Suchergebnisse

Most of us feel more comfortable in certain groups than others, and indeed find certain people just plain wrong headed or evil - perhaps neo-Nazis, the KKK, the Mafia, terrorist groups. This sense of alterity - distance or separation from particular others - is virtually an inevitable outcome of social life. As we come to generate realities and moralities within specific groups - families, friendships, the workplace, the religious setting - so do our interlocutors become invaluable resources. With their support - either explicit or implicit - we gain the sense of who we are, what is real, and what is right. At the same time, all world constructions and their associated forms of relational life create a devalued exterior - a realm that is not us, not what we believe, not true, not good. In important degree this devaluation derives from the structure of language out of which we construct our realities. Language is essentially a differentiating medium, with every word separating that which is named or indicated from that which is not (absent, contrary). Thus, whenever we declare what is the case or what is good, we use words that privilege certain existents while thrusting the absent and the contrary to the margins. An emphasis on the material basis of reality suppresses or devalues the spiritual; an emphasis on the world as observed subtlety undermines beliefs in the unseen and intuitive, and so on. In effect, for every reality there is alterity. These proposals are all congenial to a view of reality as socially constructed (see Gergen, 1994). The problem of difference is intensified by several ancillary tendencies. First, there is a tendency to avoid those who are different, and particularly when they seem antagonistic to one's way of life. We avoid meetings, conversations, and social gatherings. With less opportunity for interchange, there is secondly a tendency for accounts of the other to become simplified. There are few challenges to one's descriptions and explanations; fewer exceptions are made. Third, with the continuing tendency to explain others' actions in a negative way, there is a movement toward extremity. As we continue to locate "the evil" in the other's actions, there is an accumulation; slowly the other takes on the shape of the inferior, the stupid or the villainous. Social psychologists often speak in this context of "negative stereotyping," that is, rigid and simplified conceptions of the other. All such tendencies lead to social atomization, with the same processes that separate cliques and gangs in adolescence reflected organizationally as tensions between management and workers or line and staff; and at the societal level as conflicts between the political left and right, fundamentalists vs. liberals, gay rights and anti-gays, and pro-choice vs. prolife. And more globally we find similar tendencies separating Jews and Palestinians, Irish Catholics vs. Protestants, Muslims vs. Christians, and so on. On this account tendencies toward division and conflict are normal outgrowths of social interchange. Prejudice is not, then, a manifestation of flawed character - inner rigidities, decomposed cognition, emotional biases, and the like. Rather, so long as we continue the normal process of creating consensus around what is real and good, classes of the undesirable are under production. Wherever there are tendencies toward unity, cohesion, brotherhood, commitment, solidarity, or community, so are the seeds of alterity and conflict sewn. In the present condition, virtually none of us escape from being undesirable to at least one (and probably many) other groups. The major challenge that confronts us, then, is not that of generating warm and cozy communities, conflict-free societies, or a harmonious world order. Rather, given the endemic character of conflict, how do we proceed in such a way that ever emerging antagonism does not yield aggression, oppression, or genocide - in effect, the end of meaning altogether. This challenge is all the more daunting in a world where communication technology allows increasing numbers of groups to organize, mold common identities, set agendas and take action (1). Perhaps the major challenge for the 21st century is how we shall manage to live together on the globe. What resources are available to us in confronting this challenge? At least one important possibility is suggested by the social constructionist posture that frames the above account: if it is through dialogue that the grounds for conflict emerge, then dialogue may be our best option for treating contentious realities. Yet, in spite of the broad significance attached to the term, "dialogue," little is gained by invoking its power. More formally, dialogue is simply "a conversation between two or more persons." And indeed, it is ultimately impossible to distinguish between dialogue and its other, namely monologue. For even monologue is addressed to someone - either present or implied. And even should the recipient remain silent, responses do occur - privately to one's interlocutor or more publicly to concerned others. Thus, to make headway here it is essential to distinguish among specific forms of dialogue. Not all dialogic processes may be useful in reducing the potential for hostility, conflict, and aggression. Indeed conversations dominated by critical exchanges, saber rattling, and contentious demands may only exacerbate the conflict. It is in this context that I wish to put forth the concept and practice of transformative dialogue. Transformative dialogue may be viewed as any form of interchange that succeeds in transforming a relationship between those committed to otherwise separate and antagonistic realities (and their related practices) to one in which common and solidifying realities are under construction.

This paper reviews the policy debate on development issues and examines the economic prospects for developing countries at the beginning of the twenty-first century. It is specifically concerned with the question of whether developing countries will be able to meet the employment and poverty reduction goals set by the World Summit for Social Development, held in Copenhagen in 1995. What policies at the national and international level will be most helpful in this respect? The introductory part of the paper notes that the Social Summit coincided with one of the worst financial crises up to that time in developing economies-Mexico's 'Tequila Crisis' in 1994 and 1995. It is suggested that, notwithstanding that crisis, the immediate economic prospects for developing countries in 1995 appeared much brighter than they do today in the wake of recent economic and financial crises in Asia, Latin America and Russia. The paper notes that, in contrast to the uneven economic performance of the economies of developing countries in the period since the Social Summit, the policy debate has in many ways taken a definite step forward. The main part of the paper provides a systematic investigation of the factors that determine whether or not developing countries will be able to eradicate poverty and achieve full employment with rising productivity and real wages. The paper looks specifically at the following aspects. First, it considers the economic record of developing countries and policy issues raised by this analysis. Second, it examines the complex interrelationships between economic growth, unemployment, poverty reduction and income inequality, both conceptually and empirically. This analysis gives attention to the notion of full employment, the relationship between technical change and unemployment, the economic significance of the information and communications technology revolution, and labour market theories of unemployment and inflation. Third, the paper looks at the changed historical conjuncture for economic development and for the development policy debate. The following themes and related analytical and policy questions are emphasized: Liberalization and globalization-Contrary to theoretical expectations, why has the actual experience of many developing countries with liberalization and globalization been negative rather than positive, i.e. why has it often resulted in crises rather than faster growth? Also, are these failures simply a matter of incorrect policies, or are there more fundamental flaws from the perspective of developing countries, with respect to the institutional arrangements of the world economy under liberalization and globalization? Washington Consensus-Has the Washington Consensus failed? What lessons should be learned from the implementation of that policy programme? Asian financial and economic crisis-A very important and influential thesis concerning the Asian crisis suggests that the failure of Asian countries during 1997-1999 can be ascribed mainly to the dirigiste and corporatist model of capitalism that many of these countries were following. The paper examines this thesis critically. A central policy implication of these analyses is that developing countries need to attain a trend increase in their growth rates, possibly to their pre-1980 long-term rates of about 6 per cent per year. This would enable them to achieve and maintain meaningful 'full employment' in the spirit of the Social Summit, with rising real wages and increasing standards of living. Although faster growth will help to reduce poverty, the latter is affected by other important variables as well-notably inflation, inequality of income and asset distribution, instability of economic growth and government fiscal policies. Women, in particular, are adversely affected by macro-economic instability. In the absence of adequate social security systems, the burden of women's paid as well as unpaid work increases during economic downturns. What is required, therefore, to meet the employment and poverty reduction goals of the Social Summit is not only fast growth, but also better quality growth. The last part of the paper highlights the shortcomings of the present institutional arrangement of liberalization and globalization. It indicates why and how these arrangements make it difficult for developing countries to achieve high rates of economic growth. Indeed, it is suggested that this regime is sub-optimal for both developing and developed countries. It is argued that, today, the main constraints on faster long-term economic growth in both developing and developed countries do not lie on the supply side but on the demand side. In principle, the world has the technological and intellectual capacity, as well as the human and material resources, to achieve the fast growth required to fulfil the aims of the Social Summit. The paper suggests that such growth will, however, only be realized in practice if the alternative strategy outlined is adopted. This involves the pursuit of faster growth of real world demand through co-ordinated expansion by industrialized countries and the introduction of special and differential treatment for developing countries in a number of key spheres. In brief, an essential argument of this paper is that, instead of the present organization of the world economy, a global Keynesian regime of managed world trade and controlled global capital movements is more likely to benefit both developed and developing countries. Together with genuine international co-operation as well as more harmonious relations between employers, employees and governments nationally, this would deliver both fast growth and high quality growth. Such growth would help bring full employment and rising wages in both groups of countries. In analytical terms, the paper stresses the significance of co-ordination failures on the demand side as the main obstacles to economic progress, rather than supply-side deficiencies. In order for the rate of growth of real world demand to be compatible with production possibilities on the supply side, new institutions are required to resolve the co-ordination problems on a sustained, long-term basis.

Die Planungskommission der ETH Zürich (ETHZ) hat acht Kernbereiche der ETHZ identifiziert. Das Vorhaben hat zum Zweck, der Schulleitung Entscheidungsgrundlagen für die langfristige Planung der ETHZ bereitzustellen. Kernbereiche sind Bereiche von Gegenständen, denen sich Lehre, Forschung und wissenschaftliche Dienstleistung an der ETHZ schwergewichtig widmen oder in Zukunft widmen sollen. Sie werden inhaltlich definiert und sind weder neue Organisationseinheiten oder Vorläufer dazu, noch stellen sie Aggregierungen bisheriger Einheiten dar. Das Vorhaben wurde als Nutzwert-Analyse in vier Schritten durchgeführt: Etablierung eines Zielsystems, u.a. aufgrund einer Analyse bestehender Zielformulierungen Konzeption von Kernbereichen, u.a. aufgrund einer Analyse bestehender, informeller Interaktionsstrukturen innerhalb der ETHZ Bestimmung der Zielerträge und der Nutzwerte der Kernbereiche Schlussfolgerungen und Empfehlungen Das von der Planungskommission entwickelte Zielsystem für die ETHZ zeigt eine technisch-naturwissenschaftliche Hochschule mit einer leichten Priorität der Forschung gegenüber der Lehre. In der Forschung liegt der Akzent auf der Grundlagen- gegenüber der angewandten Forschung. In der Lehre wird sowohl disziplinäre Einzel- als auch interdisziplinäre Systemkompetenz angestrebt. Sowohl in der Lehre (v.a. Weiterbildung) als auch in der orientierten Forschung kommen der gesellschaftlichen Relevanz von Ingenieur- und Naturwissenschaften grosses Gewicht zu. Die Analyse der Interaktionsstrukturen an der ETHZ zeigt eine intensive, formal- strukturunabhängige innere Vernetzung der ETHZ. Nicht weniger beeindruckend ist auch die äussere Vernetzung der ETHZ mit externen Forschungsinstitutionen. Diese Vernetzungen stellen einen zentralen Reichtum dieser Hochschule dar. Weil die formale Struktur meist erst mit Verzögerung an die faktischen Strukturveränderungen des Hochschullebens angepasst wird, sind diese informellen Strukturen Hinweise auf zukünftig wichtig werdende Themen in Forschung und Lehre. Gleichzeitig ist ihr Vorhandensein eine wichtige Voraussetzung für die inhaltliche Weiterentwicklung der ETHZ. Als Ergebnis ihrer Analysen und Überlegungen bezeichnet die Planungskommission acht Kernbereiche, welche sowohl die besonderen Stärken der ETHZ (Triade Ingenieurwissenschaften / Naturwissenschaften / Sozial- und Geisteswissenschaften) als auch zukünftige Entwicklungen in den Umfeldern der ETHZ (Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft, Politik) reflektieren: Kernbereich 1: "Technisch-naturwissenschaftliche Grundlagen". Kernbereich 2: "Grundlagen sozio-technischer Systeme". Kernbereich 3: "Bau- und Infrastruktur-Systeme. Kernbereich 4: "Produktions-Systeme". Kernbereich 5: "Informations- und Kommunikations-Systeme". Kernbereich 6: "Biotechnologie, Gentechnologie, Neuroinformatik". Kernbereich 7: "Ernährungs- und Gesundheits-Systeme". Kernbereich 8: "Agrar-, Forst- und Umwelt-Systeme" Der Wert des Vorhabens "Kernbereiche der ETHZ" der Planungskommission ETHZ erschliesst sich in der Anwendung seiner Ergebnisse. Die Planungskommission er- kennt in den Kernbereichen zukunftsträchtige Gebiete von Gegenständen und Fragestellungen, für deren wissenschaftliche Bearbeitung die ETHZ als besonders geeignet erscheint. In den Kernbereichen verfügt die ETHZ über besonders grosse Erfolgspotentiale. In diesen Bereichen kann die ETHZ besonders wertvolle Beiträge zur Erreichung ihrer Zielsetzung leisten. Die ETHZ sollte deshalb in Zukunft die acht Kernbereiche als Grundlage zur Entscheidfindung in der langfristigen Planung der ETHZ heranziehen. Planungsentscheidungen dieser Art stehen in praktisch allen Bereichen des Hochschullebens an. In all diesen Fällen sollten bestehende Entscheidungsspielräume auf allen Stufen der ETHZ im Sinne einer verstärkten Ausrichtung auf die Kernbereiche ausgeschöpft werden. Wichtig scheint dabei die adäquate Interpretation und Verwendung der Aussagen des vorliegenden Vorhabens. Diese haben primär argumentativen Charakter. Falsch wäre es deshalb, allein daraus direkte Schlüsse etwa auf die Mittelverteilung zu ziehen. Sie sollten vielmehr im Rahmen eines auch andere Gesichtspunkte umfassen- den, diskursiven Prozesses verwendet werden. The planning commission of the ETH Zurich ( ETHZ) identifies eight core areas of the ETHZ. The main purpose of this project is to provide basics for long-term planning decision to the executive board of the ETHZ. Core areas are groups of topics, which are to be cultivated in education, research and scientific services within the ETHZ intensely. They are defined in content and are neither new organizational units or forerunner s of it nor they represent aggregated existing units. The project was carried out as a value benefit analysis in four steps: Establishing a target system (among other things due to an analysis of existing target formulations). Conception of core areas (among other things due to an analysis of existing, informal interaction structures within the ETHZ). Determination of the target yields and the benefit values in the core areas. Conclusions and recommendations. The target system developed by the planning commission for the ETHZ shows a technical and natural scientific university with an slight priority of research in relation to education. In research the accent is on the basic in relation to the applied research. In education both monodisciplinary single competence and interdisciplinary system competence are aimed. Both in education ( particularly further training) and in oriented research a large weight comes to the social relevance of engineer and natural sciences. The analysis of the interaction structures within the ETHZ shows an intensive internal networking independent from formal structures. Not less impressing is also the outside networking of the ETHZ with external research institutions. This networking represent a central wealth of this university. Because the form al structure is usually only adapted with time lag to the actual structural changes of the university life, these informal structures are referring to topics in research and education of future importance. Their presence is an major prerequisite for the development of the contents of the ETHZ . As a result of its analyses and considerations the planning commission call s eight core areas, which reflect both the special strengths of the ETHZ ( triad " engineering sciences / natural sciences / social sciences and humanities" ) and future developments in the context of the ETHZ (society, economics, politics). Core area 1: "technical-scientific basics". Core area 2: "basics of socio-technological systems". Core area 3: "building and infrastructure systems". Core area 4: "production systems". Core area 5: "information and communication systems". Core area 6: "biotechnology, genetic engineering, neuroinformatics". Core area 7: "nutrition and health systems". Core area 8: "agrarian, forest and environmental systems". The full value of the project of "core areas of the ETHZ " is only opened in the application of its results. The planning commission consider s the core areas as promising areas of topics and questions, for w hose scientific handling the ETHZ appear s as particularly suitable. Within the core areas the ETHZ has particularly large success potentials. Within these areas the ETHZ can make particularly valuable contributions for reaching its main objectives. Therefore one should consult the eight core areas as basis for decision making in the long- term planning of the ETHZ. Planning decisions of this type are to be made within practically all areas of the university life. In the sense of an intensified adjustment on the core areas existing scopes for decision should be exhausted on al l levels of the ETHZ. The predicates of the present project have a primarily argumentative character. An adequate interpretation and use of it seem to be important. Therefore it would be wrong to conclude from them direct conclusions on the fund distribution. They should be used rather in the context of a discursive process including al so other criteria.

-Gesa Mackenthun, Stephen Greenblatt, Marvelous Possessions: The wonder of the New World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. ix + 202 pp.-Peter Redfield, Peter Hulme ,Wild majesty: Encounters with Caribs from Columbus to the present day. An Anthology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. x + 369 pp., Neil L. Whitehead (eds)-Michel R. Doortmont, Philip D. Curtin, The rise and fall of the plantation complex: Essays in Atlantic history. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. xi + 222 pp.-Roderick A. McDonald, Hilary McD.Beckles, A history of Barbados: From Amerindian settlement to nation-state. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. xv + 224 pp.-Gertrude J. Fraser, Hilary McD.Beckles, Natural rebels; A social history of enslaved black women in Barbados. New Brunswick NJ and London: Rutgers University Press and Zed Books, 1990 and 1989. ix + 197 pp.-Bridget Brereton, Thomas C. Holt, The problem of freedom: Race, labor, and politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832-1938. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1991. xxxi + 517 pp.-Peter C. Emmer, A. Meredith John, The plantation slaves of Trinidad, 1783-1816: A mathematical and demographic inquiry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. xvi + 259 pp.-Richard Price, Robert Cohen, Jews in another environment: Surinam in the second half of the eighteenth century. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1991. xv + 350 pp.-Russell R. Menard, Nigel Tattersfield, The forgotten trade: comprising the log of the Daniel and Henry of 1700 and accounts of the slave trade from the minor ports of England, 1698-1725. London: Jonathan Cape, 1991. ixx + 460 pp.-John D. Garrigus, James E. McClellan III, Colonialism and science: Saint Domingue in the old regime. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1992. xviii + 393 pp.-Lowell Gudmundson, Richard H. Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean: The Panama canal, the Monroe doctrine, and the Latin American context. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990. xviii + 598 pp.-Andrés Serbin, Ivelaw L. Griffith, Strategy and security in the Caribbean. New York : Praeger, 1991. xv + 208 pp.-W.E. Renkema, M.J. van den Blink, Olie op de golven: de betrekkingen tussen Nederland/Curacao en Venezuela gedurende de eerste helft van de twintigste eeuw. Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 1989. 119 pp.-Horatio Williams, Obika Gray, Radicalism and social change in Jamaica, 1960-1972. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991. xiv + 289 pp.-Daniel A. Segal, Brackette F. Williams, Stains on my name, war in my veins: Guyana and the politics of cultural struggle. Durham: Duke University Press, 1991. xix + 322 pp.-A. Lynn Bolles, Olive Senior, Working miracles: Women's lives in the English-speaking Caribbean. Bloomington: Indiana University Press (and Bridgetown, Barbados: ISER),1991. xiii + 210 pp.-Teresita Martínez Vergne, Margarita Ostolaza Bey, Política sexual en Puerto Rico. Río Piedras PR: Ediciones Huracán, 1989. 203 pp.-David J. Dodd, Dora Nevares ,Delinquency in Puerto Rico: The 1970 birth cohort study. With the collaboration of Steven Aurand. Westport CT: Greenwood, 1990. x + 232 pp., Marvin E. Wolfgang, Paul E. Tracy (eds)-Karen E. Richman, Paul Farmer, AIDS and accusation: Haiti and the geography of blame. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. xiv + 338 pp.-Alex Stepick, Robert Lawless, Haiti: A research handbook. (With contributions by Ilona Maria Lawless, Paul F. Monaghan, Florence Etienne Sergile & Charles A. Woods). New York: Garland, 1990. ix + 354 pp.-Lucien Taylor, Richard Price ,Equatoria. With sketches by Sally Price. New York & London: Routledge, 1992. 295 pp., Sally Price (eds)-Edward L. Cox, Kai Schoenhals, Grenada. World bibliographical series volume 119. Oxford: Clio Press, 1990. xxxviii + 181 pp.-Henry Wells, Kai Schoenhals, Dominican Republic. World bibliographical series volume 111. Oxford: Clio Press, 1990. xxx + 211 pp.-Stuart H. Surlin, John A. Lent, Mass communications in the Caribbean. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 1990. xviii + 398 pp.-Ellen M. Schnepel, Max Sulty ,La migration de l'Hindouisme vers les Antilles au XIXe siècle, après l'abolition de l'esclavage. Paris: Librairie de l'Inde, 1989. 255 pp., Jocelyn Nagapin (eds)-Viranjini Munasinghe, Steven Vertovec, Hindu Trinidad: Religion, ethnicity and socio-economic change.-Alvina Ruprecht, Selwyn R. Cudjoe, Caribbean women writers: Essays from the first international conference. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1990. xv + 382 pp.-J. van Donselaar, Michiel van Kempen et al, Nieuwe Surinaamse verhalen. Paramaribo: De Volksboekwinkel, 1986. 202 pp.''Suriname. De Gids 153:791-954. Amsterdam: Meulenhoff, 1990.-J. van Donselaar, Literatuur in Suriname: nieuwe, nog niet eerder gepubliceerde verhalen en gedichten van Surinaamse auteurs. Preludium 5(3): 1-80. Michiel van Kempen (compiler). Breda: Stichting Preludium, 1988.''Verhalen van Surinaamse schrijvers. Michiel van Kempen (compiler). Amsterdam: De Arbeiderspers. 1989. 248 pp.''Hoor die tori! Surinaamse vertellingen. Michiel van Kempen (compiler). Amsterdam: In de Knipscheer, 1990. 267 pp.-Beth Craig, Francis Byrne ,Development and structures of creole languages: Essays in honor of Derek Bickerton. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1991. x + 222 pp., Thom Huebner (eds)-William W. Megenney, John M. Lipski, The speech of the negros congos of Panama. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1989. vii + 159 pp.-Hein D. Vruggink, Clare Wolfowitz, Language, style and social space: Stylistic choice in Suriname Javanese. Champaign; University of Illinois Press, 1992. viii + 265 pp.-Keith A.P. Sandiford, Brian Douglas Tennyson, Canadian-Caribbean relations: Aspects of a relationship. Sydney, Nova Scotia: Centre for international studies, 1990. vii + 379 pp.-Gloria Cumper, Philip Sherlock ,The University of the West Indies: A Caribbean response to the challenge of change. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1990. viii + 315 pp., Rex Nettleford (eds)

SummaryIn this article we have tried, first to outline the more simple features of growth in the Nonvegian press in the course of a century, and then to apply some simple propositions on how expansion and contraction in the audience‐market have affected editorial strategies in the voter‐market.As we came to see it, expansion in the press followed from a modernizing economy which started in the 1850s. Technical innovations in the printing trade faciliated this expansion and slowly set in motion a process making the printed media into a social institution. In the wake of economic progress came electoral mobilization and the foundation of a party system.The timing of these events has a special relevance to our theoretical problems. Technology opened the market for new entries with the consequent spreading of publishing activity throughout the nation. Sales, however, were probably lagging somewhat behind this activity, which required publishers to adopt a more conscious and active market strategy. Electoral mobilization seems to have been instrumental in expanding the circle of newspaper readers, as it provided publishers with a cause which easily combined with a more pragmatic strategy: either to keep a given audience or to evoke attention and demands from a new and accessible, albeit unexplored part of the community market, namely the middle class and the petite bourgeoisie. The less developed habit of regular reading and the high level of political tension at the time prevented newspapers from achieving both goals simultaneously. This eventually resulted in a diversification of newspapers throughout the country, leaving newcomers on the local markets with the task of expanding readership and of mainly becoming Liberal in outlook. We have termed this situation the first stage in the formation of a party press.The pattern of establishments in the Labour press is most easily explained from the fact that only a few privately‐owned newspapers sided with the Labour party when it appeared at the turn of the century, which left the initiative to the local party representatives. This second stage of development in the party press, then, spring essentially from the dynamics of the voter‐market and party politics. It may, however, also be explained from developments in the audience‐market proper. The social spectrum of newspaper readers during this phase of expansion probably did Rot include much of the working class at first. Furthermore, the tern of trade for established newspapers did not force them to go out for an additional target group under the threat of defections from the ranks of present readers. The less inviting prospects of this expansion found an ideal challenger in the more tightly organized Labour party. The requirement of party ownership, however, may have frightened away other newcomers from joining efforts in this respect.This makes the mechanism of expansion and ensuing mobilization of the audience‐market during the second stage rather analogous to that of the first one. In both cases newcornem on the market were mainly left with the risks of exploring new and unknown possibilities and in both cases they found a cause and a target group within the voter‐market. From this pattern of editorial strategy it also follows that electoral mobilization became an important factor both in expanding and in diversifying the Norwegian newspaper industry.As long as the audience‐market expands it may contain enough resources to allow for a steady diversification of newspapers within districts along with the party system. A dominance of the party press by itself invites initiatives from the parties. But it is also clear that a business rationale for political involvement is primarily confined to the audience‐market. Thus a hidden dichotomy between more pragmatic strategies and party commitments was conceived along with the technological and economic progress of the trade. What has saved the system of commitments from disintegration is the additional resources which were partly found in the parties and partly came from advertising. Parties counteracted declines in their press with a bargain including subsidies to newspapers and positions within the political Clite for journalists. The inertia of the tradition was not seriously challenged, because parties controlled the behaviour of smaller newspapers, because the market became closed to newcomers with potential independent platforms, and because market‐leaders continued to grow undisturbed by fluctuations in the voter‐market.A dilemma between alternative strategies has only recently come out into the open. As the audience‐market approaches a level of saturation, a trend towards simpler structures of mass communication has also become dicernible, e. g., in readership patterns, which is further amplified by the strategies of advertisers. The demand for technological and economic efficiency as well as journalistic proficiency has raised the price of status quo in the party press. This extends to the amount of support needed to keep the weaker parts of the party press alive as well as to the potential losses of attention for the surviving giants.In this situation the government is asked to provide the necessary capital to save the institution of the party press. However, as soon as support is released from its more direct links to the voter‐market—in this case by a more automatically functioning system of subsidies—the editorial policies will probably drift closer to developments in the audience‐market. Whether the government becomes the benefactor of smaller newspapers or not, the mechanisms of the audience‐market under the present terms of trade will drive editorial policies in this direction anyway and will probably do it faster. This development may open a new market for political journalism more consciously geared to supporting the parties among periodicals and magazines, which are rarely committed to any political cause.

Newspaper clipping of "El Universal" regarding the call that the governor of Baja California Norte, Gen. Agustin Olachea made to the troops under his command, so that they collaborate on the construction of a paved road which will connect Tijuana and Ensenanda. Radio-telegraphic newsletter of the Trens Agency received by the Mexican Consulate Office in Santander, Spain on July 1, 1932. It contains news from Mexico such as the going into effect of the General Law of Credit Institutions, the South Pacific Railroad workers strike, the official communication the government of Guatemala sent to Mexico , denying that the President of said country, Jorge Ubico is supporting a conspiracy against the regime of the Republic of El Salvador. It also contains a note from Paris stating that Fernando Torreblanca, Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs and Dr. Francisco Castillo Nájera, Minister of Mexico in the Netherlands went to Geneva to represent their country as delegates at the Conference of Disarmament. Editorial of the newspaper "EL POPULAR" of August 13, 1932 titled "Rateros Vs. Liquidadores" (Thiefs vs Liquidators) about some foreigners who come to Mexico to make their fortunes by creating industries and employing thousands of workers with their own capital and personal efforts, but others who arrive in Mexico with the purpose of exploiting and liquidate the system. Newspaper clipping showing a map of the United States in which it is noted the defeat of the republicans and President Hoover in the elections. French article by Marc Chadourne titled "Quand les volcans sommeillent en Mexico" (When volcanos sleep in Mexico) which refers to the political situation in Mexico and the environment where the laws of expropriation came into effect. A newsletter of the Trens Agency regarding the economic difficulties in the Secretariat of Foreign Affairs and especially in the consular service. It exposes that the Secretariat has begun a comprehensive review of the records of the consular officers with the purpose of knowing those who can be dismissed. Pages of the newspaper: El Universal of September 26, 1932 containing a note informing that Fernando Torreblanca, Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs has been commissioned by former President Pascual Ortiz Rubio to carry out special duties in Europe, but that recently inaugurated President Abelardo L. Rodriguez wanted him to stay in his appointed post. Newspaper LA OPINION of Los Angeles, California of September 29, 1932 contains a note about Fernando Torreblanca's stay at the Clinic of Monte Pelerin in Switzerland to recover from health issues and his visits to the consular offices accredited by several European countries. L'ECLAIREUR of Cannes, France April 13, 1933, contains a note about the arrival of Fernando Torreblanca to that city. (See newspaper library) / Recorte de prensa de EL UNIVERSAL referente a la excitativa que hizo el Gobernador de Baja California Norte, Gral. Agustín Olachea, a las fuerzas bajo su mando para que cooperen en la construcción del camino pavimentado que comunicará a Tijuana con Ensenada. Boletín radio-telegráfico de la Agencia Trens recibido por conducto del Consulado de México en Santander, España el 1 de julio de 1932. Contiene noticias de México como la entrada en vigor de la nueva Ley General de Instituciones de Crédito, la huelga que ha estallado del Ferrocarril Sudpacífico, la comunicación oficial que ha hecho Guatemala a México negando que el Presidente de dicho país, Jorge Ubico esté respaldando la conspiración contra el régimen de la República de El Salvador. Contiene también una nota de París referente a que Fernando Torreblanca, Subsecretario de Relaciones Exteriores y el Dr. Francisco Castillo Nájera, Ministro de México en Holanda, salieron rumbo a Ginebra donde representarán a su país como delegados en la Conferencia del Desarme. Editorial del periódico EL POPULAR del 13 de agosto de 1932 titulado "Rateros Vs. Liquidadores" referente a los extranjeros que vienen a México, unos a labrar su fortuna levantando industrias y sosteniendo a miles de obreros con su capital y esfuerzo personal y otros que llegan a México con el único objeto de deslizarse en una sociedad para minarla y liquidarla. Recorte de prensa en que aparece un mapa de Estados Unidos en el que se nota la improcedente derrota de los demócratas y el Presidente Hoover en las elecciones. Artículo en francés de Marc Chadourne intitulado "Quand les volcans sommeillent en Mexico", que se refiere a la situación política de México y al ambiente en el que se pusieron en vigor las leyes de expropiación. Boletín de la Agencia Trens referente a las dificultades económicas que existen en la Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores y especialmente en el servicio consular. Expone que la Secretaría ha iniciado la revisión general de las hojas de servicios de los funcionarios consulares con objeto de ver de cuales se puede prescindir. Páginas de los periódicos: EL UNIVERSAL del 26 de septiembre de 1932, que contiene una nota informando que Fernando Torreblanca, Subsecretario de Relaciones Exteriores fue comisionado por el ex-Presidente Pascual Ortiz Rubio para desempeñar una comisión en Europa pero que el nuevo Presidente Abelardo L. Rodríguez acordó que continuara en su cargo. LA OPINION de Los Angeles, California, del 29 de septiembre de 1932, contiene una nota sobre el regreso de Fernando Torreblanca a la capital. EXCELSIOR del 22 de octubre de 1932, contiene una nota sobre la estancia de Fernando Torreblanca en la Clínica del Monte Pelerin en Suiza para recobrar su salud, y sobre las visitas que llevará a cabo a las oficinas diplomáticas acreditadas ante diversos países europeos. L'ECLAIREUR de Cannes, Francia del 13 de abril de 1933, contiene una nota sobre la llegada de Fernando Torreblanca a esa ciudad (Ver Hemeroteca).

Das International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) ist ein länderübergreifendes, fortlaufendes Umfrageprogramm, das jährlich Erhebungen zu Themen durchführt, die für die Sozialwissenschaften wichtig sind. Das Programm begann 1984 mit vier Gründungsmitgliedern - Australien, Deutschland, Großbritannien und den Vereinigten Staaten - und ist inzwischen auf fast 50 Mitgliedsländer aus aller Welt angewachsen. Da die Umfragen auf Replikationen ausgelegt sind, können die Daten sowohl für länder- als auch für zeitübergreifende Vergleiche genutzt werden. Jedes ISSP-Modul konzentriert sich auf ein bestimmtes Thema, das in regelmäßigen Zeitabständen wiederholt wird. Details zur Durchführung der nationalen ISSP-Umfragen entnehmen Sie bitte der Dokumentation. Die vorliegende Studie konzentriert sich auf Fragen zu sozialer Ungleichheit.

Generative Picturing uses photography as a relational, ambivalent and undisciplined medium for education and research. - Wir alle sind Fotografie! – Wir fotografieren, betrachten Fotos, sind darauf abgebildet und verwenden sie. Die Fotografie berührt und verstört, sie verbindet und trennt, sie beweist und ist vieldeutig.
Das Beziehungshafte, das Ambivalente und die Undiszipliniertheit – als wesentliche Eigenschaften der Fotografie – werden in der Generativen Bildarbeit für Bildungs- und Forschungsprozesse genutzt. Die Fotografie wird dabei zum transdisziplinären Praxisfeld, in dem Menschen Fotos machen, diese in Gruppenprozessen zeigen und miteinander in Dialog treten. Auf prozesshafte und partizipative Weise gelangen dabei die Beteiligten und ihre generativen Themen in den Fokus. Anhand ihrer Bilder, beim Betrachten und Diskutieren darüber, erkunden sie die eigene Wahrnehmung und die "der Anderen", hinterfragen die Kategorien "Eigen" und "Fremd" und die sozialen Grenzziehungen, die damit verbunden sind.
Forschen und Lernen gehen dabei Hand in Hand und werden als Erkenntnis- und Transformationsprozesse wirksam.
Durch Generative Bildarbeit wird die Fotografie als beziehungshaftes, ambivalentes und undiszipliniertes Medium für Bildungs- und Forschungsprozesse zum Einsatz gebracht.

This book addresses some of the challenges posed by the globalization of higher education. It examines the emergence and resulting challenges of English as Lingua Franca (ELF) and of the decision to use English as the Medium of Instruction (EMI) as part of a strategic policy of internationalization. It looks at survival challenges caused by globalization and expansion, the diversity challenge, the concept of marginality and how marginality can lead to creativity, teaching and encouraging entrepreneurialism, the tools needed for internationalizing higher education in developing countries, innovative approaches, the intelligent use of technology, and finally, the value of non-constraint engagement in driving teaching and course quality improvements. The expansion of higher education and the increasingly international body of students and staff continue to inspire and drive the development of global higher education systems. Whilst these systems began locally, many are now engaging with the challenges of retaining their local flavour whilst embracing the march of globalisation. The challenge is to find local solutions that also meet the requirements of the rapid development of what might be termed the 'massification' of international higher education. This book reflects these contemporary challenges through its variety of topics taken from countries as diverse as Hong Kong, Panama, South Africa, USA and Saudi Arabia. The topics are as diverse as some of the local solutions but each chapter represents a response to a rapidly changing global landscape.