/learning methods, assessment techniques etc. could provide inspiration for and a critical view into the educational system per se. Thus, we are endeavouring to become a part of the international ESD community while also anticipating its support; any more profound innovation is based upon broader (in our case, European-wide) discussions, theoretical considerations, shared strategies, and joint initiatives. And we hope to involve colleagues from abroad (from other Central and East European countries, as well as further afield) in future English issues.During past few weeks, we have been working hard towards strengthening the position of the journal internationally and therefore, as part of further developments, we have transferred the content of Envigogika from the original Joomla system to the new Open Journal System (OJS) [1] – an open source journal management and publishing system. OJS assists with every stage of the refereed publishing process, from submissions through to online publication and indexing.For Envigogika, using OJS means a qualitative step forward – now you can immediately download metadata from articles to EndNote, Zotero and other reference management software, it is already indexed in Google Scholar and, in the near future, we plan to add it to other important databases such as DOAJ, etc. In cooperation with Charles University's publishing house Karolinum, Envigogika will also soon be included in the CrossRef database and each article will have a unique DOI.A number of English-only issues will be prepared in 2013 and 2014 and these will be marked "ENGLISH ISSUE" in the volume name for easy identification. Based on our experience from this period, we will decide whether to publish articles based on language (Czech/Slovak vs. English) or whether to produce bilingual (possibly thematic) issues in the future instead.But for now, in this first 2013 English-only issue, you can read about:1) An evaluation of an interactive exhibition for secondary education students, focusing on global problems and consumer responsibility by Jan Činčera. The author comes to an interesting conclusion: even if the exhibition was successful in terms of involving students and increasing their awareness of the problems, it was evaluated as being manipulative by some students while some of the others experienced a feeling of hopelessness. Modification of the exhibition and related activities is proposed in the article.2) Educational aspects of Environmental Economics – a course taught at the University of Economics in Prague for environmentally as well as non-environmentally oriented specialisations – are explored by Petr Šauer and Martin Zahradník. The focus of attention of their research is especially on what aspects of the course the students valued, what benefits they got from the course, how they managed the information resources and what role this played with regards to students' concern for environmental issues. The authors come to the conclusion that the students clustered as both 'environmentalists' and 'non-environmentalists' (or even 'anti-environmentalists') advocate environmental economics as a beneficial part of the curriculum.3) Intergenerational differences in personal relationships to nature are examined by Markéta Vacínová and Tomáš Matějček. They concentrate their research on pupils and their parents on selected aspects of their personal relationship to nature. They discover certain differences between these two groups of respondents in feeling a need to be in the countryside: while parents prefer more "classic" or "traditional" pursuits, the students practice mainly "modern" activities in the countryside.4) Anna Polášková's article offers an insight into the environmental literacy and attitudes of young technically-oriented Czech university students at a faculty of pharmacy in preparation for non-teaching and non-ecological professional careers. The author believes that environmental literacy and consciousness among university students in technical fields is very important, since it is usually among middle managers and executives with technical education that environmentally friendly policies and strategies more or less begin. She found that positive relationships to environmental protection and education in this faculty prevailed; however, the level of environmental knowledge gained from their secondary education seemed to be low in most cases.5) Information texts: Andrew Barton and Jan Vávra report on the proceedings of an academic conference held in Prague in April 2013 called Our Common Present which focused on the array of current challenges facing Central Europe. In addition, Andrew Barton also writes about a workshop on Transdisciplinary Research on Sustainability held in Prague in May in collaboration with the Schumacher Institute for Sustainable Systems, UK.We wish you inspirational reading,The Envigogika editorial teamIn Prague on 28.8.2013With special thanks to those who contributed to the publication process on the part of publisher, including Charles University which has been supportive in the archiving of Envigogika and providing DOI for future issues. The editorial team would, moreover, like to thank all who made this important step possible with financial support obtained via the project Interdisciplinary Sustainable Development Network (MOSUR, OP VK) for all issues published since 2011, including the current English issue.[1] OJS is open source software development by the Public Knowledge Project (http://pkp.sfu.ca) funded by Canadian Government and made freely available to journals worldwide for the purpose of making open access publishing a viable option for more journals. About 12 000 titles of scientific journals are using this system worldwide.

La formulación de políticas para satisfacer las necesidades de cuidado de la sociedad nunca había sido más urgente que ahora. En muchas partes del mundo desarrollado, la creciente participación de la mujer en el empleo remunerado ha socavado el modelo tradicional del padre como sostén de la familia, el cual descansaba sobre la disponibilidad de una esposa dependiente que permanecía en el hogar para cuidar de los hijos y los parientes discapacitados, mayores o frágiles. Con este documento se busca comprender la forma en que se configuran las políticas del cuidado. Se examina la dinámica existente entre la forma en que el público formula demandas de cuidado y las distintas maneras en que las políticas de cuidado se crean y aplican en diferentes contextos nacionales, regionales e históricos. El énfasis de este estudio recae principalmente en las políticas de cuidado infantil para las madres y los padres trabajadores de Europa, pero también se abordan las políticas dirigidas a las personas discapacitadas y a los proveedores de cuidado no remunerados. El objetivo de este trabajo es entender la relación, en determinados contextos, entre (i) la articulación de las demandas con base en las necesidades de aquellos que brindan o reciben cuidado; (ii) los marcos políticos y la lógica de las políticas relativas a las necesidades de cuidado; y (iii) los resultados de dichas políticas para distintos grupos de beneficiarios y proveedores de cuidados. El documento se divide en dos secciones principales. La primera se ocupa de las diferentes formas en que los actores políticos enmarcan o delimitan las políticas de cuidado en Europa. La sección comienza con un breve repaso de las teorías y los conceptos que sustentan el documento, para luego proceder con la aplicación de dichas teorías y conceptos en un análisis sobre la forma en que se interpretan las necesidades de cuidado en las demandas de aquellos que representan a los proveedores y beneficiarios del cuidado. Se definen cinco áreas de demandas: conciliación entre el trabajo y el cuidado; apoyo a las personas discapacitadas; cuidado no remunerado; exigencias de flexibilidad por parte de los sindicatos; y cuidado suministrado por migrantes. Según la autora, las demandas de cuidado en estas áreas, tomadas en su conjunto, amplían las exigencias de reconocimiento, derechos y redistribución de responsabilidades en materia de cuidado y apuntan hacia un marco general de justicia social. El análisis de la formulación de políticas en Europa revela que algunos de los discursos relacionados con las nociones de justicia social se ven reflejados en la política del cuidado, pero también muestra que el marco predominante es el de la política del cuidado como forma de inversión social en capital humano. En este documento se examinan las oportunidades y limitaciones políticas relativas al surgimiento de derechos sociales para los padres e hijos en Europa. En la segunda parte del documento se examinan las políticas en diferentes contextos nacionales a partir de las siguientes interrogantes: ¿qué factores llevan a la formulación de las políticas? y ¿qué significa esto para los resultados que pueden obtenerse en relación con las desigualdades sociales? Los factores analizados son el cambio demográfico, la inversión social, la generación de empleo y la naturaleza mundial de la política del cuidado. A manera de conclusión, se señala en el documento que las políticas del cuidado en Europa están impregnadas de tensiones y contradicciones dimanantes de las perspectivas tanto de los proveedores como de los beneficiarios del cuidado. Por una parte, se han registrado importantes cambios en los diez últimos años. Por ejemplo, el reconocimiento del potencial de empleo de aquellos que hasta ahora han permanecido marginados del trabajo remunerado, como las madres y las personas discapacitadas; el reconocimiento de la capacidad de los hombres para suministrar cuidado; el aumento de las responsabilidades del Estado como proveedor de cuidados, en especial el cuidado infantil; y el reconocimiento de los parientes proveedores de cuidado. Por la otra, estas oportunidades han venido de la mano con limitaciones, entre ellas el sentido de obligación de las madres y las personas discapacitadas de conseguir trabajo a menudo en las partes más precarias del mercado laboral; una mayor comodificación de los servicios de cuidado; y la producción de padres y proveedores de cuidado, personas mayores y discapacitadas que ejercen su opción como consumidores en el mercado del cuidado, en lugar de hacer oír su voz como ciudadanos en el ámbito público del cuidado. Estos acontecimientos también han tenido como consecuencia la creación de una fuerza laboral migrante pobremente remunerada. En esta situación, el desafío clave radica en utilizar aquellos espacios en los cuales el cuidado se ha politizado y se han adquirido derechos para fomentar el valor político, social y económico del cuidado como componente fundamental de las demandas de justicia social nacional y transnacional. / ; Abstract. The question of how to devise policies to meet the care needs of society has become more urgent than ever. In many parts of the developed world, women's increasing involvement in paid employment has undermined the traditional male breadwinner model which assumed the availability of a dependent wife at home to care for children, disabled family members and older, frail relatives. This paper seeks to understand how care policies are shaped. It looks at the dynamic between how constituencies make care claims and the ways in which care policies are constructed and delivered in different national, regional and historical contexts. The focus is mainly on childcare policies for working parents in Europe, but the purview here also includes policies for disabled people and unpaid carers. Its aim is to provide an understanding, within particular contexts, of the relationship between (i) the articulation of claims based on the needs of those who provide and/or receive care; (ii) the political frames and logics of policies which attend to care needs; and (iii) the outcomes of such policies for different groups of care receivers and providers. The paper is divided into two main sections. The first focuses on the ways different political actors frame care policies in Europe. It starts with a brief review of the theories and concepts that inform the paper. It goes on to apply these to an analysis of how care needs are interpreted in the claims of those representing the providers and receivers of care. Five areas of claims are identified: work/care reconciliation; disabled people's support; unpaid care; trade union demands for flexibility; and migrant care work. It proposes that, together, claims in these areas expand demands for recognition, rights and the redistribution of responsibilities in relation to care, and that they look to an overarching frame of social justice. The analysis of policy making in Europe shows that some of the discourses attached to notions of social justice find reflection in care policy but that the dominant frame is that of care policy as a form of social investment in human capital. The paper examines political opportunities and constraints in the emergence of social rights for parents and children in Europe. The second part examines policies in different national contexts by asking which issues drive policies and what this means for outcomes in terms of social inequalities. The issues examined are demographic change, social investment, employment creation and the global nature of care policy. In conclusion, the paper finds that care policies in Europe are imbued with tension and contradiction from the perspective of those who provide and receive care support. On the one hand, the last decade has seen important changes: for example, the recognition of the employment potential of those previously marginalized from paid work such as mothers and disabled people; the recognition of men's caring capacities; the rise of state responsibilities for care provision, especially in child care; and the recognition of family carers. On the other hand, these opportunities have been accompanied by constraints, including a sense of obligation by mothers and disabled people to find work often in the more precarious parts of the labour market; the increased commodification of care services; and the construction of parents/carers, older and disabled people exercising choice as consumers in the care market, rather than exercising their voice as citizens in the public domain of care. Such developments have also had the consequence of creating a poorly paid migrant labour economy of care. In this situation the key challenge is to use those spaces in which care has become politicized and rights have been won to advance the political, social and economic value of care as a crucial component in claims for national and transnational social justice. / ; Résumé. Comment concevoir des politiques qui puissent répondre aux besoins de soins des sociétés? La question se pose en termes plus urgents que jamais. Dans bien des pays développés, les femmes sont de plus en plus nombreuses à avoir un emploi rémunéré, ce qui a affaibli le modèle traditionnel de l'homme soutien de famille, qui supposait la présence au foyer d'une épouse à charge s'occupant des enfants ainsi que des parents handicapés ou âgés et fragiles. L'auteur de ce document cherche à comprendre comment sont conçues les politiques des soins et de l'assistance aux personnes. Elle examine la dynamique entre les revendications des différents publics en la matière et la façon dont les politiques sont élaborées et appliquées dans divers contextes nationaux, régionaux et historiques. Elle s'est intéressée principalement aux politiques de garde des enfants mises en place pour les parents qui travaillent en Europe, bien que les politiques relatives aux handicapés et aux soignants non rémunérés entrent aussi dans son champ d'étude. Son objectif est de faire comprendre, dans des contextes particuliers, la relation entre (i) l'articulation des revendications qui partent des besoins des soignants et/ou des soignés; (ii) les cadres et logiques des politiques soucieuses de répondre aux besoins en matière de soins et d'assistance aux personnes; et (iii) les effets de ces politiques sur les différents groupes de soignés et de soignants. Le document se divise en deux sections principales. La première porte sur la manière dont différents acteurs politiques conçoivent les politiques de soins et d'assistance aux personnes en Europe. L'auteur commence par un bref exposé des théories et des concepts qui informent le document. Elle poursuit en les appliquant à une analyse des besoins en matière de soins et d'assistance tels qu'ils ressortent de l'interprétation qu'en donnent les représentants des soignants et des soignés dans leurs revendications. Elle recense cinq domaines de revendication: nécessité de concilier travail et soins; aide aux personnes handicapées; soins non rémunérés; revendications syndicales de flexibilité; et place des migrants dans le secteur des soins. Elle suggère que, collectivement, les revendications dans ces domaines tendent à obtenir une reconnaissance, des droits et une redistribution des responsabilités en matière de soins et d'assistance aux personnes, et se réfèrent à un modèle général de justice sociale. L'analyse des politiques élaborées en Europe montre que certains des discours qui s'inspirent des notions de justice sociale se traduisent concrètement dans les politiques de soins et d'assistance aux personnes mais que le cadre dominant consiste à concevoir la politique de soins et d'assistance aux personnes comme une forme d'investissement social dans le capital humain. L'auteur examine ce qui, en politique, favorise l'émergence de droits sociaux pour les parents et les enfants en Europe et ce qui y fait obstacle. La deuxième partie est consacrée à l'examen des politiques dans leurs différents contextes nationaux. L'auteur examine les questions qui peuvent être à l'origine de ces politiques-l'évolution démographique, l'investissement social, la création d'emplois et la nature de la politique des soins dans le monde-et se demande quels en sont les résultats en termes d'inégalités sociales. En conclusion, l'auteur estime que les politiques des soins en Europe sont pleines de tensions et contradictions du point de vue des soignants comme des soignés. D'une part, d'importantes évolutions se sont produites en dix ans: on reconnaît aujourd'hui l'employabilité de personnes qui étaient tenues naguère à l'écart de l'emploi rémunéré telles que les mères de famille et les personnes handicapées, de même que les aptitudes des hommes en matière de soins; les Etats assument davantage de responsabilités dans la prestation de services, en particulier dans le secteur des garderies pour enfants et l'on reconnaît le rôle des soignants familiaux. De l'autre, ces chances ne vont pas sans contraintes: ainsi, les mères et les personnes handicapées se sentent obligées de trouver du travail, souvent dans les secteurs les plus précaires du marché; on assiste à une marchandisation accrue des services de soins et les parents, soignants, personnes âgées et handicapées sont plus perçus comme des consommateurs faisant des choix sur le marché des soins que comme des citoyens dans le domaine public des soins. Ces évolutions ont eu aussi pour effet de créer une économie des soins portée par des travailleurs migrants mal payés. Dans ces circonstances, le grand défi est d'utiliser les espaces dans lesquels les soins sont politisés et où des droits ont été acquis pour faire valoir l'aspect politique, social et économique des soins comme revendication cruciale de justice sociale aux plans national et transnational.

Inhaltsangabe: Introduction: The question of how and if children acquire language has long been of perennial interest: is language innate or not? If it is, what then is the proto-language? The first phylogenetic 'study' was conducted as early as the 7th century BC: pharaoh Psammetich I. undertook to determine what the proto-language is by giving two infants to a foster father who was not allowed to talk to them. After two years of no linguistic input they could only speak one word – 'bek' – which was assumed to be the Phrygian word for bread (bekos). In the 16th century Akbar the Great initiated the first ontogenetic study. By having two infants raised by a mute woman he proved that children do not learn to speak if they do not hear anyone speak. Since then ample questions concerning first language acquisition have been faced and replied to in detail and at great length. Yet, there are still some left unanswered or even unasked. One of the topics that have not been of great interest so far is the acquisition of interjections not only in first language but also in foreign language learning. In fact, interjections play an important role in communicative as well as non-communicative contexts, and their actual linguistic value and role were underestimated and misjudged for quite a long time: Interjections are among the most little studied of language phenomena; as one looks for references to them in the works of linguists, one is struck by the fact that they are very rarely mentioned, and where they are mentioned, it is usually only briefly and cursorily. Only recently have linguists delved into the subject of interjections and discovered that this particular linguistic phenomenon provides in fact ample opportunity for study and research. Moreover, with the interest in interjections the problem arose to determine what actually defines an interjection. As we shall see, opinions on this point differ considerably and attempts at agreeing upon the definition of interjections have been unsuccessful so far. Yet, there are some general tendencies which will form the basis for how the term interjection is used in this paper, and discussion of this point will be postponed until part II. Now, this M.A. thesis aims at gaining an insight into the acquisition of interjections in early childhood. This field has been neglected so far but merits in fact extensive and thorough inspection. This paper consists of three main parts, with the first two parts forming the basis for my study in part III.: in the first part I will provide a brief overview on child language acquisition, focussing particularly on phonological development. The second part consists of a theoretical disquisition on interjections to illustrate what characteristics they have and what peculiarities they show. In the third and final part I will come to my study on the acquisition of interjections in early childhood.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: 0.Introduction1 I.Part I. - Child Language Acquisition3 I.1Preliminary Remarks3 I.1.1Why Do We Learn to Speak at All?3 I.1.2Anatomic Implications4 I.2Basic Principles5 I.2.1The Neonate5 I.2.2First Vocalisations5 I.2.3The Babbling Period6 I.2.4Prosodics7 I.2.5Early Word Comprehension and Production8 I.3Phonology9 I.4Grammatical Acquisition13 I.5Semantics14 I.6Summary: Child Language Acquisition14 II.Part II. - Interjections17 II.1What Is an Interjection? Approaches and Introduction17 II.2Brief Overview: History of the Study of Interjections18 II.3Primary and Secondary Interjections20 II.4Features of Interjections21 II.4.1Why Are There Similarities across Different Languages?21 II.4.1.1The Pooh-pooh Theory22 II.4.1.2Physiological Determinants23 II.4.1.3Formal Constraints24 II.4.2An Attempt at Classifying Interjections25 II.4.2.1Tesnière's Classification of Interjections26 II.4.2.2Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm's Classification of Interjections28 II.4.2.3Ameka's Classification of Interjections29 II.4.3Parameters of Interjectionality31 II.4.3.1Functional and Pragmatic Features32 II.4.3.1.1Emotivity and Expressiveness32 II.4.3.1.2Non-referentiality33 II.4.3.1.3The Role of Interjections in Speech Acts33 II.4.3.1.4Monologicity36 II.4.3.2Formal Features38 II.4.3.2.1Prosodic and Suprasegmental Characteristics40 II.4.3.2.2Phonotactics and Syllable Structure41 II.4.3.2.3Phonology42 II.4.3.3Orthography43 II.4.3.4Morphology44 II.4.3.5Lexical Structures44 II.4.3.6Syntax45 II.4.3.7Semiotic Structures47 II.4.3.8Semantic Properties48 II.4.3.9Summary: Features of Primary and Secondary Interjections54 II.4.3.10The Linguisticality of Interjections55 II.5Interjections in the English Language55 II.5.1Interjections of Disgust56 II.5.2Interjections Containing an Element of Surprise57 II.5.2.1Oh!57 II.5.2.2Wow!58 II.5.2.3Whoops! and Oops!58 II.5.3Interjections of Pain58 II.5.4Other Interjections58 II.6The Acquisition of Interjections60 III.Part III. - Study: The Acquisition of Interjections in Early Childhood62 III.1Introductory Remarks62 III.1.1Definition of Interjections62 III.1.2Previous Studies66 III.1.3Purpose of Present Study66 III.2Criteria for Selection and Detailed Description of the Interjections for Analysis67 III.2.1Interjections of Pain68 III.2.1.1Function68 III.2.1.2Usage68 III.2.1.3Degree of Linguisticality70 III.2.1.4Origin70 III.2.1.5Form70 III.2.1.6Affiliation to Words and Phrases71 III.2.2Interjections of Disgust71 III.2.2.1Function71 III.2.2.2Usage72 III.2.2.2.1Ugh!72 III.2.2.2.2Yuck!73 III.2.2.2.3Phew!74 III.2.2.3Degree of Linguisticality75 III.2.2.4Origin75 III.2.2.5Form76 III.2.2.6Affiliation to Words and Phrases76 III.2.3"Spill Cries"78 III.2.3.1Function78 III.2.3.2Usage78 III.2.3.3Degree of Linguisticality79 III.2.3.4Origin79 III.2.3.5Form80 III.2.3.6Affiliation to Words and Phrases80 III.2.4Preliminary Thoughts and Hypotheses about the Outcome of My Study81 III.2.4.1Interjections of Pain81 III.2.4.2Interjections of Disgust81 III.2.4.3'Spill Cries'82 III.3Database and Method82 III.3.1Source and Format of Data82 III.3.2Characteristics of Data82 III.3.3Method83 III.4Results84 III.4.1Interjections of Pain84 III.4.1.1Ow!84 III.4.1.2Ouch!93 III.4.2Interjections of Disgust94 III.4.2.1Ugh!94 III.4.2.2Yuck!96 III.4.2.3Phew!97 III.4.3'Spill Cries'97 III.4.3.1Whoops! and Its Variants97 III.4.3.2Whoopsadaisy! and Its Variants102 III.5Discussion103 III.5.1Order of Acquisition103 III.5.2Uses and Their Developmental Change105 III.5.3Comparison of Study Results: Asano - Stange105 III.6For Further Study108 III.7Conclusion110 References Appendix App. 1 IPA symbols used to transcribe the speech sounds in this thesis App. 2 Reasons for the production of Ow! - interjectional usage only App. 3 Deutsche Zusammenfassung der ArbeitTextprobe:Text Sample: Chapter II.4.1.1, The Pooh-pooh Theory: Wundt claimed that primary interjections represent the transition from the imitation of animal sounds to language, i.e. from natural animal sounds to inarticulate exclamatory sounds to articulate emotional sounds. According to Wundt, language evolved in such a way that the articulate emotional sounds used to express moderate emotions were replaced step by step by language, and were henceforth used with intense emotions only Similarly, the interjectional theory – also nicknamed pooh-pooh theory – claims that 'language is derived from instinctive ejaculations called forth by pain or other intense sensations or feelings'. This theory was also put forward by the abbé Regnier, quoted in Beauzée: 'l'interjection … est peut-être la première voix articulée dont les hommes se sont servis'. Hence, interjections may open up the way for an ontogenetic and phylogenetic approach to the development of language. Sapir, however, negates the possibility of interjections being instinctive: he claims that '(interjections) are only superficially of an instinctive nature' and that their phonetic shape is conventional – using this as evidence that 'all of language is conventional, and no part of it instinctive'. Jespersen's also objects to the Pooh-pooh theory but he bases his assumption on a different argument: he maintains that 'the usual interjections are abrupt expressions for sudden sensations and emotions; they are therefore isolated in relation to the speech material used in the rest of the language'. Thus, his argument is that since interjections are not part of language proper, they cannot be a precursor of language. At any rate, it has been suggested that interjections represent some kind of protolanguage, which could explain the similarities between interjections across different languages. We should keep in mind, however, that although interjections are universal to all languages, they are not the same in all languages: it follows that interjections must be (at least to a certain extent) language-specific – they might show formal and/or functional similarities in some cases, though. Physiological Determinants: So let us assume that interjections are not some sort of protolanguage – how then can we account for the cross-linguistic similarities? Although de Brosses claims that interjections are not learnt but are natural expressions of a man's emotions, he also puts their universality down to physiological causes: 'toutes (interjections) tiennent immédiatement à la fabrique générale de la machine organique et au sentiment de la nature humaine, qui est partout le même dans les grands et premiers mouvements corporels'. In The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals, Darwin also gives an explanation for interjections based on purely physiological reasons: As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in connection with the act of eating or tasting something, it is natural that its expression should consist chiefly in movements around the mouth. … With respect to the face, moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways: by the mouth being widely opened, as if to let an offensive morsel drop out; by spitting; by blowing out of the protruded lips; or by a sound as of clearing the throat. Such guttural sounds are written ach or ugh; and their utterance is sometimes accompanied by a shudder… Extreme disgust is expressed by movements round the mouth identical with those preparatory to the act of vomiting. … As the sense of smell is so intimately connected with that of taste, it is not surprising that an excessively bad odour should excite retching or vomiting in some persons, quite as readily as the thought of bad food does; and that, as a further consequence, a moderately offensive odour should cause the various expressive movements of disgust. Note that gestures, facial expressions and body language are biologically determined, hence universal. This fact might account for the resemblance between interjections of different languages, for there is a close link between gestures and the like and interjections. Taking the above extract into consideration, I can assuredly claim that the sounds produced in these circumstances can indeed resemble the English interjections of disgust, namely Phew! and Ugh!. Later on in the same work Darwin notes the following on the expression of surprise: '… whenever astonishment, surprise or amazement is felt …, our mouths are generally opened; yet the lips are often a little protruded… As a strong expiration naturally follows the deep inspiration which accompanies the first sense of startled surprise, and as the lips are often protruded, the various sounds which are then commonly uttered can apparently be accounted for … One of the commonest sounds is a deep Oh; and this would naturally follow … from the mouth being moderately opened and the lips protruded'. Oh! is the most common interjection in the English language, and it is also frequently used in many other (if not all?) languages, e.g. in the Romance languages, in German, Welsh, Russian, etc. For further comments on Oh! see chapter II.5.2.1 below. So basically, some of the primary interjections can indeed be explained by physiological attributes. These are by definition not language-specific because they are biological, hence universal. This phenomenon elucidates why interjections might have been misconceived as some sort of protolanguage. Formal Constraints: A third explanation for the similarities between interjections across different languages refers to formal constraints. To clarify this point I need to go a bit farther back. Even though interjections might not elicit a response from the hearer, they do serve nonetheless a communicative purpose: they do mean something, and this meaning is expressed orally. Now, the usage of interjections and especially which interjection is used depends on the context or circumstances and the mental process in the speaker. Different interjections have different functions which concern the hearer. Thus, interjections are an important communicative means for the processing of the common communicative system of speaker and listener. The communicative function of the interjections requires an extremely economic form: the phonetic units of interjections are of minimal complexity due to the shortness and the simple forms. Besides, their prosodic features facilitate their identification in the ongoing discourse. The argument that interjections are similar because of formal constraints is as follows: Aufgrund der formalen Erfordernisse, die durch die funktionalen Zwecke des Gesamtbereichs der Interjektion bedingt sind, bieten sich bei der Sprachbildung nicht beliebig viele Arten von Mitteln an, die diesem Zweck optimal genügen. Die Verwendung kleinster Einheiten und deren Kombinatorik ist optimal geeignet, den funktional geforderten Ökonomiebedürfnissen Rechnung zu tragen. So ist es nicht erstaunlich, dass Sprachen unterschiedlichsten Typs und ohne Rücksicht auf die Bildungsformen zu diesem Mittel der Interjektionsbildung gegriffen haben. Somit ergibt sich eine Erklärungsweise für die Übereinstimmung von Interjektionen in den verschiedenen Sprachen, die nicht auf deren 'Vorsprachlichkeit' zurückzugreifen braucht. So in principle their universality is traced back to formal constraints due to economic reasons. Tesnière observes with regard to the semantic complexity of interjections: 'certaines interjections arrivent même à exprimer des états d'âme et d'esprit si nuancés et si complexes, qu'elles en disent à elles seules plus qu'une phrase entière, et qu'il faut de longues périphrases pour en analyser et en définir le contenu sémantique'. This is another criterion for the economic aspect of interjections: they express in a clear and brief manner what is going on in the speaker's mind, and the listener can understand easily and without delay what is being expressed. All the above mentioned efforts to account for the quasi-universality of (some primary) interjections make sense to a certain extent, and I presume the truth lies somewhere in a blend between all of them. Nevertheless, I need to stress that, for the most part, interjections differ considerably cross-linguistically and are often among 'the most characteristic peculiarities of individual cultures'.

Adequate energy supply has become one of the vital components of human development and economic growth of nations. In fact, major components of the global economy such as transportation services, communications, industrial processes, and construction activities are dependent on adequate energy resources. Even mining and extraction of energy resources, including harnessing the forces of nature to produce energy, are dependent on accessibility of sufficient energy in the appropriate form at the desired location. Therefore, energy resource planning and management to provide appropriate energy in terms of both quantity and quality has become a priority at the global level. The increasing demand for energy due to growing population, higher living standards, and economic development magnifies the importance of reliable energy plans. In addition, the uneven distribution of traditional fossil fuel energy sources on the Earth and the resulting political and economic interactions are other sources of complexity within energy planning. The competition over fossil fuels that exists due to gradual depletion of such sources and the tremendous thirst of current global economic operations for these sources, as well as the sensitivity of fossil fuel supplies and prices to global conditions, all add to the complexity of effective energy planning. In addition to diversification of fossil fuel supply sources as a means of increasing national energy security, many governments are investing in non-fossil fuels, especially renewable energy sources, to combat the risks associated with adequate energy supply. Moreover, increasing the number of energy sources also adds further complication to energy planning. Global warming, resulting from concentration of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere, influences energy infrastructure investments and operations management as a result of international treaty obligations and other regulations requiring that emissions be cut to sustainable levels. Burning fossil fuel, as one of the substantial driving factors of global warming and energy insecurity, is mostly impacted by such policies, pushing forward the implementation of renewable energy polices. Thus, modern energy portfolios comprise a mix of renewable energy sources and fossil fuels, with an increasing share of renewables over time. Many governments have been setting renewable energy targets that mandate increasing energy production from such sources over time. Reliance on renewable energy sources certainly helps with reduction of greenhouse gas emissions while improving national energy security. However, the growing implementation of renewable energy has some limitations. Such energy technologies are not always as cheap as fossil fuel sources, mostly due to immaturity of these energy sources in most locations as well as high prices of the materials and equipment to harness the forces of nature and transform them to usable energy. In addition, despite the fact that renewable energy sources are traditionally considered to be environmentally friendly, compared to fossil fuels, they sometimes require more natural resources such as water and land to operate and produce energy. Hence, the massive production of energy from these sources may lead to water shortage, land use change, increasing food prices, and insecurity of water supplies. In other words, the energy production from renewables might be a solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but it might become a source of other problems such as scarcity of natural resources.The fact that future energy mix will rely more on renewable sources is undeniable, mostly due to depletion of fossil fuel sources over time. However, the aforementioned limitations pose a challenge to general policies that encourage immediate substitution of fossil fuels with renewables to battle climate change. In fact, such limitations should be taken into account in developing reliable energy policies that seek adequate energy supply with minimal secondary effects. Traditional energy policies have been suggesting the expansion of least cost energy options, which were mostly fossil fuels. Such sources used to be considered riskless energy options with low volatility in the absence of competitive energy markets in which various energy technologies are competing over larger market shares. Evolution of renewable energy technologies, however, complicated energy planning due to emerging risks that emanated mostly from high price volatility. Hence, energy planning began to be seen as investment problems in which the costs of energy portfolio were minimized while attempting to manage associated price risks. So, energy policies continued to rely on risky fossil fuel options and small shares of renewables with the primary goal to reduce generation costs. With emerging symptoms of climate change and the resulting consequences, the new policies accounted for the costs of carbon emissions control in addition to other costs. Such policies also encouraged the increased use of renewable energy sources. Emissions control cost is not an appropriate measure of damages because these costs are substantially less than the economic damages resulting from emissions. In addition, the effects of such policies on natural resources such as water and land is not directly taken into account. However, sustainable energy policies should be able to capture such complexities, risks, and tradeoffs within energy planning. Therefore, there is a need for adequate supply of energy while addressing issues such as global warming, energy security, economy, and environmental impacts of energy production processes. The effort in this study is to develop an energy portfolio assessment model to address the aforementioned concerns.This research utilized energy performance data, gathered from extensive review of articles and governmental institution reports. The energy performance values, namely carbon footprint, water footprint, land footprint, and cost of energy production were carefully selected in order to have the same basis for comparison purposes. If needed, adjustment factors were applied. In addition, the Energy Information Administration (EIA) energy projection scenarios were selected as the basis for estimating the share of the energy sources over the years until 2035. Furthermore, the resource availability in different states within the U.S. was obtained from publicly available governmental institutions that provide such statistics. Specifically, the carbon emissions magnitudes (metric tons per capita) for different states were extracted from EIA databases, states' freshwater withdrawals (cubic meters per capita) were found from USGS databases, states' land availability values (square kilometers) were obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau, and economic resource availability (GDP per capita) for different states were acquired from the Bureau of Economic Analysis.In this study, first, the impacts of energy production processes on global freshwater resources are investigated based on different energy projection scenarios. Considering the need for investing on energy sources with minimum environmental impacts while securing maximum efficiency, a systems approach is adopted to quantify the resource use efficiency of energy sources under sustainability indicators. The sensitivity and robustness of the resource use efficiency scores are then investigated versus existing energy performance uncertainties and varying resource availability conditions. The resource use efficiency of the energy sources is then regionalized for different resource limitation conditions in states within the U.S. Finally, a sustainable energy planning framework is developed based on Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) and Post-Modern Portfolio Theory (PMPT) with consideration of the resource use efficiency measures and associated efficiency risks.In the energy-water nexus investigation, the energy sources are categorized into 10 major groups with distinct water footprint magnitudes and associated uncertainties. The global water footprint of energy production processes are then estimated for different EIA energy mix scenarios over the 2012-2035 period. The outcomes indicate that the water footprint of energy production increases by almost 50% depending on the scenario. In fact, growing energy production is not the only reason for increasing the energy related water footprint. Increasing the share of water intensive energy sources in the future energy mix is another driver of increasing global water footprint of energy in the future. The results of the energies' water footprint analysis demonstrate the need for a policy to reduce the water use of energy generation. Furthermore, the outcomes highlight the importance of considering the secondary impacts of energy production processes besides their carbon footprint and costs. The results also have policy implications for future energy investments in order to increase the water use efficiency of energy sources per unit of energy production, especially those with significant water footprint such as hydropower and biofuels.In the next step, substantial efforts have been dedicated to evaluating the efficiency of different energy sources from resource use perspective. For this purpose, a system of systems approach is adopted to measure the resource use efficiency of energy sources in the presence of trade-offs between independent yet interacting systems (climate, water, land, economy). Hence, a stochastic multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) framework is developed to compute the resource use efficiency scores for four sustainability assessment criteria, namely carbon footprint, water footprint, land footprint, and cost of energy production considering existing performance uncertainties. The energy sources' performances under aforementioned sustainability criteria are represented in ranges due to uncertainties that exist because of technological and regional variations. Such uncertainties are captured by the model based on Monte-Carlo selection of random values and are translated into stochastic resource use efficiency scores. As the notion of optimality is not unique, five MCDM methods are exploited in the model to counterbalance the bias toward definition of optimality. This analysis is performed under (")no resource limitation(") conditions to highlight the quality of different energy sources from a resource use perspective. The resource use efficiency is defined as a dimensionless number in scale of 0-100, with greater numbers representing a higher efficiency. The outcomes of this analysis indicate that despite increasing popularity, not all renewable energy sources are more resource use efficient than non-renewable sources. This is especially true for biofuels and different types of ethanol that demonstrate lower resource use efficiency scores compared to natural gas and nuclear energy. It is found that geothermal energy and biomass energy from miscanthus are the most and least resource use efficient energy alternatives based on the performance data available in the literature. The analysis also shows that none of the energy sources are strictly dominant or strictly dominated by other energy sources. Following the resource use efficiency analysis, sensitivity and robustness analyses are performed to determine the impacts of resource limitations and existing performance uncertainties on resource use efficiency, respectively. Sensitivity analysis indicates that geothermal energy and ethanol from sugarcane have the lowest and highest resource use efficiency sensitivity, respectively. Also, it is found that from a resource use perspective, concentrated solar power (CSP) and hydropower are respectively the most and least robust energy options with respect to the existing performance uncertainties in the literature.In addition to resource use efficiency analysis, sensitivity analysis and robustness analysis, of energy sources, this study also investigates the scheme of the energy production mix within a specific region with certain characteristics, resource limitations, and availabilities. In fact, different energy sources, especially renewables, vary in demand for natural resources (such as water and land), environmental impacts, geographic requirements, and type of infrastructure required for energy production. In fact, the efficiency of energy sources from a resource use perspective is dependent upon regional specifications, so the energy portfolio varies for different regions due to varying resource availability conditions. Hence, the resource use efficiency scores of different energy technologies are calculated based on the aforementioned sustainability criteria and regional resource availability and limitation conditions (emissions, water resources, land, and GDP) within different U.S. states, regardless of the feasibility of energy alternatives in each state. Sustainability measures are given varying weights based on the emissions cap, available economic resources, land, and water resources in each state, upon which the resource use efficiency of energy sources is calculated by utilizing the system of systems framework developed in the previous step. Efficiency scores are graphically illustrated on GIS-based maps for different states and different energy sources. The results indicate that for some states, fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas are as efficient as renewables like wind and solar energy technologies from resource use perspective. In other words, energy sources' resource use efficiency is significantly sensitive to available resources and limitations in a certain location.Moreover, energy portfolio development models have been created in order to determine the share of different energy sources of total energy production, in order to meet energy demand, maintain energy security, and address climate change with the least possible adverse impacts on the environment. In fact, the traditional (")least cost(") energy portfolios are outdated and should be replaced with (")most efficient(") ones that are not only cost-effective, but also environmentally friendly. Hence, the calculated resource use efficiency scores and associated statistical analysis outcomes for a range of renewable and nonrenewable energy sources are fed into a portfolio selection framework to choose the appropriate energy mixes associated with the risk attitudes of decision makers. For this purpose, Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) and Post-Modern Portfolio Theory (PMPT) are both employed to illustrate how different interpretations of (")risk of return(") yield different energy portfolios. The results indicate that 2012 energy mix and projected world's 2035 energy portfolio are not sustainable in terms of resource use efficiency and could be substituted with more reliable, more effective portfolios that address energy security and global warming with minimal environmental and economic impacts. ; 2013-12-01 ; Ph.D. ; Engineering and Computer Science, Civil, Environmental and Construction Engineering ; Doctoral ; This record was generated from author submitted information.

Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ; Buckle, Henry Thomas. The love of money -- Burton, Sir Richard Francis. At Meccah the pilgrim?s goal -- Arnold, Matthew. Oxford. English and French prose, a contrast. Sweetness and light -- Freeman, Edward Augustus. The nurse of snow and fire -- Blackmore, Richard Doddridge. Fear in the mist -- Huxley, Thomas Henry. Man and the lower animals -- Bagehot, Walter. Gibbon?s style -- Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. A vision of the soul -- Meredith, George. A diversion played on a penny-whistle. Philosophy and fiction. The comic spirit -- Morris, William. When knights were bold -- Butler, Samuel. Musical banks -- Swinburne, Algernon Charles. The Lake of Gaube. Robert Herrick -- Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. Moral judgements of history -- Harte, Francis Bret. Among the Forty-Niners -- Pater, Walter Horatio. Monna Lisa -- Symonds, John Addington. The Sistine Chapel -- Jefferies, Richard. Out of doors in February -- Stevenson, Robert Louis. A night among the pines. Life and art. Woman she is -- Sharp, William. High noon. The reed player. Whirled stars -- Wilde, Oscar Fingall O?Flahertie Wills. The artist -- The Authorized version of the holy Bible. Preface by the translators. A Messianic vision. Let us now praise famous men. Charity. The Book of Common Prayer: A General confession. The exhortation to the Holy Communion. A bidding prayer. ; Holmes, Oliver Wendell. An infirmary for books -- Kinglake, Alexander William. The sphynx. Constantinople -- Lincoln, Abraham. Gettysburg -- Poe, Edgar Allan. In the hands of the Inquisition. Carpets and culture -- Brown, John. Rab -- Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn. The return of the whaler. Engaged to be married -- Bright, John. The angel of death -- Thackeray, William Makepeace. The fighting Temeraire. Telmessus. The duel with the prince. Snobs -- Browning, Robert. Strafford -- Dickens, Charles. The high court of chancery. At Do-the-boys Hall. Blood-stains. Mrs. Sapsea, in memoriam -- Smiles, Samuel. Manners -- Helps, Sir Arthur. The art of leaving off -- Motley, John Lothrop. Two heroes -- Reade, Charles. The good duke and the arts -- Dana, Richard Henry. A tropical thunderstorm -- Trollope, Anthony. The church in dishabille -- Bronte, Charlotte Nicholls. Nature at evening prayers. A first impression of Belgium -- Jowett, Benjamin. Philosophy and politics -- Thoreau, Henry David. Silence -- Froude, James Anthony. The old order changeth. The last of the Armada. The Iliad -- Cross, Mary Ann (George Eliot). Adam Bede. The inspiration of the East -- Kingsley, Charles. Tobacco. Monotony -- Lowell, James Russell. The sea and sentiment. The pious editor?s creed -- Ruskin, John. The boyhood of Turner. St. Mark?s rest. The peerage of words. Work noble and ignoble -- Whitman, Walt. The bloodbeats of song -- Spencer, Herbert. Democracy in dress -- Tyndall, John. Alone on Monte Rosa. ; Shelley, Percy Bysshe. Poetry and prose: a vulgar error. Niobe -- Lockhart, John Gilson. The influence of Burns -- Carlyle, Thomas. Human dignity. The beautifullest and the squalidest. John Sterling?s last days. Professor Teufelsdrockh?s style -- Hare, Julius Charles. Italics -- John Keats. Preface to ?Endymion? -- Prescott, William Hickling. The colonization of America -- Bancroft, George. The Virginian paradise -- Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Baron Macaulay. Our debt to great minds. The prose writings of Milton. The homely dialect of Bunyan. Dr. Johnson. An admirable Crichton. Wild-cat companies -- Carlyle, Jane Baillie Welsh. Life in London -- Newman, John Henry, Cardinal. At bay. The religion of the day. The gentleman -- Martineau, Harriet. Up and down the pyramid -- Miller, Hugh. Naturalists? nomenclature -- Borrow, George. The Bible in Spain. The fight in the dell -- Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Civilization. Conformity and consistency. The secret of eternal youth. The value of the present moment -- Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer. On rhythm in prose -- Disraeli, Benjamin, Earl of Beaconsfield. The Jews -- Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Woman?s generosity and strength. The faun of Praxiteles -- Maurice, Frederick Denison. The Clapham School -- Browning, Elizabeth Barrett. The true poet?s crown -- Mill, John Stuart. The liberty of the individual -- Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, The Alhambra -- Trench, Richard Chenefix, Archbishop of Dublin. Proverbial philosophy -- Darwin, Charles Robert. Natural selection -- Fitzgerald, Edward. Boat racing at Oxford -- Gladstone, William Ewart. The polity of the Heroic Age. England and foreign policy. ; Campbell, Thomas. Algiers from the sea -- Hallam, Henry. Light from the west -- Brougham, Henry Peter. Greek models -- Davy, Sir Humphrey. The evolution of the arts -- Hazlitt, William. On going a journey. On familiar style. The English Rabelais -- Galt, John. The placing: A.D. 1760 -- Moore, Thomas. A literary duel -- Chalmers, Thomas. The stars in their courses -- Channing, William Ellery. Nationality and style -- Webster, Daniel. Bunker Hill -- Irving, Washington. Columbus the visionary. The widow and her son -- Hunt, James Henry Leigh. The hoop. The burning of Shelley?s body -- De Quincey, Thomas. The secret of prose composition. Style as a fine art. Dreams of an opium-eater -- Napier, Sir William Francis Patrick. Fuentes Onoro. Sir John Moore -- Peacock, Thomas Love. The philosophy of life. The Venuses at Crochet Castle -- Wilson, John (Christopher North). Christopher North?s parish -- Mitford, Mary Russell. A country cricket match -- Whately, Richard, Archbishop of Dublin. Of the best foundation of style -- Byron, George Gordon, Baron. The bitterness of exile -- Milman, Henry Hart. The hymnology of the Latin church -- Alison, Sir Archibald. The freedom of the press. ; Franklin, Benjamin. The whistle -- Fielding, Henry. A moving spectacle. Jonathan Wild?s maxims. The art of dividing books. A farewell voyage -- Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham. The crime of youth. The employment of Indians in the American war. Johnson, Samuel. The Lord Chesterfield. Wit and learning. Dryden and Pope. The conquest of the air -- Hume, David. The virtue of simplicity. Women critics -- Sterne, Laurence. The cant of criticism. The poor ass -- Shenstone, William. On writing and books -- Gray, Thomas. Netley Abbey. Burnham beeches. The grande chartreuse. The laureateship -- Walpole, Horatio, Earl of Orford. Strawberry Hill. The earthquake of 1750. The sedate spectre -- Blair, Hugh. The style is the man -- White, Gilbert. Cuckoos. The tortoise -- Robertson, William. The assassination of Rizzio -- Smollett, Tobias. Tom Bowling. The rulers of the nation. The Maison Caree at Nimes -- Radcliffe, Ann. The Castle of Udolpho -- Mackintosh, Sir James. The French Revolution -- D?Israeli, Isaac. The conversation of men of genius -- Edgeworth, Maria -- The Irish haymaker -- Canning, George. The Jacobin muse. Peace and war -- Hope, Thomas. A Mohammedan teacher -- Wordsworth, William. Prose and metre -- Scott, Sir Walter. Meg Merrilies and the dominie. Desultory reading -- Smith, Sydney. Travellers? tales. Railway regulations. Mrs. Partington -- Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Style. Language -- Jeffrey, Francis. A touchstone of poetic taste -- Southey, Robert. Henry VIII?s popularity. The mourning for Nelson. The Pilgrim?s Progress -- Austen, Jane. A monologue. A scheme for a novel -- Lamb, Charles. Elia at Oxford. Bishop Valentine. Biblia a-biblia. Mrs. Battle?s opinion on whist. A Quakers? meeting -- Landor, Walter Savage. The society of a child. A conversation on style. Schools of poetry. A vision of love, sleep and death. ; Atterbury, Francis, Bishop of Rochester. The Augustan age of English -- Bentley, Richard. The friendship of Epicurus -- Vanbrugh, Sir John. The business of comedy -- Arbuthnot, John. The christening -- Swift, Jonathan. Inconveniences of abolishing Christianity. A meditation upon a broomstick. The duel between Hamilton and Mohun. Lawyers? practice. A standard for language -- Congreve, William. Love, before first sight. An ante-marital agreement -- Mandeville, Bernard. Like a bowl of punch -- Cooper, Anthony Ashley, Earl of Shaftesbury. Ethical doctrine -- Addison, Joseph. Westminster Abbey. The royal exchange. Sunday in the country: Sir Roger at church. Words of foreign coin. Paper manufacture -- Steele, Sir Richard. The art of story-telling. The de Coverley family portraits -- Watts, Isaac. The place of Latin in education -- Saint-John, Henry, Viscount Bolingbroke. Free thinking. Parliament and the executive. The joys of patriotism -- Chambers, Ephraim. Dictionaries -- Middleton, Conyers. Marcus Tullius Cicero -- Berkeley, George, Bishop of Cloyne. Fashions and liquor. The virtues of tar-water -- Gay, John. A pastoral tragedy -- Law, William. A strait-laced mother -- Pope, Alexander. A receipt to make an epic poem. At Oxford -- Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley. ?Ingrafting? for small-pox. To Mr. Pope from Belgrade -- Richardson, Samuel. At home and not at home. Sir Charles Grandison. Self-portraiture -- Amory, Thomas. Love-making extraordinary -- Butler, Joseph, Bishop of Durham. Conscience -- Stanhope, Philip Dormer, Earl of Chesterfield -- Lord Bolingbroke. The dress of thoughts. The je ne sais quoi -- Paltock, Robert. Among the Glumms, or Flying-men -- Adams, Thomas. Comparisons -- Hervey, Lady Mary. Life in Paris -- Brooke, Henry. Imprisonment for debt -- Dodsley, Robert. The lover?s walk at the Leasowes -- Wesley, John. Dress. ; Lock, John. Exercising in English. A fruit diet -- Wood, Anthony. Oxford the home of Minerva -- Pepys, Samuel. Mr. Pepys love of music -- Savile, Sir George, Marquis of Halifax. In defence of the trimmer -- South, Robert. In God?s image. Hypocrites -- Thomas Burnet. Dies Irae -- Sprat, Thomas, Bishop of Rochester. An English academy -- Stillingfleet, Edward, Bishop of Worcester. The search for truth -- Eachard, John. Playing texts -- Glanvill, Joseph. Plainness of speech -- Russell, Rachel. The acquittal of Lord Delamere -- Traherne, Thomas. The world seen by a child -- Behn, Aphra. Perfection in ebony -- Sherlock, William. One foot in the grave -- Burnet, Gilbert, Bishop of Salisbury. William the Third -- Penn, William. Pride of birth -- Barclay, Robert. An apology for Quakers -- Collier, Jeremy. The chief end of comedy -- North, Roger. Music in early days -- Asgill, John. Censorship of the press -- Wallaston, William. Man and nature ; Baxter, Richard. The rest everlasting. Speech with Cromwell -- L?Estrange, Sir Roger. A fox and grapes. A wolf and a lion -- Cudworth, Ralph. The larva of religion -- Cowley, Abraham. This busy world and I. The art of agriculture -- Evelyn, John. The fire of London. Of the original of sculpture -- Hutchinson, Lucy. A hero to his wife -- Marvell, Andrew. The church?s jester -- Sidney, Algernon. The creation of kings -- Vaughan, Henry. Vanitas vanitatum -- Cavendish, Margaret, Duchess of Newcastle. A wife?s testimony -- Fox, George. The protector and the friends -- Boyle, Robert. The style of the scriptures -- Bunyan, John. Mansoul. Mr. By-ends of fair-speech -- Temple, Sir William. Of poetry. The ideal garden -- Barrow, Isaac, Bishop of St. Asaph. Facetiousness -- Cotton, Charles. Of books -- Tillotson, John, Archbishop of Canterbury. Honesty the best policy -- Dryden, John. The father of English poetry. Dramatic poets. A layman?s creed. Fruit of old age ; John Selden. Poetry -- Drummond, William, of Hawthornden. Death, the highway of mortality -- Hobbes, Thomas. Of speech. As a race that is run -- Wither, George. An attack on booksellers -- Quarles, Francis. The covetous man?s care -- Herbert, George. The parson?s library -- Walton, Izaak. Old-fashioned poetry. The sweet singer of ?The temple? -- Howell, James. A letter on wine -- Cromwell, Oliver. Cromwell and Oxford. A familiar letter -- Fabyan, Robert. King Lear -- Holinshed, Raphael. The witches and Macbeth -- Prynne, William. Love-locks -- Earle, John, Bishop of Salisbury. A young raw preacher. A child -- Chillingworth, William. The forgiveness of injuries -- Felltham, Owen. Pulpit oratory -- Digby, Sir Kenelm. The profitableness of study -- Browne, Sir Thomas. Happy dreams. The common course of our diet. The emblems of mortal vanities -- D?Avenant, Sir William. Why books are written -- Waller, Edmund. To my lady -- Fuller, Thomas. Of jesting. The good schoolmaster. A merry digression -- Milton, John. A noble and puissant nation. The censorship of the press. The poet himself as a poem. Custom and error -- Hale, Sir Matthew. Counsel to his children -- Hyde, Edward, Earl of Clarendon. Hampden. Lord Falkland?s open house. Montrose -- Harrington, James. Why commonwealths fall -- Leighton, Robert, Archbishop of Glasgow. The stream of salvation -- Urquhart, Sir Thomas. Scotsmen in London -- Butler, Samuel. A rabble. A small poet -- Taylor, Jeremy, Bishop of Down and Connor. Married life. Mourning. The river. The lark. The rose -- More, Henry. The mystical meaning of the creation -- Wilkins, John, Bishop of Chester. The moon a world. ; Trevisa, John De. St. Patrick?s purgatory -- Chaucer, Geoffrey. The commonplaces of Prudence. The astrolabe -- Juliana of Norwich. Divine love -- Capgrave, John. King Richard to ransom -- Fortescue, Sir John. Chill penury repressed -- Pecock, Reginald, Bishop of Chichester. Virtuous casement -- Mandeville, Sir John. Of the beginning of Mahomet -- Wycliffe, John. Right living -- Caxton, William. Caxton?s ?simple and poor cunning? -- Fisher, John, Bishop of Rochester. Hunters and Christians -- Bourchier, John, Baron Berners. The choosing of a Pope -- More, Sir Thomas. The merits of a merry tale. A providential interposition -- Latimer, Hugh, Bishop of Worcester. Bribes and wages -- Cranmer, Thomas Archbishop of Canterbury. The scripture in the vulgar tongue -- Daniel, Samuel. The danger of innovation -- Shakespeare, William. A royal wooing. Hamlet?s advice to the players. The quintessence of dust. Much virtue in if -- James I, King. The uncivil trick of smoking -- Nash, Thomas. English scholarship. A camp follower -- Wotton, Sir Henry. A letter to John Milton. A last will and testament -- Dekker, Thomas. Sitting on the stage. The appeal of conscience -- Donne, John. Mercy and compassion. Expostulations to my God -- Jonson, Benjamin. Of style. Shakespeare. Lord Bacon -- Hall, Joseph, Bishop of Exeter and Norwich. Balaam?s ass. On the sight of a great library -- Purchas, Samuel. The sea -- Peacham, Henry. Of style in speaking and writing -- Burton, Robert. Melancholy mad -- Coryate, Thomas. The use of forks at table -- Overbury, Sir Thomas. A fair and happy milkmaid -- Herbert, Edward. A knightly obligation -- Hales, John. How to read history. ; Mode of access: Internet.

HOTEMBEB, 1904 VOL. XIIL HO. 6 GETTYSBURG COLLEGE GETTYSBURG, PA. '»! OH. EL wtmiom, onmiun i IB^BBi'BB'i'ffiaiiU'mnvuBlTtliU I U u . i , nlUlk/li I 11/ 1 HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intepcollepte Bureau or Academic Costume. Chartered igoz. Cottrell 6 Leonrard Albany, N. Y. v-vvvvw^rv-v-Nrvv-wwwwTrw Makers of Caps, Gowns, Hoods 9oll indeed, the affection of the individuals differ according to the disposition and environment of each. Let us first consider Orlando and Rosalind, for they are the leading characters in the play, and their love is typical of the extreme romance. There are those who laugh to scorn the idea of love at first sight, yet in his description of these characters, as well as in the courtship of Oliver and Celia, and the sudden passion aroused in Phebe, upon the appearance of the supposed Gany-mede, the great artist seems to encourage at least the possibility of such a condition. With both Rosalind and Orlando, pity is an aid of passion. She fears for his youth, and is sorry to see him in the supposed power of Charles the Wrestler, from which she thinks he may not escape; she also hears rumors of his brother's unkindness and base schemes, and her sympathy hav-ing been aroused, causes her to make the first advances. He, flattered by the attention of Rosalind, is next interested in her lineage, and finally pities her because of her position at the court of her father's banisher. Thus, love, already aroused through mutual admiration and sympathy, is depicted as well under way after the first meeting. Orlando cannot conceive of love for a peasant; he is at-tracted by Rosalind as Ganymede, but cannot understand his brother's love of Celia. It is a question whether he would 196 THE MERCURY. have loved Rosalind had she came to him in the forest dis-guised as a simple shepherdess. Perhaps he would have seen through the disguise at once in that case, as he eventually did with Ganymede ; otherwise his sense of refinement alone would, we believe, have kept him true to Rosalind, no matter how at-tractive the peasant might have been. The nature of Orlando was full of a sensitiveness which was entirely lacking in Oliver; and, although there was nothing of the " snob " in his disposi-tion, we cannot imagine him as the lover of a common shep-herdess, even a disguised one. So much for the influence of previous life and environment upon the love passion. Al-though Orlando had never received the training of a gentleman, the instincts of one were paramount with him. Rosalind also showed her instinctive pride of birth. It mattered not to her how many peasants saw her in manly garb, she did not care for them, but as soon as she met Orlando and Jacques, men of her own rank, in the forest, an underlying feeling of shame be-gan to assert itself, and she was truly content only after she had introduced Hymen and could greet her lover as her natural self. Thus the passion of Rosalind and Orlando is typical of that highly refined romance which, although it is often overlooked by the present-day enthusiast, (who would bring the principles of " free and equal creation " even into the home circle) yet has made, and will continue to make, the happiest and, most en-during of wedlocks. In fact, this romance constitutes all the great principles of " Kind to Kind," and proves only too well the saying that " Ordinary men generally prefer ordinary women, and vice versa." That there are exceptions, as far as the knowledge of birth is concerned, is shown by the courtship of Oliver and Celia. True love was here, undoubtedly, but its annals are commonplace when compared with those of Rosa-lind and Orlando. Celia is typical of many women of yester-day, to-day and to morrow; she was satisfied with little. Per-haps she would not have understood that higher degree of passion which can give up everything for its object; and, find-ing that object unworthy, die a death which is far worse than that of material things. It is well that there are many Celias • • ■MHIIU1'1' THE MERCURY. 197 ' in the world; without them life would be too hard for every-day living. The love of Silvius for the capricious Phebe po- ' sesses true romance. He is a type of that lowly love which remains faithful to its object despite all drawbacks, the." love which knows not fear;" recognizing the glaring faults of his sweetheart, and making no attempt to conceal them, he yet re-mains true to her, and in the end is rewarded. Silvius, although a peasant, is one of the most interesting characters on account of the strength of his dog-like devotion which, contrasted with the behavior of William, who weakly allowed a fool to carry off the object of his affection, is truly charming. And now comes the saddest example, yet alas, it is also quite a portrayal of human desire: The relationship between Audrey and Touchstone. He was a fool, this is his only excuse, and with him let us class all those who would seek entertainment and relief from dullness in the name of love's sacred passion. That he did not really care for Audrey, and wished to marry her in such a way that he might be easily rid o! her should he so desire, he does not attempt to deny. And she,; her only reason in leaving her rustic lover for the court fool was to be-come " a fine lady." Is not even Phebe, with all her faults and impetuosity, superior to Audrey ? The object of her desire, however unnatural it may seem, was, she believed, genuine love, while that of Audrey was pure ambition. So we would say that Jaques' idea of the stage of life and its many actors is only too true. Not a single one renders the great drama of love perfectly, yet each one is perhaps but play-ing an appointed part, and, despite the many different kinds of it in life, let us hope that the poets are right in saying: "'Tis love that makes the world go 'round." I 198 THE MERCURY. THE SPIRITUAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DANTE. BY CHARLES FRY. [Contributedfor the Pen and Sword Prize Essay Contest,.] DANTE was born of noble parentage in Florence in 1265. He was given the best education that his day could af-ford. He took an active part in the politics of his city and while he was away at Rome his enemies took possession of the government and passed a sentence exiling him, only permitting him to return, provided he paid a heavy fine within two months. Dante spurned the offer. However, within two months a second sentence was passed which condemned him to be burned at the stake if he should ever be found in Florence. During the re-mainder of his life he became a wanderer. He died in 1321 at Ravenna after completing his immortal poems. Within the last decade renewed interest has centered itself in Dante. Today the American people are applying themselves more assiduously to the power of spiritual conception. Dante, the great poet of spiritual truths, has touched the hearts of the people. In him they find a balm for their troubled souls. He leads his reader upward through various experiences until his faith finds its culmination in God. To realize the deep spiritual power of Dante, every event of his life must be clearly traced. He lived a life of spiritual en-thusiasm. There are three distinct periods of his life. First, his simple faith in God; Second, infidelity and pride rule his soul, and Third, the triumph of his spiritual power in God. In his early youth Beatrice transformed his whole life. She was his vision of an ideal girl. Her life became an inspiration to him. She led his soul upward toward God. He worshipped God in simple child-like faith. Beatrice died at the age of twenty-four. For the first time in his life he received his greatest sorrow. His whole life be-came changed. Thus he entered upon the second epoch in his life. Doubt clouded his soul. God seemed to be a venge-ful monster. Pride ruled his heart. For a time he seemed to lose control of himself. Where were those lofty ideals which MHMHMb THE MERCURY. 199 ■marked his earlier days ? Gone ? Ah, they were not gone forever! At last Dante realized his own peril in the stand he had taken against God. Beatrice appeared to him in a vision and pointed out the way to him. She had guided him through Heaven after Heaven where he learned his world wide message. Even St. Peter and Caceiaguida appeared to him and charged him to deliver his message. He felt that he was a prophet sent from God, and that he had a divine mission to fulfill. He had a message for the world from the most high God. He de-livered his message to the world through his greatest immortal poem—the " Divine Comedy." Thus began the third epoch of his life. The message of the poet-prophet was, that a man's soul •bound to the earth by sinful passions, and realizing its danger, •can only gain spiritual happiness 'and bliss by seeking com-munion and fellowship with the Infinite. The " Inferno," the first great book of the poem, pictures the horrors of sinful lives. In this horrible black place there is •" wailing and gnashing of teeth." Into such a place Dante entered. The " Inferno" is an experience. In writing his poem Dante draws largely upon his own life when he was beset ■with sin and associated with evil. He knew the suffering sin created. Sin has its various powers. Dante strongly believed the greater the sin the farther away the sinner was separated from God. Sin caused the judgment of God to pass upon the evil doer. Dante continually points out that sin creates a foul atmos-phere. When the soul breathes such air it becomes tainted .and destroys the purity in it. Sin causes the fairest rose to become brown and seared. Men who lead lives hostile to God are punished. The philosophers of Dante's day taught that the soul's noblest work was the quiet contemplation of God. The bondage of sin prevented this contemplation. Sin binds its followers to deep suffering. Dante followed Virgil very closely as he journeyed through 200 THE MERCURY. the terrible place fearful of the awful suffering around them. He was happy when they left those unhappy scenes behind. Dante continues in his search for freedom from sin. Guided by Divine Help he comes to Purgatory. In the " Inferno" he painted the hideous nature of sin. The effects of sin upon the soul are clearly described in the " Purgatorio." Here he per-formed the acts of expiation. Throughout the poem when he comes to rugged paths and tortuous ways God gives him help. A deep spiritual problem which confronted Dante was : How could he forget the evil things which he had done ? Although God had forgiven his terrible sins yet they were deeply rooted in his own memory. How rid his memory of them forever?" Many of the world's greatest philosophers have been unable to solve this question. Although there is a change of life yet . alas, how often comes the recollection of a Godless past! Dante solved the question for himself. With true poetic power he drew a beautiful picture. He drank of the waters of the river Lethe, and then the knowledge of his sins was forgotten. There is both a poetic and practical lesson to be drawn from this scene. Dante realized it was through the kindness of God that he forgot about the past. The " Paradise-," the last portion of the grand poem is the culmination of his spiritual joy. Dante considered the " Para-diso" his greatest triumph. With Beatrice he learns the glories of the Most High God. His deep study of religious problems led him to know God is- " Light, Life and Truth." Upon these foundations, Dante built his noble poem. He insisted that a strong point in religious life is to be con-tent with the lot God has given one. The human will must acquiesce to the will of God. Too often discontentment has led to the abuse of God's teachings. Peace and happiness are two fundamental principles in a Christian's life. Dante's spirit truly became content when he was compelled to be a wanderer on the earth.ljj^He learned it from deep experience. At last Dante and Beatrice pass into the resplendent Empy-rean. Here they see God in all his glory. Peace, joy and love THE MERCURY. 20I reign there. He is at first blinded by the dazzling light, but as he is a true worshipper of the most High his eyes are given power to see the Empyrean beauties. Dante discovered in his various experiences that behind all suffering and trouble there is a God of love and justice, and an interceding Saviour. Dante occupies an unique place in the history of the world. He stood at the opening of a new epoch. The debt the world owes him can never be repaid; fie popularized literature ; he raised the standard of literature so high that few have been able to attain it; he helped to settle questions concerning church and state; and his greatest achievement was that by his won-derful intellectual endowments he was able to grasp spiritual ideals. He worked with a spiritual enthusiasm that has never been equaled. He pondered and thought until he understood. Thus the world has received the " Divine Comedy "—an im-perishable monument of honor and glory. York Street, Gettysburg:, Pa. 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HEGELS LEBEN, WERKE UND LEHRE. [8. BAND. ERSTER THEIL] Geschichte der neuern Philosophie (-) Hegels Leben, Werke und Lehre. [8. Band. Erster Theil] (8,1 / 1901) ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ( - ) [Abb.]: Kuno Fischer. ([II]) Titelseite ([III]) Impressum ([IV]) Vorrede. (V) Inhalzsverzeichniß. ([VII]) Erstes Buch. Hegels Leben und Werke. ([1]) Erstes Capitel. Herkunft und Lehrjahre. ([3]) I. Die erste Jugendzeit in Stuttgart. ([3]) 1. Elternhaus ud Schule. ([3]) 2. Der Präceptor Löffler. (4) 3. Rhetorische Uebungen. (5) 4. Studien und Lectüre. Tagebücher. (6) II. Die akademischen Lehrjahre in Tübingen. (10) 1. Studiengang. Magisterium und Candidatur. (10) 2. Kant und die Revolution. (11) 3. Freundschaften. Der politische Club. (12) Zweites Capitel. Hegel als Hauslehrer in Bern. (14) I. Lebensplan und Wanderjahre. (14) 1. Die Hauslehrerperiode. (14) 2. Aufenthalt in Stuttgart. Stäudlin und Hölderlin. (15) 3. Die Schicksale und Zustände Berns. (16) 4. Das Geschlecht der Steiger. (18) II. Hegels Fortbildung in der Schweiz. (20) 1. Sprache, Sitten und Politik. (20) 2. Alpenwanderungen. (21) Drittes Capitel. Fortsetzung. Hegels Studien in der Schweiz. (24) I. Die einflußreichen Zeitbegebenheiten. (24) 1. Philosophie. Fichte und Schelling. (24) 2. Deutsche Dichtung. Schiller. (25) 3. Das neue Weltalter. (26) II. Philosophische Studien. (28) 1. Theologische Probleme. (28) 2. Orthodoxie und Philosophie. (31) 3. Schelling als Führer. (32) 4. Die Frage des Monismus. (33) Viertes Capitel. Das Ende des Aufenthaltes in der Schweiz. Hegel und Hölderlin. Uebersiedlung nach Frankfurt. (35) I. Die neuen Mysterien. (35) 1. Der dritte im Bunde. (35) 2. Eleusis. (37) II. Hölderlin im Hause Gontard. (39) 1. Die Katastrophe. (39) 2. Irrfahrten und Ende. (40) III. Hegel im Hause Gogel. (41) 1. Stellung. (41) 2. Der verleidete Aufenthalt. 3. Tod des Vaters. Oekonomische Lage. (42) 4. Zukunftspläne. (42) Fünftes Capitel. Hegels Frankfurter Studien und Arbeiten. (45) I. Die Urform des Systems. (45) 1. Die Aufzeichnungen. (45) 2. Grundthema. Die Religion als Weltproblem. (45) II. Die Religionsentwicklung. (47) 1. Das Endziel. (47) 2. Philosophie und Religion. Schleiermachers Reden. (48) 3. Die Weltreligion. (49) 4. Charakter der christlichen Religion. (51) III. Religion und Philosophie. (52) 1. Die neue Aufgabe. (52) 2. Die Grundidee: der absolute Geist. (53) 3. Die Gliederung des Systems. (54) 4. Ein politischer Entwurf. (54) Sechstes Capitel. Hegel in Jena. Die ertsen Sechs Jahre seiner litterarischen und akademischen Wirksamkeit. (57) I. Litterarische Wirksamkeit. (57) 1. Philosophische Schriften. (57) 2. Eine politische Schrift. (58) II. Akademische Wirksamkeit. (62) 1. Vorlesungen. (62) 2. Beförderungen. (64) III. Jenaische Zustände und Personen. (65) 1. Der litterarische Rückgang. (65) 2. Immanuel Niethammer. (65) 3. Philosophische Docenten. (66) 4. Gesellige Kreise. (67) IV. Die Phänomenologie und die Schlacht. (68) 1. Das Werk und der Streit mit dem Verleger. (68) 2. Die Schlacht bei Jena. (69) 3. Die erste Differenz zwischen Schelling und Hegel. (70) V. Neue Lebenspläne. (71) 1. Der Brief an J. H. Voß. (71) 2. Die Berufung nach Bamberg. (72) Siebentes Capitel. Hegels publicistische und pädagogische Wirksamkeit im Königreich Bayern. Die Gründung seines Hausstandes. (74) I. Die Bamberger Zeitung. (74) 1. Das Redactionsgeschäft. (74) 2. Die Weltbegebenheiten. (75) 3. Ein drohender Conflict. (76) II. Der Uebergang zu einem neuen Lehramt. (77) 1. Die Zeitungsgaleere. (77) 2. Nürnberg, Altdorf, Erlangen. (78) 3. Der neue Schulplan. (78) III. Das Rectorat des Gymnasiums in Nürnberg. (79) 1. Berufung und Lebenswendepunkt. (79) 2. Amtliche Verhältnisse und Uebelstände. (80) 3. Logik, Propädeutik und Rectoratsreden. (81) IV. Die Gründung des Hausstandes. (85) 1. Die Frage des ehelichen Glücks. (85) 2. Maria von Tucher. (86) Achtes Capitel. Alt- und Neu-Bayern. Die bayrische Finsterniß und Reaction. Hegels Zeit- und Weltanschauung. (90) I. Bayrische Mängel und Uebelstände. (90) 1. Die bureaukratische Centralisation. (90) 2. Der Mangel an Autorität und Publicität. (91) 3. Die altbayrische Finsterniß. (93) 4. Der fanatische Hyozoismus. (94) II. Die bayrische Reaction. (94) 1. Die Conflicte in der Studiencommission. Niethammers Niederlage. (94) 2. Monteglas' Entlassung und das Concordat. (97) 3. Hegels Zeitanschauung und Hoffnung. (97) Neuntes Capitel. Hegels der Philosophie ind Heidelberg. (1816 - 1818.) (98) I. Drei Berufungen. (98) 1. Erlangen. (98) 2. Berlin. (99) 3. Heidelberg. (100) II. Zwei Jahre in Heidelberg. (101) 1. Die Encyklopädie. (101) 2. Vorlesungen und Amtsgenossen. (102) III. Die heidelbergischen Jahrbücher. (105) 1. Fr. H. Jakobis Werke. (105) 2. Die württembergischen Landstände. (107) IV. Philosophische Einwirkungen. Die Anfänge der Schule. (116) 1. Yxkfüll. (116) 2. Hinrichs. (117) 3. Carové. (118) 4. Cousin. (119) 5. Daub. (123) Zehntes Capitel. Hegels Berufung nach Berlin. (124) I. Das Ministerium Altenstein. (124) 1. Steins Reformen. (124) 2. Altensteins Denkschrift. Der erste preußische Cultusminister. (125) 3. Universitäten. Gründungen und Gefahren. (125) 4. Das zeitgemäße System. (127) II. Johannes Schulze. (130) 1. Bildungsgang und Jugendschicksale. (130) 2. Die Verdächtigungen. (136) III. Hegel und Johannes Schulze. (137) Elftes Capitel. Hegels Wirksamkeit in Berlin. (138) I. Akademische und litterarische Wirksamkeit. (138) 1. Die Anfänge. Solger. (138) 2. Die Antrittsrede. (140) 3. Die Vorrede zur Rechtsphilosophie. (142) 4. Der Gang der Vorlesungen und die Einführung neuer. (145) II. System und Schule. (146) 1. Repetitorien und Conversatorien. Henning. (146) 2. Der geschichtsphilosophische Character des Systems. (148) 3. Marheineke, Gans, Henning, Michelet, Hotho, Rötscher, Werder. (149) 4. Vatke, Strauß, Brunno Bauer, J. Ed. Erdmann, Rosenkranz, Hinrichs und Gabler. (151) III. Freunde und Feinde. (153) 1. Die heidelberger Freunde. (153) 2. Anonyme Feinde. (154) 3. Ein philosophischer Gegner: Ed. Beneke. (155) 4. Goethe und Hegel. (158) 5. Heiberg. (160) IV. Die Prüfungscommission und der philosophische Gymnasialunterricht. (161) Zwölftes Capitel. Hegels Ferienreisen nach Brüssel, Wien und Paris. (163) I. Ausflüge nach Rügen und Dresden. (163) II. Die Reise in die Niederlande. (163) 1. G. van Ghert. (163) 2. Die Fahrt nach Brüssel und die Rückkehr. (165) III. Die Reise nach Wien. (168) 1. Der Aufenthalt in Wien. Die italienische Oper. (168) 2. Die Rückreise. Dresden. (169) IV. Hegels Verhältniß zu Cousin und Reise nach Paris. (170) 1. Cousins Aufenthalt in Berlin. (170) 2. Hegels Reise nach Paris. (173) 3. Die Rückkehr. (174) V. Der letzte Aufenthalt in Weimar. (175) Dreizehntes Capitel. Auf der Höhe seiner Wirksamkeit. (176) I. Die letzten fünf Jahre. (176) 1. Die Geburtstagsfeier. (176) 2. Die Jahrbücher für wissenschaftliche Kritik. (177) 3. Hegels Wirksamkeit in den Jahrbüchern. Hamann. (181) 4. Göschels Aphorismen. (183) 5. Verdächtigungen und Anfeindungen. "Das Gesindel." (185) 6. Eine "schäbige Polemik". (187) 7. Ludwig Feuerbach. (188) II. Das Ende der Wirksamkeit und des Lebens. (191) 1. Das Rectorat. (191) 2. Die Julirevolution. (193) 3. Die englische Reformbill. (194) 4. Die Choleraepidemie. Der Brief an H. Beer. Das Schreiben an Gans. (197) 5. Tod und Begräbniß. (199) Vierzehntes Capitel. Hegels Werke und deren Gesammtausgabe. (201) I. Die von Hegel selbst herausgegebenen Werke. (201) 1. Jena. (201) 2. Nürnberg. (203) 3. Heidelberg. (203) 4. Berlin. (204) II. Die Gesammtausgabe. (205) 1. Die Aufgabe. (205) 2. Die Herausgeber und die Ausgabe. (205) III. DIe Quellen zur Ausgabe der Vorlesung. (207) 1. Die Philosophie der Geschichte. (207) 2. Die Aesthetik oder Kunstphilosophie. (208) 3. Die Philosophie der Religion. (211) 4. Die Geschichte der Philosophie. (212) IV. Hegel auf dem Katheder. (214) 1. Die Persönlichkeit. (214) 2. Der Kathedervortrag. (215) Zweites Buch. Hegels Lehre. ([217]) Erstes Capitel. Hegels Ausgangspunkte und Aufgaben. Die Idee der Weltentwicklung. (219) I. Monismus und Identitätslehre. (219) 1. Die englische Entwicklungslehre. Der Darwinismus. (219) 2. Der deutsche Darwinismus. (220) 3. Zoologische Philosophie und philosophische Zoologie. (220) 4. Die philosophische Entwicklungslehre vor Kant. Leibniz. (221) 5. Die kantische Entwicklungslehre. (222) 6. Die fichtesche Entwicklungslehre. (223) 7. Die schellingsche Entwicklungslehre. (224) II. Das absolute Identitätssystem. (225) 1. Der Durchbruch. (225) 2. Der Stufengang der Welt. (226) 3. Schelling und Spinoza. (227) 4. Die neuen Aufgaben. (228) 5. Der Weg zur Wahrheit. (230) Zweites Capitel. Hegel im Bunde mit Schelling. (231) I. Die ersten Schriften. (231) 1. Die Planetenbahnen. (231) 2. Die philosophische Differenz zwischen Fichte und Schelling. (235) 3. Die philosophische Differenz zwischen Schelling und Hegel. (242) Drittes Capitel. Hegels Aufsätze im kritischen Journal. (245) I. Philosophie und Unphilosophie. (245) 1. Die philosophische Kritik. (245) 2. Der gemeine Menschenverstand. (248) 3. Der neue Scepticismus. (250) II. Glauben und Wissen. Die Reflexionsphilosophien. (255) 1. Die kantische Philosophie. (256) 2. Die jacobinische Philosophie. Schleiermacher. (259) 3. Die fichtesche Philosophie. (265) Viertes Capitel. Fortsetzung. Die wissenschaftlichen Behandlungsarten des Naturrechts. (270) I. Die empirische Behandlungsart. (271) 1. Die Hypothesen vom Naturzustande. (271) 2. Die praktischen Zwecke. (272) 3. Die untheoretische Praxis und die unpraktische Theorie. (273) II. Die reflectirte Behandlungsart. (273) 1. Die große Seite der kantisch-fichteschen Philosophie. (273) 2. Die Unsittlichkeit der kantischen Sittenlehre. (274) 3. Der fichtesche Rechtszwang. Strafe und Ephorat. (276) III. Die absolute Sittlichkeit. (278) 1. Das Volk und die Völker. Der sittliche Organismus. (278) 2. Die sittliche Gesundheit und der Krieg. (280) 3. Die Organisirung der Stände und Individuen. (280) 4. Tragödie und Komödie. Die Zonen des Sittlichen. (284) 5. Naturrecht, Moral und positive Rechtswissenschaft. (286) Fünftes Capitel. Die Phänomologie des Geistes. Vorrede, Einleitung und Eintheilung. (289) I. Vorrede. Die Aufgabe der neuen Lehre. (289) 1. Die Form der Wissenschaft. (289) 2. Die Substanz als Subject. Das Princip als Resultat. (291) 3. Die Leiter. Die Entwicklung des Wissens. (294) 4. Vourtheile und Selbsttäuschung. (294) II. Einleitung. (296) 1. Das Erkenntnißvermögen als Werkzeug und Medium. (296) 2. Die falsche Grundlage des Zweifels. Das erscheinende Wissen. (297) 3. Die Methode der Ausführung. (300) III. Der Stufengang des Bewußtseins. (304) 1. Hauptstufen. (304) 2. Die triadische Ordnung. (305) 3. Die Grenzen. (305) Sechstes Capitel. Das gegenständliche Bewußtsein. (306) I. Die sinnliche Gewißheit. (306) 1. Die objectivste, reichste und concreteste Wahrheit. (306) 2. Die subjectivste, ärmste und abstracteste Wahrheit. (306) 3. Das Aussprechen und das Aufzeigen. (308) II. Das wahrnehmende Bewußtsein. (309) 1. Das Ding und die Eigenschaften. (309) 2. Das Aufheben und Aufgehobensein. (310) 3. Das Thema und Problem der Wahrnehmung: die Einheit des Dinges und Die Vielheit der Eigenschaften. Die Täuschung. (311) 4. Die Vielheit der Dinge und Eigenschaften. Die Logik und die Sophistereien der Wahrnehmung. (313) III. Das Reich des Verstandes. (314) 1. Kraft und Aeußerung. Das Spiel der Kräfte. (314) 2. Das Innere und die Erscheinung. (316) 3. Das Innere als Gesetz. Das Reich der Gesetze. (317) 4. Erscheinung, Gesetz und Kraft. (318) 5. Die Thätigkeit des Erklärens. (320) 6. Uebergang zum Selbstbewußtsein. (320) Siebentes Capitel. Das Selbstbewußtsein. (321) I. Das Selbstbewußtsein und sein Object. (321) 1. Vergleichung mit dem gegenständlichen Bewußtsein. (321) 2. Das Selbstbewußtsein als Begierde. (323) 3. Die Objecte als lebendige Dinge. (323) II. Herrschaft und Knechtschaft. (324) 1. Verdoppelung des Selbstbewußtseins. (324) 2. Der Kampf auf Leben und Tod. Die Todesfurcht. (325) 3. Herr und Knecht. Gehorsam und Dienst. Arbeit und Bildung. (327) 4. Die Abhängigkeit des Herrn und die Unabhängigkeit des Knechts. (328) 5. Die Befreiung des Denkens. (329) III. Die Freiheit des Selbstbewußtseins. (329) 1. Stoicismus. (329) 2. Skepticismus. (330) 3. Das unglückliche Bewußtsein. (332) Achtes Capitel. Das Vernunftbewußtsein. A. Die beobachtende Vernunft. (338) I. Thema und Aufgabe. (338) II. Die beobachtende Vernunft. (339) 1. Der Standpunkt des Idealismus. (339) 2. Das künstliche und natürliche System der Dinge. Gesetz und Experiment. (340) 3. Die organische Natur und der Zweckbegriff. (Kielmeyer und Schelling.) (342) 4. Logische und psychologische Gesetze. (346) 5. Physiognomik und Schädellehre. (348) Neuntes Capitel. Das Vernunftbewußtsein. B. Die thätige Vernunft und das Reich der in sich befriedigten Individuen. (353) I. Rückblick und Vorblick. (353) II. Die thätige Vernunft. (355) 1. Die Luft und die Nothwendigkeit. (Faust.) (355) 2. Das Gesetz des Herzens und der Wahnsinn des Eigendünkels. (357) 3. Die Tugend und der Weltlauf. (361) III. Das Reich der in sich befriedigten Individuen. (363) 1. Das geistige Thierreich. (363) 2. Die gesetzgebende Vernunft. (368) 3. Die gesetzprüfende Vernunft. (369) Zehntes Capitel. Der Geist. A. Das Reich der Sittlichkeit und der Rechtszustand. (371) I. Das Gemeinwesen. Das göttliche und menschliche Gesetz. (371) 1. Familie und Staat. (371) 2. Mann und Frau, Eltern und Kinder, Bruder und Schwester. (373) 3. Der tragische Conflict. Die Schuld und das Schicksal. (375) II. Der Rechtszustand. (378) 1. Der Uebergang. (378) 2. Die Personen. (379) 3. Der Herr der Welt. (379) 4. Die Frau im Rechtszustand. (380) Elftes Capitel. Der Geist. B. Der sich entfremdete und der seiner selbst gewisse Geist. (381) I. Die Welt des sich entfremdeten Geistes. (381) 1. Das Reich der Bildung. (381) 2. Staatsmacht und Reichthum. Das edelmüthige und das niederträchtige Bewußtsein. (382) 3. Das zerreißende und zerrissene Bewußtsein. (Rameau's Neffe.) (385) 4. Das glaubende Bewußtsein. (389) 5. Die Aufklärung. (391) II. Die absolute Freiheit und der Schrecken. (398) 1. Die Gleichheit und die Vernichtung. (398) 2. Die Faction und die Schuld. (399) 3. Schrecken und Tod. (400) III. Der seiner selbst gewisse oder moralische Geist. (402) 1. DIe moralische Weltanschauung. (402) 2. Die Verstellung. (405) 3. Das Gewissen, die schöne Seele. Das Böse und seine Verzeihung. (407) Zwölftes Capitel. Die Religion und das absolute Wissen. (413) I. Wesen und Stufen der Religion. Die natürliche Religion. (413) 1. Religionsstufen und Religionsgeschichte. (414) 2. Indische und ägyptische Religion. (414) II. Die Kunstreligion. (415) 1. Der Kultus. Das abstracte Kunstwerk. (417) 2. Das lebendige Kunstwerk. (418) 3. Das geistige Kunstwerk. (419) III. Die offenbare Religion. (423) 1. Der Untergang der Kunstreligion. (423) 2. Die Menschwerdung Gottes. (425) 3. DIe Gemeinde. (426) IV. Das absolute Wissen. (429) 1. Religion und Wissenschaft. (429) 2. Phänomenologie und Logik. Das System der Philosophie. (431) Dreizehntes Capitel. Der Gegenstand und die Methode der Logik. (433) I. Der Gegenstand der Logik. (433) 1. Die Werke. (433) 2. Aufgabe und Thema. (434) 3. Einleitung. (435) II. Die Methode. (439) 1. Die Kategorien. Die Denkbestimmungen und die Denkthätigkeit. (439) 2. Der dialektische Proceß und die Entwicklung. (440) 3. Die Eintheilung. (442) 4. Der Begriff Gottes in der Logik. Das Reich der Schatten. (444) 5. Die Logik und die Geschichte der Philosophie. (445) 6. Der Anfang. (446) Vierzehntes Capitel. Die Lehre vom Sein. A. Die Qualität. (448) I. Das reine Sein. (448) I. Sein und Nichts. (448) 2. Das Werden. Entstehen und Vergehen. (449) II. Das Dasein. (451) 1. Qualität. Etwas und Anderes. (451) 2. Endliches und Unendliches. Die Veränderung. (452) III. Das Fürsichsein. (456) Das unendliche Sein. (456) Fünfzehntes Capitel. Die Lehre vom Sein. B. Die Quantität. (460) I. Die reine Quantität. (460) 1. Continuität und Discretion. (460) 2. Zeno, Aristoteles, Kant. (461) II. Das Quantum. (463) 1. Anzahl und EInheit. Zahl und Zählen. (463) 2. Zählen und Rechnen. (464) 3. Das extensive und intensive Quantum (Grad). (465) III. Die quantitative Unendlichkeit. (467) 1. Die schlechte quantitative Unendlichkeit. (467) 2. Die erste kantische Antinomie. (468) 3. Die Unendlichkeit des Quantums. (468) IV. Das quantitative Verhältniß. (471) 1. Die Verhältnißarten. (471) 2. Der doppelte Uebergang. (473) 3. Die Zahlenphilosophie. (474) Sechszehntes Capitel. Die Lehre vom Sein. C. Das Maaß. (475) I. Die specifische (qualitative) Quantität. (475) 1. Das specifische Quantum. Der Maaßstab. (475) 2. Die Mathematik der Natur. (478) 3. Das specificirende Maaß. Die Regel. (479) II. Das reale Maaß. (480) 1. Die Reiche der Maaßverhältnisse. (480) 2. Die Knotenlinie von Maaßverhältnissen. (482) III. Das Maaßlose. (484) 1. Das auschließende Maaß und das abstract Maaßlose. (484) 2. Der Uebergang zum Wesen. (485) 3. Die Kategorien des Seins und die Entwicklung. (486) Siebzehntes Capitel. Die Lehre vom Wesen. A. Die Reflexion. (488) I. Die Reflexionsbestimmungen. Die Identität. (488) 1. Schein, Erscheinung, Wirklichkeit. (488) 2. Die Denkgesetze. (490) 3. Die Identität. (491) II. Der Unterschied. (492) 1. Die Verschiedenheit. (492) 2. Der Gegensatz. (494) 3. Der Widerspruch. (497) III. Grund und Folge. (499) 1. Der zureichende Grund. (499) 2. Materie und Form. (500) 3. Die Existenz. (502) Achtzehntes Capitel. Die Lehre vom Wesen. B. Die Erscheinung. (503) I. Das Ding und seine Eigenschaften. (503) II. Erscheinung und Gesetz. (507) III. Das wesentliche Verhältniß. (509) 1. Das Verhältniß des Ganzen und der Theile. (509) 2. Das Verhältniß der Kraft und ihre Aeußerung. (511) 3. Das Verhältniß des Aeußeren und Inneren. (512) Neunzehntes Capitel. Die Lehre vom Wesen. C. Die Wirklichkeit. (516) I. Das wahrhaft Wirkliche. Das Absolute. (516) II. DIe innere und äußere Wirklichkeit. (517) 1. Das Reich der Möglichkeit. (517) 2. Das Reich des Zufalls. (518) 3. Die Nothwendigkeit. (519) III. Das absolute Verhältniß. (521) 1. Die Substantialität. (521) 2. Die Causalität. (522) 3. Die Wechselwirkung. (524) Zwanzigstes Capitel. Die Lehre vom Begriff. A. Die Subjectivität (527) I. Der Begriff des Begriffs. (527) 1. Vom Begriff im Allgemeinen. (527) 2. Der allgemeine Begriff. (530) 3. Der besondere Begriff. (531) 4. Das Einzelne. (532) II. Das Urtheil. (534) 1. Das Urtheil des Daseins. (536) 2. Das Urtheil der Religion. (537) 3. Das Urtheil der Nothwendigkeit. (538) 4. Das Urtheil des Begriffs. (538) III. Der Schluß. (539) 1. Der Schluß des Daseins. Die Schlußfiguren. (539) 2. Der Schluß der Reflexion. (541) 3. Der Schluß der Nothwendigkeit. (543) Einundzwanzigstes Capitel. Die Lehre vom Begriff. B. Die Objectivität. (544) I. Ontologie und Kosmologie. (544) II. Der Mechanismus. (546) 1. Der Determinismus. (546) 2. Die Centralisation. (547) 3. Der absolute Mechanismus. (548) III. Der Chemismus. (548) IV. Die Teleologie. (550) 1. Mechanismus und Teleologie. Der subjective Zweck. (550) 2. Das Reich der Mittel. Die List der Vernunft. (551) 3. Der ausgeführte Zweck. (553) Zweiundzwanzigstes Capitel. Die Lehre vom Begriff. C. Die Idee. (554) I. Die Idee als Proceß. (554) II. Das Leben. (556) 1. Das lebendige Individuum. (556) 2. Der Lebensproceß. (559) 3. Die Gattung. (560) III. Die Idee des Erkennens und des Wollens. (561) 1. Die Idee des Wahren. (561) 2. Die Idee des Guten. (565) 3. Die absolute Idee. (568)