The Battle of Kulikovo on September 8, 1380 is rightfully considered one of the most renowned battles of Russian military history. That day, the Russian army under the command of the Grand Duke of Moscow and Vladimir, Dmitry Ivanovich, infl icted a crushing defeat on the army of the powerful Horde temnik and the uncrowned ruler of a large part of the Golden Horde Mamai. In the following decades, through the efforts of several generations of Russian scribes, the "Kulikovo myth" was created, which has been refl ected in the works, chronicles and literary sources of the "Kulikovo cycle". This myth has had a tremendous infl uence onthe subsequent tradition of studying the Battle of Kulikovo and the campaign of 1380 in Russian historical literature. In this paper, the author proposes to take a new look, with due account of the new trends and methods of studying Russian military affairs of the late Middle Ages - early modern times, at one of the components of this "myth" - the estimates of the "numerous" number of Russian troops which exist in scientifi c and especially popular literature, who gave battle to the Horde that day. Based on the available direct and indirect evidence, the author comes to a conclusion that Dmitry Ivanovich's regiments on the Kulikovo fi eld amounted to about 10-12 thousand horse soldiers. ; Куликовская битва 8 сентября 1380 г. по праву считается одним из известнейших сражений русской военной истории. В тот день русская рать под началом великого князя московского и владимирского Дмитрия Ивановича нанесло сокрушительное поражение войску могущественного ордынского темника и некоронованного властителя немалой части Золотой Орды Мамая. В последующие десятилетия усилиями нескольких поколений русских книжников сложился «куликовский миф», нашедший свое отражение в произведениях, летописных и литературных, «куликовского цикла». Этот миф оказал колоссальное влияние на последующую традицию изучения Куликовской битвы и кампании 1380 г. в отечественной исторической литературе. В данной статье автор предлагает взглянуть с учетом новых тенденций и методик в изучении русского венного дела эпохи позднего Средневековья – раннего Нового времени на одну из составляющих этого «мифа» – бытующие в научной и в особенности в популярной литературе «тьмочисленные» оценки численности русского войска, давшего в тот день бой ордынцам. На основе имеющихся прямых и косвенных свидетельств автор приходит к выводу, что полки Дмитрия Ивановича на Куликовом поле насчитывали порядка 10-12 тыс. конных воинов. Библиографические ссылки Азбелев С.Н. Численность и состав войск на Куликово поле // Древняя Русь. Вопросы медиевистики. 2015. № 4(62). 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ABSTRACTObjective of this study is to determine the impact of intellectual capital disclosure on cost of equity capital in financial reporting of banking sector companies registered on the Indonesia Stock Exchange. This study used intellectual capital disclosure as independent variable, cost of equity capital as dependent variable, and firm size as moderation variable. This method used is quantitative approach. Data of research is secondary data, using annual report of companies listed in the Indonesia Stock Exchange gained through www.idx.co.id. Samples research were selected by using purposive sampling method. The analysis technique used in this research is multiple linear regression analysis. The result of this study indicate that intellectual capital disclosure has negative significant effect on cost of equity capital, human capital disclosure has negative significant effect on cost of equity capital, structural capital disclosure has no significant effect on cost of equity capital, relational capital has positive significant effect on cost of equity capital, and firm size as a moderating variable has no individual effect but it can be as predictor variable on the relationship of intellectual capital disclosure to the cost of equity capital.Keywords: intellectual capital disclosure, cost of equity capital, size firm REFERENCES(n.d.). Retrieved from Bursa Efek Indonesia (IDX): www.idx.co.idAbeysekera, I. (2011). The relation of intellectual capital disclosure strategies and market value in two political settings. Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol. 12 No. 2 pp. 319-338.Aisyah, C. N., & Sudarno, S. (2014). 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Wetlands belong to the most productive ecosystem on Earth. They provide many essential services to humans. They play an important role and possess ecosystem services, for example, in biodiversity conservation, for the hydrologic cycle, to buffer regional climate change, and for human health. Among the different types of wetlands, lakes (lacustrine wetlands) play a crucial role in maintaining global and regional water balances, natural and socio-economic resources, and habitats. Over the last decades, the lakes have gone through enormous changes derived from both natural processes and anthropogenic activities. Particularly, freshwater lakes are endangered through point and non-point pollutions, and such impacts are coming from agricultural runoff and industrial pollution, domestic waste, through municipal sewage, which may deteriorate the water quality and their ecological integrity. The Kolleru Lake wetland ecosystem in South India has been taken here as a case study, based on a comprehensive data analysis and modeling of Spatio-temporal variability of the pollutant loads, to achieve a better understanding of the man-environmental problems of the lake and its surrounding catchment. This is a necessary requirement for both better management of the agricultural, industrial, and water resources in the whole area and better lake protection and conservation. Kolleru Lake is the largest freshwater lake in India. It is a huge natural flood balancing reservoir and also a wildlife sanctuary. In 2002, the Ramsar Convention recognized the lake as a wetland of international importance. The lake is predominately fed by rivers. Among them, Budameru and Tammileru rivers are contributing to the lake influx substantially, plus supported by 68 minor irrigation (drainage) canals. The Kolleru Lake covers a total area of more than 90,100 hectares and holding approximately 1,350 cubic miles of freshwater. Additionally, Kolleru Lake provides drinking water to the inhabitants of the surrounded villages. The lake area up to 3' ft contour is consistent with water, while the 5' ft contour level of the Kolleru Lake belongs to the wildlife sanctuary. Further, it is mostly occupied by aquacultures followed by paddy cultivation, weed infests, and marshy land. There are many small scales to large scale industries growing steadily in order to support successful aquaculture. Before the 1970s, the lake area up to 5' ft contour was not occupied by any type of economic activity; however, the lake is saturated with water during the rainy season, and it remains dry during summer. Furthermore, it was completely free from contamination by aquaculture and agricultural activities before the 1970s. After the 1970s, the State Government had distributed the Kolleru Lake up to 5'ft contour area the poor people, migrant workers, and local inhabitants in the promise of whenever the government again needs the lake area, and they can take it back by paying compensation to them. Then farmers have started paddy cultivation in and around the lake. All bed villages in the lake region are frequently severely affected by massive flooding in connection with the submersion of paddy fields. Despite the fact that the state Government had encouraged the farmers to convert the paddy fields into fishponds by providing loans in order to overcome the floods. However, the maximum of lake area up to wildlife sanctuary is practiced by the aquaculture in the 1990s. Since 1970 until the current situation, the lake has been facing some severe environmental threats, such as degraded water quality, deteriorated aqua species and birds, and habitat losses, induced by human activities and accelerated by climate change. A major cause of the environmental problems was identified within the lake by the construction of fishponds resulted in pollution by using pesticides and waste food (exposed to bacterial diseases and infection) to enrich the fish growth. As a result, it causes biological magnification diseases, fertility, and respiratory problems to the animals, birds, and humans who live near to the lake. Thereby the ecosystem will become an inhospitable environment for those aqua species and birds. The fish ponds occupied approximately 42% of the lake area while aquaculture had encroached another 8.5%, together covering 50% of the lake region. If the human-induced debasement of the lake will continue, the lake will no longer cease to exist, and the wildlife species soon will disappear. Apart from the aquaculture tradition, the Kolleru Lake catchment is known for its intensive paddy cultivation. However, the massive application of pesticides and chemical fertilizers to agricultural lands across the catchment area is one reason for the eutrophication in Kolleru Lake. In addition to the several factors that influence the lake ecosystem, industrial pollution causes deteriorating water quality and makes them unfit for drinking water for the inhabitants of the villages around the Kolleru Lake. Both point and non-point sources issued threatens to the lake area becomes more sensitive by anthropogenic activities. The main focus of the present research was to analyze the problems related to the lake catchment and give recommendations to the government about the insight view of the land use cover and enlighten the public perception towards the lake degradation. However, sedimentation in a lake is a natural consequence of the inflow of respected tributaries, rivers, and streams. In addition to the natural influence, man-made activities like land use and others are also responsible for erosion in the catchment and the sediment transport and accumulation of the sediments in both the lower sections of the catchment and the lake basin itself, as discussed in the first research objective. Extensive use of land and the indiscriminate rise of embankments for the construction of fishponds as well as agricultural functions has resulted in widespread soil erosion in the catchment and sedimentation over the deltaic part of the Kolleru Lake catchment. In addition, the perennial rivers of Krishna and Godavari drift down to the lake about 68,000 tons/yr of sediments that coming from the whole catchments after passage from the river banks and river beds. The objective of this part was to analyze both the average annual soil loss rate and its change from the catchment and the sediment yields by using the RUSLE model both for the terrestrial part and the semi-aquatic deltaic part of the Kolleru Lake catchment for the years 1972 and 2012. The results indicated that the average annual soil loss was estimated with 13.6 t/ha/yr, classifying the Kolleru Lake Basin under a very high erosion rate category. Whereas, the average annual sediment yield was determined with 7.61 t/ha/yr. The resultant difference of the sediment balance is temporally interbedded within the terrestrial sites and within the river banks and river beds. However, this study has found that tributaries and streamlines of the catchment carry high sediment loads to the lake. This research has proved how intensive agricultural activities in wetland catchments interact with the pollution levels of the lake, causing a deteriorated water quality. Agricultural runoff (runoff from catchment areas dominated by agricultural use) is the main driving factor of accumulated non-point source pollution of the lake water, with side-effects on sediments and silts near the downstream areas of the Kolleru Lake catchment. It primarily caused eutrophication in the lake subsequently that led to proliferating the weeds. However, the second objective of the research was to estimate the tributaries' sub-basin loads and to highlight the diffuse critical sources against the village communities. For this purpose, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to model the diffuse sources in the catchment. The spatial distribution of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) and total phosphorus (TP) emissions were quantified. Some sub-basins contribute more pollutant load to the lake. Alternately, the first and second BMPs (Best Management Practices) level priority areas were identified. Further, suggestions for the implementation of agricultural management practices have been provided for the crucial protection of the lake ecosystem. Consequently, the Kolleru Lake wetland ecosystem is known for its both abundant water availability as well as water scarcity. The river and streams water diverted into the agricultural lands, and still, there is a dire need for groundwater too. When the monsoon rain was weak, and after rainless summer periods, the lake falls more or less dry. Therefore there is a high demand for groundwater, which is continuously increasing. An effective way to analyze groundwater recharge and groundwater availability is a remote sensing and GIS based mapping. The theoretical concepts are involved in this objective is more useful for t further research of the link between surface emission and groundwater contamination. That is why the present research has been investigated as the third objective, the potential groundwater resources in the catchment. A simple mathematical equation was derived from the catchment hydrologic characteristics. The catchment characteristics were analyzed and based on the previous literature sources, and the thematic weight was assigned to evaluate potential groundwater zones. About 13% of the catchment area falls under poor conditions, 38% of the area falls under moderate conditions, 42% of the area falls under good conditions, and about 7% of the area is under excellent condition. These results are a contribution to future groundwater management projects and artificial recharge plans of the Kolleru Lake catchment to maintain sufficient groundwater levels. Due to the still existing lack of observed data of the tributaries, i.e., runoff, sediment, water quality parameters, nutrient load, the used methods are limited and suitable just for an estimation. Sufficient calibration and validation of the results were also limited because the access to the study area and to an onside research institute was not allowed for the Ph.D. candidate, because of its status as a Ph.D. student from Germany. Field investigations on the interaction of pollutant loads with the runoff would be advantageous for a better calculation of the pollutant load and its dynamic. Because of the limited funding capacity, it is challenging to do a field survey to control every remote sensing and GIS result of this research. That is why, without a few exceptions, this study was conducted dominantly based on remote sensing data and accessible weather and soil data. From the research results emphasized that the Kolleru Lake water level and water quality are highly degraded, respectively polluted with metals, agricultural contaminants, which makes the lake water not advisable for human consumption. The erosion and sedimentation loads are also high, and the priority management practices should be targeted already in the middle catchment region. These results give a general understanding of the pollutant levels in the lake, which should be useful for government management plans.
La question qui nous animait au départ était de savoir si notre droit faisait sienne l'utopie d'un monde du travail où règnerait le bien-être, en toutes circonstances. Que peut-on en dire désormais ? Sur le plan des principes, il est indéniable que le législateur, depuis la loi du 4 août 1996, s'inscrit dans cette idée. Son parti pris est clair : le risque n'est pas une fatalité. L'analyse des principes régissant le « système dynamique de gestion des risques » en atteste clairement . Ce n'est donc pas le fruit du hasard si la loi consacre, de manière expresse, la primauté des mesures de prévention qui éliminent les risques (à la source) sur celles qui ne peuvent qu'éviter ou limiter les dommages. D'autres principes, encore, participent de cette idée que tout risque doit être chassé du monde du travail. On pense, ainsi, à l'obligation de réaliser des analyses de risques à tous les niveaux (global, groupes de postes, individuel), à celle d'anticiper les nouveaux risques qui pourraient être créés par des mesures de prévention (et d'en prendre des nouvelles, en conséquence) ou encore à l'exigence de plans de prévention qui permettent de réfléchir la politique préventive tant à long terme qu'à plus court terme. Il faut souligner, en outre, l'importance cruciale du principe de dynamisme applicable à la politique de prévention: il signifie que rien n'est jamais acquis. Autrement dit, l'analyse des risques à un moment « t » (et la prise de mesures de prévention qui s'en suit) n'empêchent en rien qu'au moment « t+1 », de nouveaux dangers soient détectables. Les travailleurs étant en première ligne face aux risques, on comprend évidement toute l'importance qu'il faut accorder à leurs observations. Pour parvenir à concrétiser le bien-être au travail, l'employeur n'est pas seul. Certes, c'est à lui que revient le pouvoir (et même devoir) d'initier le SYDYGRI, mais toute sa mise en œuvre procède, quant à elle, d'une logique fondamentalement collective. L'employeur garde le pouvoir de décision, mais ce sont tous les autres acteurs (travailleurs, CPPT, ligne hiérarchique, services de prévention) qui sont les garants de la qualité des différentes analyses de risques et des mesures de prévention prises en conséquence. Une bonne gestion des flux d'information sera donc primordiale pour assurer un bon fonctionnement du STDYGRI, et ce, au-delà du simple respect des procédures de concertation et d'avis préalables prévues par les dispositions « bien-être ». Cela nous amène à faire une remarque importante. Une véritable politique de prévention ne peut être conçue dans une optique purement légaliste . Si le législateur a fixé les buts à atteindre, et posé certaines balises contraignantes, il n'en reste pas moins que le contenu concret de la politique de gestion des risques dépendra de l'énergie que l'entreprise sera prête à investir à cet égard. Nous utilisons le terme « investir » à dessein. Il est en effet important de sensibiliser le monde de l'entreprise au fait que le coût que peuvent représenter les mesures de prévention (voire de promotion) pour le bien-être au travail ne constitue jamais une perte sèche. Au contraire, il est un fait avéré que le bien-être des travailleurs rapporte pour l'entreprise par le biais de différents phénomènes tels qu'une diminution des jours de maladie et d'absence, une meilleure productivité, une motivation accrue ou encore un renforcement de la créativité . Pour autant, il ne faudrait pas déduire des marges de manœuvre ainsi laissées à l'employeur que le droit du bien-être n'aurait (plus) rien de contraignant. D'une part, il y a le fait que le changement d'approche vers une prévention globale ne doit pas faire perdre de vue qu'il existe toujours de nombreux régimes de prescriptions détaillées et techniques . D'autre part, et c'est un point crucial de notre travail, nous avons pu constater que les obligations en matière de prévention, sont à considérer, pour une partie d'entre elles, comme de véritables obligations de résultat. Ainsi en va-t-il, sans être exhaustif, des obligations telles que : disposer d'analyses de risques tant au niveau global qu'à celui des groupes de postes (et même au niveau individuel ), initier le système dynamique de gestion des risques et édicter les plans de prévention, respecter la hiérarchie des mesures de prévention ou encore informer ses travailleurs sur les risques résiduels liés à son activité et les mesures qui ont été prises à cet égard. En sus de celles-ci, nous avons également mis en évidence qu'il existait une obligation de moyens transversales qui s'appliquait à tous les endroits où une marge de manœuvre est laissée à l'employeur. Cette approche casuistique – pour laquelle nous plaidons afin d'éviter l'incertitude du débat relatif à la nature de l'obligation « générale » de sécurité de l'employeur – présente l'avantage, en isolant ainsi toute une série d'obligations de résultat, de permettre un allègement de la charge de la preuve devant le juge lorsqu'il y a lieu de prouver une faute (tant civile que pénale). Mais en outre, grâce à cette grille de lectures , il parait tout de suite plus facile d'imaginer mobiliser l'exception d'inexécution ou d'autres actions plus « préventives » comme une action en exécution en nature de l'obligation de résultat, le cas échéant en référé sous astreinte. Cette dernière situation ne doit cependant pas faire penser que la voie judiciaire est à privilégier. En effet, il va de soi que la priorité doit aller au dialogue social. A défaut de pouvoir trouver une solution en interne, il sera alors temps de contacter l'inspection sociale, dont le rôle peut s'avérer extrêmement utile. En effet, nous avons vu que celle-ci disposait d'une large palette de moyens pour que les entreprises appliquent les dispositions en matière de prévention des risques. D'un pouvoir de conseil – qui mériterait d'être plus amplement exploité – à un pouvoir d'arrêt de l'activité total du travail en passant par l'imposition de mesures de prévention déterminées, l'inspection du travail possède généralement les outils pour résoudre les problèmes de prévention du bien-être au travail . Cependant, deux éléments empêchent de considérer l'inspection du travail comme le Messie du droit du bien-être. Le premier réside dans le fait que, comme beaucoup d'autres organes étatiques, on lui consacre trop de peu de moyens (notamment humains). Le second réside dans le fait que, de l'aveu même des inspecteurs, la surveillance des règles relatives au système de gestion des risques est difficile à mettre en œuvre, à tel point que certains inspecteurs s'interrogent « sur l'opportunité de dresser un procès-verbal de constat d'infraction étant donné que la chance de poursuite pénale parait très faible en cas d'absence d'analyse des risques » . Si nous espérons que notre travail contribuera modestement à rendre leur tâche plus facile, on ne saurait leur rappeler toute l'importance qu'il y a à dresser de tels procès-verbaux. En effet, nous avons vu que si les régimes assuranciels prévoyaient une immunité civile au profit de l'employeur, celle-ci tombait en cas de violation grave de la législation sur le bien-être constatée préalablement à l'accident par un procès-verbal . Si ce dernier a donc une utilité quant à l'étendue de la réparation que pourra obtenir un travailleur (ou ses ayants-droit) en aval d'un dommage, il y a fort à parier que celui-ci aura plus généralement un effet persuasif, et donc préventif. En effet, l'employeur, au vu de la menace de poursuites pénales et de la perte de son immunité civile, comprendra bien souvent tout l'intérêt, pour lui, de donner suite au procès-verbal. A propos de l'immunité civile de l'employeur, il faut d'ailleurs remarquer que celle-ci mériterait d'être repensée, tant les cas susceptibles de la faire tomber sont, mis à part les accidents sur le chemin du travail, de l'ordre du cas d'école . En opérant une réforme qui limiterait plus fortement l'immunité civile de l'employeur, on s'inscrirait d'ailleurs dans une perspective bien plus conforme au droit européen dont on sait qu'il exige que son respect soit assurée par des sanctions efficaces, dissuasives et proportionnées . Le fait de rabattre les cartes de la responsabilité civile de l'employeur permettrait ainsi d'augmenter sa vigilance, et, in fine, l'effectivité de l'ensemble des obligations de prévention . Cette question de l'immunité civile et de ses exceptions nous amène d'ailleurs à mettre en lumière le fait que les (trois) piliers du droit du travail ne sont pas hermétiques . Ainsi, à travers les questions relatives à la responsabilité civile de l'employeur, nous avons vu que la question du concours des responsabilités contractuelle et extracontractuelle pouvait être généralement résolue grâce au fait que les manquements à la loi du 4 août 1996 et ses arrêtés d'exécutions sont sanctionnés pénalement. Ainsi, grâce à cette règlementation d'ordre public, le recours en responsabilité aquilienne est largement ouvert et permettra ainsi à la victime de profiter de ses avantages par rapport à la voie contractuelle . De manière plus générale, on peut également souligner le fait que, pour réaliser le système dynamique de gestion des risques, nouveau phare du droit de la réglementation du travail, le législateur fait expressément appel aux « mécanismes propres aux relations collectives » . Le CPPT est ainsi un acteur clé de la politique de prévention. Pour parachever cette conclusion, nous pouvons dire que la marche vers l'utopie d'un monde du travail dénué de risques est lancée. Sur cette longue route, des balises sont posées, et nous avons démontré qu'elles comportaient, pour la plupart, un véritable pouvoir contraignant . Si le législateur a montré le chemin, il doit encore se donner les moyens d'assurer que chacun arrive à bon port. Aux côtés du manque de clarté terminologique et de l'absence de soutien véritable aux PME dans la mise en œuvre du SYDYGRI, l'un des reproches majeurs que l'on peut formuler au législateur réside dans le manque d'investissements dans les services de la DG Contrôle du bien-être. Sa double casquette de conseiller et de sanctionnateur fait de lui un maillon qui a tout le potentiel pour tendre vers un mieux-être au travail. Si les mécanismes répressifs resteront probablement toujours nécessaires, il ne faut en effet pas perdre de vue que les motivations qui poussent à respecter une norme ne procèdent pas toujours de la crainte de la sanction. En vue d'un changement de mentalités, qui serait salvateur à maints égards, la politique de la carotte doit dès lors être renforcée : d'une part, sensibiliser fortement le monde de l'entreprise (et académique ? ) aux avantages économiques d'une bonne gestion des risques (et, plus largement, d'une politique de promotion du bien-être ) et, d'autre part, encourager les entreprises en mettant en place plus d'initiatives pour récompenser les bonnes pratiques. ; Master [120] en droit, Université catholique de Louvain, 2016
La question qui nous animait au départ était de savoir si notre droit faisait sienne l'utopie d'un monde du travail où règnerait le bien-être, en toutes circonstances. Que peut-on en dire désormais ? Sur le plan des principes, il est indéniable que le législateur, depuis la loi du 4 août 1996, s'inscrit dans cette idée. Son parti pris est clair : le risque n'est pas une fatalité. L'analyse des principes régissant le « système dynamique de gestion des risques » en atteste clairement . Ce n'est donc pas le fruit du hasard si la loi consacre, de manière expresse, la primauté des mesures de prévention qui éliminent les risques (à la source) sur celles qui ne peuvent qu'éviter ou limiter les dommages. D'autres principes, encore, participent de cette idée que tout risque doit être chassé du monde du travail. On pense, ainsi, à l'obligation de réaliser des analyses de risques à tous les niveaux (global, groupes de postes, individuel), à celle d'anticiper les nouveaux risques qui pourraient être créés par des mesures de prévention (et d'en prendre des nouvelles, en conséquence) ou encore à l'exigence de plans de prévention qui permettent de réfléchir la politique préventive tant à long terme qu'à plus court terme. Il faut souligner, en outre, l'importance cruciale du principe de dynamisme applicable à la politique de prévention: il signifie que rien n'est jamais acquis. Autrement dit, l'analyse des risques à un moment « t » (et la prise de mesures de prévention qui s'en suit) n'empêchent en rien qu'au moment « t+1 », de nouveaux dangers soient détectables. Les travailleurs étant en première ligne face aux risques, on comprend évidement toute l'importance qu'il faut accorder à leurs observations. Pour parvenir à concrétiser le bien-être au travail, l'employeur n'est pas seul. Certes, c'est à lui que revient le pouvoir (et même devoir) d'initier le SYDYGRI, mais toute sa mise en œuvre procède, quant à elle, d'une logique fondamentalement collective. L'employeur garde le pouvoir de décision, mais ce sont tous les autres acteurs (travailleurs, CPPT, ligne hiérarchique, services de prévention) qui sont les garants de la qualité des différentes analyses de risques et des mesures de prévention prises en conséquence. Une bonne gestion des flux d'information sera donc primordiale pour assurer un bon fonctionnement du STDYGRI, et ce, au-delà du simple respect des procédures de concertation et d'avis préalables prévues par les dispositions « bien-être ». Cela nous amène à faire une remarque importante. Une véritable politique de prévention ne peut être conçue dans une optique purement légaliste . Si le législateur a fixé les buts à atteindre, et posé certaines balises contraignantes, il n'en reste pas moins que le contenu concret de la politique de gestion des risques dépendra de l'énergie que l'entreprise sera prête à investir à cet égard. Nous utilisons le terme « investir » à dessein. Il est en effet important de sensibiliser le monde de l'entreprise au fait que le coût que peuvent représenter les mesures de prévention (voire de promotion) pour le bien-être au travail ne constitue jamais une perte sèche. Au contraire, il est un fait avéré que le bien-être des travailleurs rapporte pour l'entreprise par le biais de différents phénomènes tels qu'une diminution des jours de maladie et d'absence, une meilleure productivité, une motivation accrue ou encore un renforcement de la créativité . Pour autant, il ne faudrait pas déduire des marges de manœuvre ainsi laissées à l'employeur que le droit du bien-être n'aurait (plus) rien de contraignant. D'une part, il y a le fait que le changement d'approche vers une prévention globale ne doit pas faire perdre de vue qu'il existe toujours de nombreux régimes de prescriptions détaillées et techniques . D'autre part, et c'est un point crucial de notre travail, nous avons pu constater que les obligations en matière de prévention, sont à considérer, pour une partie d'entre elles, comme de véritables obligations de résultat. Ainsi en va-t-il, sans être exhaustif, des obligations telles que : disposer d'analyses de risques tant au niveau global qu'à celui des groupes de postes (et même au niveau individuel ), initier le système dynamique de gestion des risques et édicter les plans de prévention, respecter la hiérarchie des mesures de prévention ou encore informer ses travailleurs sur les risques résiduels liés à son activité et les mesures qui ont été prises à cet égard. En sus de celles-ci, nous avons également mis en évidence qu'il existait une obligation de moyens transversales qui s'appliquait à tous les endroits où une marge de manœuvre est laissée à l'employeur. Cette approche casuistique – pour laquelle nous plaidons afin d'éviter l'incertitude du débat relatif à la nature de l'obligation « générale » de sécurité de l'employeur – présente l'avantage, en isolant ainsi toute une série d'obligations de résultat, de permettre un allègement de la charge de la preuve devant le juge lorsqu'il y a lieu de prouver une faute (tant civile que pénale). Mais en outre, grâce à cette grille de lectures , il parait tout de suite plus facile d'imaginer mobiliser l'exception d'inexécution ou d'autres actions plus « préventives » comme une action en exécution en nature de l'obligation de résultat, le cas échéant en référé sous astreinte. Cette dernière situation ne doit cependant pas faire penser que la voie judiciaire est à privilégier. En effet, il va de soi que la priorité doit aller au dialogue social. A défaut de pouvoir trouver une solution en interne, il sera alors temps de contacter l'inspection sociale, dont le rôle peut s'avérer extrêmement utile. En effet, nous avons vu que celle-ci disposait d'une large palette de moyens pour que les entreprises appliquent les dispositions en matière de prévention des risques. D'un pouvoir de conseil – qui mériterait d'être plus amplement exploité – à un pouvoir d'arrêt de l'activité total du travail en passant par l'imposition de mesures de prévention déterminées, l'inspection du travail possède généralement les outils pour résoudre les problèmes de prévention du bien-être au travail . Cependant, deux éléments empêchent de considérer l'inspection du travail comme le Messie du droit du bien-être. Le premier réside dans le fait que, comme beaucoup d'autres organes étatiques, on lui consacre trop de peu de moyens (notamment humains). Le second réside dans le fait que, de l'aveu même des inspecteurs, la surveillance des règles relatives au système de gestion des risques est difficile à mettre en œuvre, à tel point que certains inspecteurs s'interrogent « sur l'opportunité de dresser un procès-verbal de constat d'infraction étant donné que la chance de poursuite pénale parait très faible en cas d'absence d'analyse des risques » . Si nous espérons que notre travail contribuera modestement à rendre leur tâche plus facile, on ne saurait leur rappeler toute l'importance qu'il y a à dresser de tels procès-verbaux. En effet, nous avons vu que si les régimes assuranciels prévoyaient une immunité civile au profit de l'employeur, celle-ci tombait en cas de violation grave de la législation sur le bien-être constatée préalablement à l'accident par un procès-verbal . Si ce dernier a donc une utilité quant à l'étendue de la réparation que pourra obtenir un travailleur (ou ses ayants-droit) en aval d'un dommage, il y a fort à parier que celui-ci aura plus généralement un effet persuasif, et donc préventif. En effet, l'employeur, au vu de la menace de poursuites pénales et de la perte de son immunité civile, comprendra bien souvent tout l'intérêt, pour lui, de donner suite au procès-verbal. A propos de l'immunité civile de l'employeur, il faut d'ailleurs remarquer que celle-ci mériterait d'être repensée, tant les cas susceptibles de la faire tomber sont, mis à part les accidents sur le chemin du travail, de l'ordre du cas d'école . En opérant une réforme qui limiterait plus fortement l'immunité civile de l'employeur, on s'inscrirait d'ailleurs dans une perspective bien plus conforme au droit européen dont on sait qu'il exige que son respect soit assurée par des sanctions efficaces, dissuasives et proportionnées . Le fait de rabattre les cartes de la responsabilité civile de l'employeur permettrait ainsi d'augmenter sa vigilance, et, in fine, l'effectivité de l'ensemble des obligations de prévention . Cette question de l'immunité civile et de ses exceptions nous amène d'ailleurs à mettre en lumière le fait que les (trois) piliers du droit du travail ne sont pas hermétiques . Ainsi, à travers les questions relatives à la responsabilité civile de l'employeur, nous avons vu que la question du concours des responsabilités contractuelle et extracontractuelle pouvait être généralement résolue grâce au fait que les manquements à la loi du 4 août 1996 et ses arrêtés d'exécutions sont sanctionnés pénalement. Ainsi, grâce à cette règlementation d'ordre public, le recours en responsabilité aquilienne est largement ouvert et permettra ainsi à la victime de profiter de ses avantages par rapport à la voie contractuelle . De manière plus générale, on peut également souligner le fait que, pour réaliser le système dynamique de gestion des risques, nouveau phare du droit de la réglementation du travail, le législateur fait expressément appel aux « mécanismes propres aux relations collectives » . Le CPPT est ainsi un acteur clé de la politique de prévention. Pour parachever cette conclusion, nous pouvons dire que la marche vers l'utopie d'un monde du travail dénué de risques est lancée. Sur cette longue route, des balises sont posées, et nous avons démontré qu'elles comportaient, pour la plupart, un véritable pouvoir contraignant . Si le législateur a montré le chemin, il doit encore se donner les moyens d'assurer que chacun arrive à bon port. Aux côtés du manque de clarté terminologique et de l'absence de soutien véritable aux PME dans la mise en œuvre du SYDYGRI, l'un des reproches majeurs que l'on peut formuler au législateur réside dans le manque d'investissements dans les services de la DG Contrôle du bien-être. Sa double casquette de conseiller et de sanctionnateur fait de lui un maillon qui a tout le potentiel pour tendre vers un mieux-être au travail. Si les mécanismes répressifs resteront probablement toujours nécessaires, il ne faut en effet pas perdre de vue que les motivations qui poussent à respecter une norme ne procèdent pas toujours de la crainte de la sanction. En vue d'un changement de mentalités, qui serait salvateur à maints égards, la politique de la carotte doit dès lors être renforcée : d'une part, sensibiliser fortement le monde de l'entreprise (et académique ? ) aux avantages économiques d'une bonne gestion des risques (et, plus largement, d'une politique de promotion du bien-être ) et, d'autre part, encourager les entreprises en mettant en place plus d'initiatives pour récompenser les bonnes pratiques. ; Master [120] en droit, Université catholique de Louvain, 2016
Educational Leadership in Independent Muslim Schools: A Methodological Proposal Author(s):Henrik Nilsson (presenting) Conference:ECER 2016, Leading Education: The Distinct Contributions of Educational Research and Researchers Network:26. Educational Leadership Format:01. Continuing Professional Development: Learning for Individuals, Leaders, and Organisations Session Information 26 SES 04 C, Perspectives on Leadership in Denmark, Australia and Swedish Muslim Schools Paper Session Time:2016-08-24 09:00-10:30 Room:OB-H1.12 Chair:David Gurr Contribution Educational Leadership in Independent Muslim Schools: A Methodological Proposal The phenomena of Muslim independent schools in Sweden is mainly discussed as an issue of social and cultural integration. This discourse have to been understood in the light of the transformation of Swedish school system has underwent. Meanings about the necessary of keeping religious influence and secularised education apart (Englund, 1996) are still strong. The state and municipals is looked up as warrants of this divide. At the same time 6 % of 134 000 pupils in independent schools attend confessionals schools in Sweden. The number of Islamic profiled school are increasing as the immigration from countries where the larger part of the population affirm themselves as Muslims. The Central Bureau of Statistics (2014) in Sweden predict that 20 % of the Swedish population either are immigrants or the children of immigrants in year 2020. A larger part of those immigrants will probably be Muslims with a wish to maintain their faith identity and recognized as Muslims (Thobani, 2011). To understand the context of leadership you need to have knowledge about the discourses about Islam and Muslims. The aim of this paper is to discuss methodology to do research on educational leadership in Muslim schools. An empirical touchdown from my dissertation (Nilsson, 2015) will serve as a back-drop to do this. The academic discourse about the outcomes of Muslim profiled schools education is divided (Nilsson, 2015). Either are Muslim Schools comprehended to maintain self-assurance and cultural recognition (Gerle, 1997) or as means of segregating children with different backgrounds from each other (Englund, 2010) and/or to reproduce patriarchy circumscribing democracy (Ali, 2009). The representation of Muslims and Muslim school in mass media and the civil sphere often held the later opinion to be true (Shadid & Koningsveld, 2002). Especially when it comes to the establishment of a new school, prejudice are common among the members of the majority. An increasing Islamophobia in Europe is emerging and parents therefore chose Muslim profiled schools because they think they are safe. However Shah (Shah, 2015, p 140) argues that the interest in Islamic schools is reflecting a desire to make education not just a mean for developing and strengthening their faith identity but also as a vehicle for social mobility". According to Durkheim, education is about transmitting knowledge and values to the next generation (Durkheim, 1956) and this process can in a social perspective bring about reproduction of social position (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1990) but also producing cultural meanings and crossing boarders of culture (Giroux, 2005). But how does cultural boarder crossing happens? My suggestion is to look up on educational leadership as a possible cultural boarder crossing. I understand the boarder crossing as a social performance which aims to re-fuse already de-fused meanings (Alexander, 2006). A social performance can be successful if it re-fuses meaning and change the audiences'' landscapes of meaning (Reed, 2011) and change the way of social life in the direction that the actor intend. This direction has in a normative perspective not be wanted. That's why, from a sociological point of view, I suggest that the social performance also is a question about content in aspects about whose cultural meanings getting re-fused or remains de-fused. The different content of the de-fusion/re- fusion is therefore understood as different modes of incorporation: assimilation, hyphenation and multicultural incorporation (Alexander, 2006). Integration in this perspective is about on-going internal social and cultural processes. Method Under scrutinity is social performance and incorporation; ways of managing the future lives of the children. When performed, the curriculum consist of particular values, attitudes and dispositions. The curriculum taught "shapes perceptions of ethnic identity.struggles over ethnicity and curriculum" (Sleeter, 2015, p 231). The action of educational leaders are "set in motion by discursive and organizational conflicts over incorporation" (Alexander, 2001, s. 246) i.e. cultural meanings. The practises are tied to particular times and places located in a web of practice (politic, economic, cultural, language, family.) The educational leader breaks off certain aspects of other practices to motivate and legitimize pedagogies and therefore also construct different discourses of pathways to incorporation. From a sociological point of view the educational outcomes describes modes of incorporaton: i) assimilative ii) hyphenated iii) multicultural (Alexander, 2001). In an assimilative mode of incorporation the particular identity is expected to be hidden in public places. It is not appreciated e.g. if you talk your native language during breaks or wear the hijab in school. This mode of incorporetation reminds of what McLaren (1994, p 49) defines conservative (or corporate) multiculturalism. The goal is to assimilate everyone into the culture of the majority and the coregroup. A prinicipal that perform an assimilative educational leadership tries to persuade and get his audience to embrace standards of achievment that assimalte students of minorities "into skills, concepts, language, and values of the dominant society" (Sleeter, 2015). How and if it happens depends on the success or failure of the performance in a local context. In the hyphenated mode different identities are highlighted when it suits and benefits the majority (Banks, 1999).The third mode of incorporation is understood as multicultural. In this mode the particular identities and the majoritys' is seen as equal good, righteous, democratic and so are the institutions they represent (Alexander, 2006). According to (Banks, 1999, p 31) the mode is a "transformative approach, which changes 'the canon, paradigms, and basic assumptions of the curriculum and enables students to view concepts, issues, themes, and problems from different perspectives and points of view". Expected Outcomes I expect that the theory of social performance and incorporation can add important perspective on leadership, it means social performance and it's ends incorporation. Traditionally, educational leadership in multicultural school is understood as reproducing structures: symbolic, cultural and economic capital which constitute an assimilative mode of incorporation. In control of material elements such as structures and institutions e. g. means of symbolic productions: television and mass media, the chances for a successful assimilation of course increases. But it's not sufficient to re-fuse meanings with those performative elements. Even if you own and/or access means of symbolic production the others elements of the social performance e. g. authenticity of actor, the actual performance on the scene and the script has to be interpreted as true, real and natural. If the actor fails in these regards so does the re-fusion of meanings and it doesn't matter how much material recourses you use. The initial re-analyse of the ethnographic observation indicates that in the particular case the principal have to balance between different modes of incorporation. That's because different social groups have different normative hopes and beliefs about education, both within school and with external stakeholders, such as worried neighbours in connection with the establishment of the school. The principal explain how Islam, and the way Muslims use Islam, and be interpreted. Sometimes he criticises Islam and it's practising representatives, but above all he tries to reshape the characteristics society attributes to Muslim and Islam. The principal dedicates himself to talk about problems and solutions in a way that he identifies as Swedish. In this and other ways he attributes the Swedish society positive values at the same time as he weaves together the picture of himself and his work with a dominant narrative about the Swedish pragmatic society. References Alexander, J. (2006). The civil sphere. New York: Oxford University Press. Ali, A. H. (2009). Därför måste demokratin försvara sig mot islamismen. Banks, J. A. (1999). An Introduction to Multicultural Education: MA: Allyn and Bacon. Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J.-C. (1990). Reproduction in education, society and culture (2. ed.). London: Sage. Durkheim, É. (1956). Education and sociology. New York: Free Press. Englund, T. (1996). Utbildningspolitiskt systemskifte? Stockholm: HLS. Englund, T. (2010). The general school system as a universal or a particular institution and its role in the formation of social capital. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 1(53), 17 - 33. Gerle, E. (1997). Muslimska friskolor i Sverige. Pedagogisk Forskning i Sverige, 2 (3), 182-204. Giroux, H. A. (2005). Border crossings : cultural workers and the politics of education (2. ed.). New York: Routledge. Gustafsson, K. (2004). Muslimsk skola, svenska villkor: konflikt, identitet & förhandling. Umeå: Boréa. McLaren, P. (1994). 'White terror and oppositional agency: towards a critical multiculturalism'. In D. T. Goldberg (Ed.), Multiculturalism: A Critical Reader. (pp. 45–74.). Cambridge: MA: Blackwell. Nilsson, H. (2015). Kultur och utbildning – en tolkning av två grundskolors mångkulturella kontexter. Växjö. Reed, I. A. (2011). Interpretation and Social Knowledge. On the use of theory in the human sciences. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press. Shadid, W., & Koningsveld, P. S. v. (2002). The Negative Image of Islam and Muslims in the West: Causes and Solutions. In W. Shadid & P. S. v. Koningsveld (Eds.), Religious Freedom and the Neutrality of the State: The Position of Islam in the European Union. (pp. 174-196). Leuven: Peeters. Shah, S. (2015). Education, Leadership and Islam: Theories, discourses and practices from an Islamic perspective. . London: Routledge. Sleeter, C. (2015). Ethnicity and the Curriculum. In D. Wyse, L. Hayward, & J. Pandya (Eds.), The Sage handbook of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment SAGE Publications Ltd. Thobani, S. (2011). Pedagogic discourses and imagined communities: knowing Islam and being Muslim. Discourse: Studies In The Cultural Politics Of Education, 32(4), 531-545. Author Information Henrik Nilsson (presenting) Linneaus University Department of Education
In: Burkhard , B , Maes , J , Potschin-Young , M B , Santos-Martín , F , Geneletti , D , Stoev , P , Kopperoinen , L , Adamescu , C M , Adem Esmail , B , Arany , I , Arnell , A , Balzan , M , Barton , D N , Van Beukering , P , Bicking , S , Borges , P A V , Borisova , B , Braat , L , Brander , L M , Bratanova-Doncheva , S , Broekx , S , Brown , C , Cazacu , C , Crossman , N , Czúcz , B , Danĕk , J , de Groot , R , Depellegrin , D , Dimopoulos , P , Elvinger , N , Erhard , M , Fagerholm , N , Frélichová , J , Grêt-Regamey , A , Grudova , M , Haines-Young , R , Inghe , O , Kallay , T K , Kirin , T , Klug , H , Kokkoris , I P , Konovska , I , Kruse , M , Kuzmova , I , Lange , M , Liekens , I , Lotan , A , Lowicki , D , Luque , S , Marta-Pedroso , C , Mizgajski , A , Mononen , L , Mulder , S , Müller , F , Nedkov , S , Nikolova , M , Östergård , H , Penev , L , Pereira , P , Pitkänen , K , Plieninger , T , Rabe , S E , Reichel , S , Roche , P K , Rusch , G , Ruskule , A , Sapundzhieva , A , Sepp , K , Sieber , I M , Šmid Hribar , M , Stašová , S , Steinhoff-Knopp , B , Stępniewska , M , Teller , A , Vackar , D , Van Weelden , M , Veidemane , K , Vejre , H , Vihervaara , P , Viinikka , A , Villoslada , M , Weibel , B & Zulian , G 2018 , ' Mapping and assessing ecosystem services in the EU - Lessons learned from the ESMERALDA approach of integration ' , One Ecosystem , vol. 3 , e29153 . https://doi.org/10.3897/oneeco.3.e29153
The European Union (EU) Horizon 2020 Coordination and Support Action ESMERALDA aimed at developing guidance and a flexible methodology for Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (MAES) to support the EU member states in the implementation of the EU Biodiversity Strategy's Target 2 Action 5. ESMERALDA's key tasks included network creation, stakeholder engagement, enhancing ecosystem services mapping and assessment methods across various spatial scales and value domains, work in case studies and support of EU member states in MAES implementation. Thus ESMERALDA aimed at integrating various project outcomes around four major strands: i) Networking, ii) Policy, iii) Research and iv) Application. The objective was to provide guidance for integrated ecosystem service mapping and assessment that can be used for sustainable decision-making in policy, business, society, practice and science at EU, national and regional levels. This article presents the overall ESMERALDA approach of integrating the above-mentioned project components and outcomes and provides an overview of how the enhanced methods were applied and how they can be used to support MAES implementation in the EU member states. Experiences with implementing such a large pan-European Coordination and Support Action in the context of EU policy are discussed and recommendations for future actions are given.
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Der IQB-Bildungstrend zeigt: Innerhalb von sieben Jahren ist die Deutschkompetenz von Neuntklässlern auf den Stand abgerutscht, den 2015 Siebt- und Achtklässler hatten. Dafür gibt es viel mehr Jugendliche, die richtig gut Englisch können – trotz der Corona-Schulschließungen. IQB-Direktorin Petra Stanat über die Suche nach den Ursachen – und die Gestaltungsaufgaben der Bildungspolitik.
Petra Stanat ist Psychologin, Bildungsforscherin und seit 2010 Direktorin des Instituts für Qualitätsentwicklung im Bildungswesen (IQB). Foto: IQB Berlin.
Frau Stanat, nach 2009 und 2015 hat das Institut zur Qualitätsentwicklung im Bildungswesen (IQB) zum dritten Mal im Auftrag der Kultusminister die sprachlichen Kompetenzen der Neuntklässler in Deutschland überprüft. Jetzt liegen sie vor, die Ergebnisse des "IQB-Bildungstrends 2022". Sind irgendwelche Überraschungen dabei?
Für mich persönlich zum Teil schon. Ich hatte zwar erwartet, dass es wie im vergangenen Jahr im IQB-Bildungstrend für die Grundschulen auch in der neunten Jahrgangsstufe einen Rückgang in den erreichten Kompetenzen geben würde, allein schon wegen des Ausfalls von Präsenzunterricht und anderen Einschränkungen während der Corona-Zeit. In Deutsch mussten wir diesen
Rückgang jetzt tatsächlich auch feststellen, und zwar in allen drei untersuchten Kompetenzbereichen Lesen, Orthografie und Zuhören. Womit ich aber nicht gerechnet hatte: dass er in Deutsch derart heftig ausfällt. Und was mich noch mehr überrascht hat: dass die Schülerinnen und Schüler fast spiegelbildlich in Englisch so stark zulegen würden, sogar ebenso stark wie zwischen 2009 und 2015, als wir keine Pandemie hatten. Das ist ein bemerkenswerter Befund.
"Ein Lernrückstand zwischen einem und zwei Schuljahren im Vergleich zu 2015."
Wie heftig ging es denn runter in Deutsch und wie kräftig nach oben in Englisch?
In Deutsch beträgt der Rückgang zwischen den Jahren 2015 und 2022 im Lesen 25 Kompetenzpunkte, in der Orthografie 31 Punkte und im Zuhören sogar 44 Punkte. Wenn man das in Unterrichtzeit umrechnet, was allerdings in der Sekundarstufe schwierig ist, entspricht das je nach Kompetenzbereich einem Lernrückstand zwischen einem und zwei Schuljahren im Vergleich zu 2015.
Nur zur Klärung: Das heißt, heutige Neuntklässler sind in Deutsch auf dem Stand, den 2015 Siebt- oder Achtklässler hatten?
Wie gesagt: Diese Umrechnung ist aus verschiedenen Gründen nicht exakt, deshalb sollte man sie nicht allzu wörtlich nehmen, aber richtig ist in jedem Fall: Wir sprechen von einer massiven Verschlechterung der Ergebnisse in Deutsch. Umgekehrt erreichten die Schülerinnen und Schüler in Englisch im Leseverstehen im Schnitt 22 Punkte und im Hörverstehen 23 Punkte mehr, was wiederum etwa der Lernzeit von einem halben Schuljahr gleichkommt. Auch das ist erstaunlich viel. >>>
Stichproben, Risikogruppen und Länder-Unterschiede: die IQB-Ergebnisse in der Zusammenfassung
Die Ergebnisse des IQB-Bildungstrends basieren auf repräsentativen Stichproben in allen 16 Bundesländern, die insgesamt mehr als 35.000 Neuntklässler umfassten. Untersucht wurden 2022 die Kompetenzen in Deutsch, Englisch und (in einzelnen Bundesländern) Französisch, die Testaufgaben orientierten sich an den KMK-Bildungsstandards.
In Deutsch verfehlten im Kompetenzbereich Lesen fast 33 Prozent aller Schüler den Mindeststandard, der als Untergrenze für den Mittleren Schulabschluss (MSA) angesetzt wird, im Zuhören 34 Prozent und in der Rechtschreibung 22 Prozent, jeweils ein massiver Anstieg gegenüber der letzten Messung von 2015. Auch die durchschnittlichen Kompetenzen aller Neuntklässler rutschten ab, je nach Bereich um 25 bis 44 Punkte, was laut IQB-Direktorin Stanat grob dem Stoff von ein bis zwei Schuljahren entspricht. Der Rückgang betraf in unterschiedlicher Stärke fast durchgängig alle Bundesländer.
Genau umgekehrt verlief die Entwicklung in Englisch. Im Leseverstehen ging es im Vergleich zu 2015 um 22, im Hörverstehen um 23 Kompetenzpunkte hoch, wobei fast alle Länder einen positiven Trend verzeichneten. Damit setzt sich die seit 2009 beobachtete Aufwärtsbewegung fort.
Allerdings wurde die Risikogruppe derjenigen Schüler, die die Mindeststandards verfehlen, nicht in gleichem Maß kleiner, was laut IQB darauf hinweist, dass die Kompetenzsteigerung besonders bei den mittelguten und den leistungsstarken Schülern stattgefunden hat. Immer noch liegen 24 Prozent der Neuntklässler unterhalb der MSA-Mindestanforderungen für Englisch im Leseverstehen und 14 Prozent im
Hörverstehen. Immerhin: Legt man die geringeren Mindeststandards für den Ersten Schulabschluss (ESA, früher Hauptschulabschluss) an, verfehlen diese beim Lesen weniger als neun und beim Hörverstehen weniger als zwei Prozent aller Schüler.
Am besten fielen die Deutsch-Ergebnisse erneut in Bayern und Sachsen aus, die Risikogruppen waren auch in Sachsen-Anhalt sowie teilweise in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern und Thüringen vergleichsweise klein. Besonders schwach schnitten laut IQB nahezu durchgängig Berlin, Bremen und Nordrhein-Westfalen ab. Erfreulich: In Englisch gelingt es den meisten Ländern, den Anteil der Schüler unterhalb der ESA-Mindeststandards auf dem deutschen Durchschnittsniveau zu halten. Im Schnitt besonders gute Ergebnisse erreichen die Neuntklässler in Bayern und Hamburg sowie in Rheinland-Pfalz und Schleswig-Holstein. Auffällig ist, dass in Englisch wie schon 2015 die ostdeutschen Bundesländer gegenüber dem Westen schlechter da stehen als der Westen.
In der Gesamtbetrachtung beider Fächer liegen neben Bayern die Länder Baden-Württemberg und Hamburg jeweils in mehreren Kompetenzbereichen statistisch signifikant über dem Bundesdurchschnitt.
Eine gute Nachricht noch am Ende: Angesichts der aktuell sehr negativ geprägten Diskussion über den Lehrerberuf, sagt IQB-Direktorin Stanat, "hat mich der Befund erfreut, dass mehr als 70 Prozent der Lehrkräfte sagen, dass sie sehr zufrieden mit ihrer Berufswahl sind." Politik, Gesellschaft und gerade auch die Lehrerverbände müssten aufpassen, dass sie den Beruf nicht systematisch schlecht redeten, warnt Stanat.
>>> Sie geben beim Bildungstrend zusätzlich den Anteil der Schülerinnen und Schüler an, die die Mindeststandards verfehlen. Was genau bedeutet das?
Die Kultusministerkonferenz hat auf Grundlage der Bildungsstandards auch festgelegt, was Kinder und Jugendliche in bestimmten Klassenstufen mindestens können sollten in Deutsch, Englisch und anderen Fächern. Also im Sinne einer Untergrenze, die von allen erreicht werden sollte, um erfolgreiches Weiterlernen und Teilhabe zu ermöglichen. Dabei wird nach dem angestrebten Schulabschluss unterschieden. Das absolute Minimum ist der Mindeststandard für den früheren Hauptschulabschluss, der heute als Erster Schulabschluss bezeichnet wird. Den sollten wirklich alle erreichen.
Wer diesen Mindeststandard nicht beherrscht, kann nicht richtig lesen, rechnen oder schreiben?
Vereinfacht kann man das so sagen. Zumindest wird ohne das Beherrschen der Mindeststandards ein erfolgreicher Übergang in eine Berufsausbildung und gesellschaftliche Teilhabe deutlich erschwert sein. Und wir sehen, dass je nach Kompetenzbereich in Deutsch acht bis 18 Prozent der Jugendlichen dieses Minimum nicht mehr erreichen. Legen wir die höheren, aber immer noch sehr moderaten Mindeststandards für den Mittleren Schulabschluss an, verfehlen diese im Lesen und Zuhören inzwischen ein Drittel der Neuntklässler in Deutschland. In der Orthografie ist es gut ein Fünftel. Da inzwischen sehr viele Berufe den mittleren Schulabschluss erfordern, ist auch diese Gruppe zu groß und im Vergleich zu 2015 stark gewachsen: je nach Kompetenzbereich und Abschlussart um vier bis 16 Prozentpunkte – wobei die Leistungen im Zuhören besonders kräftig abgefallen sind, das war schon im Bildungstrend für die Grundschule der Fall.
"Deutlich mehr Jugendliche,
die richtig gut Englisch können."
Geben Sie bitte ein konkretes Beispiel für eine Aufgabe, die ich richtig beantworten muss, um den Mindeststandard für den Ersten Schulabschluss zu erfüllen.
Zum Beispiel lesen die Jugendlichen einen 70 Wörter umfassenden Text über die Seidenstraße, in dem wörtlich steht, dass es sich um die wichtigste Handelsroute zwischen Asien und Europa handelte. Dennoch wird zur Frage, "Was war die Seidenstraße laut Text?" nicht mit hoher Sicherheit die Antwortalternative "ein Handelsweg zwischen Asien und Europa" angekreuzt. Oder bei einer Korrekturaufgabe zur Orthografie wird in dem Satz "Das rote Auto hate das Kennzeichen MM-NB 612" nicht mit hoher Sicherheit das Wort "hate" korrigiert.
Sehen wir wenigstens umgekehrt, dass die Risikogruppen in Englisch kleiner geworden sind?
Sie sind zumindest nicht größer geworden. Die Kompetenzverbesserungen, die wir insgesamt beobachten, sind vor allem im mittleren und oberen Leistungsbereich festzustellen. Diejenigen Jugendlichen, die den Mittleren Abschluss anstreben, erreichen zu deutlich höheren Anteilen die Regelstandards und sogar die sogenannten Optimalstandards, hier sehen wir einen Anstieg in den Prozentwerten um zehn bis 14 Prozentpunkte. Anders formuliert: Im Vergleich zu 2015 gibt es heute deutlich mehr Jugendliche, die richtig gut Englisch können.
"Der Trend in Deutsch zeigt auch bei den nicht zugewanderten Jugendlichen nach unten. Es ist in der aktuellen Debatte sehr wichtig, das festzuhalten."
So erfreulich die Entwicklung in Englisch ist: Die Bildungsdebatte der nächsten Tage wird sich vermutlich um die dramatisch schlechteren Ergebnisse in Deutsch drehen. Die Kultusminister könnten sagen, schuld sei nicht die Bildungspolitik, sondern verantwortlich seien die Corona-Schulschließungen und die Flüchtlingsströme seit 2015.
Da ist ja bestimmt auch etwas dran, nur wissen wir nicht, welchen Einfluss genau Corona hatte, das können wir nicht messen. Dafür, dass die Pandemie eine erhebliche Rolle gespielt hat, spricht jedoch, dass wir in praktisch allen Bundesländern unabhängig von ihrer Ausgangslage eine deutlich negative Entwicklung beobachten. Gleichzeitig erzielten neu zugewanderte Schülerinnen und Schüler erneut signifikant schwächere Ergebnisse als der Durchschnitt, und der Anteil dieser Schülerinnen an der Gesamtschülerschaft in Deutschland ist seit 2015 um fünf Prozentpunkte auf insgesamt neun Prozent gestiegen. Wahr ist aber auch: Selbst wenn wir statistisch so tun, als hätte sich die Zusammensetzung der Schülerschaft seit damals nicht verändert, zeigt der Trend trotzdem eindeutig nach unten. Und auch bei den Jugendlichen ohne Zuwanderungshintergrund sehen wir in Deutsch einen Kompetenzrückgang, wenn auch weniger stark. Es ist in der aktuellen Debatte sehr wichtig, das festzuhalten.
Wirkt sich hier der vielerorts extreme Lehrkräftemangel aus?
Das können wir anhand unserer Daten nicht untersuchen. Eigentlich wollten wir uns ansehen, ob Schülerinnen und Schüler, die von nicht traditionell ausgebildeten Lehrkräften unterrichtet werden, weniger gute Ergebnisse erzielen. Aber diese Auswertung ist daran gescheitert, dass die Gruppe der Quer- und Seiteneinsteigenden in den sprachlichen Fächern immer noch vergleichsweise klein ist: Von den etwa 1250 befragten Lehrkräften in unserer Studie betrifft das nur 40 Deutsch- und 59 Englischlehrkräfte. Der Anteil der Berufsanfänger, die ohne reguläres Lehramtsstudium unterrichten, steigt zwar, aber auf die Ergebnisse des Bildungstrends 2022 dürfte sich das kaum ausgewirkt haben.
Eben sagten Sie, die durchschnittlichen Kompetenzen seien in praktisch allen Bundesländern gesunken, aber es gibt schon noch deutliche Unterschiede, oder?
In der Tat kann man einige Länder herausheben. Hamburg zum Beispiel, das sich in den vergangenen 13 Jahren sukzessive hochgearbeitet hat, 2009 noch zu den Schlusslichtern zählte und jetzt in Deutsch im Mittelfeld liegt, in Englisch teilweise mit an der Spitze. Und das bei einem sehr hohen Anteil an Einwandererkindern wohlgemerkt. Erstaunlich finde ich auch, dass in Baden-Württemberg in mehreren Kompetenzbereichen wieder etwas bessere Ergebnisse erzielt werden als in Deutschland insgesamt. Auf die enttäuschenden Ergebnisse früherer Bildungstrends hat dieses Land strategisch reagiert, und vielleicht zeichnet sich hier schon eine Trendwende ab. Das lässt sich jetzt aber noch nicht mit Sicherheit sagen.
"Die Dynamik in Baden-Württemberg hat mich beeindruckt. Sogar der Ministerpräsident hat sich intensiv mit den Ergebnissen beschäftigt."
Baden-Württembergs damalige Kultusministerin Susanne Eisenmann hatte die Losung ausgegeben, von Hamburg lernen zu wollen.
Eine genaue Ursache-Wirkungs-Analyse kann ich Ihnen leider nicht bieten, nur einen Eindruck: Nach Veröffentlichung des Bildungstrends 2015 bin ich sehr oft nach Baden-Württemberg eingeladen worden, und es fanden dort viele bildungspolitische Diskussionen statt, unter Beteiligung von Politik, Administration, Schulpraxis, Bildungsforschung und Verbänden. Sogar der Ministerpräsident hat sich intensiv mit den Ergebnissen beschäftigt. Man war sich einig, dass etwas passieren muss. Diese Dynamik, die unter anderem in der Gründung von zwei Instituten mündete, die Bildungsprozesse wissenschaftlich fundiert unterstützen sollen und sehr überzeugende Arbeit leisten, hat mich beeindruckt.
Beeindruckend ist allerdings auch, wie sich Länder wie Bayern oder Sachsen von Mal zu Mal weit vorn halten. Wie ist das zu erklären?
Diese Frage stellt sich bei jedem Bildungstrend, und ehrlich gestanden habe ich darauf immer noch keine guten Antworten. Ein Faktor ist sicher, dass der Anteil zugewanderter Schülerinnen und Schüler in diesen Ländern geringer ist als in vielen der anderen Länder, vor allem in Sachsen. Das sieht man ansatzweise in Analysen, in denen wir statistisch so tun als wäre die Schülerschaft in allen Ländern so zusammengesetzt wie in Deutschland insgesamt, bezogen auf den sozioökonomischen und den zuwanderungsbezogenen Hintergrund. Dann schrumpft der Vorsprung in den erreichten Kompetenzen für Sachsen und Bayern etwas, er verschwindet aber keineswegs. Es müssen also weitere Faktoren eine Rolle spielen. Vielleicht ein besonders ausgeprägter Konsens darüber, dass Lernerfolg in grundlegenden Kompetenzbereichen wirklich zentral ist und auf sich abzeichnende Probleme reagiert werden muss. Und in Bayern hatte ich immer wieder den Eindruck, dass einmal getroffene bildungspolitische Entscheidungen von einer gut funktionierenden Bildungsverwaltung umgesetzt werden und in der Praxis auch ankommen. Wenn die bildungspolitischen Entscheidungen fundiert und zielführend sind, ist das natürlich von Vorteil. Aber das sind wirklich nur Spekulationen, die auf subjektiven Eindrücken und Gesprächen basieren.
Sie haben den Einfluss der Corona-Pandemie auf den Schulbetrieb erwähnt, den teilweise viele Wochen langen Distanzunterricht zum Beispiel. Wie kann es sein, dass der in Deutsch offenbar zum Absturz beigetragen hat – in Englisch die Leistungen aber hochgegangen sind, als sei nichts passiert?
Der Anstieg der Kompetenzen war im Zeitraum von 2015 bis 2022, in dem die Corona-Pandemie lag, sogar genauso groß wie von 2009 bis 2015. Auch hier kann ich im Moment nur spekulieren, weil wir uns in Ruhe anschauen müssen, wie sich die Sprachnutzung bei außerschulischen Aktivitäten verändert hat. Denn die Annahme liegt ja nahe, dass die Schülerinnen und Schüler auf Englisch Videos und Serien anschauen, Computerspiele spielen und im Internet unterwegs sind. Und genau diese Aktivitäten dürften während der Pandemie zugenommen haben. Das könnte mit dazu beigetragen haben, dass die Schülerinnen und Schüler in diesem Zeitraum ihre englischsprachigen Kompetenzen weiter gesteigert haben.
"Guter Englischunterricht schafft die Voraussetzungen, dass die Schülerinnen und Schüler von ihrer Internetnutzung profitieren können."
Das klingt so, als sei die Zeit mit Videogucken oder Daddeln besser angelegt gewesen als mit Schulunterricht?
Das wäre sicher übertrieben. Denn natürlich braucht man einen guten Englischunterricht, der die Grundlagen dafür schafft, dass Schülerinnen und Schüler von der Internetnutzung und anderen Aktivitäten auf Englisch profitieren können. Der Englischunterricht ist heute viel kompetenzorientierter als früher. Übrigens zeigt sich in einer unserer Analysen, dass Unterricht, der fachfremd, also nicht von einer Englischlehrkraft erteilt wird, mit einem niedrigeren Leistungsniveau der Schülerinnen und Schüler einhergeht. Ein weiteres Indiz dafür, dass guter Englischunterricht wichtig ist.
Aber auch nach Ihrer Ehrenrettung des schulischen Englischunterrichts bleibt festzuhalten: Die Behauptung, viel Zeit online wirke sich automatisch negativ auf die Schulnoten aus, ist vermutlich falsch.
Eine Fremdsprache lernt man durch ihre Nutzung – so, wie man Lesen durch Lesen lernt. Und weil die Schülerinnen und Schüler unter anderem online erleben, wie wichtig gute Englischkenntnisse sind, wie viele neue Inhalte sie sich mit Englisch erschließen können, dürfte das ihre Motivation gewaltig steigern. Hierin liegt ein weiterer großer Unterschied zum Deutschunterricht, für den wir eine vergleichsweise niedrige Lernmotivation bei den Neuntklässlern finden – das Fach kann offenbar nur wenige Jugendliche für sich begeistern. Das Interesse am Englischunterricht ist viel höher ausgeprägt.
Vorhin haben Sie darauf hingewiesen, dass eingewanderte Kinder deutlich schwächere Kompetenzen erreichen als der Durchschnitt. Deutschland gilt insgesamt als ein Land, in dem die soziale Herkunft stark über den Bildungserfolg entscheidet. Spiegelt sich das auch im IQB-Bildungstrend 2022 wider?
Leider ja. Die Disparitäten haben weiter zugenommen. Die negative Entwicklung im Fach Deutsch ist bei sozioökonomisch benachteiligten Jugendlichen im Schnitt stärker ausgefallen, auch der Rückstand der neu eingewanderten Schülerinnen und Schüler hat sich vergrößert. In Englisch wiederum haben Jugendliche aus sozioökonomisch besser gestellten Elternhäusern besonders stark zugelegt, die soziale Schere geht also auch hier weiter auf. Aber ein erfreuliches Ergebnis möchte ich noch erwähnen: Jugendliche, die zu Hause nicht immer Deutsch sprechen, haben zwar Nachteile in Deutsch, aber Vorteile in Englisch. Dies bestätigt, dass sich Mehrsprachigkeit auf den Erwerb weiterer Sprachen positiv auswirken kann – der Zusammenhang hat sich auch schon in früheren Studien gezeigt.
Insgesamt aber gilt: Deutschland entfernt sich weiter vom Ziel, mehr Bildungsgerechtigkeit zu schaffen – obwohl die Bildungspolitik seit vielen Jahren das Gegenteil beschwört?
So ist es.
"Besteht tatsächlich bei allen Akteuren
Einigkeit darüber, dass es brennt?"
Bildungspolitik und Öffentlichkeit werden angesichts der Ergebnisse natürlich wissen wollen, was zu tun ist. Wie lautet Ihre Antwort?
Zunächst müssen sich alle Akteure im Bildungssystem darüber einig sein, dass diese grundlegenden Kompetenzen wirklich grundlegend sind und dass wir alles dafür tun müssen, damit die Mindeststandards erreicht und gesichert werden.
Haben wir den Konsens nicht längst?
Einen gesellschaftlichen Konsens darüber, dass Lesen, Schreiben, Mathematik wichtig sind, haben wir schon, denke ich. Auch die alten Debatten, in denen die Förderung dieser Kompetenzen und die Entwicklung sozialer Kompetenzen als Gegensatz darstellt wurden, haben wir zum Glück weitgehend hinter uns gelassen. Genauso wie die Stimmen, die Kompetenzmessungen und Sicherung von Standards als überzogenen Leistungsdruck betrachtet haben. Aber besteht tatsächlich bei allen Akteuren Einigkeit darüber, dass es brennt und wir trotz schwieriger Rahmenbedingungen dringend dafür sorgen müssen, dass wirklich alle Kinder und Jugendlichen die grundlegenden Kompetenzen erwerben, die sie benötigen, um sich gut weiterentwickeln zu können? Da bin ich mir nicht sicher.
Wie erreichen wir diese Einigkeit?
Dazu ist es unter anderem erforderlich, dass regelmäßig geschaut wird, wie sich die Kompetenzen der Kinder und Jugendlichen entwickeln, inwieweit sie besondere Förderung benötigen und ob die Förderung gegriffen hat. Stichwort "Kultur des Hinschauens" durch datengestützte Unterrichtsentwicklung, die selbstverständlicher Bestandteil von Professionalität werden muss. Das hat ein Gutachten der Ständigen Wissenschaftlichen Kommission der KMK jüngst für die Grundschule beschrieben. Oder nehmen Sie die frühkindliche Sprachförderung, die schon so lange Thema ist. Hier hat sich zwar schon einiges getan, aber von einer systematischen Umsetzung in der Fläche sind wir noch weit entfernt. Und wir müssen uns dringend mit der Frage beschäftigen, wie die Sprachförderung für Kinder und Jugendliche zu gestalten ist, die mit geringen Deutschkenntnissen ins System kommen. Hier ist in den vergangenen Jahren nach den großen Fluchtbewegungen ad hoc viel geleistet worden, aber wir werden ja weiter Zuwanderung haben und müssen diese Förderung jetzt systematischer aufsetzen und begleiten. Alles anspruchsvolle Entwicklungen, die natürlich Zeit brauchen. Aber die Ergebnisse des Bildungstrends zeigen erneut, dass wir dringend vorankommen müssen.
Bund und Länder werden auf das geplante "Startchancen"-Programm verweisen als ihren Beitrag zur Lösung der Probleme.
Das "Startchancen"-Programm ist dann eine Chance, wenn es wirklich fokussiert wird auf die evidenzbasierte Förderung grundlegender Kompetenzen in Deutsch und Mathematik. Dafür müssen Bund und Länder bei ihrer Ankündigung bleiben, die "Startchancen" wissenschaftlich begleiten und evaluieren zu lassen. Denn eines darf nicht passieren: dass das Programm in Maßnahmen zerfasert, für die es keinen soliden Grund zur Annahme gibt, dass sie wirken.
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In: McLeod , S , Verdon , S , Baker , E , Ball , M J , Ballard , E , David , A B , Bernhardt , B M , Bérubé , D , Blumenthal , M , Bowen , C , Brosseau-Lapré , F , Bunta , F , Crowe , K , Cruz-Ferreira , M , Davis , B , Fox-Boyer , A , Gildersleeve-Neumann , C , Grech , H , Goldstein , B , Hesketh , A , Hopf , S , Kim , M , Kunnari , S , Macleod , A , McCormack , J , Másdóttir , Þ T , Mason , G , Masso , S , Neumann , S , Ozbič , M , Pascoe , M , Pham , G , Román , R , Rose , Y , Rvachew , S , Savinainen-Makkonen , T , Topbaş , S , Scherer , N , Speake , J , Stemberger , J P , Ueda , I , Washington , K , Westby , C , Lynn Williams , A , Wren , Y , Zajdó , K , Zharkova , N 2017 , ' Tutorial : Speech assessment for multilingual children who do not speak the same language(s) as the speech-language pathologist ' , American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology , vol. 26 , no. 3 , pp. 691-708 . https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_AJSLP-15-0161
Purpose: The aim of this tutorial is to support speech language pathologists (SLPs) undertaking assessments of multilingual children with suspected speech sound disorders, particularly children who speak languages that are not shared with their SLP. Method: The tutorial was written by the International Expert Panel on Multilingual Children's Speech, which comprises 46 researchers (SLPs, linguists, phoneticians, and speech scientists) who have worked in 43 countries and used 27 languages in professional practice. Seventeen panel members met for a 1-day workshop to identify key points for inclusion in the tutorial, 26 panel members contributed to writing this tutorial, and 34 members contributed to revising this tutorial online (some members contributed tomore than 1 task). Results: This tutorial draws on international research evidence and professional expertise to provide a comprehensive overview of working with multilingual children with suspected speech sound disorders. This overview addresses referral, case history, assessment, analysis, diagnosis, and goal setting and the SLP's cultural competence and preparation for working with interpreters and multicultural support workers and dealing with organizational and government barriers to and facilitators of culturally competent practice. Conclusion: The issues raised in this tutorial are applied in a hypothetical case study of an English-speaking SLP's assessment of a multilingual Cantonese-and English-speaking 4-year-old boy. Resources are listed throughout the tutorial.
In: Gallagher , R V , Falster , D S , Maitner , B S , Salguero-Gómez , R , Vandvik , V , Pearse , W D , Schneider , F D , Kattge , J , Poelen , J H , Madin , J S , Ankenbrand , M J , Penone , C , Feng , X , Adams , V M , Alroy , J , Andrew , S C , Balk , M A , Bland , L M , Boyle , B L , Bravo-Avila , C H , Brennan , I , Carthey , A J R , Catullo , R , Cavazos , B R , Conde , D A , Chown , S L , Fadrique , B , Gibb , H , Halbritter , A H , Hammock , J , Hogan , J A , Holewa , H , Hope , M , Iversen , C M , Jochum , M , Kearney , M , Keller , A , Mabee , P , Manning , P , McCormack , L , Michaletz , S T , Park , D S , Perez , T M , Pineda-Munoz , S , Ray , C A , Rossetto , M , Sauquet , H , Sparrow , B , Spasojevic , M J , Telford , R J , Tobias , J A , Violle , C , Walls , R , Weiss , K C B , Westoby , M , Wright , I J & Enquist , B J 2020 , ' Open Science principles for accelerating trait-based science across the Tree of Life ' , Nature Ecology and Evolution , vol. 4 , no. 3 , pp. 294-303 . https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-020-1109-6
Synthesizing trait observations and knowledge across the Tree of Life remains a grand challenge for biodiversity science. Species traits are widely used in ecological and evolutionary science, and new data and methods have proliferated rapidly. Yet accessing and integrating disparate data sources remains a considerable challenge, slowing progress toward a global synthesis to integrate trait data across organisms. Trait science needs a vision for achieving global integration across all organisms. Here, we outline how the adoption of key Open Science principles—open data, open source and open methods—is transforming trait science, increasing transparency, democratizing access and accelerating global synthesis. To enhance widespread adoption of these principles, we introduce the Open Traits Network (OTN), a global, decentralized community welcoming all researchers and institutions pursuing the collaborative goal of standardizing and integrating trait data across organisms. We demonstrate how adherence to Open Science principles is key to the OTN community and outline five activities that can accelerate the synthesis of trait data across the Tree of Life, thereby facilitating rapid advances to address scientific inquiries and environmental issues. Lessons learned along the path to a global synthesis of trait data will provide a framework for addressing similarly complex data science and informatics challenges.
Issue 5.1 of the Review for Religious, 1946. ; ~,$ANUARY. 15, I94~ and Catholic Ac~tion. '." ~ .: s from the, Council of Trent . Joseph V. ¯ Augustine Heart of Mary-r. o. ~ ~'ho~as A. O'Conr ~etic Power Of Christ~ : ¯ ¯ ¯ .~- ¯ ~. " Malhchi ,J. ~Donn, 0__f E q_ u ~ ¯ " .~, , ~. ¯ ¯ LOu;s J; . ious Buy ~nd Sell? . ~.m c, Ouesfions .Answered RE 'FOR RELi VOLUME V bANUARY 15, 1946 NUMBER CONTENTS-PIUS X AND CATHOLIC ACTiON o ~seph V, Sommers. S,J . SPIRITUAL READINGS FROM THECOUNCIL OF TRENT--~'IIIm Augustine Klaas. S.J.' . OUR ~ONTRIBUTORS ,o-, . '-, . "WHAT'S A DOMINICAN?" " . . . ¯ 24 THE IMMACULATE'HEART OF MARYmThomas A, O'Connor. S,J, 25 INDEX OF BACK NUMBERS .~. . . ,.- , , 32 THE MAGNETIC POWER OF CHRIST~-~-" Mal~l~i J,D0r.nelly, S2J, ,-. 33 BOOKLETNOTICES . , ; ." .". ~ " " 39 17 24 ~ .) COMMUNICATIONS . - . ., . . . . 40 THE VIRTUE OF EQUITY~L~uis J. Puhl, STJ,~ . 4~3 BOOKS°RECEIVED , . . L , -, ', .- . 49 MAY RELIGIOUS BUY AND SELL?Adam C; Ellis, S,J, " " 50 BOOK' REVIEWS-- . Journey" in the Nighf; The Servant"of God. Mar~ Theresa Led6chowska;. The Heart of Man: The Wool Merchant of Segovia: World Christianity; How the People of Africa Live . . . ¯ . ~ . 66 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS--~- l".'Active and Passive 'Vote or Voice ¯ 70 2. Spiritual Director for "Professed Novices" . . 70 3. Confession before Communiqn 4. Successor,to Deceased Mother A'ssistant . . . . 71 5. Te Deum on Feast of St. Joseph . '. . 71 6. Repair Work On Suffday . 7. Re-election of Mother 'General after Eli, yen Years . 72 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, January, 1946. Vol. V, NO. 1. Published bi-monthly; January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, "St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January at the Post Ofl~c'e, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3/1879. Editorial Bgard: Ad.am C. Ellis/S.~., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kelly, s.J. Editorial Secretaiy: Alfred F. Schneider, S.J~, ~" Copyright, 1946, by Adam C., Ellis'. Pdrmi~sion is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length~ provided due credit be given this, review and the author. Subseripti6n price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U.-S. A. "~ Before writing to us, pleaseconsult notice on Inside back cover. ., Review t:or Rel~gio.us Volume V January--December, 1946 PubliShed at THE COLLEGE PRESS Topeka. Kansas Edited by TH'E JESUIT FATHERS SAINT MARY'S'COLLEGE St. Marys, Kansas PiUS X and°Catholic Joseph V£ Sommers, S.J. [INTRODUCTORY NOTE: This article° may lead to a misconception unless it is ¢lea~ly understood from the beginning that Catholic Action as here explained is lim~ ited~to the'thought of Pius_X. He was pope, from 1903 to 1914. Since that time Pius XI an~d. Pi~ul XII have further refined the,notion of Catholic Action. Their - writi'~gs and speeches so far ove'rshadow their predecessor's that.~in many articles . o and books reviewin~ the papal directives. Plus X receives, only passing ieference. His relative position might be made.clearer from this comparison. If all the di~ec, .tires on Catholic Action that have come from the Holy See since "the time of~ L, ed XIII were put into one volume, they would roughly equal a 670 page book. Of these Leo XIII would get the first ten pages:~Pius X the next sixty; 500 page~ would go to Pius XL and the remaining pages to out'present Holy Father. Yet' Pi-us X's thought is of historical importance: He gave Catholic Action its~ first great impetus. Although later popes have written more voluminously, yet~th, ey, repeat much that P~us X already sa~d. It'wdl be ~nterestmg. therefore, to inve.stigate. how the recent pap~al demands for an organized Catholic lay apostolate got started.] , .~ |oSEPH Sarto was Bishop o~ Manti~a wiaen in January~.~. ~,.~,~ 1890, l"ie heard the trumpet call for the~lay apostolate. Pope Leo XlII bad just issued his encyclical on'the .~bYef .Duffes of Christi'a~s as Citizeris. Listed amon~g;the ~obligations of every Catholic layman was an active'share in ~'.defendingand extending the Church (A, 115-8).~ Esp_e-. -,cial'ly in thes~ our-~ays, Leo wrote, the laity must openly profess ~the Catholic doctrines and teach them to the utmost 6f their' ability. They should take upon themselves, .indeed-the office of the pastor, but: the task'of communi-0. ~ating. to others what they. have received, becoming as it were living echoes of their teachers in the faith" (A, 1 16): The faithful, however, would.hot satisfy these du, ti._e~, as it is .fitting they should, were they ~to enter the fight single'-' handed. They must work" together as frained sol~tierd - deplbydd fof battle. In defence and in conquest, they inust ~" ~The present arttcle ~s a condensatton of,'a chapter tn a symposium on the life :ind i ~6rk Of Plus X which Will .be published in book form by St. 'Anthony:s Guild, ~'Tfie books and documdnts cited in the article are listed at the end. References in the text ~ill b~ merely by means of a letter °and number. The letter refers to the book; the fiumber to the,page. UO~EPH V. Sb~MERS " ~- ~ Reoiew for RetigioaF fight.' under the direction of th~ pope and ~he bishOps. Thu~ did'Leo XlII outline' the duty of the lay~aposto- "late: Almost immediately Bishop _Sart% re-e~hbed th~:. 't.~aching of his suprercie pontiff .in a speech on "Obedi~nc.e to the Pope inoCatholic Action." Izater, as-Cardinal Patri-" 7arch~of .Venice, he urged obedience to the popd- as an important motive for engJaging°ir~ this apostolate: "Cater ollc Action has.been c.ommanded by the Pope., who has sig-~ -nified hisown mind in.so many ways, and t~hat is ~nough -for us to be sure that it is the ~ill of God also" (B, 109). ~ Picking a.Name [or the Lay Apostolate Although Pius X did not co~n the title "Ca~tholic A'c-tion,;' yet be ,is certainly the fiist pope to make frequent~ ~ use of this term to dtisigfiate the laity's. ~lhare in the apostolic mission of the Church. Even before he had been elected," ti~ used. th~ eklSression. As Patriarch of Venice, fo.r exgmple, he eml~hasized that "Catholic Action is pro'per to the laity and'n6t to the clergy. " .-Catholic Action is prop- :er!y-lay in character." (B, 108. ) When pope he offi, ciall~i ~, c~ristened this apostolate with a-"distinctive, and.surely-a_ very nobld name: Catholic Action" (A, 192), All in~all,- Piu~ used the term's~veral dozen ti~es: in letters to the - Catholics of Italy, tb. the Hierarchy_of France, to .thd Arch!: ~. bishop of Quebec, and iff writing to the'whole Catholic~ World: Since his pontificate, "Catholic-Acti~ri" has~ remaihed a t~chn~cal term both in papal documents andi~ " " other W.ritings that adhere accurately to-the terminology: of~- .,the popes in this matter.Today "Catl~olic Action"~ erly Si~hifies-both the rnand[~te~d organizations"and~ the ~apostolic activit~r of those Catholic laymen who officially participate i~n the apostolic mission of the hierarchy. . Doc6ments on Catholic Action - : " ¯ Pias X did more than give the- l~y apostolate a Janua(g, 19~6 PlUS X AND CATHOLIC ACTION name. He wrote so, me fifteen thousand words clearly explaining Catholic Action and insistihg that it be accu-rately pu[ into practice. While six main, documents contain his.teaching, yet three of these deserve special men~ tion. The first is a speech.deli.vered in the 1890's (B, .107- 10) ; the second is a sizable part of his first papal encyclical. E su'premi apostolatus (of. C) ; the third, and most impor-tant, is his apostolic letter, II fermo proposi}o (The_ Firm Resolution; c~." D.) In fact, II fermo proposito, published justforty years ago, v~as for its time the 16ngest andmost dethiled 6f all papal pr0n0uncemen.ts on Catholic A~tion. It runs throUgh-tWenty-seven pages of the Acta Sanctad 8edis (The Acts-of the Holy See-) and is one of the rela- (ively few documents fotind there in tw~ languages: the original Italiafi and a Latin translation. A note prefixed to the Latin version gives the reason: although addressed to the Catholics of Italy, its very important teachin~g can be exceedingly profitable to Catholics everywhere (D, 741). The immediate effect of this letter upon the people of Italy was observed by the Roman correspondent-of The Tablet. Writing pack to London just two weeks after it ¯ was.released to thepublic he reports: "Not since the Ency.c-lical Return Novarum, published about fourteen years ago, has a Papal document excited such deep and ~eneral inter-est all through Italy as Pius X's last pronouncement on the Catholic movement" (cf. E). ° The far-reaching result 6f II fermo propos(to can be seen in Pius XI's voluminous writing on his fav6rite subject, where many of its phrases and nearly every one of its ~nain ideas are repeated (cf. F). Let us, therefore, r~view Pius X's teaching on Catholic Action b~rattempting, in some sort of logical order, a simple summary of what he said and firrote. We shall present his six main documents in 6he composite picture. In doing so we shall give.his teaching, as far as possible, in his own 5 JOSEPH V. SOMME.RS ReOieto [or Religious words. This will l~elp assure his views being seen in their own light, And for those familiar with the more recent directives of°Pius XI and Pius XIII it will be,convincing evidefice that many of their ideas have been taken from the words of their zealous predecessor. A Problem and an Answer Let us begin, then, where Plus began, with the pr0b-lem: The issue--as he saw it---concerned the salvation of souls, wh~ lived in a world that was in large part detached from the Church and heedless of the laws of God. Secu-larism was.the chief foe that fought against Plus in Man-tun, Venice, and Rome. In his first official letter as Patri: arch ofVenice, Cardinal Sart0 descril~ed the situation thus:. God is driven out of politics by this theory of the separation of Church and state. He is driven . . . from the laws by a morality which is guided by' the senses alone; from the schools.by the aboli-tion of religious instruction~; from Christian marriage; now deprived of'the grace of the sacrament . "q~re.must fight this great error of modern times, ~the enthronement of:man in the place of-God. (G,~ 46.7.) - Again in his'first encyclical he recalled the problem: "that enormous and detestable wickedness, so characteristic of. ou~ time.--the substitution, of man fbr God" (C, 8). This evil was directly opposed to his own firm resolve to restore all.things in Chris(. While still Cardinal he stated plainly th~ connection between secularism and the lay apostolate, between the problem and the solution: Catholic ACtion [he said] is properly lay in character for another reason . At one time the rights of Jesus Christ, of the Chflrch and "of the Pope entered into th.e, legis!ation of all ChriStian states . Now it is no longer so. The Church, the Pope, are no longer recog-nised as such and no longgr form part of the social organism;-they . are relegated to the sphere of.common rights; nay, they.ar~ even con~ sidered as enemies . Since these things are so; who is it that must danuar~l, 1946 PlUS X AND (~ATHOLICoACTION "~ stir himself to defend the violated rights'of . . . tl~e P6pe, lbe Church and the Bishops? In otl~er times it was the P01~es and the Bishops who intervenedin defence Of "their children. ; today it mustibe, the children wh6 will rise up in defence of their father, the laity .in ' defence of the Hierarchy: . . . (B, 108.) " ' In his first encyclical he outlined the means necessary to restore all things in christ. Urging ~:he bishops first to have as their.chief care the formation of their seminarians and priests to holiness and truth, Plus then exhorted them to instruct their people in the faith and to attract ~inful hearts "tO Christ by conspicuous charity. Finally, as -though reaching a climax; the new Pope pleadedfor the lay apostolate. He expanded this call till it filled one-eighth of his whole encyclical. He speaks to the.bishops of the world: ~. In this arduous task of the restoration of thi~ huma~ race in Christ neitl~er you nor your clergy should exclude all assistance, We know that God-recommended every:o~ne to have a care for his neighbor (Eccli. 17 : 12). For it is not priests alone, but all the faithful with-out exception, who must concern themselves with the intei'ests of God and souls not,'0f course, acco~rding to their own views; but always under the direction and orders of the bishops. ". (C, 12-3. Italics are ins~erted.) ' Here then is the world problem and a papal solutionl .In [t~ modern organized form Catholic Action has been developed as an integral part of the Church's answer to the " ~chief modern i~roblem. If God's laws arein great part dis-placed from politics, from public education, from the civil " marriage contract and the average home,, from big business and smart entertainment, then °the Church in her. efforts to restore all things in Christ will make special use of laymen. Who else ar~ better situated to re-Christianize labor and business, family life and entertainment? It is precisely the " [aity's place in the world that puts them-in a strategic posi-tibn to influence the reconstruction of these phases of life JOSEPH V. SOMMERS Reoiew 1o~ Religibus according: to the Christian pattern. Hence. the Pope's insistence ihat the laity collabor.ate in the ¯work for, God and souls. , ' - Explaining the Answer Already we have seen in broad.outline what Plus X .mteaecahnisn gb ym Coraet h loglsiecl yA.'c Wtiohnat. aIct croermdianign tso thoi mex ias mthien aei mhis ¯ of .Catholic Action? W~at are the methods it should employ?- What relation has Catholic. Action to the pope, the bishops, and priests? What are the effects to be looked fort Finally, what is the importance of Catholic Action in the eyes of Pius X? These are the main qi~estk;ns to be considered. 'Others of a secondary natu.re will be treated more briefly. ", In explaining the lay apostolat~ Plus, first and last, -~alled for ACTION. These are perhaps his str0nges.t words: - Catholic Action will not please certain timid souls, who thougl~ go~d living, are so attached to their habitual quiet ahd so afraid of every innovation that they believe that it is quite sufficient to pray, because God knows b~st how to defend the faith, humiliate His ene-mies, and make the Church triumphant. But these good people, whom I would call optimists, will' wait in vain for society to re-Christianize itself simply by tthe.prayers 6f the°good. Prayer is absolutely necessary because in the ordinary economy of salvation God does not concede graces "except to him who prays, but India and Japan would never have been converted by.tlSe prayers alone of Xa~rier: the.Apostles would never have conquered the world, if the~ .had not done the work of heroes and martyrs. It is necessary; there-gore, to join pr~iyer with hction,~' : There are others [he continues] who in order to justify .their inertia, give the worid up for lost, since~ they see in it.so many evil~!. ¯ Tl"ies~ people, whom I would call pessimists," say that it is so much wasted time to talk of Committees, of Circles, of SocietieS,~that they . will never :accomplish anything. It is sufficient' to remin~ these wearied and dispirit.ed souls that this kind of work of Catholic Action: danuarg,-1946 PIUS X AND" ~(THOLIC~ AC:'TION hag bee~ commanded by the Pope . (B, 1"09.) ¯ Up to the prese.nt, [he remarks] we have been like rabbits, too frightened" of everything and everyone to institute the Parochial Committee [local unit of Catholic Action], in order not to give offence. To whom could the Committee give offence? .To two cl;isses of people only: to the bad, and if we gave way. to them .we would. have ~0'stop all good wo.rks; and to those good people who shrink f~0m innovations. We must tell these last clearly and distinctly that these i~{novations~are both beautiful and good; that as the ba~d uhite; so also must the good: that if they are innovations they ar~ desired by the Vicar ofJesus Christ, and that he wh~o does not obey th~ Pope does not obey God.(B, 110.) Good Example a Prerequisite for LayApQstles- But as Words, and energetic hction [the Pope adds elsewhere] are' of no avail unless . . . accompan~i, ed . byexample, the necessary characteristic which should shine~ forth intall the members of e.very Catholic association is that of openly manifesting their faith by the holiness of ~their lives . . . and by ~he exact observance o'f the laws Of G0d~and 6f the Church. (H, 10.) Ifthe soul is not thus regulated [Pius observes] it will be diffi- Cult to stir others °to go6d, and, strength will fail for bearing perse-veriiagly th~ weariness Which every apost61ate brings with it: the calumnies of efiemies, the'coldness and want of he!p from men good in themselves, and sometimes the jealousy of~friends and fellow-- workers-~--excusable, doubtless, on account of the weakness 6f human nat.ure, but very harmful, and a cause of discord, offence, and quar-rels. (A,'193.) Good example, "therefore, and the solid virtue under-lying it are necessary if Catholik Action is to attain its end. With this in miffd the Holy Father remarks: .To carry it out rightly; we.mus~ have divine grace, and~the apostle receives none if he is not united to Christ. Only when we have formed Jesus Christ within.ourselves shall we more easily~ be able, to ,g!ve Him back ~o the family and to society. (A, 193.) The Aims o~ Catholic Action , ~ .~ C:~tholic A~tion is a~lay apostolate to restore allthings in Christ. In It [ermo proposito Plus adds further: 9 Reuiewfor RHigiou~ It is plainly necess.ary that every one take pa.rt i'n a work so impor-tant, not only,for the sanctification of his 'own soul,' but also i'n order ~o spread and more fully extend the Kingdom of God in individuals, in families and in society---each one working according to his own strength for his neighbor's good . (A, 189-90.) Ou~ pre.d.ecessor Leo XIII . pointed out . . . in the famous encyclical Return Novarum and in later documents the object, to which Catholic Actign should be specially devoted, namely, the prac-tical solution of the social question according to Christian principles. (A, 194-5.) Here the italics are in the text---one of the few instances in his apostolic letter on Catholic Action where Plus X thus undersdored his own words. He wished this last sentence to point like a spotlight at what he Considered the most impo.rtant work for the organ.ized lay apostolate of his day. He goes on to e~plain-his point: You see well what support is given to the Church by those chosen bands of Catholics whose aim is to unite all their forces in order to c6mbat anti-Christian civilization by every just and lawful means . : to reinstate Jesus Christ in the family, the school, and society: to re-establish the principle that human authority, represents that of God; to take intimately to heart the interests of the .people, especially those of the working and agricultural classes, not only by the inculcation of r.el!gion . but also by striving . . . to soothe theii sufferings, and by wise measures to improve their economic con-dition: to endeavour, consequently, to make public laws conf0rmhble to justice, to amend or suppress those' which are not so: finally, with a true Catholic spirit," to defend and support .the rights of God in everything, and the no less sacred rights of the Church. All'these works, of which Catholi~ laymen are the principal sup-po~. ters and promoters . . . constitute what is generally known by a distinctive, and surely a very noble name: Catholic Action . °(A, 191-2.) Re-Christianized in its civic, social, and ~conomic life, Civilization will then pr6vide a wholesome environment for those phases of individual and group life tl"iat are spe~ cifically and direcdy religious andmoral. It was the wis- 10 danuarg, 1946 PIUS X AND CATHOEIC ACTION - dom of Plus X to realize~that to Christianize individuals, a quick and sure way is to Christianize their surroundin'gs which unremittingly exert an influence for good or evil¯ For it is the environment which largely forms or deforms the individual, Christianizes or de-Christianizes him. On ~his account Pius repeatedly insiste~l that the Catholic laity help to establish and extend the Kifigdom of Christ not 8nly in individuals but also in families and in ,society. The Means to This Christian Restoration ;'The diffusion of revealed truth, the exercise of Chris-tian. virtue, and the spiritual and corporal works of mercy" (A, 190) are thegeneral means recommended to effect this restoration. 'Especially in his encyclical, Acerbo Nimis (On the Teaching of Christian Doctrine; I, 623), did Plus X insist upon the diffusion of revealed truth as a neces-sary means to restore men's minds and actions to Christ. Here too, he stressed the.need of the laity sharing in the edu-catibnal work of the hierarchy by his command that the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine be established in everv parish.in the world. Pihs likewise u.rged Christian charity. But the charity be wished to see exercised was not conniving and short-sighted tolerance. ¯ . . The first duty of charity [he says] does not lie in the toleration of erroneous convictions, however sincere they may bd~ nor in theo- - retical ok practical indifference for "the errors or vices in which we s~e our fellow-men plungdd, but in zeal for their inkellectual and moral improvement as well as for their material well-being. (d, 404.) Catholic Action as an organization is not a political party; .it has npthing to do with party politics. But its members as individual Catholics, Plus pointed, ou't, must use their civic right to vote and to hold office in order to pro-mote justice and truth. This section of I1 [ermo propgsito had particular appl.ication to the political situation in Italy JOSEPI~I V. SOMMERS ~ " ¯ "Review/:or Religious durir~g the ~first decade of this century. ~ Tile.wish of. the ~ Pope, howevei, extends to allCatholic citizens and direct~ them to use,, wherever possible, the democratic processes of government to bifild civil society according to the Christian .blueprint. . Other :means recommended by Pius, becau~e of their usefulness to bring about coope.ration and to arouse.enthu-siasm, were regional, and national congresses of 'the Cath-olic lay movements. These are his own.words: " ¯ . . In order to renew and increase in all Catholic undertakings the necessary enthusiasm, to give to.their "promoters and n~mbers an o~portunity ~o'f ~eeing and becoming atquainted with each other,.to draw ever more closely the bonds.of brotherly love, to enkindle in one another a more.~burning zeal for e~cient action, ,a.nd to provide, for the better establishmefit and,sp'.rea.d of the same works, a wonde~ful help .will be found in the meeting from time to time, according.to the Jules already; given by the Holy See, of general or local Con-gresses of. Catholics; and they ought to be a soler~n manifestati6n of Catholic faith, and a common festival of harm6ny and peace. (A, 198.) ~ : Relation of Catholic Action to the Clergg "It remains for us to treat of another point of the highest importance, namely the relation. which all the w6rks of Catholic Action should, bear to ecclesiastical authority" (A, 198). Those works immediately con-nec, ted' with '.the spiritual .and pastoral ministry of the Church,, having a religious a~m intended directly for the good of souls, should submit in every smallest particular to the authority of th~ bishops. But other works of Cath- 61ic Action de.signed .chiefly to restore and promote in iZhrist true Christian civilization have greater freedom, although the.y too are dependent on the advice and direction of ecclesiastical authority, inasmuch as they must conform to the principles of Christian faith and morality, . Although Catholic Action is proper to the laity and danuarg, 1946 PlUS X AND C/~THOLIC ACTION not tO the clergy, yet priests have the duty of guiding and encouraging its de.velopment. The Pope's ideals are rather high. He advised the French. bishops to choose from among their priests . ~. men who are active and level-headed, possessing the degrees of doct6r ¯ in philosophy and theology, and a thorough knowledge of the history of-ancient and modern civilization, and apply them to the less ele-. vated and more practical study of social science, in order that at.the "right time they may be put at the head of your Catholic Action. (d, 407). To the Italian bishops, he says: - . The co-.operation of the clergy in the works of Catholic .Act.i0n has a deeply religious end: it will never become a hindrance, but will be a help to their spiritual ministry by enlarging its sphere and mul-tii~ lying its fruits. ('A, 200). Results o[ Catholic Action; Its imp'ortance The good example given by a great army of.soldiers of Christ will be of mu~ch greater avail in attracting and per-. suading men than words and learned dissertations. In Our First Encyclical to the Bishops of the World, in which We echo all that Our glorious Predecessors had laid ~town c~ncerning the Catholic-Action df the laity, We d~clared that this action was. deserving of'the highest praise, and was indeed necess;iry in tile rpres-. ent condition of the Church and of society (H; 3). Speaking t~ the whole Catholic world in his encyclical on - St. Charles Borromeo, the Pope again praised that "Cath-olic Action which We have frequently recommended': as. most efficacious for the well-being of civil society (K, 246). Witl~ these public statements as a backdrop we can bet~ ter appraise.an incident narrated by Abb~ Chautard in The Soul of the Apostolate. Happening to be one day'amidst a group of Cardinals, the Holy Father sai'~ to them :" "What is the thing most necessary at the present, time to save society ?~' "Buikl Catholic schools," said one. 13 JOSEPH V. SOMMERS "Review,,for Religious "No." "Multiply churches," replied another. "No aga~." "~ncrease the recruiting of the clergy," said a third. ~ "No, no," replied the Pope; "what is most necessary at the pres-ent time, is to have in each parish a .qroup of fat.linen at the same time virtuous, well=instructed, determined and reallg apostolic.'" (L, 161- Not All Lay Organizations Are Catholic Action " After having gi~ren a lengthy explanation of the fu!l, meaning of C~itholic Action, Plus concludes, "such are the 'characteristics, aims, and conditions of Catholic0Action~" ¯ And he adds: This does not exclude the favoring and promotion of other works bf diverse.kinds and varied organizations, all equally aiming at this or that particular good of society and of the people, and at the revival of Christian civilization under various aspects. (A, 197~ The special and particular aim of these other organizations is what first distinguishes them from Catholic Action, the aim of Which is co~bxtensive with ~hat of th~ Church, The Pope goes on to add two further pbi~ts of differbncel' '.'The~e works arise, for the most part from the zeal of individuals; they are spread throughout separate dioceses and are "sometimes united in more extended federations" (A, 198), C~tholic Action, on the other hand, arises out of obedience to the pdp~,; in design it is world-wide. -. Were his directions being followed? In Italy, Catholic Action had developed-into four national organizations, each independent of the others. In Belgium the Catholic Association for Belgian Youth was coming into being, while in France a Similar organization was fairly well established. Even the Far East felt the influence of Plus X's apostolic i~ff0rt. In 1912 the Union of Chines~ Catholic Action had ,. been begui~. ' " 14 danuaq¢, 1946 PlUS X ANDCATHOLIC ACTION Cathoiic.Action l~s a C-bristian Tradition Pius. X's teaching on Catholic Action is but one chapter in the.long history~of the.lay apostolate. For~.Cath01ic Action is not an innovation of our day.Catholic Action is "more than an answer to a modern.problem; it is the°return to a Christian tradition. It~wa~ the practice of many of the faithful at~the time ofSt. Paul. It was re¢ommende.dby St. Augustine, St. Thomas !~quinas, and the Fathers of the Vatican Council. ¯ .In Pius X's.own words:: "It has always come to thi~ aid-of the Church; and the Chu~ch.:has always -welcomed~ and -blessed it, although it has acted, dn: various ways in accordance v,)ith the age" :(A, 19 2 ). " ":" _.~ Pius X in resgoring this . Christiai~ tradition gav~ detailed instructions on the lay apostolate that' far exceeded the known Writings of .any previous pope, In ~Snclusion:, however, it.wou!d be wall to note that .~he CatholicACt~ofi which Pius X had so carefully nu}tured was to develop even~ mbre. during the".p0ntificate of Pius XI. For itl was left to.this latter Pontiff to define~moreexactlY the-many details which now Characterize! official Catholic ~Action .(~cf. M). Yet despite these new qualifications, at.least-two-thirds of all his teaching can be found substantiall.y in the writing of Pius X. These_then are Pius X's contributions. He marked the way:-by restricting the term Catholic Action ~o the laity's share in the apostolic mission of the hierarchy; by setting the tinivershl aim for Catholic Action to establish, defend, and fully extend the Kingdom of Christ in. indi-viduals, in families, and in the whole, of society; by stressing its spedal necessity in our times; by giving it pre-eminence among the means recommended for the recon-struction of the social order according to a Christian pat-tern: by basing the obligation of Catholic Action on mem-bership in the Mystical Body, on the-law of charity, and. :~IoSEPH V. SOMMER~ -. obedience, to the pope; by outlining its subordination tO the direction of the hierarchy; and by., recalling t~) priests their obligation to gui~le and encourage this apostolic organiza-tion among the laity~ REFERENCES (A) The Pope and the People. Select letters and addresses on socia.I questions Popes Leo XIII, Pius X, Benedict XV, and Plus XI. The Catholic Truth Society~ London~ 1943¯ (B) Rest.oring All Things, by ,John Fitzsimons .and Paul McGuire. Sheed,and Ward, New york, 1938. Quotations are used here with the per.mission of the publishers. (.C) The Catholic Mind, I: "Encyclical Letter of.Our Hoiy Father Pius~X." (For the original text see Acta Sanctae Sedis, XXXVI, 129,139.) .(D) "'ll fermo proposito,'" in Acta Sanctae Sedis, XXXVII, 741-767. (See also The Pope and The People, 189-201, for an English translation of most of this apostolic letter.) .(E) The Tablet, CVI, 17~ "Correspondence: Rome." (F) A Manu.al oi Catholic Action, by Luigi Civardi. Translated by C. C. Mar-tindale, S.J. Sheed and Ward, New York, 1943. (See pages 12-45 .for a cursory-view of Pius X's in.fluence on the later development of Catholic Ac-tion.) ~(G)" Life of ~itts'X, by F. A. Forbes. Kenedy, New Y~rk, 1918. (Quotation i~ used here with the permission of the publishers.) (I'I) The Catbollc Mind, II, 3-10: "Popular Catholic Action.". (See also Acta Sanctae Sedis, XXXVII~ 339~345.) (I) "'Acecbo Nimis'" in the Acta 8anctae Sediso XXXVII. (d) .The Tablet, CXVI, 402-7: "The Pope and 'Le Sillon.' "''(See also Acta Apostolicae Sedis, II, 607.-33.)- (K) The Catholic. Mind, VIII: Encyclical.on St. Charles Borromeo. (L) "The Soul of the Apostolate., by~ J. B. Chautard. Translated by 3. A. Mo~ ran, S.M. The Mission Press, Techny, I11., 1945. (The quotation is used here with the permission of the Abbey of Gethsemani.) (M) What Does'the Pope Say About Catholic Action? Pellegri~i, Sydney,' Aus-tralia, 1937. See also Fundamental Pci~ciples of Catholic ACtion, by Fer-na~ nd Lelotte, S.2. Translated by ,J. P. Kelly. Australian National Sect. of Catholic Action, Melbourne. (This lafter book is soon to be published by The Ap0stolate Press, South Bend, Ind.)' 16 Splri :ual Readings rom :he Council Tren!:--II!* Augustine Klaas, S.J. Sacrament of Penance: Necessitg~ and Institution ~F IN ALL thos~ regenerated such gratitude were given toGod that they constantly safeguarded the justice received in baptism by His bounty,.: and grace, there would have been no need for another sacrament beiides that of baptism to be instituted for the remission of sins. But since God, rich in merc~l (117), knoweth our frame (118). He has a remedy of life even to those v~ho may after baptism have delive'red themselves up to the s~rvitude of sin and the power of the devil, namely, the sacrament of penance, by which the benefit of Christ's death is applied to those who have fallen after b.aptism. Penance was indeed, necessary.at all times for all nien who had stained themselves by mortal sin, even for those who desired to be cleansed by" the sacrament of baptism, in order to obtain grace and justice; so that their wickedness being renounced and amended, they might with a hatred of.sin and a Sincere sorrow of heart detest so great an offense against God. Wherefore the Prophet says: Be converted and do penance for all gout "iniquities, and iniquity shall not be gout ruin. (.119) The Lord also said: Except you do penance, you shall all likewise perish (120); and Peter the Prince of the Apostles, recom-mending penance to sinners about to receive baptism, said: Do pen- ¯ ance and be baptized every one of you. (121) Moreover, neither before the coming of Christ was penan.ce a sacrament nor is it such since His coming to an~rone before baptism. But the Lord then espe-cially instituted the sacrament of penafice when, after being risen from the dead, He breathed upon His disciples, and said: Receive ge the ']-Ioly Ghost, whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them, and whose sins you shall retain, they are retained. (122) The con-sensu~ of all the Fathers has always acknowledged that by this,action so sublime and words so clear the power of forgiving and retaining 117) Ephesians 2:4 119) E~echiel 18:30 121) Acts2:38. 118) Psalms 102:14 120) Luke 13:5 122) John 20.:22 f *Selected from H. J. Schroe_der, O.P., Canons and Decrees of the Council of T~ent, (St. Louis, Herder, 1.94 I). 17 AUGUSTINE KLAAS sins was gi-v.en to the Apostles and their lawful successors for recon-ciling the faithful who have fallen after baptism, and the Catholic Church with goo.d reason repudiated and condemned as heretics the Novi~tians, who of old stubbornly denied that power of forgiving. (123) Penance Differs from Baptism ¯ Besides, it is clear: that this sacrament is in many respects different from baptism, For apar~ from the fact that in matter and form, which constitute the essence of a. sacrament, it differs very widely, it is beyond question that the minister of baptism need not be a judge, since the Church exercises judgment on no on~ who has not entered it through the gate of baptism. For what have I'to do, says St. Paul, to judge them that are without? (124) It is o~herwise with regard to those who are of th~ household of the faith, whom Christ the Lord has once by the laver of,baptism made members of His own body. (125). For these, if they should.afterward have defiled themselves by some crime, He wished not to have cleansed by the repetition of bap-tism, since that is in no manner lawful in" the Catholic Church, but to be placed as culprits before-this tribunal that by the sentence of the priests they may be absolved, not only once but as oft}n a~s, r~pentant of the sins'committed, they should turn themselves thereto. More-over, the.fruit of baptism is one thing, that c~fpenance another~ For By baptism we put on Christ ~126) and are made in Him an entirely new creatu're, receiving a full and complete remission of all sins; to which newness and integrity, however, we aie by no means able to arrive by the sacrament of penance without many tears~and labors on our part, divine justice demanding this, so that penance has rightly .been called by the Holy Fathers a laborious kind of baptism. This sacr~iment of penance is for those who have fallen after baptism neces-sary for salvation, as baptism is for those who have not yet been regenerated. Forms and Fruits of the" Sacrament The holy council teaches further,more, that the form of the sacra-ment of penance, in which its efficacy chiefl.y consists, are those words of'the minister: I absolve thee, etc., to which are indeed laudably added certain prayers according to the custom of holy Church, which, 123) Eusebius, Hist. Eccl., VI, c. 43 124)"See I Corinthians 5:12 125) I Corinthians i2:13 126) Galatians 3:27 JanuaGI, 1946 READINGS FROMTRENT however, do not ~)y any means belong to the essence of the form nor are they necessary for the administration of the sacrament.But th~ acts of the penitent himself, namely, contrition, confession and satis-faction, constitute the matter of this sacrament, which acts, inasmuch as. they are by God's institution required in the pe.nitent for the integrity o'f the sacrament and-for the full and complete remission of sins, are for this reason called the parts of penance.~ B~ut that Which is signified and produced by this sacrament is, so far as its force and efficacy are concerned, reconciliation with God, which sometimes,.in persons who are pious andwho receive this ~acrament with devotion, is wont to be followed by peace and serenity of conscience with an exceedingly great consolation of spirit. ' Contrition Contrition, which holds the first place ~mong the aforesaid' acts of the penitent, is a sorrow of mind and a detestation for sin com-mitted with the purpose of not sinning in the future. This feeling of contrition was at all times necessary for obtaining the forgiveness of sins and thus indeed it prepares one who has failen after baptism'for the remission of sins, if it is united .with" confidence in the divine mercy and with the desire to perform the other things that are reqtiired to receive this sacrament in the proper manner. The holy council declares therefore, that-this contrition implies not only an abstention from sin and the res61ution and beginning of a new life, but also a hatred of the old, ac~:ording to the statement: Cast away from yo.u all your transgressions by which you have transgressed, and make to yourselves a new heart and a new spirit. (127) And certainly l~e who has pondered those lamentatiohs of the saints: To ~thee only have I sinned, and have done evil before thee (128) ; I have labored.in my groanfngs,'everg night I will washmg bed (129); I will recount to thee all rny years in the bitterness of my soul (I 30), and others of this kind, will easily understand that they issued from an overwhelming hatred of their past life and from a profound detestation of sins., The council teaches furthermore, that though it happens sometimes that this contrition is perfect through charity and reconciles man to God before this sacrament is actually, received, this recon.ciliation, nevertheless, is not to be ascribed to the contrition 127) Ezechiel 18:31 128) Psalms 50:6. 13:0) lsaias 38:15 129) Psalms 6:7 19 AUGUSTINE KLAA8 Revie~v [or Religious itself, without a desire of the sacrament, which desire is included in it. As to imperfect contrition, which is called attrition, since it com-monly arises either from the consideration of the heinousness of sin or from tile fear of, hell and of punishment, the council declares that if it renounces the desire tO sinand hopes for pardon, i~ not only does not make one a hypocrite and a greater sinner, but is even a gift of God and an impulse of the Holy Ghost, not indeed as already , dwelling ~n the p.enitent, but only moving him, with which assistance the_peditent prepares a way for himself unto justice. And though with.out the sacrament of penance it cannot per se lead the sinner to justification, it does, howev.er, dispose ~im to obtain the grace of God in the sacrament of penance. For, struck salutarily by .this fear, the Nini¢ites, moved by the dreadful preaching of Jonas,-did penance and o" obtained mercy fro~m the Lord. (131) F~lsely therefore do some accuse Catholic writers,, as if they maintain that the sacrament .of penance confers grace without any pious exertion on the part of those receiving it, something that the Church of God has never taught br ever accepted. Falsely also do their assert that contrition is extorted and forced, and notfree and voluntary. Confession From the institution of the sacrament of penance as already explained, the universal Church has always understood that the complete, confession of sins was also instituted by the Lord and is divine law 'necessary for all who have, fallen after baptism (132): because our Lord Jesus Christ, when about to ascend from earth to heaven, left behind Him'priests, His own vicars (133), as rulers and judges, to whom all the mortal sins into which the faithful of Christ may have fallen should be brought in order that ~hey may, in virtue "of the power of the keys, pronounce the sentence of remission or retention of sins. For it is evident that priests could not have cised this judgment without.a knowledge of the matter, nor could they have observed justice in imposing, penalties, had the faithful declared their sins in general only and not specifically and one .by one. From whi.ch it is clear that all mortal sins of which they have kno.wl-e. dge after a diligent self-examinatiom must be enumerated by .the penitents in confession, even though they are most secret and have 131) Jonas 3:5; Mat-thew 12":41 : Luke l 1:32 132) Luke 5:14; 17:14; Idohnl:9 133) Matthew 16:19: John 20:23 Januar~l, 1946 READINGS FROM TRENT been cohamitted 0nly.against the last two precepts of the Deca-logue (i34); which sins sometimes injur~ the soul more grievously arid are more dangerous than those.that are committed openly. Venial sins, on the other band, by which we are not excluded from the grace of God and into which we fall more frequently, though the~ may be rightly and profitably and without any presumption declared in con-fission, as the practice of pious people evinces, may, nevertheless, be omitted without guilt and can be. expiated by many other remedies. But since all mortal sins, even those of thought, mak~ men children ot: wrath ('135) and enemies of God, it is necessary t6 seek pardon of all of them from God by an open and humble confession. While. therefore the faithful of Christ strive to confess all sins that come to their memory, they no doubt lay all of them before the divine mercy for forgiveness; while those'v~ho do otherwise and knowingly con-ceal certain ones, lay nothing before the divine goodness to be for-given through the priest; for if one sick be ashamed to make known his wound to the physician, the .latter does not remedy what he does not know. It is evident furthermore, that.thbse circumstances that change the species of the sin 5re also to be explained in-confession, for without }hem the sins themselves are neither integrally set forth by the p~nitent nor are they known to the judges, and it would be imtSossible for tfiem to estimate rightly the grievousness o~'the crimes. and to impose the "punishment due to the penitents on account of them. Hence it is unreasonable to teach that these circumstances have been devised by idle men, or that one circumstance only is to be con-fessed, namely, to have sinned against another. It is also malicious to say that ,confession, commanded to be made in this manner, is impos-sible, or to call it a torture of consciences: for it is known that in the Church nothing else is required of penitents than that each one, after he has diligently examined himself' and searched all the folds and corners of his conscience, confess those sins by which he remem-bers to have mo~tally offended his Lord and God; while,the other sins of which he has after diligent thought no recbllection, are unde~- stood to bein a general way included in the same confession; for which sins we confidently say with the Prophet: From rag secret sins cleanse me, 0 Lord. (136) But the difficulty of such a confession and the shame of disclosing the sins might indeed appear a burden-some matter, if it were not lightened by so many and so great advan- 134) Deuter_onomy 5:21 135) Ephesians 2:3 136) Psalms 18:13 AUGUSTINE KEAAS Review for Religious rages and consolations, 'which are most certainly bestowed by abso-lution upon all who approach this sacrament worthily. Moreover, as regards the manner of confessing secretly to a priest alone, although Christ has not forbidden that one may in expiation for his crimes and for his own humiliation, for an example to others as well ~ts for the edification of the Church thus scandalized, confess his offenses pub-licly, yet this is not commanded by divine.precept; nor would it be very prudent to enjoin by human law that offenses, especially ~ecret ones, should be divulged by a public confession. Wherefore, sifice secret sacramental confession, which holy Church has used from the beginning and still uses, has always been recommended by the.most holy and ancient Fathers with great and unanimous agreement, the empty calumny of those who do not fear to teach that it is foreign to the divine command, is of "human origin and owes its existence to the Fathers assembled in the Lateran Council, is convincingly disproved. For the Church did not through the~Lateran: Council decree that the faithful "of Christ should confess a thing that she recognized as of divine law and necessary, but that the precept of confession should be complied with by each and all at least once a year when they have attained the age of discretion. Hence the salutary custom of con- .re[sing during that sacred and most acceptable period of Lent is now observed in the whole Church to the great benefit of the souls of the faithful, which custom this holy council completely indorses and sanctions as pious and worthy of retention. Satisfaction Finally, in regard to satisfaction, which of all the parts of pen-ance, just as it is that which has at all times been recommended to the Christian people by our Fathers, so" it is the one which chiefly in our age is under the high-sounding pretext of piety assailed by those who ~ave an appearance, of piety, but have denied the power thereof (137), ~he holy council ~leclares that is absolutely false and contrary to the'word of God, that the guilt is never remitted by the Lord' without the entire punishment being remitteff also. For clear and outstanding ex.amples.are found in the "sacred writings (138), by which, besides divine tradition, this error is refuted in the plainest manner. Indeed the nature of divine justice seems to demand that 137) See II Timothy 138) Genesis 3:16 f; 20:11 f; II Kings 3:5 Numbers 12:14 f; 12:13 f 22 January, 1946 READINGS FROM TREN~T those who throhgh ignorance have sinned before baptism 1~ received into grace in one manner, and in another those who, after having been liberated from the servitude of sin. and of the devil, and after having received the gift of theHoly Ghost, have not feared knowingly to violate °the ¯temple of God" (139) and to grieve the Holy Spirit. (140) And it is :in keeping with divine clemency that sins be not. thus pardoned us without any satisfaction, lest seizing the occasion and considering sins as trivial and offering insult and affront to the. Holy Spirit (141) we should fall into graver ones. treaguring up to ourseloes wrath against the day of wrath.-(142) For without doubt, these satisfactions greatly restrain from sin, check as it were with a b.it, and make penitents more cautious and vigilant in the future; they also remove remnants of sin, and by acts of the opposite " - ' virtues destroy habits acquired by evil living. Neither was there ever in the Church of God any way held more certain to ward off °impending chastisement by the Lord than that men perform with true sorrow of mind these works of penance. (43) Add to this, that" while We by making satisfaction suffer for "our sins, we are made con-formable to Christ Jesus who satisfied for our sins (144). from whom is all our sufficiency (145), having thence also a most certain ~ledge, that if we suffer .with fiiro, we shall also be gloriI~ed with him. (1.46) Neither is this satisfaction which we discharge for our sins so our own as not to be through Christ Jesus: for we who can do nothing of ourselves as of ourselves, can do all things with the . cooperation of Him who strengthens us. (147) Thus man has not wherein to glory, but all our glorying is in Christ (148), in wl~om we live (149), in whom we merit, in whom. we make satisfaction, bringing forth fruits worthy of penance (150), which have their efficacy from Him, by Him are offered to the Eather, and through Him are a~ccepted by the Father. .The priests of the Lord must therefore, so far as reason and prudence suggest, impose s~lutary and suitable satisfactions, in keeping with the nature of the crimes and tBe ability of the penitent; o_therwise, if they should connive at sins and deal too leniently with penitents, imposing certain very light 139) See I Corinthians 3:17 140) Ephesians 4:30 141) Hebrews 10:29 142) Romans 2:5: James 5:3 143) Matthew 3:2. ~: 4:17; 11:21 144) Romans 5:10 ¯ 145) See II Corinthians 3:5 146) Romans 8:17 147) See II Corinthians 3:5 ; Philippians 4."13 148) See I Corinthians 1:31 ; II Corin-thians 10:17: Galatians 6 : 14 149) Acts 17:28 150) Matthew 3:8: Luke 3:8 AUGUSTINE KLAAS works for very grave offenses, they might° become partakers in the sins of others. But let them bear in mind that the satisfaction they impose be not only for the protection, of a new life and a remedy against infirmity, but also for the atonement and punishment of past sins; for the early Fathers al~o believed and taug.ht that the keys of the priests were bestowed not to loose only but also to bind. (151) . It.was riot°their understanding, moreover, that the sacrament, of pen-ance is a tribunal of wrath or of punishments, as no Catholic ever understood that through our satisfactions the efficacy of the merit and satisfaction of our.Lord Jesus Christ is either obscured 0r in any way diminished; but since the innovators wish to understand it sd, they teach, in ~rder to destroythe efficacy and use of satisfaction, that a new life is the best penance. It (the council) teaches furthermore that the liberality of .the divine munificence is so great that we are .able through Jesus Christ to make satisfaction to God the Father not only by punishments .vo!untarily undertaken by ourselves to atone for-sins, or by those imposed by t~e¯ judgment of the priest according to the measure of our offense, but also, and this is the greatest proof of love, by the temporal afflictions imposed by God and borne patiently by us. 151) Matthew 16:19; John 20:23 OUR CONTRIBUTORS LOUIS J. PUHL is professor of" ascetical theolbgy at the Pontifical College ,Josephinum, Worthington, Ohio. AUGUSTINE KLAAS is professor of sacramental theology; THOMAS A. O'CONNOR, of sacred oratory; MALACHI ,J. DONNELLY~, of dogmatic theology;¯and ADAM C. ELLIS, of canon law at St. Mary's College; St. Marys,~Kansas. ,JOSEPH V.SOMMERS is completing his course of theology at St. Mary's College. "WHAT'S A DOMINICAN?" ¯ Original, attractive, well-illustrated, this vocation booklet should have a wide. appeal among boys in the uppper grades and in the first years of ~high school. It will surely help many to "better know and love [the] sons of St. Dominic . [and] aspire to join their ranks." For co1~ies address Brother Bede's~ Mailbox, Dominican House of Studies, River Forest, Illinois. Irnrnaculat:e I-lead: o[ h~ary Thomas A. O'Connorl S.J. ItTHERE ~ill be peace if: . ." " - | " Th~ Queen of Peace, the M6ther of God, is speaking. The scene is a rocky, barren cove out-side a small town, sixty miles north of Lisbon in Portugal. It is ~July 13, 1917. Three shepherd children, aged ten, nine, and seven, wide-eyed in wonderrrient, are listening to a beautiful Lady who has appeared to them. She is con-fiding a great secret to them: the secret of the world's peace. It is the message of Fatima. Marg's Message God wishes to establish in the wbrld devotion-to my Immacu-- late Heart. "If people do whatI have told you, many souls will be saved and will find peace. The war [World War I] is going to end, but if people do not cease to offend God. not much time Will el~ps~, and precisely during the next Pontificate. another and more te,rrible war [Wo, rld War II] will commence. When a night illhmined by an unknown light is seen, know that it is the signal which God gives you that the chastisement of the world for its many transgressions is at hand through war, famine. and persecution, of the Church and Of the Holy Father. "To avoid this, I ask for the consecration ot:" the world to mg Immaculate Heart, and Communion in reparation on the tirst Satur-dag of each month. If my requests are h~ard, Russia will be converted and there will be peace. Otherwise, great errors will be spread throughout the world, giving rise to wars and persecutions against the Church. The gobd will suffer much. Different nations will be destroyed; but in the end, my Immaculate Heart will triumph. The Holy Father will consecrate Russia to me; Russia will be converted, and an era of peace will be granted to humanity. Thus spoke Our Blessed Mother. It was ari answer to ¯, 25 THOMAS A. O'CONNOR Review for Religious the Catholic w~;rld's petition for peace. After all human efforts to secure peace had failed, Pope Benedict XV instructed the bishops of the world to communicate to all his ardent desire "that recourse be made to the, Heart of Jesus, Throne of grace, and to this Throne recourse be made .through Mary . To Mary, then,, who is the M6ther of Mercy and omnipotent by grace, let loving, and devout appeal go up from every corner of the earth." ~n her honor he had ~dded to the Litany of Loretto the title "Queen of Peace." Eight days after the Holy Father had made this request, Mary appeared to the children at Fatima. There will be peace if. there is established through-. out the world devotion to the Immaculate Heart of Mary. No matter what happens, in the end the Immaculate Heart of Mary will triumpfi. B~t the establishment and propagation of the devotion to the 'Immaculate Heart of Mary now can spare the world future.wars, suffering, and persecution. Tile Holy Father Fulfills Her Wishes On th~ 31st of October, 1942, Pope Pius XII conse-crated the world and Russia to the Immaculate Heart of Mary. These are his words: To thee, to thy Immaculate Heart in this, humanity's tragic'hour, we consign and consecrate ou'rselves in tinion not onl~r with the Mys-tical Body of ~thy Son, Holy Mother Church, now in such suffeiing and agony in so many places and sorely tried in so many ways, but also witti the entire world, torn by fierce strife, consumed in a fire of hate, victim of its own wickedness . "Give peace to the peoples separated by error or by discord, and espdcia!ly to those who profess such singular devotion to thee and in whose homes an honored place was ever accorded thy venerated icon (today perhaps often kept hidden to await better days): biing them° back to the one fold of Christ under the one true shepherd. The Holy Fatl~er has spokeh. He has consecrated the 26 January, 1946 ~ . IMMACULATE HEART OF MARY world and Russia to the Immaculate Heart of Mary. ' Now ¯ nations and cities, dioceses and parishes, families and indi-viduals have but to follow the lead of the Supreme Pontiff and to consecrate themselves to Mary's ImmacUlate Heart. "All the evil in the "world flows from the ignoring of God's, infinite Majesty and the complete neglect of His ¯ divine commands," Pope Pius XII once stated. The way back to God is through sinlessness and purity of life. Mary, the Immaculate One, is the way. She "our life, our ~weet-ness and our hope" is the. way to peace. The Hearts of Jesus and Mary Of all ,hearts, the most intimately united to and most closely identified with the,Sacred Heart .of Christ is the . Most Pure Heart of Mary, His Mother. It is not strange, then, that the devotion tO the Immaculate Heart of M~iry is very similar to devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. ¯ - As the physical Heart of Christ, the symbol of His love, is the object of the devotion to the Sacred Heart, so in a Simila~ manner the object to which this devotion is directed is the physical Heart of'Mary considered as the symbol of her love for God and for man. In honoring Christ's heart, we honor His divine person; and in honoring Mary's Heart, we 'honor her whole person, sifice her Heart .but symbolizes the love which motivated her whole being in every action of her life. Finally, like devotion to the Sa~red Heart, devo. ¯ tion to the Immaculate Heart of Mary expresses itself, first . in the specific practices of acts of consecration and rep~ra.-" tion, and secondly in the more generic practices 6f prayer and love and imitation of her virtues. ¯ Consecrqtton In 1899 Pope L.eo XIII, performing what .he termed ' ¯ "theogreatest act" of hi~ pontifica~e,~consecrated the whole world to the Sacred Heart. - 27 TH~31~AS A. O'CONNOR ~ . . Reoieto/or Religious' Just as when the.n.ew.ly born Church lay.helpless under the yoke of .the Ca~'sars, there ~ppeated in~ the heavens a cross, at once the sign and cause of the marvellous victory that was soon to 'follow, so today before o.ur very eyes there appears another most happy and holy sign, "the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus, crowned by a brilliant cross set amid raging flames. In this Sacred" Heart. we shall place all our hopes; .from it, too, we ask and await salvatio~i. (Annum Sacrum.) The:purpose of that consecration was.to acknowledge God's supreme dominion over the whole "v(.orld and over the hearts of men. ~ndividuals consecrating themselves to the Sacred Heart voluntarily~professed this sovereignty over :¯themselves. In r~evealing this devotion to St. Marga~)et Mary, the Sacred Heart insisted more on "the immense love which He has borne to us than on His:fights over us" (Pius XI; Miserentissimus). Father Putz, S.J., says, As His dominion is one 6f lo~e and He wants submission out of love, the consecration is made to the Sacred Heart, the symbol of His love., 'Being consecrated to Him, we belong to Him in a special manner, we are placed under His special protection, we are sure of His special help 'and care. The s~me may be said; in as far as it is @plicable, of consecrating Ourselves to the Immaculate Heart Of Mary. LiKewise we may say that there has now appeareda new sign in the he~ivens. It is the radiantly beautiful, spotlessly pure, Immaculate Heart of~ Mary-~-the way to individual and world peace. The confident hope is that the whole world and each individual will consecrate himself to her Immaculate Heart and thus accomplish the purpose of theworld's consecra-tion tothe Sacred Heart, namely, that the "whole ~orld¯ will submit joyfully and willingly to th~ easy. yoke Of ':~hrist the King," and that the "fruits of,,the consecration will be to °bind With Chriatian love in the communion of pe, ace all peoples to the heart of the Ki~g, of Kings and danuar~, 1946 " " IMM~CULA'I:EHEART OF MARY SOvereign iof Sovereigns':~ (Miserentissimus). " : ' That this i~the purpose of the consecration of the world tO the Immacul~ate Heart'0f Maryis best expressedby Pope Pius XII: , As the Church andthe entire human r~ce oweie-cohse~fated to th~ Sacred Heart of Jesus.so that in ~eposing all hope in Him, H~might become for them the sign and pledge of victory and salvation; so we in like manner¯ consecrate burselves forever ~Iso to thee and. to. thy Immaculate Heart, Our Mother and Queen, that thy love and patron-age may hasten the triumph of the Kingdom of God and that all nations, at.peace With one another and with God, m~iy proclaim thee blessed an'd with thee may raise their voices to resound from pole t6 pole in the chant of the everlasting Magnificat of glory, l~sve and gratitude to the Heart of Jesus, .where alone they can find truth, and peace. -Pope Plus XII first consecrated-the world to the Immaculate Heart of Mar'y on October" 31, 1942. That same year, on the Feast of the Immaculate Con.c.eptioni he pubiicly repeated the Act of Consecration in.St. Peter's l~asilica. The official English translation of.the" Act of Consecration was 15ublished in the REVIEW FOR RELICdOU$ in 1943, p. 71. For the private consecration Of individuals ¯ any suitable form of words sufficest Reparation Reparation is an integ~al part of the devotion, to the. Sacre'd Heart. If in the act of consecration the intention t~ exchange, as it were, for the love of tl~ Creator the love of us creatures stands out most prominently, ther~ follgws almost naturally from this another fact. namely, that if this same Uncreated I~ove has either been passed ove~ through forgetfulness .or saddened by reason of our sins, then~ we ~should repair such outrages.-. We call this duty reparation. . Therefore we must add to the act of consecration. , . an act of expia-tion, b~" means of which all our faults are blotted out (Miserentissi- When Out'Lord a~peared to St, Margaret Mary, He 29 THOM/~S A. O'CONNOR Reolew for "Religious .asked that ~he Feasf of the Sacred Heart be established in .reparation for the sin~ of men, and t~ practice Of the nine -First Fridays .followed from the twelfth of His promises. Similarly in the devotion to the .Immaculate Heart Of Mary, reparation is an integral part. When Our Blessed Mother appeared ~.to the shepherd children, she s~iid: "I ask'f0r.the consecration of the world to my immaculate Heart, and Communion in reparation ono the first, Saturday of each month." Sister Lucy of.Jesus, one of the shepherd children to. whom Our Lady api~eared, gives the words Our Blessed Mother used: ~ - My. child, behold my Heart all pierced with thorns which the blasphemies and ingratitude of men drive deeper ~t every moment. Do thou, at least try to console me, and make known to men that I promise to assist at the hour of death with the gracqs necessary for salvation all those who,. on the first Saturday of. five.consecutive months, .go to confession, receive Holy Communion, say the Rosary, and spend a quarter of an hour with me in meditating .on the fifteen mysteries of tl~e Rosary, with the object of making reparation to me. On the 13th of May, 1939, the Bishop.of Fatima caused the following to be pfiblished: "It is Our Blessed Lady Her-self Who in our tim~ has deigned to teach us this devotion to the Five First Saturdays, the object of which is to make reparation to the Immaculate Heart of Mary for all offences and outrages committed against. her by ungrateful men." Pra~ter and Penance ~In his encyclical, Caritate Christi Computsi, Pope Pius,XI urged upon all the Spirit of prayer and-penitential reparationas the ex.tra.ordin~ry ~emedy for the e:~tr.aordi-nary needs Of the times. Our Lady in her appearanceh to the. shepherd children recommended 'prayer and pemince. "Pray, pray very much,"' she said on August 19, "and make sacrifices for sinners~. for. many souls, go to bell because there ~0 danuar~l, 1"946 , IMMACULATE HEART OF MARk' is no one to make sacrifices for them." H(r message'in October .was similar. "She said that she was Our Lady of the Rosary," the children testified, "and their we must repent of our sins, "change our lives, and no longer offend Our Lord, who-is so much offende!!" The prayer she recomme.fided most was the Rosary. Pope Plus XII, in his radio address to Portugal, dwelt on the same needs. After recalling that it is proper to have confidence in Mary, he added: But, lest this confidence,be presumpt~uous, it is necessary . . . for us to listen to the maternal advice she g;~ve at the wedding of Cana and do everything that, Jesus tells us to do. And He tells us all to do penance . to amend our lives, and to flee from sin, which is the principal cause of the terrible punishments with which Eternal Jus-tice is afflicting the world . [He bids us] to be the salt that~pre2 serves and,the light that iilumines, to cultivate purity and to show forth in our manner of life the austerity of the Gospel . More still, [He tells us] . to diffuse around us, near and far, the perfume of Christ, and by constant prayer --- especially the daily Rosary--as well as by such sacrifices as zeal inspires, to win for sinful souls the life of grace and eternal happiness . Sorrowful in her foresight of th'~s great misfortune with which the Justice of God is punishing the world, Mary has pointed out that the way to save the world is by prayer and penance . Martj Omnipotent by Grace¯ We should be most eager and fervent in our devotio~ to the Immaculate Heart of Mary because, as the Mother of God and our Mother, all graces, gifts, and favors come to us from G~d through Mary¯ She is the Mediatrix of all graces. She is omnipotent by grace. Hence it was that Benedict XV wrote on May 5, 1917: Because all graces which the Author of every good deigns to distributg ¯ . . are., dispersed by the hands of the most holy V~irgin, we ~;ish the petitions of her most afflicted children to be directed with lively confidence., to the great Mother'of God . . . To Mary, then, who .31 THOMAS A. O'CONNOR is the Mother of Mercy and omnipotent .by~ grace, let loving and devout appeal go up from every corner of the earth." Pope .Pius ~XI, concluded his encyclical Miserer~tissirnus with an act of confidence "in her intercession with ~lesus . . . who wished to associate His own Mother with Himself as the advocate of sinner~, as the dispenser and mediatrix of grace." This same note of confidence in Mary was expressed by Pope Plus XII in his radio address to the people of Portugal, in which he consecrated the wo~rld to the Immaculate Heart of Mary: .Toda~-, . . there remains to us only confidence in God and, as in intermediary before "the divine throne, in her whom one of our prede.cess0rs during the first world war invoked as the Queen of Pefidd. " Letus invdke her again, for she alone can help us! . . . " Queen 0f'the Most Holy Rosary, Hell0 o~ Christians, .Refuge of the~Human Race, Victress in all God's battles, we humbly prostrate Oursdves before thy thron~, confident,that we shall obtain mercy, and- ~eceive grace and bountiful 'assista'fice 'and protection in the present chlamity, not fhrough ou, r own inadequate merits, but solely' through ith.e, great go0dfiess of thy Maternal heart . Queen of Peace, pray for us. and give to the world at war the peace for which all people are longing, peace in thetruth, justice, and charity of Christ. Give peace to the warring; nations and'to the souls of men, that in the tranquillity of order the Kingdom of God may prevail. Immaculate Heart of Mary, pray for us! INDEX OF BAC~K NUMBERS REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is indexe~l in the CATHOLIC PERIODICAL "INDEX. Con-tent~ of previous issues can be found by consulting the Readers' Gu.ide in your library. 32 The Magnetic Power 0t: Chris!: Malachi ~l.Donnelly, S.J, AS CHILDREN we .all played with an iron magne.t, and later, when we studied physics in high school, we perfdrmed experiments with the magnet. It was ", put under a piece of paper and upon the surface of this paper were scattered particles of iron dust. As we tapped the paper gently, we saw the tiny bits of iron arrange them selves in a definite pattern around the poles of the magne.t. We learned that between all the particlesthere was an inter~ play and exchange of magnetic power. Hence, they were not isolated units, bu.t closely interrelated and continually receiving and exercising magnetic influence. Further, all the power they had of influencing the.surrounding iron - particles all this came from the central magnet, their only. power-source. Finally, the-power of each tiny.iron filing depended on (1) its nearness to the.magnet, as source_of power; and'(2) its freedom from base alloys, which might render the iron particle less susceptible to the magnetic influence of the central source. With this illustration ~well in mind, let us consider briefly the religious life and especially ,the influence which every religious should exert on the world about him. Above all, the religious should realize the source of his power and what he must do that this power be his in the highest degree possible. This realization is of the greatest importance today, when everyone is talking, about post-war reconstruction and when even secular leaders are beginning to recognize the l~act that a material rebuilding will be of MALACHI J. DONNELLY " Reoiew [or Religigus little avail v~ithout a renewal of spiritual forces. Religious. .must,. and can,-play a major part in this post-war spiritual recopstruction, as we hope that the following, paragraphs " 'will illustrate. The life of _religious is not a fleeing from life. Nor, again, is it a mere repression of powerful life-tendencies. And, finally, it is not an utter abandonment of the world of human beings 6utkide the cloistered wall. Rathdr, the religious life is truly a fleeing towards, life, towards 'that source of all life, 3esud Christ, who has said of Himself, :"I am. the Life." Far from. repressing vital instincts, " the~teligious'life assures, thoiigh in a higher Spherel their full development. The religious life must mean a love-seeking, a love-search, but for God and men in God. This means that all true life-tendencies, tlhouglhts, will-acts (.yes, ~motions, too)--the whole human being must be 'vitally ~oncerned with this loving quest of God. ., From the psychological pc~int of view, such a life should never resultS in "crabbiness," neuroses of various kinds, or crippling inhibitions. The religious do~s not live a vacuum L life. He me~ely takes one ointment (indeed, good in itself) . frorfi the e:~rthly ~¢essel that it may be replaced by a" more precious perfume. True, if it does not attain its posit.ive p~rfection, such a life might well rest~lt in mere inhibitions and a consequent unwholesome, if not downright neurotic, frame:of mind. With regard to women in particular, this is well expressed in an excellent modern study: If we religio~s women fail to cultivate love on the high level of the supernatural, if we permit our love to center in self, we shall deteriorate in our spiritual .life and become objects o~f disedification within and without our convent wails. In the married state, as Wife and m~ther,a woman unfolds love, tenderness and co~apassion. In. " religious life, the sources of natural de, velopment are closed to her.She is" expected to-unfold love ori a supernatural level love for her , Divine Spouse and for the members of His Mystical Body. danuary~ 1946 MAGNETId POWER OF CHRIST If sh~ fai|S to cultivate this love; she be¢0m~s devoid of-all love, excepting self-love, which expresses itself in seeking morbid .h.um~an affections. She sinks into a condition that is not proper to her nature. The-finer qualities of he~ being dry up for want of fost.ering care. She becomes uhnatural in hard and exclusive selfishness.I But,.if lived as a positive, full-s6uled (-and ffill-hea~ted)i seard~i.ng f~r God, t~e hidden" l~i~e of the religious can never be.other thana fuller perfe~ti0n anti more complete dev~l~ opmentof human nature, of soul and of body, of the entire man. With attention now drav)n to the positive side of the religious life,.let us see what'eff~ct a relig!ous life WellAived can have on the world about us. Perhaps tile answer may be found in a consideration Of the religious and the Mystical Body of Christ. As we all know, the Mystical Body is truly liying and organic: Bodily life. is the power-of perfective, self-movement in an organism. It depends on nourishment 'from outside the living body, on food which through assimilation becomes part of the body and .supplies .the power by. which the living organism" directs itself in organic movement towards a definite end. Again, an o~ganism is made up of.heterogeneous parts. different in shape, and function, each of .which finds own perfection in working t~wards the good of the Whole .bqdy. And througho_ut the individual organs there flows the common life of the complete body. The life of the Mystical. Body is sanctifying grace, that divine life shared by men and poured forth into our souls by the Holy S~irit who is given to us. From the Holy Spirit, who is breathed forth into our souls by Father and " Son, ~omes our created Share of that same diC, ine life which 1Two Sisters of Notre Dame, Soul Clinic (New York and Chicago: Pustet. 1943). pp. 10-11. For a review of this excellent book. confer REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, II. p, 130. 35 MALACHI'J. DONNELLY " Reoieto /or Religious the three.divine Persons possess as identified, with theirown Persons. " - The life-movement of the Mystical Body is nourished by the in-take and assimilation of thi~ Christ-life, divine grace. Gra~e perfects the individual member and then, like the color of health,radiates out through the entire Mystical .Body and brings with it a health-restoring, or, as the case may be, a life-perfecting power. The movement of the members, or organs, of the Body will be an organic, hence corpo.rate movement towards God, the final end, the highest .good of the entire Body. As !.iving members of the Mystical, Body, we religious are, like ir0n-filings With respect to the central ma.gnet, grouped around Christ, our source of spiritual power. All the sup.ernatural efficiency we ba.v.e comes from Him, the uhique source. As members of Christ's Body, we receive and give off power, spiritual power received fro~ Christ the Head of the Body. Our sup,e.rnatural power .and efficiency depend on two things; (1) our nearness to Christ the sourcd of this power, and (2) the absence of base alloy in o~r sduls, that is, self-love and pridemin a word, the absence of worldliness, which implies a most subtle blending o.f pride and sensuality. ~ The communication of this divine lif~ to men is not a blind, necessary process. Christ does not force His life upon men. If men are to receive the life that ~lesus Christ came into the world .to give, they must freely respond to the, life-call. And here it is that we must look for the part played by the religious in post~war reconstruction. ~lust as iron-filings .far removed from the central .mag-net get magnetic'power only t~rough the intervening par- , ticles of iron which are closer to the magnet, so, too, in the ordinary,ways of God with men, the divine life, sanctifying grace, is given to men through the aid of other human January, 1946 MAGNETIC .POWER OF' CHRIST beings. ¯ This does not~mean that'men actually, give grace to others. But it doesmean that, ordinarily, the interior soul;life', divine grace, is given largely in'dependence upon external graces-offered directly through a fellow human being. How does this take place? In exa~t proportion as you keep close to 3esus Christ, your Source, will you get power~ and~ life. You know that worldliness is the, only real obstacle that can keep the divine life f~m flooding the inmo'st parts of. your soul. You know that,,by destroying self-love, by loving Chris~, by being, ambitious df the last place .in your Community to be in the first place i~ear~st Christ--you know that 'it is thus that y.ou Open the flood-gates for the rush of the divine life that is surging agalnst your soul. Add a real spirit of praye~ and what results? ~ Simply this: life floods.your souL. t~ut not to remain damm.ed up there.- No, like a riv~er in springtime," this life will overflow and flood all around you. Fill~d with ~this diyine life, you will benign to renew the face 'of the earth. You will bring one~essary external graces to a world hun-gering for divine life. Certainiy~, as even the unbeliever, George Bernhrd Shaw, maintained, the most powerful force in the world is personal example. And when this personal .example is the .overflo.w from intense love "of God, what must not its force be! Your own transformed life will bring to others, however faintly, the Very beauty of'Christ's own life, And there is-noth!ng that so wins.even the heart of the most hardened sinner as seeing Christ reflected .in a fellow human being of flesh and blood. The religious does not lead an in~sulated life, like a moth in a cocoon. If one rfiay Use a homely expbession, the ~reli-gious does not ride to heaven in an enclosed compartment. NO, he ride~ the coaches; and they aie crowded with fellow travelers hungeriiag for the life which you can give them. MALACHI J. E)ONiqEI~L~! ReoieW fo~ Reli0iou,~ TO "each person with whom you comeAn contact an infl'u.- - ence'goes forth from'y0u. And the real wortlawhileness o'f tha~.:infltience~, its spiritual value, is p~oportined to "your nearness to Christ." " 7~g.ain, it is well to remember that our workois the york of~Christ operating through us., We are really instruments in His hands. And, we all know that ~he effect produced by an instrument depends not .only 'on the dignit~y of the one ,using the instrument. " In order-to write well. the pen mus,t baste a good point, the ink mu~st notbe muddy. : Otherwise scratching and blottingappear. :'In similar mannevChrist ~ will not work ~ffectively th.rough the religious, if he as a f011o.wer of Christ does not condition and prepare himself to bi~ a good instrument in the hands of Christl Many there are, perhal3s. Who, in the eternM designs ~f God' will" ~r~directly owe their salvation' to you i*nd to you alon~. If you'rende.r yourselffit ?orpassing on the divine .life' in your own soul to others, then yo.u w~ll really save-souls. " : Surely, then, it is true that the-religious close to Christ will do much ~in the post-war reconstruction. Fbr brick ahd ste.el, bombs arid ta'nks are not what this world needs ~to insure a lasting peace.- What the world needs is a spiritual catharsis, a'complete soul-purging. And only the gra~e ~f " God can do this. That is the one and only all-out essential for mankind. And the one who can best.secure and apply this specific, this healer of the wounds of the world, is the fervent religious. Through the Christ,loving r~ligi6us. through the religious in close contact with Our Lo'rd, the" Christ-lif~ goes out to men. " In the classroom, the pupils will ,see in thkir instructor not just a human teacher, but rather one who,reflects Christ. And not only will the power of the religious teacher be increased, but the students will be impelled to seek after the- 38" January, 1946 MAGNETIC POWER OF CHRIST source bf the beautiful power that shines forth from their instructor. ' ° ~ In the hospital, the patients,~ Staff"members, arid ififei~nS, ~he o.r~lerlies,, the kitch~en help, and the janitors all will See in the religious, ' not .just a nurse, but a mirror ofChrist Who healed bodies ithat men might¯ v~ith this renewed healthalso get new life for their souls. Everywhere, then, in orphanages, in homes¯ for the a~ged7 eveffin the hidden life of¯the kitchen,-~his Christ-life must be.found pulsatirig in the soul of the religious. And from the religious this life must go forth to the world.For this Christ-life alone can renew the face of the. world, alone can effect a lasting reconstruction and a lasting peace among men. BOOKLET.NOTICES FIELD AFAR PRESS, 121 East 39th Street, New York, N. Y. Mar~.tknoll Mission Letters. Volume II, 1945. 50 cents. This ~dition of .the .Mission Letters¯ includes the-Mgryknoli Superior General's_ report on his recent visitation of the missions in China, a letter describing the . life and work of Father Rauschenbach. and the eulogy preached at the funeral Mass for Father Cummings---originator of "There are no atheists in fox-holes." Besides there are the usual interesting and informative letters from Maryknollers in China, the Philippines, and Ceniral and South America. THE NEWMAN BOOKSHOP, Westminster, Maryland. The Catholic Doctor and Catholics on the Police Force. both by Francis J. Con-nell, C.S.S.R. (Brief ~xplanations of the-moral obligations of doctors and policemen respectively). 15 cents each. GRAYMOOR PRESS, Peekskill, New York, Tale o: a Troubador. by Samuel Cummings, S.A. (A brief life of St. Francis of Assisi'). I0 cents. MONASTERY OF THE PRECIOUS BLOOD, 54thStreet and Fort Hamilton Parkway, Brooklyn 19, New York. Fighting Our Spiritual Enemies, 10 cents; O~w Warfare on the Spiritual Front, 5 cents. Both by a Sister of the Pre.cious, Blood. (The first of these booklets is intended for religious only; the second for lay people). " , THE CAMPION PRESS. 1184 Phillips Place, Montreal, Canada. Rosaries [or Russia: Little Meditations on the Rosary, by Magnus Seng. I 0 cents. "'PROSVITA-ENLIGHTENMENT'.' 61 I- Sinclair Street. McKeesport, Penna., and "AMER. RUSSKY VIESTNIK" Greek Catholic Union Bldg., Munhall, Penna. The Major Holy-Days (Greek Rite.). by the Reverend 3ulifis Gi-igaisy, D.D., and the Reverend Stephen Loya. N6price given. ¯ ommun ¢a!: ons - [NOTE: With regard'to communications published, the only" r~sponsibility ¯assumed by the editors, is to see that the letters contain nothing contrary to the approved teaching of the Church in matters of faith and morals. The opinions expressed in the communications should be judged on their own merits.] Reverend Fathers: You said you would welcome communications describing obstacles encountered in working for interracial justice. I want to outline a situation that constitutes such an obstacle. There is a Catholic high scho~l for. girls (one only) iffa.certain city: .t.he city's population is one-fifth Negro and one-half or more ~Catholic. ¯ The Sisters of this school are eager to do all they can to~ bring the blessings of higher Catholic education to the colored as well as the white ~girls of high school age. They long for converts among the colored, among whom the Church is little known. What can they do? Prejudice runs high ¯ in this town. But the nuns are not afraid of prejudice. They tell themselves, at least, that thdy would rather be lynched, with the col-ored than lynch with the white. They say, "We would,ripen our - halls to colore~l girls this afternoon, and remove .the lie which our doctrine of the Mystical Body of Christ, taught but not practiced. m~kes us live. But we have not the auth6rity of the clergy behind us." These Sisters talk racial justice in season and out Of season. They "teach a unit on it to every religion student. They write articles, give and have students give speeches, hold interracial panels, and urge girls, to take part in interracial retreats. And then they realize, in a cold sweat, that they are teacbihg their students that, as a matter of fact. o the local clergy are not bei.ng true to their pastorates. For it is known that the priests consider these .Sisters imprudent, not to say misled. And when the schedule o'f sermons calls for a sermon on brdtherly love. every pastor in the city talks about hating Japanese, of whom there are none in the city. or Germans, whom. they do not hate: but no pastor so much as mentions the Negroes-living just three or four blocki away in a shantied Africa that is largely the direct[ result of white oppr.ession, mistrust, and. in many cases, white hatred. Who would say that these Sisters are not, though with the best of intentions, forced either to deny the doctrine of the Mystical Body in practice by refusing Catholic secondary education to a portion of 40 'COMMUNICATIONS the Catholic population because of color; or, on the dther hand~ to prepare the way for the rending of tl~at same Mystical Body by teaching doctrines their students do not see upheld by.the ecclesiastical ~uthorities? Now everybody knows that many a Catholic diocese is not up a~ainst such.a prgblem as this. In many places the ecclesiastical supe-riors are backing fully and with Christ-like zeal the work of zealous lovers of racial jus~tice. But it is not done everywhere; and the tragic urievenness of the thing hu~ts. I suggest that your readers pray earnestly that the spiritual authorities will back us urffforrnl~t ,and ev, eryu)here so that the souls of our Negro brethren may not go on-languishing because loyalty to ecclesiastical authority keeps us from acting fully and with all our resources in their favor. " Sister Reverend Fathers: Father Coogan is right (REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, ,November 15, 1945): "Hopes for a racially,~better day lie largely with religious, especially teachers." To. begin liquidating these l~opes many religious can within obedience use their.ingenuity about fostering the Christian attitude, They find opportunities, many or f~wer according to local circumstances, of influencifi'g their students. They can always give good example. They can a.t.the fight, moment encourage and direct classroom discussions: they can at time~s inspire their students through direct instruction and exhortation. ~ " The students are ge.nerally far ahead of their eiders, both parents and teachers, on matters interracial. "School strikes just don't hap-pen, unless the youngsters themselves are certain of being supported by parents, and even by teachers and pastors. ,.lanie and 2ohnny stand in no "picket lines once they hear an unmistakable order from home to '.'Get back into that school building!" The kids will squeal t~ the crooning of a generous, well-intentioned Sinatra; but a,snappy. rebuke from Dad packs more authority than an old-fashioned truant o~_cer. . ~ We were carrying on a discussion in my sophgmore class about the advisability of admitting Negroes to theschool, a private, academy for boys in a large Mid-Western city. Two or threeloud voices were" adamant, but the group all in all was very' favorable. -The discus, sion, however, was brought to a premature end by this p-olitely . 41 COMMUNICATIONS intoned comment: "If we're real Catholics, Father, we have to !~ C61ored boys into the school, The fellowss~em to agree on that. So it's.up'to the school authorities to talk'about it and do something." Since then two Negroes have been admitted and are-doing well. So is the school. Many authorities are in a position, to do mort by way of effective planning f6r Negro students. Those institutions which do havea "token attendance"i could'in many cases go a ~tep further by positively encouraging well qualified Colored youth--inviting them to scholar-ship competitions, personally canvassing their 'families, contacting Catholic pastors in Negro neighborhoods, etc. Elizabeth Adams has a poignant observation "in h~r autobio-graphical Darh Sgmphong: "Think of the number of Religious wh~) pray dail)~ to suffer--to share humiliations like those endured by. the Christ ;~ yet, if accepting a Colored child in a school or boarding home would mean financial loss to their institution, they would deny that child admittance." Truth is, Catholic schools have suffered not the siightest l~ermanent loss by accepting Negroes. Richa.r.d A. Schuchekt, S.J. West Baden, Indiana. CONCERNING COMMUNICATIONS We always welcome letters from our readers and are: eager to publish such as may prove helpful to others. However, to facilitate our work and to avoid confusion, we request that correspondents observe the following suggestions: 1. If you want your letter published, address .the envelope to: Communications Department Review for Rel;g|oui St. btary's College St. Maws, Kansas 2. If at all possible, type the letter, double-spaced. . 3. Make the letter as brief as you°reasonably can, without however sacrificing ideas for the sake of brevity,t 4.~ Sign ~rour name and ad~lres~, at the end of the letter~. If, however, you do not wiih your name and address published, add a postscript to that effect, In the past we have published some letters that were not signed, and we may do so again in the future. -However, we cannot guarantee that unsigned letters will receive the same consideration as those that are signed.--THE EDITORS. 42 The Virtue of IEquit y LouisJ. Puhl, S.J. 4~AUL, having passed through the upper country, came to Ephesus and found certain disciples; to whom be said, 'Did ye receive the Holy Spirit when ye believed?' But they answered, 'Nay, we have n0.t even heard whether there be a Holy Spirit.' " (Acts 19' 1-2.) If an examination were conducted on the virtue of equ!ty, it is safe to say that .many answers would much resemble that Of the Ephesian disciples of St. Paul. Yet St. Thomas,°in his treatment of justice in the Summa (II- _ti, q. 120, a. 1), not.only defends itsplace among the vir:. ~ues but calls it a :'superior rule of human action,'; the noblest species of justice. Equity, according, to St. Thomas, rises above the dead .letter of the law,. that killeth, and-seeks to be guided by the spirit of tl~e law. by the intention of the lawgiver. It is impossib!~ for the limited human mind so to word a law or command that it will cover every set of circumstances that may arise. The lawgiver, as St. Thomas points, out, has in mind that which happens in the majority of cases and cannot foresee the almost infinite variety of circum: stances that may at times make it impossib, le to observe the 1citer of the law. (Summa, II-II,q. 120, a. 1.) An illus'tration from obedience wil! make the-matter clear. No one could be considered obedient who by. observing the letter of the law thereby, defeats the very put.- pose and intention of the superior. St. Thomas gives a few s!mp!e and striking examples of the application of equity to the natural law. If a madman Should demand the return of a:sword he bad deposited with us, we would be bound to 43 Louis J. PUHL Reoietu for R~ligious refuse to return it. in order to protect, .the lives of others. Sho~Id~someonedemand the return of a sum of mon.ey he had ~intrusted to us, the common good would oblige us to refuse if he intended to use it to fight against his country.~ Moralists and canonists are familiar with this matter. underanother name. They commonly retain the.Gfei~k word of Aristotle, epicheia. However, they are so busy with the exceedingly complicated and ever-recurring cases. of commutative justice and taw that they do ngt.look upon. it from.the point ~of view of the virtue, as St. Thomas does~ but rather from the angle of legitimate interpretation Or exception to the law. ¯. This question has a far greater bearing on the daily lives of religious .than may at first be appa_refit. Superiors often have the duty to judge of the application of certain. laws of the. Church to tl'ieir, subjects. They should, kn~w the recognized "excusing causes" from these obligations so i:hat neither they nor'their subjects will have to bear bur-dens theywere never intended to.carry. Also they should know the legitimate exceptions to their constitutions and;. according to circumstances, should "temper these and the-- prescriptions of rule and the Orders .of:higher. superiors." - If they have no concept of duty other than the literal observance of the law, actual injustice may be done in indi-vidual circumstances and the whole purpose of the law may be defeated. They must understand that conditions ~an arise in which it is eviderit to any prudent person ~hat the lawgiver never intended the lav~ to bind. In such. gases, both the cbmmon good and justice to the individual demand that they consider the spirit Of the law and the intention of the lawgiver. Canon Sheehan wrote a beatitiful novel, "The Blindness Of Dr. Gray. Throughout the story, "It is the law," w~s the final decision of the deluded doctor, on all points. 44 danuar~l, 194~ TH, E VIRTUE OF EQUITY C_harity ~nd justice had to yield to this inexorable maxim. The blindness that affected Dr. Gray is not sd uncommon. A misguided zeal for the rule and the constitutions may _ lea~d to flagrant ifijustice against individuals. The comm6n : gobd, too, which is the ultimate, purpose of the law, may then be wholly disregarded. Even individuals may be called upon to exercise the virtue of equity. We cannot always consult, and circum-stances arise that demand immediate action. To follow the letter of the law without regard to circumstances'might do grave damage--might in fact, ac.tually reverse the intention of superiors. In such cases we should observe th~ spirit of the law and make exception to. the letter. St. Thomas quotes an old legal maxim which~states: o. "There is no doubt that he sins against the law .who embraces the letter of the law, and acts. against the willcof .the prince." (Summa, II-II, q. 120, a. 1, ad. 1.) A still greater violation of law arises at times when there is question of what are rather loosely ~alled"customs.': "It is our custom" is the maxim for se~ttling all cases, even to the extent of secretly setting aside the law of the Church and the higher laws of. natural justice and charit.y. The Code itself make~ it clear that, except for cases allowed by. the Church, nb custom can be established against the gen; eral law. The Code speaks of customs in the ;trict sense; what it saysholds with even greater force regarding those things which are customs only in the wide sense.° And the Code does not have to prescribe that.customs cannot be enforced contrary to the divi'ne laws of justice and charity. This expression, "It is our custom," is occasionally used by . both supe.riors and subjects in ways that show a misguided, " if well-meant, Zeal. Superiors sometimes use it to hinder the accomplishment of a greater good; and inferiors use it to criticize certain exceptions made by Christlike superiors. 45 LOUIS J.,,PUHL ~ Review [or Religious I~ is evident that what, is apparently the highest justice may be the gravest injustice: Summum [us, summa iniuria. Our Lord's severe.condemnation of formalism and Phari,~ saism should be earnestly pondered by all who ire' too quick to quote: "It is the law," or, "Iris our custom." In this connection the whole twenty-third chapter of the Gos-. pel accord.ing to St. Matthev~ may be meditated upon with great, profit. Fortunately, we may tak~ it for granted that there are no willfully hypocritical persons such as Our :Lord was dealing with there, but misju.dgments under the' appearanc.e o.f~good may do very great harin to others. In literal truth, those who seriously violate equity "bind. together heavy and oi~pressive burdefls and place them upon. ¯ theshoulders of others, but not with one finger of their own do they choose to move them" (Matthew 23:4.) They neglect "the .weightier ,things of the Law-~. justice and mercy and faith" (Matthew '23:23). They clean ,the out- ~ ,~ide of the cup by apparent legality and zeal for Order and yet serve injustice within the cup. "This is. really straining 9ut the.gnat but swallowing the camel. (cf. Matthew 23:24). It is no wonder that St. Thomas had the highest praise f6r equity. Without it there can be no true justice. It is a virtue c!osely akin to charity, the life and soul of all the vir-tues. It is full of Christian wisdom and prudence, full Of the spirit of Him who was meek and humble of heart, who did not break the bruised reed or quench the smokiflg flax. It looks beyond the dead letter"of the law and the lifeless :formalism of legality. It respects the dignity of man and the~purpose of the law, the good of man, which'ultimately finds its origin in the Infinite Good itself. Often both superi61s and inferiors should recall that riot all are of equal calibre, physically, intellectua.lly, ,spiritually; that they must' apply and interpret laws.and. ,lanuaryo 1946 " THE VIRTUE OF EQUITY ctistoms in the light of ;circumstances in order to practice justice; in fine, that the Virtue of equity, has an important place in our lives. Not all have the bodily strength to endure the same amount of labor or to do th.e same kind of work. Those in authority would be unjust to demand it, and our com-panions are bound not to expect it. Not all can be treated in exactly the same way under the plea of conformity to law and custom. The delicate health of one.demands more attention than others. The material needs of one in clothing and food are not .the sameas those of another.~ We must love poverty and conformity to common life, but neither of these suffers when individual .needs require more for o'neperson than for another. To follow custom or rule blindly when supplying material wants in clothing and conveniences can. result in this anomaly: .that some have far more than they need (and thereby poverty is not observed), while'others are deprived of what is necessary or convenient (and thus the obligation l~he superior assumes when the subject vows poverty into his hands is being neglected). God has not made us all alike. Superior and subjects alike must accept the will of providence and make allovc'ance for all as God has made them; or they ~in against equity. Intellectually not all are fitted for every position. God has not;given equal talent to all. To ask one to undertake a task beyond his ability under the pretext of treating all alike, is to.oppress the weak and do damage to the common~ good. Not all can have the same opportunities for intel-lectual impro~cement.~ Some are not fitted by nature and it would be vain to try to force them or for them to exigec.t it. Circumstances prevent other~ from obtaining the privi-lege. Equity demands that both those who rule and those who are ruled face ~cts, not with a rigid law and 'custom but with intelligence and the kindness of Christ. It would 47 I~0UIS J. PUHL - Review for Religious be futile to appeal to a custorri of seniority a.s giving the. right to be head of,a department, if thereby either the com-mon good or the individual be made to suffer: Equity 'is a~ virtue far above our rank in the community or the laws of sdniori~:y. - ¯ "' Spiritually not all have the:;same gifts .and advance-ment; hence, here again, subjects.and Superiors must make allowance for conditigns in applying law and customs. It would be foolish to ex~ pect the solidity of virtue in a novice that one might readily expect in a mature religious. Neither can we expect ~ev~ry novice to manifest the s~lme spiritual stature nor under the plea of uniform training indiscrimi; nately apply tests in the s~ime manner and with the same severity to all. God has not given the same grac.es t6 all, ,nor have all cooperated equally well in the past? All have not the same character and.the same difficultie's to overcome. There are times, too, when souls may find a tiial very diffi-cult, which-under normal circumstances they could bear very well; and equity talls for a wiseunderstanding of such critical' situationS. We know what happens in education when 'children are given matter beyond their years and are expected to ~pass tests not suited.to their age. The same can happen iri. the spiritual life. There are works, too, which are fraught with spiritual dangers for one but not for, another. It would be unjust to expose one tO danger under the plea of treating all alike. ~Subjects.and officials are bound to recognize these circumstances which demand interpret~ition.of law and custom if'equity is tO l~e observed. ~ Epicheia, the time-honored term for ~quity, that h;is come down to :us from the wisdom of Greece, expresses well the spirit of this virtue; and its full meaning has been taken over in Christian .practice. It. signifies something that is over and above What is strictly in accordance with law, ~6methifig su~eradded:, to mere legal justice. It signifies J~nuary, 1946 ,THE VIRTUE OF: EQUITY clemency, mer~y, reasonableness. A1Lthese meanings show how necessary this virtue is for one claiming to walk in the spirit of Christ. If we have put on Christ, we must l~ave the kindness and mercy of Christ. We must "put off the works of darkness,-, and put on the armor of light'.~ (Romans 13:12). In truth when our justice is guided by equity, we have put on the armor of light, illumined, by faith and vivified by charity. Books Received (From October 20 to December THE NEWMAN BOOK SHOP, Westminster, Maryland. Sermon Outlines for the Sundays and Holy Days of the Year. By William R. O'Connor. $2.25. Holiness for All. By .His ExcellenCy Norbert Roblchaud. 75 cents (Paper). THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, Milwaukee. World Christianitg. By John J. Considine, M.M. ~ $1.00. The Divine Pur- ~uit. By RaChel Maria. $1.75. The Priest of the Fathers. By Edward L. Heston, C.S.C. $2.50. Going His Way: Little Talks to Little Folks. By Rev. Gerald T. Brennan. $1.75. The Man Who Built the Secret Door. Sister Mary Charitas, S.S.N.D. $1.50. B. HERDER BOOK COMPANY, St. Louis. Pascal and His Sister dacquellne. By M. V. Woodgate. $~.00. The State in Catholic Thought. By HeinriCh A. Rommen. $6.00. SHEED ~ WARD, New York. The Flowering'Tree. -By Caryll Houselander. $2.00. dobn Henry Newman. By John Moody. $3.75¯ The Catholic Centre¯ By Edward Ingrain Wat-kin. $3.00. The Splendor of the Rosary.~ By Maisie Ward¯ $2.50. FREDERICK PUSTET COMPANY, New York and Cincinnati. A Tryst with the Holy Trinity. By the Very Rev. Frederick T. Hoeger, C.S,Sp. .$2.50. CREATIVE AGE'pRESS, New York. Chungking Listening Post. By Mark Tennien. $2.50. LA LIBRAIRIE EUCHARISTIQUE, Montreal. La Piete Eucharistique. By J. F. Berube. (No price given.) CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PRESS, Washington. The Doctrine of S'r. Augustine on Sanctity. By Edward J. Carney, O~S.F.S. (No price given). - THE MARYKNOLL BOOKSHELF, l~Iaryknoll, New York. How the People of Africa Live. By Sister Miriam Claire. $1.00. LO~IC~IAN8, GREEN ~ COMPANY, New York and Toronto. Sptrttual Problems of Our Times. By Luigi Sturzo. $2.00. ¯ 49 May Religious Buy and Sell? Adam C[ Ellis, S.d. .~S A BO,Y,. Christ Our Lord learned the carpenter's~ trade from St. ,loseph; arid after the latter's d~ath, He supported Himself and Our Blessed Lady by His' l~ibo'rs at the carpenter's bench.We can infer this from the testimony of His fellow townsmen. On one of His rare visits to Nazareth, Christ went to tl~e synagogue on the Sabbath and began to'teach. '!And many.hearing Him .were in admiration of his doctrine saying: 'How came this man by all these things? and what wisdom is thisthat is given to him, and such mighty works are wrought by his hands? Is r~ot this the carpenter, the son ot: Mary?" (Mark 6:2, 3). The great Apostle of the Gentiles, St. Paul, imi-tated his Master and supported himself by manual labo_.r. He tells us: "We are homeless and we toil, workirig v)ith our own hands" (I Corinthians, 4: 12)~. And St. Luke informs us that "These two [Aquila and Priscilla] Paul visited and because he was of the same trade he abode with -them, and thus they worked; for by trade they were tent-makers" "(Acts 18:3). Inlthe early centuries'of the Chui:ch clerics and religious supported themselves by manual labor, applying themselves to trades of various kinds. The Church, therefore, has always held manual labor in high honor and has never considered it ber;eath the dign!ty of the~clericai or the religious s.tate, but rather recommended it as a worthy means of support for both clerics and tell: gious_. . From the very beginning, however, some of the clergy -found an easier way of supporting t.hemselves--by engag-ing in gainful trading. In itself, there is nothing wrong with gainful trading provided the price asked for the c0m- 50 MAY RELIGIOUS BUY AND SELL? modity traded or sold is not exorbitant. But the' exercise of gainful trading was beset with'm~iny dangerous practices and easily led to distractions from and neglect of the duties connected with the clerical and religious state. Hence are not surprised to find St. Paul warning Timothy: "No man being a soldier to God entangleth himself in secular business" (II Timothy 2:4). This warning 6f St. Paul became the watchword of the Church in .its legislation for-bidding clerics and r~ligious to engage in gainful trading. -For experience has proved that such occupation not only distracts and leads to a neglect of duty, but exposes clerics and religious to the dangerous spirit of cupidity and avarice with their consequent vices--fraud, perjury, injustke, and so forth. Besides from the practice of gainful trading there arises the danger of involving clerics and religious in civil lawsuits. All these possible dangers may r.esult in a serious diminution of the esteem of the faithful for the clerical and ~religious state and for the sacred.ministry. Hence the, need of a ~lear.understanding of the Church's law with regard to gainful trading as it applies, to religious.' PART I: THE LAW AND ITS MEANING In this matter there are~no special prescriptions that apply exclusively to religious, but canon 592 tells us that "all religious are bound to the common obligations of clerics listed in canons 124-142." The last of these canons, No~ 142, forbids clerics to engage in gainful trading. It reads as follows: "Clerics are forbidden to engage in lucrative industrial (negofiafio) or commercial (merccl~ura) trading, either personally or through others, either for their own advantage or for fhaf of others." Just what is fbrbidden by this cano_n? When are reli-gious and clerics said to be engaged in lucrative trading con- ~ trary to the law of the Church? No act of buying or selling comes unde~ the prohibition ADAM C. ELLIS Repiea~ for Religious against gainful 'trading, unless it contains ~four etem~nts simultaneousl~t.: (1) the object must be bought, (2) with tl'ie intention of reselling it, (3)unchanged or.changed, by hired help~ (4) at a higher price than Was paid for it. Let uk examine each of these four elements in detail. I. "'The object must be bought" .- It is not the property of the religious or cleric to begin with, hence he must acquire it in exchange for money or for some other commodity. Religious do. not violate -the law therefore when they sell the pro'dutts of their fields-- grain, fruits, vegetables. .They may likewise sell., wool~ hides, eggs, but~er, and milk produced by their herds and flocks, as well as calves, lambs, chickens, pigs, and other animals provided these are the natural produci of things ¯ already possessed. LikewiSe articles° received as gifts may ~ be sold, even at a great profit, since they were not purchased by the religious. 2. "'With the intention of reselling it'" ~ The reiigious who bu.ys an object or rawmaterials must intend, u2hen he bd~js them, to resell them later on. If this intention is not present at the time of purchase, then-his transaction does not come under the-prohibition of our_ canon. The religious who purchases a supply ofcommodi-" ~ ties for the use of his community does not intend to sell them. It may happen, however, that in the course of time some of the supplies are in danger of spoiling; or he may find that he has. purchased more than the community-needs. In either ca~e he may sell these supplies, even at a higher price than that he paid for them, because when he bought them he did not do so with the intention of r_eselling them. For the same reaso~ one may sell objects which have lost their usefulness fdr the com.rnunity,"such as furniture, raw materials, books, and other t.hings; and one may take a 52 MAY RELIGIOUS BUY AND SE~'.L~ _profit on them. It is. also allowed to invest the com- "munity funds in real estate, to buy ahouse or a-farm, and then to rent or lease it, thus assuring the community a source of regular .income. To rent or lease property which the commu.nity owns is ~not the same as selling it. This_ is merely an act of prudent administration required by canon 1523., 3 a. "'Unchanged" When an object is bought with the intention of s~lling it unchanged at a higher price, we have the most specific case of that strictly commercial trading which is positively forbidden to clerics and religious. This is never alloWed,. even tl~ough the objects bought are of a religious nature, such as rosaries, crucifixes, and prayer books. Nor may re!ig!ou~s buy real estate with the.intention of~selling it uhimproved as soon as an opportunity arises to sell it at'a higher price. Under this heading one is also forbidden to rent or teas~ property from the owner for the purpose of. immediat.ely subletting it to another party ata h.igher rental, for such a transaction is the equivalent of buying something with the intention of selling it unchanged at a higher price. ~ 3 b. "'Or changed b~t hired help'" We saw above that the Church has always held manual labor in high esteem; and spiritual leaders have ever encour-aged religiousto" employ themselves with such labor ih order to provide for their temporal needs, to avoid idleness.¯ and to make it possible for them to assist the poor and the needy. Furthermore, the Church has always allowed reli-gious to purchase materials in order to change them by their own labor and then to sell such objects at. a profit. Thus the monks of-the,desert supported themselves by wea~ing baskets, making fish nets, and the like. In the Middle Ages 53 AD!kM C~ ELI~IS / o ~ Ret~ieto /or Religious monasteries of both men.ahd ~vomen.frequently supported themselves by manual labor; the monks by cultivating their fields and caring for their herds, and then selling the prod-ucts of field and herd; or .by transforming these products into cheese, butter, wine, bread, or even by distilling.liqueurs such as the famous Chartreuse and benedictine. The nuns were famous for their fancy needle work and for their artistic production of illuminated manuscripts and books, This buying of materials and changing them by the labor of one's own hands may take many forms: grapes" may be bought, and made into Wine; silks and fine materials may be purchased and turned into precious vestments, or ¯ trousseaux. As long ~s the change is brought about by the " labor of the religious themselves, there is no ¥iolatioh of the law forbidding gaiffful trading. But the case is different when materials Which hav~ been rpeulrigchioausse dth.aerme sweolvrekse.d W orh ecnh apnagiedd l abyb ofrii irse tdts feide ltpo, cnfoiat ~b,yg teh"e. materials wfiicfi l~aoe beer~ bo~t~Tbt with a view to their sale at a profit in thei'r changed state, we have an operation which is equivalent to strictly comme~:cial trading since the religious are buying both the materials and the labor involved in making the change. This has b~en the Constant opinion of canonists; an opinion which has been upheld by many decisio.ns of the Holy See. Here are some practical examples of what is forbidden under this head: religious ma.y not buy grapes and hire 6ut-side help to mak~ them into wine; nor may they buy wool, cloth, leather, or other mate.rials, and engag.e hired help to make them into clothing, shoes, and the like with the intention of selling such products at a profit. They may not buy cattle to be pastured on rented land by fiired hell~, to be sold later at~the market price; nor may they rent land to be cultivated by fiired labor and then sell the crops at a JanuarF; 1946 MAY RI~LIGIOUS BUY AND SELLi~ profit. It is not forbidden, however, to. rent land needed to graze a herd which is owned by the religious; nor to buy cattle which will consume the surplus pasturage of land owfied by the religious. In both cases the cattle may be sold later at a just.~price. 4. "'At a higher price than was paid for it" " Here we have the final element which is required to con-stitute gainful trading forbidden to clerics and religious. This elemeni constitutes the very essence of gainful trading --the sale for pro~t. This, however, must be understood rightly. One does not necessarily make a. profit even though he sells an article at a higher price than that which. he paid for it. The ,expefises involved in the transporta-tion, storage, and.conservation of goods, the wages paid to hired, help, and any other ,ex15enses incurred are to be con~ sidered as part of the cost. An increase in the sale price because of such expenses does not constitute a real gain and consequently is not forbidden. This. clause in the, law merely forbids the sale of an article at a higher price than its complete cost, and this is true whether the article is sold unchanged or is sold after having been c.hanged by hired hands. Obvidusly then religious may sell articles and ~oods which they have purchased, provided they do so at the cost price (estimated as above explained). If-no profit is made in the transaction, it does not come under the pro-hibition of the law. This seems to be so evident that nothing more need be said about it. Thus far we have considered the four elements which constitute gainful trading forbidden to clerics and religiqus by canon 142. All"four elements must be present simul-taneoust~ t in order that the act of buying and selling come unde~r the prohibition of the law. If ang single one of them ¯ is lacking, the transaction is not forbidden. Let us now consider the remaining clauses of the canon. 55 AD~I C: ELLIS Re'uieW~for, ReHgio,,s "'Either personall~j or thr6~gh others'" Up to the time of Pope°Benedict XIV there were certain canonists and moralists who held that acleric'or.religibus, though forbidden to engage personally_in gainful trading, might do so through, others by entrustifig his money to a" layman to invest in his.obusifiess or trade. Their argument ran that in such a case the religious or cleric would not be burdened with the cares and worries of such trading.~ In practice, however,, such religious and clerics did not cease to worry about the success or failure of the business or trade in which they had invested their money; and,not infrequently" they were tempted to help the good work.along by taking an active, though perhaps a minor, part in it. H~nce they were distracted and hampered in the exercise of their clerical and religious functions. After pointingout that this had really been prohibited by his predecessors, Benedict XIV solemnly forbade clerics and religious to engage .in gainful trading even t/~rough others. Since his time, therefore, it has been prghibited to clerics and religious to be even part owners of any strictly indust.rial or commercial enterprise, though the busihess or industry was conducted entirely by laymen. "For their own advantage or for that of other~'" ¯ This clause was put into the law by Urban VIII and, emphasized .by Clement IX in,the seventeenth century w.hen missionaries began to engage in gainful trading not for their own benefit but for the support of their missions. In individual cas~s of great rieed the Holy-See gave permis-sion for Such trading in favor of mission work; but at the same time the fact was always emphasized that the law for-bade such trading even for the sake of charity towards others. Hence it should be kept in mind that gainful trading may not be carried on.by clerics or religious, no matter how 56- January/, 1946 MAY RELIGIOUS BUY.AND SELL~? worthy the cause may be. to-which the. profits of such trading are devoted. ¯ In concluding this first part it may be well to call atten-tion to the fact that this legislation binds both religious communities as a~ whole and individual religious with~ respect to their personal property. PART II: SOME MODERN PROBLEMS, IN BUYING AND SELLING Hav!ng anaiyzed the notion of what precisely is for-bidden by the law of the Church with. regard to gainful t.rading on the part. of clerics and religious, let us proceed to apply the law to some probl~erns which a~e peculiar~ to our modern e~onomy. Bookstor,es Most bo~irding schoolg and many day schools conducted by religious have a book store in which textbooks, station-ery, and sundries of various kinds are sold to the students. Originally, and in many cases even today, the primary pur-pose of such a store was not to make money, but rather, to serve the needs and the convenience of the st'udents. Fre-quently enough the Catholic textbooks used in schools can-not be purchased elsewhere. Agai'n, for purposes of dis-cipline and training, it is desirable that uniform stationery be used for class exercises, tests, homework, book reports, and the like. If each pupil purchased his stationery atria different store, such uniformity would be impossible. Hence "the need, or at least the convenience, of.~he school bookstore. What is the actual practice .with regard to such. stores? ,Usually books, stationery, and sundries are bought at. wholesale and sold at retail. ~ When this is done, .we have a perfect example of gainful trading forbidden to religious. The.articles arebought with. the intention of selling them unchanged at~.a higher~ price. As we have said above, the 57 ADAM C, .ELL[S ': ~:-~.: "i~:° 7 ;; ~ RevieW=.[o~ Religid£~s primary purpose" of th~ st,ore.is, not t.o.make profit but to meet the needs and" the convenience of the student body. Still, . the , law is violated unless:the elemeiit.of.profit is :eliminated. "Thismay be.done ifi. 5ne.of two ways : :either sell atcost price,., or. give the profits back to the students. Let us consider each method. " " " " ¯ To sell at.cost price has its .drawbacks. In certain cases the firms publishing school, books :~nsist tha~ a minimum rf.tail pr.ice,be charged. Then too, it is difficult at times to determine. [he exa~t cost of .a Sing!e. article. One must take 'into consideration attendant e.xP.enses--!ight, .heat, kental .ofspace occupied by the bo0kstore;.transportati0n chargds, a juit recompense;f0~dlerki, whether:'theybe extefns whb. work for a salary or students who receive fr~e textbooks and stationery for their services.Then there is the item of ,itoss due to deffi:ioration of goods which' become shoi3worn and must ibe sold.at a bargain, as well 'as books" left over which cannot be returnedto the publishe~,or which, if 'traded in, bring'a lower price than that originally paid: All these itemsshould be taken into consideratioh when "the c'o~t price"is put upon books and stationery. , . ¯ ~A far simpler arid more satisfactory solution of the problem may be found by returning the profits to the stu-dents- giving them something to which they are not entitled by reason of their tuition fees. Thus the profits may be used to supply the library with extra books and magazines which normally v~ould not be purchased; to provide extra lectures and performances of both a literary and entertaining character; to give the Students extra recrea- ~.tional facilities:' for example, additional recreation Or lounge rooms, or needed athletic equipment.: In this way the profits are, returned to .th~ students, whose purchases have created them. Thereligious do not ieceive any of thd profits; hence the law of the Chuieh is observed. 58 danuarg, 1946 MAY RELIGIOUS BUY AND SELL? A thirdsolution would be to turn the bookstore.over to the students: cooperative, if there be one in the school., Lunchrooms or Cafeterias ,Here again the motive for conducting these enterprises in a school is not primarily to make money but to promote discipline and to meet theconvenience of the student body. These activities differ from running a book store inasmuch as materials are purchased and changed before being sold at a higher price. If this change is effected by the religious themselves, they may retain any resulting profits. Usually, however, ~such changes as cooking .food, preparation of lunches, making sandwiches, and so forth are effected by hired help, wl~ether by outsiders or by part-time student help, and then the operation comes within the prohibition ~of the Code. Here again the solution of the problem lies~ . either in selling meals and lunches at cost price, which'is difficult to estimate, or in returning the profits to the stu~ dents as suggested above in regard to bookstores. The same . is .to be s~id with regard to profits derived from the sale of. candy,., ice-cream, and other edibles which are sold ¯ unchanged in lunchrooms and cafeterias. Gift Shops in Hospitals and Sanitaria Within recent years gift~ shops have made t.heir appear-ance in hospitals and sanitaria. One purpose of such shops~ is to supply visitors with a convenient opportunity to ~pur-chase a forgotten gift for the patient they are about to visit. No doubt they are also patronized by nurses and patients. .They have all the appea'rances of sale for profit that any other store has; and the pro.fits may not be kept by the reli-gious who conduct the hospitals. The best solution of the prOblem perhaps would be to rent out the concession to a lhy person who would take both the risks and th~ profits in return for a reas.onable.rental charge. If no ~uch person o 59 ADAM C. ELLIS ~ , Reoiew for ReligioUs. "can be found, the profits should be turned back to the pur-chasers ~in ~ome Shape' or form. Since these are, casual visi-" 'tors for the most part, this may be difficult. A certain amount might be used to make the visitors' "waiting rooms .m.ore comfortable; the rest might be devoted to increased :and ~improxied recreational facilities forconvalescent pa-tients. Sale of Religious Articles " Under normal circumstances there is no reason for reli-gious to engage in the sale of rel~gio.us articles. On special. occasions, however, such as parish missions and school 9r alumni retreats, it may be desirable too have .such good.s available for purchase. Usually,, they are obtained from a general supply house at wholesale prices with the p~ivilege of returning what has not been disposed of. Each indi- ¯ vidual article is marked with the retail p, rice. Here again we have a clear case.of buying and selling forbidden by the Church to clerics and religious. The only proper, way to ~onduct such sales is to turn over the entire transaction a ~church or school society, and allow it to keep the ~rofits. Neither clerics nor religious may share in them. Sisters who ~upply the needs of a. First Communion class (veils, wreaths, prayer books, rosaries, and similar objects) should 'sell. them to the c~ildren at cost price. "In country parishes pious Catholics who wish to obtain religious articles frequently ask the priest or the Sisters to procure them. In this case there is no buying at wholesale and selling ~it ret,ail, since there.is question usually of a single article a rosary, a crucifix, a prayer-book. T-he Sisters may purchase such an article from a Catholic supply hbuse and charge the retail price. The small, discount give.n single article may be considered as ~ gift to the religious: as a matter" of fact, it will .scarcely compensate them for carriage charges and'stamps" expended. 60 J~_r~uarg, 1946 ]~tAY RELIGIOUS BUY AND SELL.7 ¯ i . Articles Made in Trade and Industrial SChools " The modern religigus apostolate includes trade schools f6r poor boys and industrialschools for poor girls. In these schools boys are taught a trade, girls are instructed in'needle~ wc;rk and domestic science. Their first efforts will hardly ~.find purchasers; bu~ they learn rapidly, and articles, and goodsmade by them are sold by the institutio~i. Here we seem. tohave a form of industrg--materials are bought and ¯ changed by outside help. IS' it forbidden to sell such goods at a profit? No, it is not. First of all, the principal pur-pose of such schools is to instruct the pupils, to teach them an art Ora trade; and this cannot be done without practical work. It is not the primary intention, therefore, to sell the materials purchased ~nd changed by hired help at a higher price.,. Secondly, the proceeds do not go directly anti,exclu-sively .to the religious in charge,of the school, but are used to provide board and lodging for the pupils and fre-quently to pay the salaries of experienced lay persons-~ who act as instructors. ~rh~tever surplus may be left over should, be shared With the pupils who are entitled to some recompense for their labors. A final consideration which keeps the transaction from coming under the ban of.ga.inful trading is the fact that, at Ieast in a boarding institution, these pup!Is are not, strictly speakihg, hired help; they,may be considered as part of the religious family. . Printing and Publishing Books A religious or cleric is always allowed to print (or have p~inted) and sell at a profit whatever he has, written himself (Holy Office, June.10, 1846). Here he is not buying anything,, but he himself supplies the object which is changed and sold--his own literary composition. B.ut,. a religious is not allow.ed tO buy.books written and published by others and Sell them at a profit. This latter practice is clearly forbidden by the law. 61 ADAM C[ ELLIS '. ' '.: - ,~" ? ' ~. Ret~ieto for Religio~s M~g religious own and operate a prin, ting.pres~?. ( 1 ) If the religious run the press themselves and do all. the work, they may printand still not only books and writings of the m~mbers of their institute, but .also books written bY others who are not members. (2) If the religious merely. own-and direct the press and the' work is done by hired help, they" mayprint all :works w~itten.l~y members of their institute but nothing else unless they.have a special indult from the H61y See: nor may 'they engage in ordinary com-mercial printing. -In this second case,, they. may print reli-gious reviews, magazines, .journals,other. forms of xeligious literature destined for the spread, of the faith, and school ¯ books which cannot be obtained elsewhere--provided that ¯ no profit is made. Of coursea reasonable amount of income may be taken gradually to pay for .installation, "amortiza-tion of debt, .superintendence, and so forth. Rental.6f Space ~or Vending Machines Many institutiong, hospitals' especially, find it very conv
This assessment of the current state of the implementation of the Basel core principles (BCP) for effective banking supervision in Bulgaria has been completed as a stand-alone report on the observance of standards and codes undertaken by the international monetary fund (IMF) and the World Bank during March of 2015 at the request of the Bulgarian authorities. It reflects the regulatory and supervisory framework in place as of the date of the completion of the assessment. The Bulgarian National Bank (BNB) has an internal governance structure which, by vesting the majority of the powers of supervision in the Deputy Governor for banking supervision, exposes the supervisory function to risks. Under the BNB's legal structure, supervision and enforcement is dissociated from the Governing Council, and the Governing Council has no right to compel transparency of decision making or to impose a framework to ensure consistency in the use of the enforcement regime. There are material concerns that the BNB is too resource constrained to deliver effective minimum levels of supervision. Despite a broad range of supervisory powers, there are some gaps in the legal framework that unduly restrict the BNB's locus. The BNB has a good understanding of risk and many strong practices, and also making good use of international standards and guidelines, but there are some important system wide vulnerabilities. The assessment team reviewed the framework of laws, rules, and guidance and held extensive meetings with officials of the BNB, and additional meetings with the Finance Ministry, auditing firms, professional bodies, and banking sector participants. The authorities provided a comprehensive self-assessment of the CPs, as well as detailed responses to additional questionnaires, and facilitated access to supervisory documents and files on a confidential basis as well as staff and systems.
This assessment of the current state of the implementation of the Basel core principles (BCP) for effective banking supervision in Bulgaria has been completed as a stand-alone report on the observance of standards and codes undertaken by the international monetary fund (IMF) and the World Bank during March of 2015 at the request of the Bulgarian authorities. It reflects the regulatory and supervisory framework in place as of the date of the completion of the assessment. The Bulgarian National Bank (BNB) has an internal governance structure which, by vesting the majority of the powers of supervision in the Deputy Governor for banking supervision, exposes the supervisory function to risks. Under the BNB's legal structure, supervision and enforcement is dissociated from the Governing Council, and the Governing Council has no right to compel transparency of decision making or to impose a framework to ensure consistency in the use of the enforcement regime. There are material concerns that the BNB is too resource constrained to deliver effective minimum levels of supervision. Despite a broad range of supervisory powers, there are some gaps in the legal framework that unduly restrict the BNB's locus. The BNB has a good understanding of risk and many strong practices, and also making good use of international standards and guidelines, but there are some important system wide vulnerabilities. The assessment team reviewed the framework of laws, rules, and guidance and held extensive meetings with officials of the BNB, and additional meetings with the Finance Ministry, auditing firms, professional bodies, and banking sector participants. The authorities provided a comprehensive self-assessment of the CPs, as well as detailed responses to additional questionnaires, and facilitated access to supervisory documents and files on a confidential basis as well as staff and systems.
In October 2010, the Government of Madhya Pradesh hosted, with World Bank technical advice, a Conference on higher education reform in the State. The Governor, the Chief Minister and the Minister of Higher Education all addressed the Conference and about 150 people attended the event. Subsequently, four regional Conclaves were organized, in which a total of more than 400 people participated, representing the leadership, administrators, faculty and students at universities and colleges across the State. This represents an impressive outreach to the sector stakeholders. This report is written on the cusp of the publication of the Government of India s 12th Five Year Plan. The indications are that the Government of India intends to push ahead with some significant reforms in the higher education sector. Of particular significance for this report is the emphasis, for the first time, on the need to support the improvement of State universities and colleges. The objective of this report is to provide policy makers in Madhya Pradesh with a menu of options for improving the equity, governance and financing of the higher education system in the State. Though the primary audience is policy makers, this report could serve as part of the continued dialogue with the higher education sector on the direction for reform.
