Suchergebnisse

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ramasamudram-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 766 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 443 ha (58%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 272 ha (35%) by rock out crops and 51 ha (7%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 14 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 9 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm), 5 per cent soils are deep (100 to 150 cm), 10 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 33 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 6 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 52 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 6 per cent is slightly eroded (e1), 47 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 5 per cent is severely eroded in the microwatershed.  An area of about 2 per cent is strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5), 10 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 11 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 27 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 8 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3- 7.8) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 2 per cent area is low (0.6 ppm) in 47 per cent area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 90(12) 146(19) Guava - 98(13) Maize - 236(30) Sapota - 98(13) Bajra - 257(33) Pomegranate - 188(25) Groundnut - 118(16) Musambi 39(5) 149(19) Sunflower 18(2) 149(19) Lime 39(5) 149(19) Redgram - 188(25) Amla 125(16) 111(14) Bengal gram 90(12) 146(19) Cashew - 77(10) Cotton 66(9) 171(22) Jackfruit - 77(10) Chilli - 257(33) Jamun - 111(14) Tomato - 185(24) Custard apple 168(22) 69(9) Brinjal 168(22) 91(12) Tamarind - 111(14) Onion 140(18) 118(15) Mulberry - 77(10) Bhendi 168(22) 91(12) Marigold - 257(34) Drumstick - 188(25) Chrysanthemum - 257(34) Mango - 18(2)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 147 (59.76%) men and 97 (39.43%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 5.33, marginal farmers' was 6.76, small farmers' was 6.91, semi medium farmers' was 7.5 and medium farmers' was 8.  The data indicated that, 69 (28.05%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 100 (40.65%) were in 16-35 years of age, 64 (26.02%) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (5.28%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Ramasamudram-1 had 55.28 per cent illiterates, 2.44 per cent functional literates, 18.70 per cent of them had primary school education, 5.28 per cent of them had middle school education, 6.91 per cent of them had high school education, 3.25 per cent of them had PUC education and 2.44 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 86.11 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 8.33 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 2.78 per cent of them were in private service and 2.78 per cent of them were housewives.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 53.25 per cent of the household members, 3.25 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.41 per cent were general labourers, 2.85 per cent were in private service, 26.42 per cent were students, 7.72 per cent were housewives and 6.10 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 13.89 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 38.89 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 47.22 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 63.89 per cent of the households possess TV, 8.33 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.56 per cent of them had bicycle, 30.56 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 88.89 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.9000, mixer grinder was Rs.2166, bicycle was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.35636 and mobile phone was Rs.12812.  About 36.11 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.78 per cent of them possess sprayer and 47.22 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1500, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.52.  The results indicate that, 36.11 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 27.78 per cent of the households possess local cow. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.09, average own labour (women) available was 1.82, average hired labour (men) available was 12.70 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.06.  The results indicate that, 91.67 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Ramasamudram-1 micro-watershed possess 25.90 ha (70.64%) of dry land and 10.77 ha (29.36%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 11.27 ha (96.53%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (3.47%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 10.18 ha (75.14%) of dry land and 3.37 ha (24.86%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 4.45 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 6.99 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 598109.67 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 417857.14. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 886575.74 for dry land and Rs.988000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 412485.09 for dry land and Rs.742187.51 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 291909.09 for dry land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 228703.70 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 22.22 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 21.59 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 3.37 ha and 6.19 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (8.47 ha), greengram (9.73 ha), groundut (3.32 ha), paddy (4.16 ha) and redgram (10.19 ha). Marginal and small farmers have grown cotton, Greengram, groundnut, paddy and redgram. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton and Greengram. Medium farmers have grown paddy and redgram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Ramasamudram-1 microwatershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for greengram was Rs. 22105.27. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 51835.46. The net income from Greengram cultivation was Rs. 29730.20, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.34.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 108908.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 99903.78. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. -9004.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.92. 3  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 84841.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 135857.02. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 51015.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.6.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 33618.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75113.15. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 41494.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.23.  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 40666.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 83806.85. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 43140.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.06.  The results indicate that, 38.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 38.89 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 233,333.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 181,178.82, for small farmers it was Rs. 185,920, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 157,200 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 342,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 24,837.75. For landless households it was Rs. 80,000, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,326.64, for small farmers it was Rs. 9,661.16, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 71,000 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 99,444.44.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 coconut trees and 1 mango tree in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 65 neem and 12 tamarind tree in their field. Also, 16 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 91.67 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants.  The results indicated that, 88.89 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce and 2.78 per cent carried head loads.  The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 88.89 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.78 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 91.67 per cent and bore well was the source of drinking water for 8.33 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 4  The results indicated that, 52.78 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.78 per cent of the households did not possess any PDS card.  The results indicated that, 86.11 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 100 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 5.56 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 25 per cent, fruits were adequate for 27.78 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 94.44 per cent.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 91.67 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (88.89%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.89%), inadequacy of irrigation water (91.67%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.67%), high rate of interest on credit (94.44%), low price for the agricultural commodities (91.67%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (5.56%) and inadequate extension services (2.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kyaspanahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 473 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 427 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 2 ha by railway line and about 44 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 44 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 46 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 14 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 10 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 37 per cent area very low (0.75%), 80 per cent is medium (0.50-0.75%) and 5 per cent is low ( 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area 26 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 1 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 53 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 1 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 1(<1) 144(30) Guava - 1(<1) Maize 1(<1) 144(30) Sapota - 1(<1) Bajra 1(<1) 144(30) Pomegranate - 1(<1) Groundnut - 46(10) Musambi - 1(<1) Sunflower - 1(<1) Lime - 1(<1) Redgram - 100(21) Amla 1(<1) 45(9) Bengal gram - - Cashew - 1(<1) Cotton - 1(<1) Jackfruit - 1(<1) Chilli 1(<1) 45(9) Jamun - - Tomato 1(<1) 45(9) Custard apple 1(<1) 45(9) Brinjal 1(<1) 45(9) Tamarind - - Onion 1(<1) 45(9) Mulberry - 1(<1) Bhendi 1(<1) 45(9) Marigold 1(<1) 45(9) Drumstick - 1(<1) Chrysanthemum 1(<1) 45(9) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 111 (63.43%) men and 64 (36.57%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.8, marginal farmers' was 4.86, small farmers' was 5.09, semi medium farmers' was 5.90 and medium farmers' was 3.50.  The data indicated that, 31 (17.71%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 83 (47.43%) were in 16-35 years of age, 55 (31.43%) were in 36-60 years of age and 6 (3.43%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Kyaspanahalli had 57.14 per cent illiterates, 0.57 per cent functional literate, 13.71 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.29 per cent of them had middle school education, 10.86 per cent of them had high school education, 6.86 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.29 per cent of them did ITI and 3.43 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 74.29 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 22.86 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 2.86 per cent of them were general labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 48.57 per cent of the household members, 9.71 per cent were agricultural laborers, 2.29 per cent were general labourers, 1.71 per cent were in private service, 26.86 per cent were students, 8 per cent were housewives and 2.86 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 22.86 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 51.43 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 34.29 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 77.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 31.43 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 2.86 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 34.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 5.71 per cent of the households possess auto and 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.9000, mixer grinder was Rs.2000, refrigerator was Rs.8000, motor cycle was Rs.47333, auto was Rs.85000 and mobile phone was Rs.2259.  About 11.43 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess sprayer and 60 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1500, the average value of sprayer was Rs.1000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.50.  The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 17.14 per cent of the households possess local cow. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.26, average own labour (women) available was 1.42, average hired labour (men) available was 11.35 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.35.  The results indicate that, 88.57 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Kyaspanahalli micro-watershed possess 16.55 ha (44.48%) of dry land and 20.66 ha (55.52%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.66 ha (97.05%) of dry land and 0.08 ha (2.95%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.87 ha (81.74%) of dry land and 2.65 ha (18.26%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.02 ha (12.81%) of dry land and 13.77 ha (87.19%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.16 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 428,777.50 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 566,092.06. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,015,068.49 for dry land and Rs. 6,174,999.91. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 328,435.05 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 867,328.25. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land and Rs. 493,709.58 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers it was Rs. 504,571.97 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 15 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 42.86 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 42.24 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.08 ha, 2.65 ha, 13.77 ha and 4.16 ha.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (12.9 ha), green gram (10.95 ha), red gram (7.86 ha), groundnut (4.16 ha) and paddy (1.36 ha). Marginal farmers have grown cotton, green gram, red gram and paddy. Small farmers have grown cotton, green gram and red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton Green gram, red gram and paddy. Medium farmers have grown groundnut.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kyaspanahalli micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 2.86 per cent of the households have bank account in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, 2.86 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, average credit availed in the micro watershed was Rs. 80000. 3  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources of credit.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 45812.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 118585.38. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 72772.63, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.59.  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 43878.16. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 182303.81. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 138425.64. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.15.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 22740.66. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63118.12. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 40377.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.78.  The total cost of cultivation for Groundnut was Rs. 35032.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 64000.66. The net income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 28968.65. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.83.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 395605.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 515104.42. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 119499.10. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.3.  The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 28.57 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 48,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 118,428.57, for small farmers it was Rs. 152,487.36, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 210,160 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 252,500.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 15,496.49. For landless households it was Rs. 6,400, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 11,387.76, for small farmers it was Rs. 11,620.87, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 13,983.33 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 81,500.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 coconut trees, 2 lemon trees and 11 mango trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 1 teak, 42 neem and 1 banyan tree in their field.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, Greengram to the extent of 84.1 per cent, groundnut to the extent of 66.7 per cent, paddy to the extent of 57.6 per cent and redgram to the extent of 69.6 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 85.71 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants. 4  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 60 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 85.71 per cent of the marginal farmers, 45.45 per cent of small farmers, 80 per cent of semi medium farmers and 100 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 77.14 per cent have shown interest in soil test which accounts for 100 per cent of marginal farmers, 81.82 per cent of small farmers, 100 per cent of semi medium farmers and 50 per cent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households used firewood and 20 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 88.57 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 11.43 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 54.29 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 5.71 per cent of the households possessed APL card.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 100 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.86 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 22.86 per cent, fruits were adequate for 20 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 94.29 per cent and meat was adequate for 54.29 per cent.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were inadequate for 97.14 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 77.14 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 80 per cent and meat was inadequate for 40 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.71%) and lack of marketing facilities in the area (20%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hadagimadra Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 593 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 498 ha (84%) ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 13 ha (2%) by rock outcrops and about 83 ha (14%) by others (Habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 84 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 59 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100- >150 cm), whereas 17 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and about 8 per cent soils are shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 17 per cent area of the microwatershed is medium (101-150 mm/m) and about 8 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 67 percent is very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands, about 17 per cent soils are nearly level (0-1% slope) lands in the microwatershed.  Maximum area of about 67 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and about 17 per cent are slightly (e1) eroded lands in the microwatershed.  Entire cultivated area is neutral (6.5-7.3) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%), about 50 percent is medium (0.50-0.75%) and 3 per cent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 9 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 75 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is high (>20 ppm) in an area of about 11 per cent, about 26 per cent is medium (10-20 ppm) and about 47 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of about 72 per cent and 12 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 2(<1) 349(59) Guava - - Maize - 351(59) Sapota - - Bajra - 351(59) Pomegranate - 246(42) Groundnut - - Musambi 2(<1) 244(41) Sunflower 2(<1) 244(41) Lime 2(<1) 244(41) Redgram - 351(59) Amla - 2(<1) Bengal gram 2(<1) 244(41) Cashew - - Cotton 2(<1) 244(41) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 246(42) Jamun - 2(<1) Tomato - - Custard apple 2(<1) 244(41) Brinjal - - Tamarind - 2(<1) Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - 246(42) Marigold - 246(42) Drumstick - 2(<1) Chrysanthemum - 246(42) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 94 (62.25%) men and 57 (37.75%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.8, marginal farmers' was 4.22, small farmers' was 4.73 and semi medium farmers' was 4.  The data indicated that, 32 (21.19%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 73 (48.34%) were in 16-35 years of age, 36 (23.84%) were in 36-60 years of age and 10 (6.62%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Hadagimadara had 48.34 per cent illiterates, 26.49 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.65 per cent of them had middle school education, 3.97 per cent of them had high school education, 7.28 per cent of them had PUC education, 3.31 per cent of them had degree education and 0.66 per cent of the population had diploma.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 11.43 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 2.86 per cent of them were in private service.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 21.19 per cent of the household members, 50.99 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.66 per cent were in private service, 23.18 per cent were students, 0.66 per cent were housewives and 3.31 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 22.86 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 54.29 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 25.71 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 97.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 48.57 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 2.86 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 77.14 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of the households possess landline phone and 94.29 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.5735, mixer grinder was Rs.1811, refrigerator was Rs.5000, motor cycle was Rs.51464, landline phone was Rs.1000 and mobile phone was Rs.4616.  About 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 28.57 per cent of them possess plough, 8.57 per cent of the households possess tractor, 25.71 per cent of them possess sprayer, 25.71 per cent of them possess weeder and 20 per cent of them possess harvester.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.23000, plough was Rs.2050, the average value of tractor was Rs.600000, the average value of sprayer 2 was Rs.4500, the average value of harvester was Rs.1380 and the average value of weeder was Rs.445.  The results indicate that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 48.57 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2, average own labour (women) available was 1.4, average hired labour (men) available was 4.97 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.40.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Hadagimadara micro-watershed possess 27.78 ha (97.17%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (2.83%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 11.73 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 13.94 ha (94.51%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (5.49%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.11 ha (100%) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 406,628.79 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 741,000. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 588,095.24 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 294,047.62 for dry land and the average land value was Rs.741000. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 141954.03 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning and 1 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.86 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 10 meters.  The results indicate that, small had an irrigated area of 0.81 ha.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (24.45 ha), red gram (2.92 ha), sorghum (0.83 ha) and greengram (0.81 ha).  Marginal farmers have grown cotton, greengram, red gram and sorghum. Small farmers have grown cotton and semi medium farmers have grown red gram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hadagimadara micro-watershed was found to be 101.42 per cent.  The results indicate that, 88.57 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 62.86 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 33982.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75413.24. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 41430.65, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.22. 3  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 24883.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57920.08. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 33036.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.33.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 22681. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39520. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 16839. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.74.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 62922.56. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36931.25. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -25991.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.59.  The results indicate that, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 20 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 16,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 168,420, for small farmers it was Rs. 139,166.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 183,833.33 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 310,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 9,809.24. For landless households it was Rs. 6,000, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 13,318.10, for small farmers it was Rs. 3,925.93, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 6,250 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 24,375.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 custard apple trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 2 teak, 44 neem, 2 tamarind, 5 eucalyptus and 3 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 4600.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 14.29 per cent and soft loan was the source of additional investment capacity for 42.86 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except cotton which was sold to the extent of 93.97 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 25.71 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 57.14 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce and 2.86 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 33.33 per cent of the marginal farmers and 36.36 per cent of small farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. 4  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test which accounts for 100 per cent of marginal farmers, 100 per cent small farmers and 100 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 60 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 40 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.86 per cent of the households did not possess any PDS card.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 68.57 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 25.71 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 25.71 per cent, fruits were adequate for 54.29 per cent, milk was adequate for 31.43 per cent and eggs were adequate for 37.14 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 31.43 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 68.57 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 68.57 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 28.57 per cent, milk was inadequate for 31.43 per cent and eggs were inadequate for 60 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 88.57 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (71.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (40%), inadequacy of irrigation water (8.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (34.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (17.14%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (34.29%), inadequate extension services (5.71%) and less rainfall (40%) and source of agri-technology information (11.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gajarkot-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 638 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 628 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 10 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 67 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 8 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy, 13 per cent area in loamy and 77 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 91 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 0.75%) in 66 per cent area.  57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 17 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 80 per area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 98 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 95 per cent area is deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 160(25) 39(5) Guava - 12(2) Maize - 199(31) Sapota - 4(<1) Bajra - 199(31) Pomegranate - 164(26) Groundnut - 4(<1) Musambi 153(24) 12(2) Sunflower 153(24) 12(2) Lime 153(24) 12(2) Redgram - 164(26) Amla - 199(31) Bengal gram 160(25) 35(5) Cashew - - Cotton 160(25) 35(5) Jackfruit - 4(<1) Chilli - 192(30) Jamun - 160(25) Tomato - 192(30) Custard apple 157(25) 43(7) Brinjal 20(3) 179(28) Tamarind - 160(25) Onion 4(<1) 35(5) Mulberry - 4(<1) Bhendi 24(4) 176(28) Marigold - 199(31) Drumstick - 164(26) Chrysanthemum - 199(31) Mango - 20(3)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The data indicated that there were 73 (53.68%) men and 63 (46.32%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 5.78, small farmers' was 6.07, semi medium farmers' was 4.17 and medium farmers' was 6.5.  The data indicated that, 14 (7.25%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 89 (46.11%) were in 16-35 years of age, 76 (39.38%) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (7.25%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Gajarkot-2 had 51.81 per cent illiterates, 0.52 per cent functional literates, 14.51 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.55 per cent of them had middle school education, 12.44 per cent of them had high school education, 5.70 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.52 per cent of them did ITI, 1.04 per cent did masters and 9.33 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 65.71 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 5.71 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 11.43 per cent were general labourers, 2.86 per cent of them had household industry, 2.86 per cent of them were in private service, 2.86 per cent were in trade and business and 5.71 per cent were housewives.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 44.56 per cent of the household members, 2.07 per cent were agricultural labourers, 7.25 per cent were general labourers, 1.04 per cent had household industry, 0.52 per cent were in government service, 7.77 per cent were in private service, 1.04 per cent were in trade and business, 8.29 per cent were students and 23.32 per cent were housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 2.86 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 68.57 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 28.57 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 22.86 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 31.43 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 94.29 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.8000, mixer grinder was Rs.1462, motor cycle was Rs.65090, and mobile phone was Rs.2560.  About 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 20 per cent of them possess plough, and 77.14 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.22000, plough was Rs.14385, and the average value of weeder was Rs.90. 2  The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.43 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess goat, and 2.86 per cent of them possess poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.47, average own labour (women) available was 1.83, average hired labour (men) available was 11.83 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.30.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Gajarkot-2 micro watershed possess 28.59 ha (70.45%) of dry land and 12 ha (29.55%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 6.56 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 15.39 ha (95%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (5%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.64 ha (60.22%) of dry land and 4.39 ha (39.78%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.80 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 388067 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 283333. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 578668 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 370305 for dry land and Rs. 494000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 240828 for dry land and Rs. 410147 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 176428 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 4 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 11.43 per cent of the farmers, and canal formed the source of irrigation for 5.71 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the average depth of bore well in the micro watershed was found to be 12.19 meters.  The results indicate that, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.69 ha and 6.80 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (9.52 ha), greengram (5 ha), groundnut (13.38 ha), paddy (3.24 ha), and redgram (9.46 ha). Marginal and small farmers have grown cotton, Greengram, groundnut and redgram. Semi medium farmers have grown Greengram, groundnut and redgram. Medium farmers have grown cotton and paddy.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Gajarkot-2 micro watershed was found to be 100.06 per cent.  The results indicate that, 91.43 per cent of the households have bank account and savings. 3  The results indicate that, 88.57 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 3.23 per cent of the household availed loan from grameena bank in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, the average amount of credit borrowed in micro watershed by medium farmers was Rs.11250.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Redgram was Rs. 34615.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55667.92. The net income from Redgram cultivation was Rs. 21052.58, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.61.  The total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 31406.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 64958.25. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 33551.58. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.07.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 52599.60. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 65137.64. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 12538.05. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24.  The total cost of cultivation for greengram was Rs. 24014.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 60741.53. The net income from greengram cultivation was Rs. 36726.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.53.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 42268.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95712.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 53444.16. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.26.  The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs.60000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs.184055, for small farmers it was Rs.150269, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.213333, and for medium farmers it was Rs.450000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 17,954.82. For landless households it was Rs. 5,750, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 10,253.09, for small farmers it was Rs. 11,440.34, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 24,777.78, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 105,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 3 coconuts, 1 guava and 7 mango trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 5 banyan trees, 52 neem trees and 2 peepul trees in their field. 4  The results indicated that, cotton, greengram, paddy and redgram were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut was sold to the extent of 99.49 per cent.  About 100 per cent of the marginal, small, semi medium and medium famers have sold their produce to local/village merchants.  About 82.86 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, and 2.86 per cent have used truck as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 100 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Around 91.43 per cent used fire wood, 2.86 per cent used biogas and 5.71 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of domestic fuel.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  About 42.86 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 60 per cent of the landless, 55.56 per cent of the marginal, 23.08 per cent of the small, 33.33 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers.  100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  Around 85.71 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 74.29 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 37.14 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 28.57 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 60 per cent, fruits were adequate for 51.43 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 60 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 25.71 per cent, pulses were inadequate for 65.71 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 71.43 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 40 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 45.71 per cent and meat was inadequate for 40 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (65.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (14.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (22.86%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80%), high rate of interest on credit (74.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (62.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (74.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80%), less rainfall (14.29%) inadequate extension services (60%), and source of agritechnology information (newspaper/TV/mobile) (2.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Devarapalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 554 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 343 ha (62%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 204 ha (37%) covered by rock outcrops and others covers an area of 8 ha (1%) in the microwatershed. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 343 ha (62%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep (75 -100 cm), 34 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm) and 18 per cent soils are shallow (25 -50 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 45 percent soils are loamy and 10 per cent soils clayey at the surface.  An area of 29 per cent soils are non gravelly (0.75%) and 32 percent is medium (0.50- 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 1 percent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and about 41 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 20 percent is low (337kg/ha), about 30 percent is medium (145- 337 kg/ha) and 29 percent is low (20ppm), 20 percent is medium (10-20ppm) and 42 percent area is low (4.5ppm) in an area of about 59 per cent and deficient (<4.5ppm) in an area of about 3 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 16(3) 226(41) Guava - 55(10) Maize 55(10) 188(34) Sapota - 55(10) Bajra 55(10) 187(34) Pomegranate - 55(10) Groundnut 38(7) 72(13) Musambi - 55(10) Sunflower - 54(10) Lime - 55(10) Redgram - 54(10) Amla 55(10) 187(34) Bengal gram - - Cashew - 16(3) Cotton - 148(27) Jackfruit - 55(10) Chilli 55(10) 188(34) Jamun - - Tomato 55(10) 188(34) Custard apple 55(10) 187(34) Brinjal 55(10) 188(34) Tamarind - - Onion 55(10) 188(34) Mulberry - 55(10) Bhendi 55(10) 188(34) Marigold 55(10) 188(34) Drumstick - 55(10) Chrysanthemum 55(10) 188(34) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 83 (47.7%) men and 91 (52.30%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 5.13, small farmers' was 5.09 and semi medium farmers' was 4.  The data indicated that, 30 (17.24%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 83 (47.70%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (28.74 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 11 (6.32 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Devarapalli-2 had 62.07 per cent illiterates, 16.09 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.87 per cent of them had middle school education, 9.77 per cent of them had high school education, 2.30 per cent of them had PUC education and 4.6 per cent them possess degree education.  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 22.86 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourer.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 16.67 per cent of the household members, 63.79 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.57 per cent were in private service, 16.09 per cent were students and 1.72 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 97.14 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 2.86 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 77.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 34.29 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 17.14 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 85.71 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 5.71 per cent of them possess computer/laptop.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 4,944, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,416, motor cycle was Rs. 46,666, mobile phone was Rs. 2,882 and computer/ laptop was Rs. 25,500.  About 5.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 11.43 per cent of them possess plough, 17.14 per cent of them possess sprayer, 25.71 per cent of them possess weeder and 14.29 per cent of them possess harvester.  The result shows that, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,000, plough was Rs. 1,550, sprayer was Rs. 8,333, weeder was Rs. 68 and harvester was Rs. 1,022.  The results indicate that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 2.86 per cent of the households possess local cow buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.67, average own labour (women) available was 1.64, average hired labour (men) available was 5.34 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.47. 2  The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Devarapalli-2 micro-watershed possess 31.55 ha (100%) of dry. Marginal farmers possess 10.64 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 14.44 ha (100 %) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.48 ha (100 %) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 367,521.81. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 563,926.94 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 304,596.41 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 185,250 for dry land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (1.49 ha), red gram (24.08 ha) and sorghum (0.40 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Devarapalli-2 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 71.43 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 51.43 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed from cooperative and grameena bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in microwatershed was Rs, 19,960.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, around 40 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from high rate of interest.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 59533.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39102.03. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. -20431.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.66.  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 28727.77. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46849.73. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 18121.96. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.63.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 29383.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69866.19. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 40482.33. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.38.  The results indicate that, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. 3  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 20,833.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 62,893.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 102,181.82 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 173,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,508.83. For landless households it was Rs. 3,166.67, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,015.56, for small farmers it was Rs. 8,779.61 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 8,779.61.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 coconut and 2 mango trees in their field and also 2 coconut guava trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 31 eucalyptus, 2 teak and pongamia, 20 neem, 6 tamarind and 1 pongamia trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 371.43 for land development and Rs. 57.14 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that asset selling was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development and soft loan was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development and improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton and sorghum was sold to the extent of 100 per cent and red gram was sold to the extent of 95.33 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 31.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 51.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the households have used cart and truck, 77.14 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 34.29 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 42.86 per cent and 54.29 per cent of the households used bore well in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 91.43 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 60 per cent, 4 vegetables were adequate for 42.86 per cent, fruits were adequate for 45.71 per cent, milk were adequate for 11.43 per cent, eggs were adequate for 20 per cent and meat were adequate for 2.86 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.86 per cent, pulses were inadequate for 8.57 per cent, oilseed was inadequate for 40 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 51.43 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 48.57 per cent, milk were inadequate for 74.29 per cent, egg were inadequate for 80 per cent and meat were inadequate for 97.14 per cent.  The results indicated that, vegetables were market surplus for 2.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 77.14 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field and frequent incidence of pest and diseases (74.29%), Inadequacy of irrigation water and high rate of interest on credit (20%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemical (48.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (22.86%), Lack of marketing facilities in the area (11.43%), inadequate extension services (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agril produce to the market (31.43%), less rainfall (42.86%) and source of agri-technology information (34.29%) ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Malakapanahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 491 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 445 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 8 ha by railway, 3 ha by rock outcrops and 36 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 46 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 80 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy and 11 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area of the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 32 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 49 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 58 per cent area.  51 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 40 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 0.09 per area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 29 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is high (>20 ppm) in an area of about 21 per cent and medium (10 -20 ppm) in 70 per cent.  About 48 per cent area is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 61 per cent area is deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 83(17) Guava - - Maize - 83(17) Sapota - - Bajra - 83(17) Pomegranate - - Groundnut - 62(13) Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - 21(4) Amla - 62(13) Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - 62(13) Jamun - - Tomato - 62(13) Custard apple - 62(13) Brinjal - 62(13) Tamarind - - Onion - 62(13) Mulberry - - Bhendi - 62(13) Marigold - 62(13) Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - 62(13) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 105 (59.46%) men and 75 (40.54%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.75, marginal farmers' was 4.38, small farmers' was 5.2, semi medium farmers' was 4.33 and medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 30 (16.22%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 86 (46.49%) were in 16-35 years of age, 62 (33.51%) were in 36-60 years of age and 7 (3.78%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Malakapanahalli had 51.89 per cent illiterates, 0.54 per cent functional literates, 11.35 per cent of them had primary school education, 3.24 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.22 per cent of them had high school education, 3.78 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.54 per cent had diploma, 0.54 per cent did ITI, 4.55 per cent of them had degree education and and 0.54 per cent did masters.  The results indicate that, 79.49 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 7.69 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers, 2.56 per cent of them were general labourers, 2.56 per cent were in private service and 7.69 per cent were into trade and business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 55.68 per cent of the household members, 4.32 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.62 per cent were general labourers, 0.54 per cent were in private service, 4.32 per cent were into trade and business, 22.16 per cent were students, 3.78 per cent were children and 7.57 per cent were housewives.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 7.69 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 74.36 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.95 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 82.05 per cent of the households possess TV, 20.51 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 5.13 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 87.18 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 9,093, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,637, motor cycle was Rs. 62,500 and mobile phone was Rs. 3,470.  About 2.56 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 7.69 per cent of them possess plough, and 10.26 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,000, plough was Rs. 3,333 and the average value of weeder was Rs.55.  The results indicate that, 17.95 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 7.69 per cent of the households possess local cow. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.06, average own labour (women) available was 1.13, average hired labour (men) available was 11.32 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.84.  The results indicate that, 82.05 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Malakapanahalli micro-watershed possess 21.48 ha (62.96%) of dry land and 12.64 ha (37.04%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.99 ha (94.27%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (5.73%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 7.38 ha (66.12%) of dry land and 3.78 ha (33.88%). Semi medium farmers possess 6.11 ha (59.71%) of dry land and 4.12 ha (40.29%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.25 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 865,523.74 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 640,634.01. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,088,050.63 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.60 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 501,316.51 for dry land and Rs. 1,004,925.08 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,014,172.19 for dry land and Rs. 460,549.56 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 376,380.95 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 11 functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 28.21 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 30.17 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.49 ha, 3.78 ha, 4.13 ha and 4.25 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (9.86 ha), green gram (5.96 ha), sorghum (0.89 ha), cotton (12.73 ha), paddy (3.08 ha) and groundnut (1.62 ha). Marginal farmers have grown cotton, Green gram, red gram and sorghum. Small farmers have grown cotton, Green gram, groundnut, paddy and red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton and paddy. Medium farmers have grown Green gram and red gram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Malakapanahalli micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 34708.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 59706.13. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 24997.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.72. 3  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 32880.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 82384.66. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 49504.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.51.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 29627.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80921.50. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 51294.42. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.73.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 62824.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 267068.74. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 204244.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.25.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 66750.85. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 44399.15. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.67.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 121890.89. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 145040.22. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 23149.33. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.19.  The results indicate that, 15.38 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate for 15.38 per cent of the households.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 51,250 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 103,961.54, for small farmers it was Rs. 140,700, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 155,666.67 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 187,500.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 11,083.53. For landless households it was Rs. 3,968.75, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 5,023.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 15,020, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 14,166.67 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 50,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 34 custard apple trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 5 tamarind, 10 pongamia and 104 neem trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,179.49 for land development and Rs. 2,564.10 for irrigation facility.  The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 2.56 per cent for land development. Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 7.69 per cent for land development and for 5.13 per cent for irrigation facility. Own funds were the source of additional investment for for 5.13 per cent for land development and soft loan was the source of additional investment for 10.26 per cent of the households for land development.  The results indicated that all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except sorghum, which was sold to the extent of 64.71 per cent. 4  The results indicated that, about 74.36 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 5.13 per cent of them sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 79.49 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 28.21 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 71.79 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 76.92 per cent of the households used firewood and 23.08 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.44 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 56.41 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.44 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.56 per cent of the households possessed APL card.  The results indicated that, 87.18 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 97.44 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 5.13 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 25.64 per cent, fruits were adequate for 30.77 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were inadequate for 94.87 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 71.79 per cent and fruits were inadequate for 69.23 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 79.49 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (76.92%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (76.92%), inadequacy of irrigation water (76.92%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (79.49%), low price for the agricultural commodities (70.49%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (10.26%) and inadequate extension services (2.56%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gajarakot-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 479 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 436 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 43 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 65 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (0.75%) in 87 per cent area.  9 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 58 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 25 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium, 76 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 11 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 82 per cent area is deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 73 (15) Guava - 22(4) Maize - 126(26) Sapota - 22(4) Bajra - 73(15) Pomegranate - 22(4) Groundnut - 55(11) Musambi - 22(4) Sunflower - 22(4) Lime - 22(4) Redgram - 22(4) Amla - 73(15) Bengal gram - 72(15) Cashew - - Cotton - 72(15) Jackfruit - 22(4) Chilli - 73(15) Jamun - - Tomato - 73(15) Custard apple 22(4) 51(11) Brinjal - 73(15) Tamarind - 22(4) Onion 0.02(<1) 72(15) Mulberry - - Bhendi 0.02(<1) 72(15) Marigold - 73(15) Drumstick - 22(4) Chrysanthemum - 73(15) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 95 (56.55%) men and 73 (43.45%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.8, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5.7 and medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 27 (16.07%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 69 (41.07%) were in 16-35 years of age, 54 (32.14%) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (10.71%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Gajarakot-1 had 45.24 per cent illiterates, 17.26 per cent of them had primary school, 6.55 per cent of them had middle school, 15.48 per cent of them had high school education, 4.17 per cent of them had PUC and 4.76 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 11.43 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 18.45 per cent of the household members, 59.52 per cent were agricultural labourers, 20.24 per cent were in student, 0.60 per cent were housewives and 1 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 11.43 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 71.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.14 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 80 per cent of the households possess TV, 17.14 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 20 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of the households possess auto and tempo and 88.57 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,428, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,916, motor cycle was Rs. 40,428, auto was Rs. 30,000, tempo was Rs. 300,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,542.  About 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullock cart and weeder, 8.57 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill, tractor and chaff cutter, 5.71 per cent of them possess sparyer and harvester.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 23,750, plough was Rs. 9,000, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 20,000, tractor was Rs. 5000,000, sprayer was Rs. 5,000, weeder was Rs. 410, harvester was Rs. 266 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3,000. 2  The results indicate that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 8.57 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.43, average own labour (women) available was 1.26, average hired labour (men) available was 6.37 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.80.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Gajarakot-1 micro-watershed possess 30.28 ha (87.06 %) of dry land and 4.50 ha (12.94%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 9.48 ha (95.44%) of dry land and 0.45 ha (4.56%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.34 ha (93.34%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (6.66%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 9.45 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 3.24 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 399,505.41 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 444,244.60. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 759,350.99 for dry land and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 882,142.85. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 290,795.57 for dry land and Rs. 1,235,000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 169,178.08 for dry land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 185,250 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 3 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 8.57 per cent of the farmers and 2.86 per cent of the households used open well.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 5.57 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.45 ha, 0.81 ha and 3.24 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (23.34 ha), cotton (6.24 ha), paddy (2.88 ha) and groundnut (2.1 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, cotton, paddy and groundnut. Small farmers have grown red gram, cotton and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram and cotton. Medium farmers have grown red gram and paddy.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Gajarakot-1 micro-watershed was found to be 90.70 per cent. 3  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households have bank account and savings. The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 7.14 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 3.57 per cent of the households have cooperative bank and money lender and 14.29 per cent of the households have borrowed from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 29,000.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households unpaid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 16.67 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount was high rate of interest.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 39960.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54048.62. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 14087.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53471.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 89194.59. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 35723.14. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.67.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 35900.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 68864.55. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 32963.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.92.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 48228.58. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50750.66. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 2522.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.05.  The results indicate that, 5.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 58,500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 104,993.75, for small farmers it was Rs. 134,750, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 198,750 and medium farmers it was Rs. 618,800. 4  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13,393.10. For landless households it was Rs. 4,055.56, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,833.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 12,192.71, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 21,687.50 and medium farmers it was Rs. 198,800.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 45 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 7 eucalyptus, 37 neem, 5 tamarind and 3 acacia trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 171.43 for land development and improved crop production.  The results indicated that soft loan was the source of additional investment for 8.57 per cent for land development and 5.71 per cent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 81.63 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 84.21 per cent and red gram to the extent of 87.38 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 17.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 68.57 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households used firewood and 11.43 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 77.14 per cent and 22.86 per cent of the households used bore well in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 40 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 48.57 per cent, fruits were adequate for 37.14 per cent, milk were adequate for 5 8.57 per cent, egg were adequate for 20 per cent and meat were adequate for 25.71 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 5.71 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 8.57 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 54.29 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 51.43 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 62.86 per cent, milk were inadequate for 74.29 per cent, egg were inadequate for 77.14 per cent and meat were inadequate for 71.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil and wild animal menace on farm field was the constraint experienced by 80 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (31.43%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40%), high rate of interest on credit (11.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (20%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (17.14%), inadequate extension service (14.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (34.29%), less rainfall (14.29%), and source of Agri-technology information (45.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

From the introduction: For more than two decades, scientific and political communities have debated whether and how to act on climate change. This discussion moved on. Today science is very clear about the magnitude of the risks imposed by unmanaged climate change: 'What we are doing is redifining where people could live and if we do that as a world than hundreds of million of people will move. Probably billions will move. We are talking about gambling the planet, we are talking about a radical change of the way in which human beings could live and where they could live and, indeed, how many of them." With regard to these risks the application of the precautionary principle telling us 'to better be safe than sorry" appears to be imperative and makes traditional cost-benefit analysis become obsolete. Thus combating global warming has become one of the most important issues facing the world in the 21. century. As nobody would be immune from the transformation the planet faces, avoiding this gamble should, in theory, be in the interest of all nations. Unfortunately, a common response in the scale necessary is hard to organize. While the industrialized countries fear the costs of the transformation from a high-carbon to a low-carbon economy, it is the poorest people who are facing a double unequity as they 1. will be hit earliest and hardest by the adverse impacts of climate change, and 2. are least responsible for the stock of current concentrations in the atmosphere. This inequity consequently leads to a great sense of injustice in developing countries being asked cut emission, while knowing, that the developed world got rich on high-carbon growth. Without any doubt the outcome of this is a historical responsibility of industrialized countries to take over leadership in reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases. However, bearing in mind that by 2050, approximately eight out of nine billion people in the world will be living in developing nations, it is impossible to get down to emission levels needed without at the same time covering the developing world as well. Against this background international climate protection is a sociopolitical, economical, and ethical challenge, concerning all nations, which have to understand that they are a community based on the principle of mutual solidarity. The international climate regime is regarded as the main platform to further cooperation between nations in order to succesfully combat global warming. Ever since the first world climate conference in 1979 the international community of states pursues the goal of stabilizing greenhouse gas emissions in the medium-term, before finally reducing them in the long-term. In the end of 2009 and 2010, the 15th and 16th Conference of Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) aimed at achieving the final breakthrough with regard to framing new long-term mitigation commitments necessary in the scale needed to assure that global warming will not exceed 2° C above preindustrial levels; the line of demarcation from which on climate change is supposedly irreversible. Going from this initial situation this thesis will try to determine the driving-forces of the climate regime and research if the regime theory is a capable tool to explain them. In the following chapter it will be started by highlighting the scientific and economic consequences of anthropogenic climate change to amplify, why there is such an urgent need to fight global warming. Thereafter part three is going to deal with the regime theory. After presenting its interest-based, power-based, and knowledge-based school, these different approaches will, in a second step, be applied to the issue area of climate change. Basing on this analysis it is possible to hypothesize on how actors are supposed to behave within the regime. Due to the fact, that this thesis has a limited volume it will be focused on the three actors, which are regarded as not only most important for the regime's success but also possess the biggest influence within the international community, namely the United States, China, and the European Union. Thereby it will be strongly concentrated on the role of the United States. Understanding this role within the international climate regime is considered as absolutely central since the absolute emissions of the US surpass - with the exception of China - those of any other country and its per capita emissions are also amongst the highest in the world. As a result the US although containing just around one-twentieth of the world's population produce almost one-fifth of the world's total emissions of greenhouse gases. Being the world's largest economy the US moreover not only has considerable financial resources which could be directed to environmental problems abroad, but also a technological capability with huge mitigation potentials. Consequently there is a great chance that a possible decision of the US to take a leading role on addressing climate change would set an example that other countries would follow. On the other hand the rest of the world, and here especially developing countries, such as China or India, very likely will not agree to needed actions either, if the US chooses to reject such a leader-role. Therefore it is often spoken of a 'moral duty' of the US to take the lead in the response towards global warming, a duty which is amplified by the fact that the US alone is historically responsible for almost 30% of the total concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. While the EU has recognized its responsibility for anthropogenic climate change and implemented, as the first region worldwide, a comprehensive and demanding programme to fight the greenhouse effect, China's participation and cooperation in the climate change regime is particularly important for two reasons. First, China's impact on climate change is forecasted to be enormous: China's large population, rapid economic growth and heavy reliance on fossil fuels collectively imply large increases in CO2 emissions and thereby a disproportionate influence on climate change. The fourth part is divided in three sections. Since in isolation from its historical and institutional antecedents the global climate regime and the challenges it currently faces, cannot be properly understood, the first section will take a closer look at the current regime, which is founded on the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on climate change and supplemented by its 1997 Kyoto-Protocol. In this context special attention will be given to the exit of the US from the Kyoto process as the slow progress in the international climate negotiations from that point on was mainly triggered by the reluctance of the US to endorse the Kyoto approach. The second section focuses on the main priorities of the actors within climate negotiations, which are in turn highly affected by their energy political situation. The negotiations in Copenhagen and to a minor extent in Cancun will from this basis offer valuable clues to the question to which extent the actors have been able to convert their interests within the regime. In the final part it will be possible to draw a conclusion regarding the driving-forces of the regime and how they affect its effectiveness and robustness. After giving a compressed outlook on potential future driving-forces an assumption will be issued whether the hypotheses developed in the third part can be coroborated as valid.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents 1.Introduction1 2.Scientific and economic consequences of anthropogenic climate change4 2.1.The natural and anthropogenic greenhouse effect4 2.1.1.The IPCC and its 4th Assessment Report6 2.1.2.The Stern Review and the economics of climate change10 3.The regime theory14 3.1.Three schools of thought within the theory of international regimes15 3.1.1.The interest-based approach15 3.1.1.1.Two-level games19 3.1.2.The power-based approach21 3.1.3.The knowledge-based approach23 3.2.Application of the three approaches to the issue are of climate change25 4.The issue area of climate change33 4.1.The current climate regime33 4.1.1.The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change34 4.1.2.The Kyoto Protocol35 4.1.2.1.The exit of the United States38 4.1.2.2.Basic weaknesses of the Kyoto Protocol41 4.1.3.The Bali Action Plan42 4.2.Prorities of the main actors42 4.2.1.The United States of America44 4.2.1.1.Obama's new climate policy46 4.2.2.China48 4.2.2.1.China's plead for consumption-based inventories54 4.3.International negotiations for a post-2012 agreement in Copenhagen and Cancun58 5.Analysis of the driving-forces in the climate regime64 5.1.The effectiveness and robustness of the climate regime64 5.2.Analysis of the driving-forces with regard to the effectiveness of the international climate regime65 5.2.1.Analysis of the current climate regime65 5.2.2.Analysis of the negotiations for a post-2012 climate regime67 5.2.3.Outlook regarding the regime's potential future driving-forces75 5.2.3.1.A shift in Obama's political priority setting75 5.2.3.2.Developments at the state and local level in the US77 5.2.3.2.1.The ballot on Propostion 23 in California82 5.3.Conclusion83 References90 Table of figures Figure 1:Development of global annual average temperature and CO2-concentrations5 Figure 2: Examples of impacts associated with global average temperature change8 Figure 3: Example of a payoff matrix in the Prisoner's Dilemma17 Figure 4: Example of a payoff matriv in the Battle of the Sexes22 Figure 5: Classification of a country's support for international environmental regulations27 Figure 6: Types of domestic political interest28 Figure 7: Targets of the Kyoto Protocol and actual reductions39 Figure 8: Coal producing states in the US44 Figure 9: Cross-party voting on the ACES in the House of Representatives45 Figure 10: Total energy consumption in China, by type (2008)49 Figure 11: China's exports and CO2-emissions since 200256 Figure 12: C02-emissions from China's net exports in 2004 in comparison with total emissions from China and other countries57 Figure 13: Renewable alternative portfolio standards in the US79 Figure 14: Regional cap and trade programs in the US80 Figure 15: Total global investments in clean energy in $ bn from 2004 to 201085 Appendixes Appendix 1: World carbon dioxide emissions by region107 Appendix 2: National reduction targets in the Non-ETS-Sector in the EU108 Appendix 3: Global carbon dioxide emissions from coal use in million metric tons, by region from 2005 to 2035109 Appendix 4: Global carbon dioxide emissions in million metric tons, by regionfrom 2005 to 2035110 Appendix 5: Energy-related carbon dioxide emissions in metric tons per person, by region and country from 2005 to 2035111 Appendix 6: China's coal deposits and major railway infrastructure112 Appendix 7: Copenhagen Accord emission mitigation goals of selected countries113 Appendix 8: New constructions of coal-fired power plants in Germany114 Appendix 9: World nuclear enery consumption, by region from 2005 to 2035115 Appendix 10: Transcript - Interview: Nicholas Stern116 Appendix 11: Transcript - Interview: Hermann Ott.120 Appendix 12: Transcript - Interview: Steve Kretzmann120Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3., The regime theory: The regime theory originated in the late seventies initially in the United States. It searched for answers to challenges in a time when especially crude oil induced shocks in industrial countries have plastically shown the practical consequences of the grown interdependency of economies. So the American study of regimes first and foremost concentrated on the field of the international political economy and was trying to ensure a better understanding of international cooperation. At the same time another phenomenom occured, namely the significant increase in the numbers of international governmental and non-governmental organisations, while the dominance of the United States in the world politics declined. This was a surprising development as, according to the at this time predominant approach of neorealism, international institutions like GATT or the IMF were supposed to become ineffective as a result of the US loosing its status as a global hegemon. To primarily get a better understanding of what international regimes actually are it is useful to study them as social institutions. By means of separating international regimes from international organisations, which are likewise social institutions, two of their main criteria - besides fulfilling the criteria of durability - become especially apparent: In contrast to international organisations, which often have an effect across problems, international regimes always refer to a specific problem area of international politics, like the protection of the ozon layer, trade liberalisations or the problem of climate change, While international organisations can act as cooperative actors, international regimes lack this attribute. In the following it will be concentrated on the interest-based, power-based and knowledge based approach to explain the emergence and characteristics of international regimes. The main focus of attention will be put on the work of Robert Keohane, who produced the most elaborate and also most widely discussed neoliberal approach. While Keohane's formulation had such a strong influence that it has been widely equated with 'regime theory' as such, the neoliberal school of thought, whose overriding emphasis has been on showing the role of international regimes in helping states to realize common interests, has come to represent the mainstream approach analyzing international regimes. Keohane's theory will be complement by Putnams theory of the two-level-games to factor in domestic influences on the interests of states in international negotiations. Thereafter not only the main criticisms of the neorealist school regarding the neoliberal theory will be pointed out, but also the cognitivist perspective will be shown. Hereby it will concentrate on the branch of weak cognitivism that regards the demand for regimes in international relations as depending on the actors' perception of international problems, which in turn are - e.g. in the case of environmental problems - heavily influenced by the information provided by scientists and so called epistemic communities. The cognitive perspective distinguishes itself from the other two approaches since it is the only one, which does not have a rational but sociological meta-theoretical orientation and is another useful complementation of Keohane's regime theory. While none of the present approaches denies regimes any impact, the degree of institutionalism varies considerably, what not least has something to do with the behavioural models on which neoliberals, realists and cognitivists base their analyses. 3.1, Three schools of thought within the theory of international regime: 3.1.1, The interest-based approach: The interest-based theory attributes international institutions a significant role in international politics and therefore dealt critically with the approach of neorealism, which during the first quarter century after WWII has been predominant in the international relations. Neoliberal and realist theories of international regimes though share their commitment to rationalism, which assumes that states, which act in anarchic structures are the most important actors in international politics. By following selfishly defined interests to maximize own profits they behave as rational egoists for whom altruistism never is a motivating force. Compliance to international rules and norms is according to rationalists not a result of a moral obligaion but of a situation where own short-term gains fail to outweigh own losses in the long-run. In contrast to neorealism the interest-based approach consequently stresses, that stable international cooperation is possible even beyond hegemonic power structures, when cooperation is due to increasing interdependent relations beyond national borders in the common interest of all involved states. Since the actions of a player in a field are driven by its interests and every player behaves as a utility maximizer problematic acting interdependencies might emerge, in which a better collective result can solely be reached through cooperation. A need for cooperation is typical for the utilization of global collective goods, which once provided can be used by everyone not only by its providers but also by free-riders, namely states not contributing to make the good available. This is a situation, entitled by Garrett Hardin as the 'tragedy of the commons", that entails two major problems. 1. unless it happens to produce significant side-effects in the form of private goods an individual actor, contemplating whether to contribute to the collective good or not, most likely won't find a unilateral effort that will pay off, and 2. concerning the collective good itself, the smaller the actor the more its own benefit-cost ratio for unilateral efforts will negatively deviate from that of the world. Although in this constellation players have a common interest in securing the common good, cooperation seems very unlikely since each player will regard it as irrational.

Job creation and productivity growth are at the forefront of the global development agenda. The central challenge today for the government of Georgia is to find sources of long-term economic growth, particularly through private sector development. This study seeks to identify determinants of high-growth entrepreneurial activity. The stusy uses data from the new 2012 World Bank Entrepreneurship Survey conducted to gauge new firm growth in the formal sector in Georgia and data from World Bank Enterprise Surveys to analyze innovative activity in existing firms. It includes detailed case study ana

It is widely recognized that broadband is of fundamental importance to the social and economic development of a nation. The focus of the paper is on infrastructure-related actions; measures to stimulate demand for broadband are, therefore, only marginally addressed. This paper aims to provide a platform for debate with the Russian counterparts in the sector, and to discuss the measures needed to develop broadband in support of actions aimed at economic growth. This paper examines the broadband market in Russia and preconditions for its sustainable development. It begins by presenting arguments demonstrating the importance of broadband to the overall economic development of Russia, including from the perspective of diversification of the economy and new job creation. The paper benchmarks Russia s broadband performance with Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) comparators, as well as with other nations leading the way in broadband diffusion. The paper takes stock of the existing broadband market structure in Russia and its main players as they stand today, including the regulatory and legal environment of the market for both fixed and mobile broadband. Finally, the paper provides a set of recommendations that addresses the issue of sustainability in Russian broadband delivery, and how it can continue its acceleration in the years to come.

The main objective of the report is to analyze the current greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions inventory process in Romania, and provide recommendations for improving the system in order to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of inventory development in compliance with United Nations framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC) and European Union (EU) requirements, including emissions forecasting provisions. This report describes the GHG inventory process and its history, analyzes the legal framework, documents and information provisions, and flows related to making the inventory together with identifying the potential adjustments for improvement, assess reporting entities and correlation mechanisms to economic dynamics, in terms of completeness, coherence, response time constant to changes in the number of companies' impact on data reporting, and provides recommendations on the possibility to improve the inventory-making process in order to meet the requirements of emission projections. The report is organized into seven sections as follows: section one provides a general introduction to GHG inventories. Section two examines the processes and procedures used in the present GHG inventory system in Romania and the alignment of this system with international frameworks including the framework for the development of environmental statistics (FDES) and the intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) schematic framework. Section three elaborates the challenges with the existing greenhouse inventory process including data gaps and weaknesses in the statistical infrastructure. Section four looks at the international and national legal requirements for greenhouse gas inventories. Section five provides analysis on the flow of information and the specific verification points to ensure data consistency and coherence. Section six provides a number of recommendations and concludes in section seven with a summary of key recommendations.

Inclusive innovation seeks to expand access to essential goods and services, thereby improving quality of life, and enhancing economic empowerment through knowledge creation, acquisition, adaption, absorption, and deployment efforts targeted directly at the needs of excluded populations. Inclusive innovation is of high relevance for the Chinese authorities, but the concept is new to the Chinese government from both conceptual and policy perspective. So far China has emphasized frontier innovation, yet has recognized the importance of inclusive innovation in addressing increasing disparity between the rich and poor. In China many efforts are being made in the domain of inclusive innovation, but there is no clear strategy and implementation plan. This report aims to help build awareness and set the stage for the potential implementation and operationalization of inclusive innovation policy in China and possibly in other countries. This report is presented in four Chapters and an Executive Summary. Chapter I presents the concept of inclusive innovation and why it is relevant for China. Chapter II discusses the current landscape for inclusive innovation in China. Chapter III presents international experience and examples. Chapter IV outlines some policy options for consideration by the Chinese authorities.

Financial consumer protection regulation reflects the regulator's and policy makers' concerns with the relationship between financial institutions and their clients. Most emerging markets and developing economies (EMDEs) researched for this guide have regulated at least one financial consumer protection topic. Each detail in the regulatory requirements impacts how the supervisor enforces them in practice and which tools and techniques will work best. For example, a rule simply requiring disclosure of an item will be checked by the field supervisor differently than a rule requiring the item to be disclosed at a specific moment and in a specified format. Ignoring the time dimension of this rule can jeopardize its core goal. This guide is an attempt to help bank supervisors enforce such regulations. It is divided into following sections: section one gives introduction. Section two details guidance points in eight areas of interest for supervisory staff and agencies, while section three suggests a prioritization framework for supervisors - particularly those in low-income countries with resource and capacity constraints - that adopt a gradual approach when implementing the guidance.

Innovation is the main driver of long-term economic growth. The accumulation of capital, whether in the form of physical assets such as plants and equipment, or through better human capital, cannot indefinitely sustain growth unless new products, services, processes, and/or business models are developed and implemented. This paper describes the actors involved and the types of funding available at different stages of the innovation process, the rationales for public intervention, and the advantages and disadvantages of some of the most commonly used policy instruments. Innovation activities are more difficult to finance than other types of investment for several reasons. Innovation produces an intangible asset that does not typically constitute accepted collateral to obtain external funding. Also, the technological and market uncertainty of innovation activities makes the returns to investment highly uncertain, creating significant problems for the standard risk adjustment methods used by providers of funds. This paper uses a streamlined version of an innovation process with three stages to categorize the different sources of finance available; in reality, considerable crossover takes places among instruments because innovation processes are not discrete.

The Government of Peru is committed to improving rural electrification coverage, aiming to increase rural coverage from an estimated 55 percent at the end of 2010 to 88 percent by 2020. To achieve this goal, the Directorate General of Rural Electrification (DGER) of the Ministry of Energy and Mines (MEM) has been implementing and executing the National Plan for Rural Electrification, prepared annually, based on the 2006 Rural Electrification Law, to extend service and attract participation of the population, local governments and electricity distribution companies. Within this program, the World Bank (WB) and Global Environmental Facility (GEF) are supporting the Directorate of Competitive Funds (DFC) of the DGER in the implementation and execution of the Rural Electrification (RE) Project, initiated in July 2006 and the Second Rural Electrification Project initiated in July 2011, to assist electricity distribution companies to implement rural electrification. Among the activities underway in the first RE Project is the implementation of a pilot program to develop the productive use of electricity, promoting opportunities for income generation in rural areas. This report provides an early assessment of the productive uses of electricity in Peru under the RE Project.