Suchergebnisse

Chapter 1 evaluates the impact of a policy intervention in Peru aimed at improving access to justice and reducing violence against women. In many developing countries, access to justice remains unequal, especially for women. What are the implications of this inequality for gender-based violence, intra-household bargaining, and investment in children? This paper provides evidence from Peru on all-women's justice centers (WJCs), specialized institutions that mostly employ female officers and provide police and legal services to reduce gender-based violence. Examining the gradual rollout of WJCs across districts/ villages, we find that the opening of a center increases reporting of gender-specific crimes by 40% and reduces the incidence of gender-based violence measured by domestic violence, femicides and hospitalizations due to mental health by about 10%. We find, moreover, that a decrease in the exposure of women to violence has intergenerational effects: WJCs substantially increase human capital investments in children, raising enrollment, attendance, and test scores. These results are consistent with a bargaining model in which women's access to justice determines the threat point. Chapter 2 examines the effect of fertility on labor supply decisions of Albanian parents, with particular attention to the intervening role of childcare provided by grandparents in extended families. In order to address the potential endogeneity in the fertility decision, I exploit Albanian parental preference for having sons combined with the sibling's sex-composition instrument as an exogenous source of variation. Using a repeated cross-section of parents with at least two children, I find a positive and statistically significant effect of fertility on parental labor supply for those parents who are more likely to be younger, less educated or live in extended families. In particular, IV estimates for mothers show that they increase labor supply, especially in terms of hours worked per week and the likelihood of working off-farm. Similarly, father's likelihood of working off-farm and having a second occupation increase as a consequence of further childbearing. The heterogeneity analysis suggests that this positive effect might be the result of two plausible mechanisms: childcare provided by non-parental adults in extended families and greater financial costs of maintaining more children. Chapter 3 analyzes the effect of forced displacement on adult's labor market outcomes and children's schooling in the context of the post-war Kosovo. This chapter uses the 1998-1999 Kosovo war and the following massive displacement of people as a natural experiment in order to estimate the impact of conflict displacement on Kosovars that left and decided to come back relative to those who stayed in the province. I exploit the interaction of the spatial variation in conflict intensity -as measured by casualties and bombings- and distance to the Albanian border as a source of exogenous variation in the displacement status. Results indicate that displaced Kosovar men are less likely to be employed in the agricultural sector and to work on their own account, while displaced Kosovar women are more likely to be inactive. Loss of assets (e.g. land, livestock) in an agrarian skill-based economy and also loss of social networks in an informal labor market might have further decreased the probability to find employment relative to stayers. However, shortly after the return home, the results also indicate that displaced Kosovar men and women are more likely to be working off-farm, especially in the construction and public administration sectors, which indicates a relatively quick recovery. In addition, displaced Kosovar girls are more likely to be enrolled in primary school, but I find no effect on education for boys. The refugee camp experience might have provided better conditions to young Kosovar girls compared to the precarious pre-war "parallel" education system. ; Le chapitre 1 évalue l'impact d'une politique publique au Pérou visant à améliorer l'accès à la justice et à réduire la violence contre les femmes. Ce chapitre utilise des données sur les centres de justice pour femmes (CJF) au Pérou, des institutions spécialisées qui emploient principalement des femmes et fournissent des services de police et des services juridiques pour réduire la violence fondée sur le genre. En examinant le déploiement progressif des CJF dans les districts, nous constatons que l'ouverture d'un centre augmente de 40 % le nombre de signalements de crimes spécifiques au genre et réduit d'environ 10 % l'incidence de la violence fondée sur le genre, mesurée par la violence domestique, les féminicides et les hospitalisations pour cause de santé mentale. Nous constatons en outre qu'une diminution de l'exposition des femmes à la violence domestique a des effets intergénérationnels : les CJF augmentent considérablement les investissements en capital humain pour les enfants, ce qui augmente la scolarisation, la présence scolaire et les résultats aux examens. Le chapitre 2 examine l'effet de la fécondité sur les décisions des parents albanais en matière d'offre de travail. Afin d'aborder la question de l'endogénéité potentielle de la décision de fécondité, j'exploite la préférence des parents albanais pour avoir des garçons combinés avec l'instrument de composition du genre des frères et sœurs comme source exogène de variation. En utilisant un échantillon représentatif de parents ayant au moins deux enfants, je constate un effet positif et significatif de la fécondité sur l'offre de travail pour les parents plus jeunes, moins scolarisés ou vivant dans une famille élargie. Les estimations pour les mères montrent qu'elles augmentent l'offre de travail en termes d'heures travaillées et de probabilité de travailler hors secteur rural. De même, la probabilité pour le père de travailler hors secteur rural et d'avoir un deuxième emploi augmente à la suite d'autres naissances. L'analyse de l'hétérogénéité suggère deux mécanismes plausibles : les services de garde offerts par des adultes non-parentaux (grands-parents) dans les familles élargies et les coûts financiers plus élevés liés au maintien d'un plus grand nombre d'enfants. Le chapitre 3 analyse l'effet du déplacement forcé de populations sur l'offre de travail des adultes et la scolarisation des enfants dans le contexte de l'après-guerre au Kosovo. Ce chapitre utilise la guerre du Kosovo de 1998-1999 et les déplacements massifs de population comme une expérimentation naturelle afin d'estimer l'impact du déplacement forcé dû au conflit sur les Kosovars qui sont partis et qui ont décidé de revenir par rapport à ceux qui sont restés pendant la guerre. J'exploite l'intéraction de la variation spatiale de l'intensité du conflit - mesurée par le nombre de victimes et de bombardements - et de la distance à la frontière albanaise comme source de variation exogène dans le statut de déplacement. Les résultats indiquent que les hommes kosovars déplacés sont moins susceptibles d'être employés dans le secteur agricole et de travailler pour leur propre compte, tandis que les femmes kosovares déplacées sont plus susceptibles d'être inactives. La perte d'actifs (terres, bétail, etc.) dans une économie agraire fondée sur les compétences et la perte de réseaux sociaux dans un marché du travail informel pourraient avoir réduit davantage la probabilité de trouver un emploi par rapport aux personnes qui sont restées. Toutefois, peu après le retour au pays, les résultats indiquent également que les hommes et les femmes kosovars déplacés sont plus susceptibles de travailler hors secteur rural, en particulier dans les secteurs de la construction et de l'administration publique, ce qui indique une reprise relativement rapide. En outre, les filles kosovares déplacées sont plus susceptibles d'être inscrites à l'école primaire, mais je ne constate aucun effet sur la scolarisation des garçons.

Las quemaduras extensas son probablemente una de las agresiones más severas a las que el hombre está expuesto con ciertas probabilidades de sobrevivir. Numerosos desastres civiles con cientos de víctimas, así como los efectos sobre la población civil y militar de las diferentes guerras a lo largo de este siglo, han estimulado numerosos y detallados estudios sobre el efecto de la agresión térmica en los organismos vivos y la efectividad de las diferentes formas de terapia. El desarrollo de nuevos instrumentos de medida de parámetros químicos y fisiológicos y la reciente aplicación de técnicas tales como la radioactividad, electroforesis, resonancia nuclear magnética, ultrasonidos y tecnología de computadores, entre otras, han ayudado en el estudio del comportamiento de aquellos mecanismos reguladores alterados por la quemadura. En este capítulo se analizan los efectos de la lesión térmica en un organismo vivo, haciendo especial incapié en el comportamiento de la dinámica capilar y en el análisis de los mecanismos de control de la distribución de fluidos corporales tras la quemadura. Posteriormente se describe la clínica del paciente que ha sufrido una agresión térmica, así como los distintos tipos de tratamiento de reanimación actualmente en vigor, analizando las diferencias existentes entre estos. A continuación se analizan las técnicas utilizadas actualmente en el estudio del paciente quemado y sus limitaciones. Por último se realiza una introducción al empleo del modelado matemático y la simulación digital en el estudio de los sistemas biológicos, analizándose los antecedentes en los que este trabajo se fundamenta y sus objetivos. CONCLUSIONES: 1. Este trabajo aporta una nueva visión, desde un punto de vista macroscópico y global, de la fisiopatología del shock del quemado, así como de la influencia de los tratamientos de reanimación. 2. El análisis dinámico de la generación de los datos clínicos observados en los pacientes quemados caracteriza la metodología utilizada. 3. Los modelos matemáticos construidos son una aproximación original al estudio del paciente quemado. 4. Consideramos los mecanismos de control fisiológicos como sistemas complejos multivariables basados en la noción de realimentación o feedback. 5. El modelo matemático CDFQ 1, de dinámica capilar normal, consta de los compartimentos plasmático e intersticial. Los comportamientos fisiológicos obtenidos por simulación validan el modelo. 6. El modelo matemático CDFQ 2 incluye los compartimentos extra e intracelular, e incorpora los mecanismos reguladores de la presión arterial y de la distribución del agua corporal a nivel de todo el organismo. Las experiencias realizadas validan este modelo. 7. El modelo matemático BURN 1 consta de cinco compartimentos plasmático, intersticial de la zona sana y de la quemada, celular sanguíneo e intracelular. Sirve para simular la repercusión sobre el organismo de las lesiones térmicas, dese las más leves a las más graves, en pacientes de diferentes características físicas y que recibieron distintos tratamientos de reanimación. La fiabilidad del modelo se pone de manifiesto en las validaciones fisiológicas, empíricas y prácticas realizadas. 8. El modelo matemático BURN 2 incluye, además de los compartimientos considerados en el BURN 1, el compartimiento intersticial pulmonar; los mecanismos de control considerados son la dinámica capilar pulmonar, la hemodinámica y el sistema linfático pulmonares. Este modelo se ha validado al comparar compartimientos observados y obtenidos por simulación en pacientes que sufrieron quemaduras cutáneas puras y asociadas a lesión capilar pulmonar por inhalación de substancias tóxicas en el momento del accidente. 9. Todos los modelos matemáticos construidos son estructuralmente estables, como ponen de manifiesto los análisis de sensibilidad realizados. 10. Los datos epidemiológicos, tanto del estudio retrospectivo de casos clínicos realizados para la construcción del modelo, como del estudio prospectivo necesario para la validación del mismo, no difieren de los publicados por otros autores. 11. Las características fisiopatológicas que definen la lesión por quemadura son: la alteración del coeficiente de permeabilidad capilar para las proteínas en la zona quemada, la pérdida de fluidos y proteínas al exterior a través de la herida por quemadura, la anemia post-quemadura y las alteraciones hemodinámicas locales y generales secundarias a los trasvases aumentados locales y proteínas desde el compartimiento plasmáticos al intersticial. Las cuantificaciones dinámicas de las perturbaciones provocadas por la agresión térmica, necesarias para la construcción de los modelos matemáticos, son originales e integran en un bloque homogéneo y coherente los datos experimentales y clínicos publicados por diversos autores sobre la fisiopatología de la quemadura. 12. La pauta de reanimación de pacientes quemados BET 1 constituye, tras el estudio por simulación realizado, un procedimiento optimizado de resucitación, ya que consigue una reanimación selectiva y eficaz, independientemente de la extensión de superficie lesionada, tanto a corto como a medio plazo, aunque el paciente haya sido tratado previamente con otras pautas diferentes de reanimación. 13. El procedimiento BET I no es perjudicial en los casos de lesión capilar pulmonar por inhalación, lesión ante la que la única medida efectiva de tratamiento, tras un diagnóstico precoz, es la ventilación mecánica asistida con presión espiratoria positiva. 14. El procedimiento BET I demuestra, en las simulaciones realizadas, ser superior a otras pautas de reanimación convencionales, disminuyendo los efectos secundarios tales como la aparición de edemas en zonas no quemadas, compartimiento que hemos demostrado cuantitativamente está directamente relacionado con la velocidad de infusión de soluciones libres de coloides en estos pacientes. 15. El procedimiento BET II se fundamenta en el BET I, y se diferencia en que, manteniendo todas sus ventajas terapéuticas, es de más fácil aplicación clínica, dada la facilidad de cálculo de las necesidades de fluidos, electrolitos y coloides específicas de cada paciente, en función de sus características físicas, de lesión y del tiempo transcurrido desde la quemadura. 16. Los resultados clínicos obtenidos con el procedimiento BET II son óptimos, tal como predecía el análisis por simulación digital realizado, y superiores a los obtenidos en pacientes de características similares reanimados con otras pautas convencionales de resucitación. 17. La pauta BET II ha conducido a una reanimación efectiva en todos los pacientes en los que ha sido utilizada, consiguiéndose la normalización de todos los parámetros hemodinámicos y bioquímicos accesibles en este tipo de pacientes durante la fase de shock. Esta terapia puede facilitar una disminución del tiempo desde el ingreso hasta la primera intervención, así como de la estancia hospitalaria del paciente quemado. 18. La pauta BET II no supone un incremento en el consumo de soluciones coloidales, como pone de manifiesto el estudio clínico realizado, diferenciándose de la mayoría de las pautas convencionales por disminuir cuantitativamente los volúmenes de soluciones infundidas, alterando su composición cualitativa, ya que concentra la utilización de coloides en las primeras horas tras la quemadura. 19. Resaltamos por último la importancia del modelado y simulación en circunstancias en las que los experimentos in vivo son difíciles de realizar, o poco éticos, así como la relevancia fisiológica y clínica de los resultados obtenidos.

Chapter 1 evaluates the impact of a policy intervention in Peru aimed at improving access to justice and reducing violence against women. In many developing countries, access to justice remains unequal, especially for women. What are the implications of this inequality for gender-based violence, intra-household bargaining, and investment in children? This paper provides evidence from Peru on all-women's justice centers (WJCs), specialized institutions that mostly employ female officers and provide police and legal services to reduce gender-based violence. Examining the gradual rollout of WJCs across districts/ villages, we find that the opening of a center increases reporting of gender-specific crimes by 40% and reduces the incidence of gender-based violence measured by domestic violence, femicides and hospitalizations due to mental health by about 10%. We find, moreover, that a decrease in the exposure of women to violence has intergenerational effects: WJCs substantially increase human capital investments in children, raising enrollment, attendance, and test scores. These results are consistent with a bargaining model in which women's access to justice determines the threat point. Chapter 2 examines the effect of fertility on labor supply decisions of Albanian parents, with particular attention to the intervening role of childcare provided by grandparents in extended families. In order to address the potential endogeneity in the fertility decision, I exploit Albanian parental preference for having sons combined with the sibling's sex-composition instrument as an exogenous source of variation. Using a repeated cross-section of parents with at least two children, I find a positive and statistically significant effect of fertility on parental labor supply for those parents who are more likely to be younger, less educated or live in extended families. In particular, IV estimates for mothers show that they increase labor supply, especially in terms of hours worked per week and the likelihood of working off-farm. Similarly, father's likelihood of working off-farm and having a second occupation increase as a consequence of further childbearing. The heterogeneity analysis suggests that this positive effect might be the result of two plausible mechanisms: childcare provided by non-parental adults in extended families and greater financial costs of maintaining more children. Chapter 3 analyzes the effect of forced displacement on adult's labor market outcomes and children's schooling in the context of the post-war Kosovo. This chapter uses the 1998-1999 Kosovo war and the following massive displacement of people as a natural experiment in order to estimate the impact of conflict displacement on Kosovars that left and decided to come back relative to those who stayed in the province. I exploit the interaction of the spatial variation in conflict intensity -as measured by casualties and bombings- and distance to the Albanian border as a source of exogenous variation in the displacement status. Results indicate that displaced Kosovar men are less likely to be employed in the agricultural sector and to work on their own account, while displaced Kosovar women are more likely to be inactive. Loss of assets (e.g. land, livestock) in an agrarian skill-based economy and also loss of social networks in an informal labor market might have further decreased the probability to find employment relative to stayers. However, shortly after the return home, the results also indicate that displaced Kosovar men and women are more likely to be working off-farm, especially in the construction and public administration sectors, which indicates a relatively quick recovery. In addition, displaced Kosovar girls are more likely to be enrolled in primary school, but I find no effect on education for boys. The refugee camp experience might have provided better conditions to young Kosovar girls compared to the precarious pre-war "parallel" education system. ; Le chapitre 1 évalue l'impact d'une politique publique au Pérou visant à améliorer l'accès à la justice et à réduire la violence contre les femmes. Ce chapitre utilise des données sur les centres de justice pour femmes (CJF) au Pérou, des institutions spécialisées qui emploient principalement des femmes et fournissent des services de police et des services juridiques pour réduire la violence fondée sur le genre. En examinant le déploiement progressif des CJF dans les districts, nous constatons que l'ouverture d'un centre augmente de 40 % le nombre de signalements de crimes spécifiques au genre et réduit d'environ 10 % l'incidence de la violence fondée sur le genre, mesurée par la violence domestique, les féminicides et les hospitalisations pour cause de santé mentale. Nous constatons en outre qu'une diminution de l'exposition des femmes à la violence domestique a des effets intergénérationnels : les CJF augmentent considérablement les investissements en capital humain pour les enfants, ce qui augmente la scolarisation, la présence scolaire et les résultats aux examens. Le chapitre 2 examine l'effet de la fécondité sur les décisions des parents albanais en matière d'offre de travail. Afin d'aborder la question de l'endogénéité potentielle de la décision de fécondité, j'exploite la préférence des parents albanais pour avoir des garçons combinés avec l'instrument de composition du genre des frères et sœurs comme source exogène de variation. En utilisant un échantillon représentatif de parents ayant au moins deux enfants, je constate un effet positif et significatif de la fécondité sur l'offre de travail pour les parents plus jeunes, moins scolarisés ou vivant dans une famille élargie. Les estimations pour les mères montrent qu'elles augmentent l'offre de travail en termes d'heures travaillées et de probabilité de travailler hors secteur rural. De même, la probabilité pour le père de travailler hors secteur rural et d'avoir un deuxième emploi augmente à la suite d'autres naissances. L'analyse de l'hétérogénéité suggère deux mécanismes plausibles : les services de garde offerts par des adultes non-parentaux (grands-parents) dans les familles élargies et les coûts financiers plus élevés liés au maintien d'un plus grand nombre d'enfants. Le chapitre 3 analyse l'effet du déplacement forcé de populations sur l'offre de travail des adultes et la scolarisation des enfants dans le contexte de l'après-guerre au Kosovo. Ce chapitre utilise la guerre du Kosovo de 1998-1999 et les déplacements massifs de population comme une expérimentation naturelle afin d'estimer l'impact du déplacement forcé dû au conflit sur les Kosovars qui sont partis et qui ont décidé de revenir par rapport à ceux qui sont restés pendant la guerre. J'exploite l'intéraction de la variation spatiale de l'intensité du conflit - mesurée par le nombre de victimes et de bombardements - et de la distance à la frontière albanaise comme source de variation exogène dans le statut de déplacement. Les résultats indiquent que les hommes kosovars déplacés sont moins susceptibles d'être employés dans le secteur agricole et de travailler pour leur propre compte, tandis que les femmes kosovares déplacées sont plus susceptibles d'être inactives. La perte d'actifs (terres, bétail, etc.) dans une économie agraire fondée sur les compétences et la perte de réseaux sociaux dans un marché du travail informel pourraient avoir réduit davantage la probabilité de trouver un emploi par rapport aux personnes qui sont restées. Toutefois, peu après le retour au pays, les résultats indiquent également que les hommes et les femmes kosovars déplacés sont plus susceptibles de travailler hors secteur rural, en particulier dans les secteurs de la construction et de l'administration publique, ce qui indique une reprise relativement rapide. En outre, les filles kosovares déplacées sont plus susceptibles d'être inscrites à l'école primaire, mais je ne constate aucun effet sur la scolarisation des garçons.

When we started our preparation for this project only a year ago, our prime concerns were the deepening of the social and economic asymmetries between the North and the South under the impact of the financial crisis, with Germany and Italy providing an example of existential importance for the EU as a whole. Both of us had resided in the two countries for prolonged periods in the past, and we had never witnessed such a surge in antagonistic feelings on both sides of the Alps as occurred during the Euro crisis. This can even be measured: while it had been common in Germany, at the beginning of the crisis, to talk about the PIIGS states (Portugal, Ireland, Italy, Greece and Spain), with Italy figuring among them as an important member, the percentage of Italians having a positive image of Germany crashed only from 75 to 65 per cent during the immediate crisis period, and now the majority of the Italians thinks that Germany has too much influence in Europe and that it uses this influence at the expense of Southern Member States. While our application for funding was still pending, we witnessed two crucial events that increased the pertinence of our project way beyond our expectations. First, on the 24 September 2017, for the first time in post-war German history, a far right party entered the German Bundestag with a landslide victory, receiving 14 per cent of the popular vote and 100 parliamentary seats. Second, only five months later in Italy, the far-right Lega party and the Movimento Cinque Stelle emerged as the big winners from the Italian federal elections of the 4th of March 2018. Forming a previously unthinkable coalition between right-wing and left-wing populism, they entered into government. We are not so naïve as to believe that the variety of Europe's crises could be understood and adequately analysed as though these were isolated events. The course of Italy's economic and social policy has so obviously been affected by the migration burdens that Italy has had to shoulder and the lack of European solidarity; the bitter disappointment could be turned into populist critique of the constraints that European rule imposes upon national policies and the public announcement of disobedience by members of the Italian government. In a similar vein, the Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) in Germany had been founded as an anti-Euro rescue party, which catalysed quickly through the immigration crisis of 2015 into a xenophobic far-right populist party, sharing many positions with the Italian Lega. While the parties and alliances in both countries had capitalised very much upon the antagonisms between Italy and Germany and their positions during the Euro crisis by building on nationalist sentiments, today we have reached a true anti-climax when one observes that the intensification of tensions are accompanied by the founding of new alliances and a contagion towards formerly non-populist and non-far right parties in both countries: "Europe does not want migrants, it wants our money" (Luigi Di Maio); "Migration is the Mother of all problems" (Horst Seehofer). Both the AfD in Germany and the Lega in Italy share two major targets against which they direct their rage: European integration, especially in the economic realm, and immigration. We refrain, however, from attempting to disentangle all these interdependencies, but hope that our study of the two exemplary cases of Italy and Germany will provide us with some answers to the question of what led us down this road. We believe that the approach which we have pursued in our design of this project provides illuminating insights of lasting importance. ; Acknowledgements 6 ;Introductory Explanations 6; Contributors 20; A) The Political Economy of Germany and Italy;The German Political Economy under the Euro – and a Comparison to the "Southern Model" - Philip Manow 27; The Political Economy of Public Sector Wage-setting in Germany and Italy - Donato Di Carlo 48;Geo-Politics of Exporting Too Much: Contrasting Trajectories of Germany and Japan - Margarita Estévez-Abe 63; Ideational Differences between Italian and German Governments during the Crisis -Frederico Bruno 74; A Cultural Political Economy Approach to the European Crisis - Josef Hien 80; B) Sectors of the Political Economy of Italy and Germany;Worlds Apart: The Divergence of Southern-European Housing-Construction Economies and Northern European Export Economies - Sebastian Kohl & Alexander Spielau 99;Banking Crisis Interventions in Germany and Italy: the Unpleasant Case of the New European Bank Resolution Framework -Frederik Traut 108;Comparing the German and Italian Approaches to Banking Union - Lucia Quaglia 120; Maternal employment, attitudes toward gender equality and work-family policies. German-Italian Discrepancies? - Agnes Blome 129;C) German and Italian Perceptions, Differences and Misgivings;Italy and Germany during the Crisis: Support for the EU and Reciprocal Views - Alessandro Pellegata 140;The Political Space in Italy and Germany during the Crisis: Italian and German Populism Compared - Hanspeter Kriesi148;The political economy of recovery in Southern Europe - Manos Matsaganis 157;Accommodating EU's influence vs protecting national sovereignty. - Ilaria Madama and Matteo Jessoula 162; European Integration and Political Ownership: Fiction and Reality behind Structural Reforms and Risk-Sharing - Filippo Taddei 170;D) The Legacy of the Welfare State in Europe;An Alternative to the Constitution of the EU's Single Market? - Florian Rödl 176; Industrial Relations and Labour Law in the EU Economic Governance Mechanisms:The Cases of Italy and Germany - Francesco Costamagna 182; What to expect from Germany for the European Pillar of Social Rights and beyond? - Marcel Hadeed 188; The EU Political Culture of Total Optimism is not Dead: Reflections on the European Pillar of Social Rights - Vladimir Bogoeski 196;A 'more political' leadership for the President of the Commission? A mixed-methods language-based analysis -Pamela Pansardi 201;E) The Demise of Law; The EU as "Honest Broker"? German and Italian Perspectives on an Adminstrative Body -Anna Katharina Mangold 215; Integration-through-crisis as a distinct integrative mode: Placing expediency ahead of democracy? - Nicole Scicluna 220; Should the Specifics of National Political Cultures be Characterised as "Democratic Acquis" and Can they be Defended by Law? Beyond the Nostalgia-Controversy between JÜrgen Habermas and Wolfgang Streeck -Christian Joerges 229; The End of the Universality of Norms as a Model for Europe: The Error of "Seeing like a State" (J.S. Scott) in the Postmodern Condition - Karl-Heinz Ladeur 237; F) Justice Deficits and Solidarity; Is the EU Unjust? - Glyn Morgan 244; A European Minister of Economy and Finance:Assessing the Commission's proposal and Comparing the Positions of Germany and Italy - Tiziano Zgaga 253; Re-solidarizing Europe and Defusing the Crisis - Maurizio Ferrera and Carlo Burelli 263; Summarising Comments; Concluding Remarks: Economic Cultures and the Politics of Interdependence - Visnja Vukov 269; Two Annexes; Order in the Eurozone: Maurizio Ferrera and Claus Offe in Conversation - Maurizio Ferrera and Claus Offe 278; Germany is Quietly Rebalancing its Economy – But This will not Fix the Eurozone's Flaws - Donato Di Carlo 282;

To explain the existing harmony between the legal and pastoral dimensions of the social reality of the Church is a difficult task, especially when one takes into consideration the ambiguity of the term pastoral which, apart fron its technical significance, has been the object of tactical, vulgarized and equivocal use. In any case, the author not only shares the view that this term makes reference to the order of actions through which the Church finds its place in History by fulfilling its mission, but also accepts the most widely accepted meanings of the term: a) material meanings: pastoral action is synonymous with ecclesiastical o christian action, ministerial or priestly actionand introductory or leading action. b) formal meanings: pastoral action is synonymous with efficacious action, an intermediary action between God and man, an action shaped by the condiyionings of the hie et nune and a planned action. Subsequently the importance of the meanings accepted in the historical and doctrinal evolution of pastoral Theology is analysed so as to detect what the conception of Canon Law, in the minds of the members of the pastorate, is. In order not to fall into «cientifismo» on analysing the «edifying actions of the Church» one has to start from the authentic nature of the pastorate, that ¡s, from the pastorate as a manifestation of the nature of the Church . because it is in this way that the reality of the «pastoral» concept is found; thus the pastorate refers to the very and exclusive dynamics of the priestly ministry, in such a way that Pastoral Theology ought to make itself, as far as science is concerned, into a reflection on «the ministerial actions of the priestly hierarchy». Nevertheless, as the term has today come to be used as a purely scientific concept (and not as a concept per se), three orders of realities have clearly been distinguished to show that there is nonexus of efficient and formal causality; the scientific order (pastoral theology), ontological and sacramental personal realities (pastorate) and the acquisition of the salus animarum. (pastoral efficacy); but one conclusión is crystal clear: that in the transplantation of technical notions and methods of the profane sciences into the Church, the prevalant and absolute principie is the respect for the nature of the Church and the peculiar characteristics of her realities. With these explanations the point of convergente of the Pastora te and Canon Law is delimited; the Canon Law is the nature of the Church, because pastorate and legality are dimensions of the only reality which is the Church, rather than separate realities. The real contribution of Law to the historical edification of the Church is the dimension of justic;e, which affects the entire «Mysterium Ecclesiae», so that it cannot be said that before the legis'lature of the human ecclesiastical Law there exists an «ajuridical camp a priori»; likewise there doesn't exist an «adivine camp a priori»; and neither do the historical and concrete realities appear void of all norms and all exlgencies of justice. The author next writes about the hypertrophy which the term pastoral has undergone in the attempt to understand and solve all the facets of the mystery of the Church exolusively and solely under thls perspective; thls pastorate has led to confusion and the violation of the very formalities of other sciences among which Canon Law needs a special mentlon. Later on, the characteristic traits of the actual patarate are described: substitution of orthodoxy for orthopraxls, loss of clarity in the essential difference between the common priest and the ministerial prlest, hlstorlclty and sociology in the appreciation of the efficacy, In History, of the salvation found in the Church. Finally, the author deduces the following conclusions, concerning the analysis of the relatlonship between Pastorate and Law: 1) in order that a pastoral action might be authentically an action which edifies the Church, It has to be a just action a priori. 2) Canon Law, as a guardianship of Identity, unity and social order of the Church, Is a necessary leit motiv of pastoral activity. ; Dilucidare armoniam iuridicae dimensionis et pastorales realitatis socialis Ecclesiae difficile evenit cum valde aequivocum sit verbum «pastoralis», quod praeter eius significationes technicas utitur etiam sensu tactico, vulgari et aequivoco. Cum quoquomodo referat ad ordinem actionum quibus Ecclesia in perficiendo suo munere autoefficitur in Historia, auctor finit significaciones latiores verbi: a) Significationes materiales: actio pastoralis cognominata fit actionis ecclesialis vel christianae, actionis ministerialis vel sacerdotalis, et actionis hodegeticae vel regiminis; b) Significationes formales: actio pastora lis cognominatafit actionis efficacis, actionis mediatricis Dei hominumque, actionis hic et nunc configuratae, et actionis iam designatae. Examinatur deinde locus quem significationes finitae implent in evolutione historica-doctrinale lheologiae pastoralis ut detectetur quae sit conceptio luris Canonici in mente pastoralistarum. Ut non incurratur in «cientifismum» quoddam cum examinentur actiones aedificantes Ecclesiae, proficiscendumest a natura vera pastoralis, id est, in quantum manifestatio naturae Ecclesiae, in quo consistit realiter notio «pastoralis»; sic pastoralis refert ad dynamicam propriam et exclusivam sacerdotii ministerialis, ita ut scientia lheologiae pastoralis constituenda erit tanquam cogitatio de actionibus ministerialibus sacerdotii hierarchici. lamen, cum verbum «pastoralis» nunc maxi me utatur ut notio pure scientifica et non notio realis, distinguendi sunt nitide tres ordines realitatum ad concludendum non esse inter eos nexum causalitatisefficientis et formalis: ordo scientificus (lheologia pastoralis), realitates personales onticae sacramentalesque (indoles pastoris)atque consecutio salutis animarum (efficacitas pastoralis); ac aliqua potests prominere conclusio: in transponendis Ecclesiae notionibus, technicis atque rationibus scientiarum profanarum, reverentia naturae Ecclesiae et esse proprio rius realitatum est praevalens principiumabsolutum. His suppositis delimitatur punctum convergentiae Pastoralis et luris Canonici, quod est natura Ecclesiae, quia pastorale iuridica cumque potius qua m disiunctae realitates sunt dimensiones unius realitatis quae est Ecclesia. Apportatio propria luris aedificationi historicae Ecclesiae est dimensio iustitiae, aspectus attingens totum mysterium Ecclesiae, Ita ut non possimus dicere «campo ajurídico» praevium es se dationi legislativae luris humani ecclesiastici, sicut non est in Ecclesia «campo a divino» praevium neque eius realitates historicae eculiaresque apparent orbae omni norma omnique exigentia iustitiae. tDeinde poste a agitur de deformatione qua m verbum -pastoralis. passum est in conatu intelligendi et resolvendi omnes species mysterii Ecclesiae unice sub hoc prospectu; hic .pastoralismus» ducit ad inumbrandas et frangendas formalitates proprias aliarum scientiarum, et specialiter luris Canonici ratione significata. Describuntur postea tactus proprii praesentis «pastoralismi»: substituit orthodoxiam pro orthopraxl, amittitclarltatem distinctionis essentialis sacerdotii communis et ministerialis, historicismi et sociologismi in aestimatione efficacitatis salvificae Ecclesiae in Historia. Denique ex analysi relationum Pastoralis etluris auctor infert insequentes conclusiones: 1) Actlo pastoralis ut sit vere actio aedificans Eccleslae, prlus debet esse actio iusta. 2) lus Canonicum, quod est tutela identitatis, unitatis ordinisque social¡s Eccleslae, est suppositum et basis necessaria activitatis pastora lis

There is a saying that life is a pilgrimage. This journey is also echoed through Vatican II's statement that "The pilgrim Church is missionary by her very nature, since it is from the mission of the Son and the mission of the Holy Spirit that she draws her origin, in accordance with the decree of God the Father."1 As such, a pilgrimage is an expressive act of desire to engage spirituality on a practical level, and "a journey to a special or holy place as a way of making an impact on one's life with the revelation of God associated with that place."2 Our faith does not consist of an ideological or utopian world that exists only in our heads, but is instead an expression of practical, ethical action that explores the signs of the times amidst the realities of postmodernism3 and post secularism. The Korean Catholic Church has been on a difficult road to meet and experience God. In 1784, Lee Seung Hun was baptized in China, taking the name of Peter, and with that the Korean Church began. Even after four great persecutions, the Korean Church never gave up her efforts to practice the faith. It is no exaggeration to say that the Korean church of today owes its existence to the many unnamed martyrs, of whom many were lay. Since 2011, the Bishops' Conference has designated 111 holy sites throughout the country and conferred blessings on those who pilgrimed to these holy sites. This led to a certain pilgrimage 'boom'. The Bishop of the Missionary of the Episcopal Church and the Bishop of the Holy Land pilgrimage (Chairman Kim Sun-tae) presented a blessing to the organizers who pilgrimed to all 111 of the Holy Places listed in the "Catholic Church Pilgrimage in Korea" on December 12. On this day, 433 believers received blessings. As a result, a total of 2,664 persons received the blessing. A total of 1,215 people was awarded the blessing year in 2017.4 In this way, it can be seen that this ministerial approach to pilgrimage in the Korean Catholic is yielding good fruit. The Catholic Church in Korea is researching how to integrate theology and spirituality of pilgrimage into mission, pursuing the unity of theory and practice.5 Pilgrimage is an embodied ritual, so the theology and spirituality of pilgrimage must also come out of a concrete practice. In the pilgrimage we undertake, the external pilgrimage to the holy place and the inner pilgrimage are not separate, but are rather complementary. The Korean Catholic Church is actively developing and revitalizing the ritual of outward and inward pilgrimage. The Korean Catholic Church has practiced pilgrimage as a part of the faith life of the church community, even as it is seen as an option, not a requirement. This work will argue that the Korean Catholic Church should link pilgrimage with a variety of programs within this context. In particular, it should develop a pilgrimage program for young people to help them locate themselves within Korean church history and also within their communities in the long history of God's providence. In this sense, the goal of pilgrimage is not to abolish the relevance of church's political, historical, or doctrinal contexts, but to restore its identity as a pilgrim community and to strengthen its evangelical mission as a community of churches. In other words, the theology and spirituality of pilgrimage will provide dynamism to the Korean church. This dynamic community can only be called an evangelical community when it truly is God's salt, leaven, and light in the world. In order to approach the crisis and opportunity of today's postmodern church situation in a missionary and communicative manner, I will study pilgrimage to these sacred sites and present this unique pilgrim spirituality as a paradigmatic transformation of the new mission and method of evangelization. The purpose of this dissertation is to consider pilgrimage, which is one of the various popular devotional acts, as an important phenomenon of the new evangelization. Hence, I will explore not only some Catholic studies from other parts of the world, but also the unique spiritual pilgrimage spirituality and its corresponding mission dimension that have been created through the spiritual phenomenon of Asian pilgrimages active in Catholic churches in East Asia. This dissertation has four main objectives which underscore its significance to the field of missiology: (a) to examine what pilgrimage is from historical, biblical, and church viewpoints, and to provide its relevance for mission today; (b) to reestablish the relationship between pilgrimage and tourism as this form of popular devotion has unfolded throughout human history; (c) To help the reader understand the unique pilgrim spirituality of the Korean Catholic Church; and (d) as a local church in the world church, to better orient the future direction of this ministry and spirituality, not only in Korea but also in other parts of a world church. In this work, the first chapter looks at the definition of pilgrimage sites and the meaning of the place where the pilgrimage is taking place, approaching this from historical, biblical, and ecclesial perspectives. First, I deal with the history of pilgrimage to the shrines of the Korean Catholic Church. Second, I present pilgrimage to these holy lands through the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments' The Directory on Popular Piety and the Liturgy-Principles and Guidelines. Third, I describe how it is that, from historical and biblical points, pilgrimages are deeply related to the human journey which has to do with salvation, engaging memory, penitence, liturgy and sacraments, and popular devotion. Lastly, I demonstrate how it is that pilgrimage is related to mission, one embodies by an intrinsic desire to live a life of faith. The second chapter is more forced specifically at pilgrim spirituality in conjunction with the definition of pilgrimage in the early Church, the Middle Ages, and the Second Vatican Council. Furthermore, I examine pilgrimage, in light of pilgrimage spirituality, tourism, and theology, highlighting the theological restructuring act which enables the reader to re-illuminate Christian testimony and life. In the third chapter I explain how the establishment of pilgrimage to the sacred places of by the Korean Catholic Church has produced legacy of faith that has been handed down through the faith of the martyrs and the myriad of ancestors of a faith witnessed by worship and service to God. Based on these spiritual aspects, I describe how these sacred places have grown through pilgrimage, a pilgrimage often focused around persecution and martyrdom. Furthermore, I explore the activities of the Suwon Diocese for the promotion of pilgrimage. In particular, for example, guide books which assist the pilgrim in walking to these sacred places in the precincts, Didimgil, make the pilgrimage more enriching. A treatment of modern parish movements to promote the veneration of these saints and martyrs accents their continuing relevance and connection with the grassroots. This chapter is not without its description of more concrete ways of doing pilgrimage, such as that done physically walking, one done with a leader, and the creation of resources to assist pilgrims in furthering their relationship with a God who invites us to participate in mission. Some of my major learnings round out the work.

Мета: дати характеристику стану здоров'я дітей із зони антитерористичної операції (АТО) на сході України з кардіоревматологічною патологією і вивчити у них показники стрес-регулюючих систем. Матеріали та методи. Проведено клініко-інструментальне обстеження 126 дітей віком 8–18 років, із них 92 дитини із зони антитерористичної операції і 34 дитини-переселенця з Донецької та Луганської областей. Групу порівняння становили 509 дітей того ж віку з Харківської області і міста Харкова. Інтенсивність стрес-реалізуючих систем визначали за рівнем кортизолу, ТБК-активних продуктів і дієнових кон'югатів у сироватці крові, адреналіну і норадреналіну в добовій сечі. Стан стрес-лімітуючих систем оцінювали за вмістом серотоніну, відновленого глутатіону, активності глутатіонпероксидази і супероксиддисмутази (СОД) у крові і мелатоніну в сечі. Результати. У структурі соматичної патології у дітей і підлітків із зони військових дій на сході України кардіоревматологічні захворювання посідають друге місце, перше місце належить хворобам органів травлення. У 34,1 % дітей, які вперше потрапили в клініку інституту, погіршення стану здоров'я настало на тлі психоемоційного напруження і відсутності умов для лікування за основним місцем проживання. У структурі скарг пацієнтів переважали астеноневротичні, які вірогідно частіше зустрічалися у дітей першої групи. Також найчастіше діагностували різні психосоматичні розлади, захворювання органів травлення і ендокринопатії. Вивчення стрес-регулюючих систем у дітей із зони АТО виявило деякі відмінності в показниках з урахуванням нозологічної приналежності. Так, у хворих з серцево-судинною патологією відзначалася активація стрес-реалізуючих систем, а у дітей з ревматичними захворюваннями — напруга стрес-лімітуючих систем. Виявлені зміни рівня мелатоніну та активності СОД у пацієнтів із захворюваннями органів кровообігу із зони АТО свідчать про дисбаланс антиоксидантів ферментної і неферментної природи, що може призвести до виникнення оксидативного стресу як однієї зі складових посттравматичного стресового розладу. Таким чином, отримані дані необхідно враховувати при складанні індивідуальних програм відновного лікування дітям і підліткам з кардіоревматологічною патологією із зони військових дій з урахуванням супутньої патології. Висновки. У дітей із зони військових дій виявлено дисбаланс компонентів антиоксидантного стресу, відповідальних за стресостійкість організму до факторів пошкодження. Встановлено активацію стрес-реалізуючих систем при хворобах органів кровообігу і напругу стрес-лімітуючих систем при ревматичних захворюваннях. ; Цель: дать характеристику состояния здоровья детей из зоны антитеррористической операции (АТО) на востоке Украины с кардиоревматологической патологией и изучить у них показатели стресс-регулирующих систем. Материалы и методы. Проведено клинико-инструментальное обследование 126 детей в возрасте 8–18 лет, из них 92 ребенка из зоны антитеррористической операции и 34 ребенка-переселенца из Донецкой и Луганской областей. Группу сравнения составили 509 детей того же возраста из Харьковской области и города Харькова. Интенсивность стресс-реализующих систем определяли по уровню кортизола, ТБК-активных продуктов и диеновых конъюгатов в сыворотке крови, адреналина и норадреналина в суточной моче. Состояние стресс-лимитирующих систем оценивали по содержанию серотонина, восстановленного глутатиона, активности глутатионпероксидазы и супер­оксиддисмутазы (СОД) в крови и мелатонина в суточной моче. Результаты. В структуре соматической патологии детей и подростков из зоны военных действий на востоке Украины кардиоревматологические заболевания занимают второе место, первое место принадлежит болезням органов пищеварения. У 34,1 % детей, впервые поступивших в клинику института, ухудшение состояния здоровья наступило на фоне психоэмоционального напряжения и отсутствия условий для лечения по основному месту проживания. В структуре жалоб пациентов преобладали астеноневротические, которые достоверно чаще встречались у детей первой группы. Также чаще всего диагностировались различные психосоматические расстройства, заболевания органов пищеварения и эндокринопатии. Изучение стресс-регулирующих систем у детей из зоны АТО выявило некоторые различия в показателях с учетом нозологической принадлежности. Так, у больных с сердечно-сосудистой патологией отмечалась активация стресс-реализующих систем, а у детей с ревматическими заболеваниями — напряжение стресс-лимитирующих систем. Выявленные изменения уровня мелатонина и активности СОД у пациентов с заболеваниями органов кровообращения из зоны АТО свидетельствуют о дисбалансе антиоксидантов ферментной и неферментной природы, что может привести к возникновению оксидативного стресса как одного из составляющих посттравматического стрессового расстройства. Таким образом, полученные данные необходимо учитывать при составлении индивидуальных программ восстановительного лечения детям и подросткам с кардиоревматологической патологией из зоны военных действий с учетом сопутствующей патологии. Выводы. У детей из зоны военных действий выявлен дисбаланс компонентов антиоксидантного стресса, ответственных за стрессоустойчивость организма к повреждающим факторам. Установлена активация стресс-реализующих систем при болезнях органов кровообращения и напряжение стресс-лимитирующих систем при ревматических заболеваниях. ; Background. To characterize the health status of children from the antiterrorist operation zone in the east of Ukraine with cardiorheumatologic pathology and to study the indicators of stress-regulating systems was the purpose of our work. Materials and methods. A clinical and instrumental exa­mination was performed in 126 children aged 8–18 years, 92 of them from the anti-terrorist operation zone and 34 immigrant children from the Donetsk and Luhansk regions. The comparison group consisted of 509 children of the same age from the Kharkiv region and Kharkiv. The intensity of stress-realizing systems was determined by the level of cortisol, thiobarbituric acid-active products and diene conjugates in the blood serum, epinephrine and norepinephrine in daily urine. The state of stress-limiting systems was assessed by the content of serotonin, reduced glutathione, activity of glutathione pe­roxidase and superoxide dismutase in the blood and melatonin in daily urine. Results. In the structure of somatic pathology of children and adolescents from zone of military operations in the east of Ukraine, cardiorheumatologic diseases rank se­cond, the first place belongs to diseases of the digestive system. In 34.1 % of children admitted to the institute for the first time, the deterioration of health occurred against the background of psychoemotional stress and lack of conditions for treatment in the main place of residence. In the structure of patients' complaints, astheno-neurotic ones prevailed, which was significantly more frequent in children of the first group. Also, various psychosomatic disorders, diseases of the digestive system and endocrinopathy were diagnosed most often. The study of stress-regulating systems in children from the anti-terrorist operation zone revealed some differences in the indicators, taking into account the nosology. Thus, patients with cardiovascular patho­logy had an activation of stress-realizing systems, and children with rheumatic diseases — stress of stress-limiting systems. The revealed changes in melatonin level and superoxide dismutase activity in patients with diseases of the circulatory system from the anti-terrorist operation zone indicate an imbalance of enzyme and non-enzyme antioxidants, which can lead to oxidative stress as one of the components of post-traumatic stress disorder. Thus, the obtained data should be taken into account when developing individual programs for medical rehabilitation in children and adolescents with cardiorheumatologic patho­logy from zone of military operations, taking into account the concomitant pathology. Conclusions. Children from the war zone have an imbalance in the components of antioxidant stress responsible for the stress-resistance of the body to damaging factors. The activation of stress-realizing systems in diseases of the circulatory system and the stress of stress-limiting systems in rheumatic diseases have been established.

Jean Jacques Rousseu, Juan Jacobo Rousseu, educador, escritor y filósofo franco suizo, en sus obras "El Contrato Social" y "Emilio", temas por la Educación en cinco libros, señala "…que el hombre nace libre; pero en todos lados está encadenado…"; y que "…El hombre es bueno por la naturaleza…"(1); entonces, deduciendo la evolución social, ha producido criminales, asesinos, corruptos, ladrones, e inmorales. Los acusados, cuyos cargos son probado en debido proceso, tienen la condición jurídica, de sentenciados, y otra parte de encarcelados, son los sujetos procesados, son sujetos que han ocasionado graves daños y perjuicios al ser humano, a la familia, a la sociedad y al Estado; sin embargo deben ser protegidos por el Estado. El Estado Peruano, mediante la constitución en sus artículos 90 y 131, establece que la potestad de administrar justicia emana del pueblo y se ejerce por el Poder Judicial, a efecto de impartir justicia en el territorio nacional; no en forma equitativa o salomónica; sino justa; es decir sanciona la conducta punitiva acreditados con medios probatorios idóneos y debido proceso. El presente trabajo versó sobre la realidad de los Centros Penitenciarios, concretamente del Establecimiento Penitenciario de Huánuco y el problema del interno orientado a la reinserción social. El Poder Judicial realiza el juzgamiento del acto criminoso, para sancionar al sujeto responsable mediante un procedimiento penal, e impuesta la pena por imperativo constitucional a lograr la reinserción social, rehabilitando al sentenciado, la misma que debe ser conforme a los Derechos Humanos; y bajo responsabilidad del Estado, siendo los operadores el Ministerio de Justicia mediante el Instituto Nacional Penitenciario, para converger la familia, a la sociedad civil, la empresa, a la iglesia y principalmente el interno. El sociólogo y periodista DUGLAS MORENO, de nacionalidad Salvadoreña, en su obra La Pobreza (2) dijo: "…las nadie se rehabilita en un escusado…"; algo similar dijo el Venezolano Hugo Chávez Frías: "…las cárceles son depósitos de pobres…", (3) en alusión a que a las cárceles en los países de américa latina y el Caribe, son pocilgas, donde el interno, vive en la más espantosa miseria, pobreza, hacinamiento, abandono, aleccionándose con experiencias sobre hechos punitivos; porque la conversación diaria versa sobre hechos y acontecimientos suscitados a cada uno de los internos. El marco jurídico constitucional, para la rehabilitación del interno está constituido por el artículos 139, incisos 21 y 22; y en el código sustantivo en materia penal artículos 69 y 70, que establece la rehabilitación del interno y cancelación provisional de los antecedentes, hasta por cinco años, y no habiendo mediado reincidencia, la cancelación definitiva. El artículo 60, y del 65, al 94 del Decreto Legislativo N° 654, Código de Ejecución Penal, establece el tratamiento penitenciario, para cumplir el PRINCIPIO CONSTITUCIONAL, señalado en el inciso 1° del artículo 2, en cuanto el régimen penitenciario, tiene por objeto la reeducación, rehabilitación y reincorporación del interno a la sociedad; sin embargo, el largo ésta debe estar a la par de los derechos humanos, de manera que su medición o evaluación es conforme a los estándares internacionales para lograr un eficiente y sostenido proceso de rehabilitación: Actualmente, debido a las graves deficiencias, se advierte que de cada 10 sentenciados que obtienen su libertad, 06 vuelven a reincidir y los otros, se encuentran enfermos, fallecidos o rehabilitados; lo que significa, que el proceso de rehabilitación del interno, ha sido un fracaso: El presente trabajo, IMPLICANCIAS DE ESTANDARES INTERNACIONALES DE DERECHOS HUMANOS, PARA LA REHABILITACION DEL INTERNO DEL ESTABLECIMIENTO PENITENCIARIO PARA SENTENCIADOS DE HUANUCO. 2009- 2012, es decir el déficit, o ausencia o deficiencias en la rehabilitación, es un problema que requiere política nacional. Es desafortunada la ausencia del trato digno al interno y la carencia de infraestructura técnicamente diagramada con todos los servicios y por otro lado, la necesidad de una administración eficiente, desde la clasificación del interno científicamente, a cargo de un equipo o junta de Clasificación, debiéndose evaluar, aspectos determinados en la sentencia, aspectos sociales, psicológicos, antecedentes edad , instrucción educación y cultura, para determinar el perfila psicosocial, el grado de peligrosidad; sus predisposición al cambio de actitud y compromiso moral, a efecto de ser ubicados en los pabellones; y prodigar, servicios, en su estado de salud, el derecho a una alimentación, sana, nutritiva y sostenida, a efecto de prodigar vida y salud; el derecho a exámenes médicos en forma permanente, para evitar cuadros deprimentes de internos enfermos y desnutridos, como las cuadras en la época del genocidio de Hitler, que constituye una de las más sangrientas e inhumanas prisiones del mundo; ya que la únicas formas de desterrar la delincuencia es con la educación y no la represión; con el trabajo y la productividad, forjándole en un oficio o profesión, e incluso se regule estudios universitarios a distancia, a efecto de que rehabilitado, tenga un modo de obtener ingreso económico, y se incorporarse al mercado laboral; el derecho a recibir capacitación laboral y conferencias de distintos tópicos, básicamente sobre cultura general, pintura, música, derecho, psicología; el derecho a recibir servicios religiosos según su preferencia. El establecimiento penitenciario debe dar las facilidades; el derecho a tener vestimenta determinada, pero solo en horas de trabajo; el derecho a no ser impuesto determinado corte del cabello, sino por voluntad propia; el derecho a no ser revisada su correspondencia, ni interferida sus comunicaciones; el derecho a no ser revisado sus pertenencias en sus celdas, limitar las requisas; sin permiso del interno; el derecho a recibir visitas privadas, existencia de venusterios; el derecho a eliminar expresiones soeces por las autoridades; el derecho a no ser castigados físicamente, ni torturados, ni encerrados en el denominado "bote"; el derecho a tener acceso a medios informativos, como periódicos, o informes televisivos; el derecho a sufragar en proceso electorales en la propias cárceles; el derecho para reconocer a sus hijos y asistir a hospitales, u hogares, ante las enfermedades de familiares; el derecho a recibir toda clase de alimentos; el derecho a recibir atención médica especializada. "Toda persona privada de libertad será tratada humanamente y con el debido respeto a la dignidad inherente al ser humano" (4), significa que las personas detenidas o encarceladas no dejan de ser seres humanos. Pese a los grandes esfuerzos del Estado, Ministerio de Justicia, INPE y las instituciones tutelares del país, el proceso de rehabilitación en la actualidad es sumamente deficiente y precario, que requiere de esfuerzo integrado de la Sociedad civil, Colegio de Psicólogos, Médicos, Enfermeras, Abogados, Sociólogos; la familia, la Iglesia, con programas de prestación laboral, subsidio estatal y créditos para lograr especialización cuya prestación debe ser con carácter devolutivo previo contrato. La ausencia del cumplimiento de DERECHOS HUMANOS DURANTE EL PERIODO DE CARCELERIA, Y POST CARCELERIA, muchas veces por desconocimiento por parte de las personas encargadas de la conducción y de los cuidados de los Establecimientos Penitenciarios; y otras por ausencia de políticas de Estado(5); deficiencias económicas, sociales, culturales y educativos, el interno es condenado de por vida, pese haber cumplido su condena, pagando su deuda a la sociedad; sin embargo continuará "preso" en libertad, por la marginación social. ; Tesis

The Indian Government has identified a unique opportunity in using Information and Communication Technology (ICT) based solutions to streamline its inefficient, ineffective, and expensive subsidy operations. By bringing all subsidies, mainly food and fertilizer subsidy, under the ICT platform, the government aims to make its subsidy operations and delivery mechanisms- transparent, efficient, and effective. Food subsidy is the largest component of government's subsidy bill and is focus of the paper. Authors evaluate the possibility of substituting the existing system of subsidized grain distribution, i.e. Public Distribution System (PDS) with ICT-based Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) system. Implementing DBT for food will imply substitution of the existing physical grain entitlement system under PDS/NFSA with a cash transfer made directly into the bank accounts of the beneficiaries. The ongoing policy discussions and strategies for executing DBT-food in India are observed to be prescriptive in nature and suffer, inter alia, on two accounts. One, they view the transition of states from existing PDS to ICT based DBT food as one-disruptive change rather than as an incremental process that contributes to making a system gradually ready for the big transition. Two, by prescribing a uniform timeline for implementation in all the 36 Indian states and Union Territories (UTs), policy makers fail to acknowledge the diverse economic, social, and financial vulnerabilities in different parts of country. The paper attempts to address this gap in political thinking and strategy formulation and present a case for a phased approach to roll out DBT in the Indian food sector. It proposes a scientific way of evaluating a state/UT's 'readiness' for shifting from PDS to DBT in food. The 'readiness' analysis involves studying a state's performance on three parameters: their demographics, performance of existing PDS and the current state of their banking infrastructure. Identification of these parameters draws on learning from national and international experiences in DBT for food, in particular that of Chandigarh and Puducherry (where it is completely rolled-out) that are detailed in the paper's first part. The analysis reveals that in the next five years i.e. by 2022, all Indian states and UTs can replace their existing PDS with DBT-food. We divide the 36 states/UTs into four Phases. The states that are most ready for DBT transition (Phase 1) are Punjab, Goa, Delhi, Daman and Diu, Chandigarh and Puducherry and they may make this shift in the next one year i.e. by 2018. In the second phase are six states- Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Kerala- who may transition to DBT by 2019. States with a very high share of nation's poor and malnourished and/or have high banking infrastructural deficits, are put into the Phase 3 and these 11 states are Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Maharashtra and Gujarat. These states may take about three and half years (i.e. by 2021) for implementing DBT-food. The last phase comprises of 13 states (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, HP, J&K, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttarakhand, A&N Islands and Lakshwadeep) that have been given a special category status by Union Government and the erstwhile Planning Commission. These 13 states have a low population density, or are geographically located in remote areas, and/or are socio-politically and economically sensitive areas. The states in Phase 3, 4, and 5 are given more time before they implement DBT-food so that they address their existing infrastructural deficits. For these states, the paper proposes an interim phase consisting of a reformed PDS employing IT solution for identity verification of beneficiaries. For cities, towns, urbanised areas in states in the last three Phases whose performance on the three parameters is better than their respective states, the paper proposes a hybrid approach whereby they can shift more quickly to DBT even as the rest of the State puts in place the PDS reform package. Overall, a phased approach with PDS reforms, maximum digitization and use of ICT and JanDhan-Aadhaar-Mobile (JAM) technologies and a secure criteria-based preparation for a shift to DBT in food is proposed in the paper. In order to make the transition from PDS to DBT-food successful, specific policy recommendations are made in the paper. Some of these recommendations are: 1. Open market grain availability: This will make or break the transition. Unless the Centre and the states ensure availability of enough food grains in the open market, the transition to DBT food is unlikely to be successful; 2. Inclusive financial integration: Even if we have adequate availability of food grains in the open market, if the banking infrastructure is not inclusive, DBT food will not deliver. Thus, simultaneous efforts are required to increase the number of bank branches, ATMs and BCs. There is a need to include Post offices, cooperative banks and even large PACS (which currently are not part of the core banking system) into this system; 3. Innovations in payment channels: Apart from vertical expansion of the banking network, we also recommend horizontal expansion of payment channels; 4. Hedge farmers' market risks: As a consequence of DBT food when the MSP procurement operations are scaled-down, the Centre and states should together work towards creating and facilitating deep and wide alternative markets for farmers to sell their surplus food grains; a. Provision of an unconditional cash transfer to the farmer: The government may also consider, in the longer run, substituting the existing input subsidy support for agriculture (including fertiliser subsidy) and output price support to farmers with a cash transfer made directly into the farmers' bank accounts; 5. Introduction of policies to complement the system: In order to avoid diversion of the transferred cash towards vices, government should ensure that the entire economic system grows up to meet the increased demand that is likely to result from greater disposable incomes with a household. In particular, there is a need to ensure commensurate increase and stable supply of high-value food, education and healthcare services; 6. Adequacy of the food subsidy amount: If instead of MSP in the food subsidy formula (1.25*MSP - CIP), we can have the Economic cost, then the current problem of 'inadequacy' of the food subsidy transfer amount, faced in Chandigarh and Puducherry, may be resolved; and 7. Leadership and political will: Political motivation in the States to implement the DBT or reforms in the PDS is a vital factor determining the future of PDS reforms. Overall, DBT has the potential to make way for a system of social security or universal basic income, a special income support- provided to every citizen- whose size can be adjusted to his or her needs and vulnerability. Although the concept of basic income is still at its infancy even in the most developed countries, the path to creating such a system has to be through the DBT. Notwithstanding initial problems in implementation and the problems of labour markets that DBT may trigger, a cash transfer systems has become a potent tool in the government's armoury of social welfare. As the country transitions from its low income position to becoming the world's fastest growing economy in a few years, a cash transfer system delivering a social security transfer to all can promote a growth process that is inclusive, efficient and sustainable.

The present report provides an overview of the main debates and developments in relation to migration and asylum in Luxembourg in 2016. The issue of migration remained on the forefront of public and political debate, a debate axed on both planned legislative changes as well as the concrete migratory situation in Luxembourg. Four topics dominated public and policy discussions over the course of the year: the reform on Luxembourgish nationality, economic migration, the organisation of reception, as well as support and integration measures, linked to the continued inflow of applicants for international protection (AIPs) in 2016 and steps taken to adapt formal and informal education to the increasing heterogeneity of Luxembourg's population. The debate on international protection that arose in 2015 was carried onward in 2016, the focus shifting towards reception, support and integration measures. As the inflow of AIPs remained relatively high in 2016 with 2.043 applications, Luxembourg's Reception and Integration Agency (OLAI) warned throughout the year that the country's structures would soon reach the limits of their capacity. Linked to the high recognition rate, the legal challenges that local residents put to the plans for the construction of new reception facilities and the difficulty of beneficiaries of international protection (BIPs) in finding appropriate accommodation, the perceived dearth of housing was discussed broadly by the public, the media, as well as civil society and political actors. The continued inflow of AIPs also put a strain on the concerned administrations, both in terms of financial and human resources, leading to discussions regarding the duration of procedures and the variations of this duration. Moreover, the question of integration or support measures for beneficiaries and applicants stepped to the forefront: the changed profile of people arriving in Luxembourg posed new challenges to language learning and education for the newly arrived, and overall, emphasised the need to adapt existing and create new integration and support measures for beneficiaries and applicants. At the same time, the role of non-governmental organisations in supporting the government in the reception of applicants and in establishing new projects facilitating their integration also grew over the course of 2016, not least due to over 80 projects being granted funding by the Oeuvre Nationale de Secours Grande Duchesse Charlotte (henceforth Oeuvre). The Luxembourgish Centre for Integration and Social Cohesion (LISKO), part of the Red Cross and supported by convention to the Ministry for Family and Integration opened its doors in April 2016. The newly created centre will take care of the integration of BIPs into Luxembourg's society, putting its emphasis on facilitating access to housing. The planned extension of the maximum period of detention for families with children and unaccompanied minors (UAMs) from 72 hours to 7 days precipitated strong reactions from civil society and the public. Luxembourg furthermore followed through on its resettlement and relocation commitments made in 2015, with 167 persons being relocated from Greece and Italy to Luxembourg and with 52 being resettled in the context of the EU-Turkey agreement over the course of 2016. The adaptation of Luxembourg's legislation in the domain of legal migration also took shape over in 2016 and was broadly debated during the law-making process, while warranting less public attention. With the introduction of one bill, the legislator started the process of transposing Directive 2014/36/EU on seasonal workers and Directive 2014/66/EU on intra-corporate transfers into national law. The same bill furthermore introduced an authorisation of stay for investors, the aspect most commented on by civil society; a mechanism for continuation of activity; detailed the conditions under which a TCN (third country national) corporate officer (mandataire social) can apply for an authorisation of stay, extended the period of validity of the "European Blue Card" residence permit from two to four years, modified dispositions regarding the change of status of students and facilitated family reunification. These developments are to be framed within a wider context of economic diversification, encouragement of entrepreneurship and the repositioning of the financial centre. The reform of the Luxembourgish nationality, another major subject of discussion, was recognised as the best way to counteract Luxembourg's increasing democratic deficit after the electorate's refusal to extend legislative voting rights to foreign residents, decided in the referendum of 2015. This reform further proceeded over the course of 2016, reintroduced the perennial language debate in Luxembourg, a larger debate on the role and status of the Luxembourgish language as well as its relation to integration of migrants into Luxembourgish society. In order to increase foreign residents' participation in the upcoming municipal elections of October 2017, the government launched an awareness campaign encouraging foreign residents to register on the electoral roll, and provided support for organisations wishing to organise complementary actions. The Ministry of National Education and Youth made efforts to find responses to the growing heterogeneity of Luxembourg's population, aiming to diversify and broaden the post-primary school offer, to develop plurilingual education in nurseries and to develop non-formal education by reforming in-kind benefits, this with the aim of promoting integration and equal opportunity. The transposition of Directive 2013/55/EU on the recognition of professional qualifications was also completed in 2016. The law further amended several national provisions, recast the legislation in the field of recognition of diplomas, combined all applicable provisions in a single legislative text and simplified the procedure for recognition. The debate regarding the return of irregular migrants circled around a number of issues in 2016: the exclusion of Kosovar nationals from the AVRRL programme, the Schengen evaluation and the aforementioned resulting changes to provisions on detention, the debate on the enforcement of the EU-Afghanistan 'Joint way forward on migration issues' agreement, as well as the continuation of the elaboration of readmission agreements. Luxembourg's government took further steps in the fight against trafficking in human beings (THB) over the course of 2016. The Council of Government adopted the National Action Plan on trafficking in human beings, which focuses on the detection and protection of victims, the prosecution and punishment of perpetrators and a policy to combat trafficking. Luxembourg's strategy on prostitution was presented, consisting of a National Action Plan on prostitution and a bill strengthening the fight against the exploitation of prostitution, procuring and THB. Additionally, the Consultative Commission on Human Rights (Commission Consultative des Droits de l'Homme – C2DH) published its first report on THB, which reviewed the years 2014-2016. In reference to migration and development, Luxembourg continued putting emphasis on vocational training and integration programmes in its indicative cooperation programmes with partner countries. Additionally, the Council of Government approved the bill on the agreement between the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the Republic of Cape Verde on the concerted management of migratory flows and solidarity-based development, facilitating the movement of persons and to encourage temporary circular professional migration between Luxembourg and Cape Verde.

A large divide in environmental science exists between the developed ("Northern") and developing ("Southern") countries. The latter, mainly located in tropical and subtropical regions, have been neglected as environmental research subjects and have only been marginally involved in generating knowledge and in setting research priorities. Only approximately 6% of all papers published in the most-cited nine environmental science journals from 1993-2003 focused in tropical and subtropical ecosystems. Yet, tropical ecosystems account for 52% of the Earth's surface, are critical to the global carbon and hydrogeological cycles, harbor most of the world's biodiversity, and are a source of valuable renewable and non-renewable resources. This North-South disparity precludes the contribution of research from the South to national and global environmental governance, and limits the visibility of issues that concern the South in the global policy agenda. The Northern bias also results in a narrow, incomplete understanding of environmental systems and biased global environmental assessments. Within this North-South divide, significant knowledge gaps exist in the Tropics regarding the use patterns, properties, fate, transport and effects of pesticides, some of which are even classified as persistent organic pollutants. In the Tropics, pesticides are mainly used for the control of vector-borne diseases endemic to these areas, and as the main method of pest control in conventional agriculture. Pesticide use intensity and frequency is higher in the Tropics as the climates favor increased pest pressure and year-round crop growth. Pesticide use is expected to increase as tropical agricultural lands expand to satisfy the growing worldwide food demand. Several studies in the Tropics have detected pesticide residues in environmental matrices, biota, and humans in non-target sites. However, most of these studies are snapshots that often do not take into account temporal and spatial variability, resulting in scattered insights on pesticide behavior and limiting the ability to assess exposure. This thesis seeks to contribute to narrowing the North-South knowledge divide by coupling monitoring data with dynamic multimedia models to investigate the environmental fate and transport of pesticides used for health-care and agricultural purposes in the Tropics. The research presented herein capitalizes on the existing knowledge base in the South on chemical behavior, including grey literature and the field experience of Southern collaborators, and builds up on it through suitable approaches developed in the North, namely multimedia models. The first case study presented in this thesis addresses the cycling of a legacy pesticide used for malaria vector control in a remote community in the Brazilian Amazon, which relies on local sources of water and food. In Brazil, DDT was officially used for indoor residual spraying (IRS) against malaria and leishmaniasis from the 1960s up to a ban in 1998. In the community of Lake Puruzinho, DDT levels measured in human breastmilk in 2004 were significantly higher than WHO recommendations, and than those measured in neighboring communities with a similar history of DDT use for IRS. To investigate the fate of DDT and its transformation products in Puruzinho and to assess environmental exposure, soil and sediment measurements were conducted from 2005-2014 and a dynamic multimedia floodplain model was developed. The daily-resolved model takes into account the variable lake water levels, rainfall, and changes in emissions patterns based on legislation. Model results and measurements showed that DDT and its metabolites, DDE, and DDD (collectively, DDX), accumulate mainly in upland soils and sediments. Measurements show significant increases of DDX levels in the soil from 2005-2014 in association with decreasing DDE/DDT ratios, which disagree with model results assuming that DDT use ceases after 1998. This comparison and the availability of DDT stockpiles in the region suggest that post-ban DDT emissions are very likely, so two additional scenarios were tested: one assuming DDT use for IRS after a malaria upsurge, and another assuming its use against leishmaniasis and termites. Under both re-emissions scenarios, model results for DDX concentrations and DDE/DDT in soils agree with measurements, while those in sediments were between the two re-emissions scenarios. The model-measurement agreement in soils suggests that the fractions of formation and half-lives used to describe degradation in soil were adequate in the model. Further sediment measurements and research to refine highly uncertain parameters associated with degradation and partitioning in sediments are required to improve the model's representation of DDX cycling. The second case study addresses the fate and transport of pesticides currently used for banana and pineapple cultivation in the Caño Azul River drainage basin in Costa Rica, the world's 3rd largest banana producer. Pesticide monitoring programs in Europe and the United States, the main importers of Costa Rican bananas, show that residues in bananas are not of concern to consumer health. However, in banana-producing regions of Costa Rica, located mainly on the Caribbean Coast, pesticides have repeatedly been detected in rivers, canals, and wetlands, at levels associated with negative acute and chronic effects on aquatic organisms. Pesticide concentrations above USEPA recommendations for chronic exposure have also been detected in children and pregnant women living in the vicinity of banana plantations. Most studies on pesticide residues in the Costa Rican environment are scattered in time and space, which prevents adequate exposure assessments given the variable pesticide use patterns and characteristic pesticide pulses observed in surface waters. To capture these dynamics, a multimedia model was developed for the Caño Azul River drainage basin, which is influenced by two banana plantations and one pineapple plantation, and where pesticide measurements in water and air were available for model validation. The model estimates concentrations of three representative chemicals—the herbicide diuron, the nematicide ethoprofos, and the fungicide epoxiconazole—in water, air, soil, sediments, and banana plants. Model results show highly variable concentrations in water, with peaks that are driven by rainfall and emissions and that sometimes exceed thresholds for ecosystem health. Conversely, concentrations in the fruit remain below the EU and US maximum residue limits. Model improvements to better estimate pesticide concentrations include fine-tuning sediment dynamics and incorporating the impact of adjuvants on the properties of active ingredients. The models developed here have a flexible design, so additional processes and compartments can be incorporated as new insights are gained into pesticide partitioning, degradation, and mass transfer processes in the Tropics, perhaps in response to the research calls within this thesis. Upon further validation, the models can be used to evaluate the environmental fate of pesticides proposed as alternatives and of problematic degradation products of existing chemicals. They can also be used to assess environmental exposure to pesticides that have not been measured in the environment due to analytical limitations, yet are widely used, such as fungicide mancozeb in banana cultivation. It is important to note that even though multimedia models are valuable decision support tools for identifying opportunities to reduce pesticide exposure and transfer to non-target sites, they should complement pesticide safe handling and use practices suitable for the Tropics, and strategies to minimize pesticide use such as integrated pest management.

The topic of this dissertation is the maritime strategy of four regional powers – China, India, Iran, and Brazil – from 2001 to 2015. These are regional powers by virtue of their prominence in military power, influence, and economics in their given region, but are also rising powers that have greatly increased the size of their armed forces and accelerated the modernization of said armed forces since the end of the Cold War and the post-9/11 era. The purpose of the dissertation is to test the explanatory power of neoclassical realism regarding the growth of the maritime power and the shape of maritime strategy in these four regional powers. Neoclassical realism is a strand of realist theory that accepts the neorealist dictum that the systemic balance of power is the chief explanatory variable in the international system and relations between states, but also introduces state-level intervening variables, in effect unpacking the monolithic "black box of the state" as posited by earlier types of realism. Thus neoclassical realism bridges the gap between realism and foreign policy analysis. The dissertation tests two neoclassical models. The first is Lobell's complex threat assessment model, which posits that a state's foreign policy executive is far more sensitive to sudden shifts in power rather than broad trends, and that this executive balances threats at the international, regional and domestic levels. Furthermore, it may only effectively balance in the presence of a foreign policy coalition composed of domestic elites. The second is Taliaferro's model of the resource extractive state. This model posits that each state has a certain capacity to extract or mobilize resources from its territory, defined as state power. Furthermore, each state faces a certain level of threat determined by distance, intent, and offensive capabilities. Thus, states choose different approaches in dealing with rivals. States with high state power and high threat emulate the most successful states in the international system, states with high state power and low threat innovate for the far future, and all other states persist in existing strategies, unwilling or unmotivated to do more. Modern maritime theory has three broad classes of strategy. The most basic is coastal defense, which uses few resources and contents itself with protecting the shore and fulfilling constabulary duties; this strategy requires few ships and specialized systems, and corresponds to a strategy of persistence in Taliaferro's model. Next up is sea control, which focuses on defeating the enemy, gaining control of the sea, and projecting power ashore. This strategy is based on carriers and a powerful surface navy, and it corresponds to a strategy of emulation, as it copies American maritime strategy. Finally there is sea denial, which seeks to deny access to large tracts of ocean to opposing forces using submarines and long-range aircraft. This is a strategy of innovation, as it draws upon entirely new technologies and institutions. In the analysis, Brazil and India were found to pursue emulatory strategies, while China and Iran, focused upon the perceived threat of superior American power projection, and chose to implement sea denial and thus innovative strategies, much like the Soviet Union and interwar Germany did before when faced with superior maritime power. Furthermore, the Brazilian foreign policy executive was constrained in implementing its chosen strategy, as elites deserted it in the wake of recession and corruption scandals starting in 2010. Thus a strong level of support was found for Lobell's method, but significantly less so for Taliaferro's, as states with high state power and high threat were actually likely to adopt innovation, especially in the case of continental powers facing a superior maritime rival. Aside from testing the models, there are a number of other valuable conclusions. Prestige remains a very valid motivation for foreign policy, and maritime power remains the premier choice for regional powers to express their new status, though today that is less through gunboat diplomacy and more through humanitarian intervention and peacekeeping. Furthermore, if prestige maximization does not tempt a state to "overbalance", the lure of industrialization through military modernization might. This is most evident in China, where advances in electronics and other industrial fields are driven through dual-use technology and the promotion of an advanced military, especially the navy and naval aviation. ; Thema dieser Dissertation sind die maritimen Strategien von vier Regionalmächten - China, Indien, Iran und Brasilien - von 2001 bis 2015. Bei diesen Staaten handelt es sich aufgrund ihrer herausgehobenen regionalen militärischen, politischen und wirtschaftlichen Stellung um Regionalmächte, gleichzeitig aber auch um aufsteigende Mächte, die seit dem Ende des Kalten Krieges ihre Streitkräfte umfassend aufgestockt und modernisiert haben. Ziel der Dissertation ist die Untersuchung der Erklärungskraft des Neoklassischen Realismus für den Anstieg der Seemacht und die Ausgestaltung der maritimen Strategien dieser vier Regionalmächte. Bei Neoklassischem Realismus handelt es sich um eine Variante der Theorie des Realismus in den Internationalen Beziehungen, die das Neorealistische Diktum systemischen Machtgleichgewichts als Haupterklärungsvariable für XYZ akzeptiert, gleichzeitig aber auch intervenierende Variablen auf Länderebene einführt, wodurch die von älteren Spielarten des Realismus' postulierte "Black Box" staatlichen Handelns der Untersuchung geöffnet wird. Hierdurch wird die Lücke zwischen Realismus und außenpolitischer Analyse geschlossen. Die Dissertation untersucht zwei Neoklassische Modelle. Beim ersten handelt es sich um das Modell der komplexen Bedrohungseinschätzung nach Lobell, demzufolge die außenpolitische Führung eines Staates weitaus sensibler für plötzliche Machtverschiebungen als für allgemeine Trends ist, und zudem Bedrohungen auf internationaler, regionaler und innenpolitischer Ebene austariert. Zudem kann eine solche Reaktion auch nur erfolgen, wenn eine von innerstaatlichen Eliten gebildete außenpolitische Koalition existiert. Beim zweiten verwendeten Modell handelt es sich um Taliaferros Konzept des ressourcenextrahierenden Staats. Diesem Modell zufolge hat jeder Staat eine gewisse Kapazität, Ressourcen aus seinem Territorium zu gewinnen oder zu mobilisieren, was als staatliche Macht definiert wird. Weiterhin sieht sich jeder Staat einer gewissen Bedrohung durch andere Staaten ausgesetzt, die sich aus deren Offensivkapazitäten, ihrer Distanz, und der Einschätzung ihrer Absichten ergeben. Als Folge wählen Staaten unterschiedliche Ansätze, um sich Rivalen zu erwehren: Staaten mit großem Machtpotential und hohen direkten Bedrohungen emulieren die erfolgreichsten Staaten im internationalen System, Staaten mit großem Machtpotential und niedriger Bedrohungslage prägen innovative, zukunftsgerichtete Strategien, und alle anderen beharren auf ihren bestehenden Strategien, da sie nicht willens oder in der Lage sind, diese zu ändern. Analog hierzu nennt die moderne Maritime Theorie nennt drei Arten von Strategien. Die grundlegendste ist die Küstenverteidigung, die wenig Ressourcen benötigt und sich damit begnügt, die Küste zu schützen und Polizeiaufgaben wahrzunehmen; diese Strategie benötigt wenige Schiffe oder Spezialsysteme und korrespondiert damit der Strategie des "Beharrens" in Taliaferros Modell. Etwas anspruchsvoller ist die Seekontrolle, die sich auf das Besiegen des Gegners, der Gewinnung von Kontrolle über die See, und der Machtprojektion in Küstengebieten konzentriert. Diese Strategie basiert auf dem Einsatz von Flugzeugträgern und einer mächtigen Eskorte und korrespondiert der "Emulation" des derzeitigen Ansatzes der US-Marine. Schließlich steht auch eine sogenannte "Denial"-Strategie zur Auswahl, die darauf abzielt, durch den Einsatz von Unterseebooten und Langstreckenraketen gegnerischen Kräften den Zugang zur See zu verwehren. Hierbei handelt es sich um eine innovative Strategie, die sich neuen Technologien und Institutionen bedient. Auf Grundlage der Untersuchung zieht die Dissertation den Schluss, dass Brasilien und Indien eine Strategie der Emulation verfolgen, wohingegen sich China und Iran angesichts der wahrgenommenen Bedrohung einer überlegenen amerikanischen Kapazität zur Machtprojektion auf die Implementation einer innovativen "Denial"-Strategie verlegten, was dem Verhalten der Sowjetunion und Deutschlands zwischen den Weltkriegen gleicht. Außerdem war die außenpolitische Führung Brasiliens in der Implementierung ihrer bevorzugten Strategie eigeschränkt, da sich innenpolitische Eliten seit 2010 in der Folge einer Rezession und Korruptionsskandalen von ihr abwandten. Demzufolge stützt die Untersuchung die Annahmen des Lobellschen Modells, jedoch weniger der von Taliaferro vorgeschlagenen Alternative, da Staaten mit großen Machtpotential und hoher Gefährdung sich tatsächlich für die Ausübung von Innovation entschieden, besonders im Falle von Kontinentalmächten, die sich einen überlegenen Gegner zur See gegenübersahen. Neben der Überprüfung dieser Modelle lassen sich eine Reihe weiterer, wertvoller Schlüsse ziehen: Prestigegewinn bleibt eine hochrelevante Motivation der Außenpolitik, und der Aufbau einer Flotte bleibt die erste Wahl, durch die Regionalmächte ihren neugewonnenen Status zur Schau stellen, auch wenn dies heutzutage nicht mehr durch "Kanonenbootdiplomatie", sondern durch humanitäre Interventionen und Friedenssicherung stattfindet. Und auch wenn die Maximierung des eigenen Prestiges einen Staat nicht zu überzogenen Reaktionen auf äußere Bedrohungen verleitet, so könnte dies dennoch durch den Anreiz einer Industrialisierung durch militärische Modernisierung geschehen. Dies wird besonders im Falle Chinas deutlich, wo Innovationen in der Elektrotechnik und anderen Industriezweigen durch militärisch nutzbare Technologien und den Aufbau fortgeschrittener Streitkräfte verfolgt werden, besonders der Marine und der seegestützten Luftstreitkräfte.

Alfred Mahlau (1894-1967) - Maler, Grafiker und Dozent Der erfolgreiche Künstler und Dozent Alfred Mahlau zeichnete sich durch seine Vielfalt in der Freien und Angewandten Kunst und seine langjährige Lehrtätigkeit an der Hamburger Hochschule für Bildende Künste aus. Er wurde am 21.6.1894 in Berlin geboren und beendete im Jahre 1919 seine Ausbildung als Zeichenlehrer für Höhere Schulen. Als ein historischer Zeitzeuge erlebte Alfred Mahlau das wechselhafte 20.Jahrhundert mit dem Ende der Kaiserzeit, den beiden Weltkriegen, als russischer Kriegsgefangener und den Nachkriegsjahren in Hamburg. Die Gründungsjahre der Bundesrepublik Deutschland erfuhr er als Dozent an der Hamburger Landeskunstschule. Seine traumatischen Kriegserlebnisse verdrängte er und zählte damit zur sogenannten "schweigsamen Generation". Bereits im Jahre 1919 arbeitete Alfred Mahlau als "Freier Künstler". Ein Plakatentwurf für die "Nordische Woche" im Jahre 1921 offenbarte seine Begabung in der Angewandten Kunst. Zunächst noch widerstrebend, nahm er sein grafisches Talent an und gestaltete als Gebrauchsgrafiker in den folgenden Jahrzehnten ästhetische, werbewirksame Entwürfe auf den unterschiedlichsten Gegenständen und Materialien. Seine Erfolge als Werbegrafiker, Textil-, Produkt- und Industriedesigner, dehnte er auf die Innenarchitektur und die Bühnenbildnerei aus. Zahlreiche zeitlose "corporate designs" für Unternehmen - unter anderem für die Schwartauer Marmeladenfabrik oder JGN-Niederegger ab 1924 - zeugen bis heute von seiner Arbeit. Der Künstler war ein Pionier, der seit den 20er Jahren die Ideale des Deutschen Werkbundes in seiner angewandten Kunst aufnahm und die neuentdeckten technischen Möglichkeiten in vielfältiger Weise - sogar für den Film - nutzbringend einsetzte. Alfred Mahlaus Freie Kunst zeichnete sich durch kleinformatige, realistisch-idealisierten Reise- und Landschaftsdarstellungen seiner "Weiten Welt" und detailreichen Stillleben seiner "Nahen Welt" aus. Als Wander- und Reisemaler entwickelte er schon in den 20er Jahren seine Technik der lavierten Federzeichnung. Mit seinen Motiven strebte eine intuitive, "in situ" festgehaltene Momentaufnahme seiner aquarellierten Szenen an; die Linie dienten ihm als strukturierendes Element. Bis an sein Lebensende hielt der Sezessionist kompromisslos an dieser Technik fest, die er für "bewährt" und zeitlos erachtete. Er strebte eine ästhetische Perfektionierung seines Zeichenstils an. Ungeachtet seiner Erfolge blieben dem bescheidenen, zurückhaltenden Künstler avantgardistische Charakterzüge und eine Kunst als Selbstzweck fremd. Von dem Einfluss moderner Kunstrichtungen, dem wechselhaften eigenen Schicksal und dem seiner Epoche, hielt der Künstler sich möglichst fern. Es ist kein Zufall, dass sich Alfred Mahlaus romantisch-idealisierten Landschaftszeichnungen und seine neosachliche Gebrauchsgrafik in das Ideal der "Neue Deutsche Kunst" einfügten. In 624 der NS-Epoche wurde er in die "Gottbegnadetenliste" aufgenommen und vom Kriegesdienst befreit. In dieser Zeit schwankte der Künstler beständig zwischen den Ängsten um seine Familie - einer halbjüdischen Frau und einer behinderten Tochter - und seinem beruflichen Ehrgeiz. Während der letzten Kriegsmonate 1944/1945 erhielt er die Erlaubnis die zerstörte Hauptstadt Berlin "in situ" zu zeichnen. Mit diesen Zeitdokumenten bewies er sein Talent als ein historischer Chronist, die Ruinenzeichnungen sind jedoch verschollen. In den Nachkriegsjahren gelang es Alfred Mahlau mit seinem realistischen Zeichenstil nicht, an die zeitgenössischen Strömungen in der Malerei anzuknüpfen. Seine Arbeiten wurden zu "Nebenpfaden", sie wirkten altmeisterlich und antimodern. Erst mit zeitlicher Distanz wird sich zeigen, inwieweit seine Arbeiten dieser Zeitströmungen innerhalb in die Kunstgeschichte eingeordnet werden können. Eine Revision der Auffassung in der Malerei kann nur von zukünftigen Generationen erfolgen. Alfred Mahlaus übernahm nach seiner Rückkehr aus der Kriegsgefangenschaft im Jahre 1946 als Dozent die Leitung einer Freien Grafikklasse an der Hamburger Landeskunstschule. Hier gelang es ihm seine pädagogische Begabung mit seiner Freien und Angewandten Kunst zu verknüpfen. Sein praxisnaher Unterricht ebnete mittels Naturstudien und öffentlichen Aufträgen einer ganzen Generation junger Künstler den Weg in die gebrauchsgraphische Arbeitswelt. Im Jahre 1955 wurde Alfred Mahlau zum Professor ernannt, zeitweise leitete er die Hochschule für Bildende Künste kommissarisch. Als ein unvergessenes Vorbild vermittelte er mit seiner Ästhetik und Disziplin den nachfolgenden Künstlergenerationen wertvolle Impulse, die bis heute nachwirken: Die schwächsten Schüler sammelten Erfahrungen für einen mehr praktisch orientierten künstlerischen Beruf, den Begabtesten bot sein Unterricht ein Fundament für die eigene künstlerische Entwicklung auf dem Weg in das Freie Künstlertum. Zahlreiche Schüler führten sein Werk fort, sie wurden Lehrer oder Dozenten, andere beschritten eigene künstlerische Wege, darunter Horst Janssen, Vicco von Bülow, Peter Neugebauer, Heino Jäger, Ekkehard Thieme und andere. Im Jahre 1959 beendete Alfred Mahlau seine Tätigkeit an der Hamburger Hochschule für Bildende Künste. Geprägt durch eine schwere Krankheit litt er unter seiner schwindenden Schaffenkraft. Er verstarb am 22. Januar 1967. Seither würdigten eine Vielzahl von Retrospektiven, Einzel- und Gemeinschaftsausstellungen - mit oder ohne seine ehemaligen Schüler - Alfred Mahlaus Werke. Die Faszination für Alfred Mahlaus ästhetisch-zeitlose Kunst dauert bis heute an. ; Alfred Mahlau (1894-1967) - Painter, graphic-designer and teacher Alfred Mahlau was a creative, multi-talented and generally gifted artist, who is still underestimated in the art-history of the 20th. Century. Born in Berlin in June 1894, he survived both World War 1. and World War 2. as a veteran. He never talked about his experiences and belongs to the so called "silent generation." As a quiet, sensitive and decent person without narcissistic traits, he prefered to offer his talents towards a common interest. As a realistic, accomplished painter, creative graphic designer and disciplined teacher, he inspired many generations of artists. Alfred Mahlau was a passionate freelance artist, a popular arts-and-crafts designer, and a teacher and a writer as well who managed to combine a variety of creative techniques and styles in his work. His talent as a graphic-designer was discovered after he won a poster-competition for the "Nordische Woche" in Lübeck 1921. In the following years he developed popular advertisements, posters and illustrations, worked as a set- and interior-designer, painted murals and walls, worked as a textile-designer, a product- and industrial designer and in other artistic fields. Alfred Mahlau's talent in decorating all kinds of objects and materials distinguished him as an extraordinary graphic-designer. Furthermore he was one of the first graphic-designers to develop an integrated "corporate-design" for different companies, especially local firms around Lübeck and Hamburg. Early in the 20th Century he created the "corporate identities" for "JGN-Niederegger" or the "Schwartauer Werke" in Lübeck, which have been popular ever since. He was also a pioneer where the century's technical advancements were concerned, and managed to express and realize his creative ideas in many different shapes and forms, including in movies. Among his sublime paintings you'll find many neo-romantic, ideal landscapes and sensitive still-lifes. As a travelling artist he developed his own characteristic style of coloured penand- ink drawings. He focused on representational drawings with structured lines to control and focus his work. After he established his very own way of working he never changed his style again, no matter the contemporary art-styles, his personal faith or political events. He was passionate to make every drawing a perfect masterpiece. During World War 2. his art was very famous, his neo-romantic paintings and objective graphic-designs were in tune with the "New German Art" style. He became a member of the "Gottbegnadeten-list". In his personal life he was caught between the fear about his family - a partly Jewish wife and a mental-handicapped daughter - and his artistic success. Nonetheless he managed to draw a series of the ruins in Berlin 1944/45 as a very objective, dispassionate historical source. In a world focused on abstract modern art, his traditional style was soon out of fashion. His resolution and commitment to his own ways could be 626 seen as his personal manifest against the fast changing fashions in art. Therefore only future generations may find a place for Alfred Mahlau's paintings in art history. After the second World War he went on to become head of a graphic-design class at the reopened "Hamburger Landeskunstschule". In the following years he was a well established lecturer - since 1955 he held the title of professor - who was constantly supportive of his students and the demands of the school. He combined didactics with his experiences from his painting and his arts-and-craft work. His teachings on nature-studies and practical commissions from companies or private customers enabled his students to get some realistic experiences in the field of graphic-design. As an outstanding example he used his discipline and reliability to support the students to find jobs as graphic-designers, while enabling the most talented artists in his class to develop their own style. A lot of his students went on to become lecturers themselves, and his class produced some extraordinary talents including Horst Janssen, Vicco von Bülow, Peter Neugebauer, Heino Jäger and many others. After 13 years of teaching he left the "Hamburger Hochschule für Bildende Künste" and retired. He died after a long period of illness in January 1967 in Hamburg. Since then, different smaller or extensive retrospective exhibitions, with or without his former students, have been on display. The fascination with Alfred Mahlau's timeless work still remains to this day.

Denne ph.d.- afhandling undersøger potentialet for en kontekstuel tilgang til energi politiker målrettet private husholdninger. De fem kapitler af afhandlingen består af en introduktion der motiverer afhandlingen samt danner et overblik over de inkluderede kapitler med en fælles konklusion, tre artikel-baserede kapitler tiltænkt publicering, og et metodeafsnit omhandlende udvidelser til den eksisterende sampleSelection pakke til det statistiske programme R. Afhandlingens hovedbidrag er primært til energipolitikker og {økonomisk litteratur, men dens bidrag er også relevant for beslægtede discipliner som; socialvidenskab, ingeniørkunst og psykologi. Da husholdninger udgør 25 procent af EU's samlede energiforbrug spiller energieeffektivisering af disse en vital rolle i opfyldelsen af EU's klimamål. Nybyggeri i EU udgør kun 1 procent, hvorved hovedparten af energieffektivisering skal realiseres energirenovationer samt adfærdsændringer. Resultater af incitamentsprogrammer fra de sidste årtier har været blandet, og vist at husholdninger er svære at in uere end hidtil antaget. Dette har ledt til en opfattelse af et "Energy Effciency Gap", som beskriver en situation hvori husholdninger er uvidende om de økonomiske besparelser som kan opnås via investering i energirenovering. Nyere studier indikerer at det økonomiske potentiale i husholdninger er overvurderet. Uagtet manglende konsensus om eksistensen af "Energy Effciency Gap", kan en pragmatisk kontekstuel tilgang med fokus på barriere ved- og fortalere for energirenovering være en farbar retning. Denne afhandling anvender forskellige metoder til at undersøge kontekst som ind ydelse på succes af energiincitamenter målrettet private husholdninger. En meta-analyse baseret på eksisterende litteratur, samt data analyse af afsluttede incitamenter, inklusive data fra afsluttet energirevisionsprogram fra Region Syddanmark, samt et nyt eksperimentelt økonomisk design har dannet baggrund for resultaterne. Den første analyse indikerer en positiv korrelation af indkomst, alder samt uddan nelsesniveau på en husholdnings tilbøjelighed til at udføre energirenoveringer, mens husstandstørrelsen har en negativ ind ydelse. Disse indikatorer er kun delvist signikante grundet begrænset sammenlignelig viden, hvilket understreger nødvendigheden af empiriske studier. Anden analyse viser at visse ændringer i livssituation/levebetingelser øger husholdningers villighed til energirådgivning og investering. Særligt nder vi at ytning og påbegyndelse af pension øger husholdningers villighed til at deltage i gratis energirådgivning, mens at blive gift og ytning korrelerer med husholdningers villighed til at investere. Dette indikerer muligheder for at målrette incitamentsprogrammer til speciffikke husholdninger ved rettidig kontakt til husholdninger. Den afsluttende analyse undersøger potentiallet for "spillover" effekter fremkaldt af indsatser specielt rettet mod adfærd, eksempelvis ved interventioner rettet mod specifik adfærd kan afføde anden positiv og negativ adfærd. I et økonomisk eksperiment finder vi evidens for positiv "spillover" fra sociale normer. Hovedbidragene fra denne analyse skal findes i nyt eksperimentelt design udviklet til systematisk analyse af "spillover" effekter. Overordnet set indikere resultaterne i denne afhandling at en mere kontekstuel tilgang til incitamenter, åbner for hvor husstandens aktuelle forhold som; socio-økonomi, signikante ændringer livssituation eller andet, kan bruges som motivation for energirenovering. Afhandlingens resultater er relevante for "policy design" men dens hovedbidrag omhandler "future policy" da den fremhæver nødvendigheden mere strukturerede energi incitaments forskning med større forankring i eksperimentelle metoder. ; This cumulative PhD thesis explores the potential of a more contextual approach for energy policies targeted at private households. The ve chapters of the thesis consist of an introduction, which motivates the thesis and gives a brief summary of the chapters with a joint conclusion, three paper-based chapters intended for publication, and a methodological chapter for an extension of the existing sampleSelection package in the statistics programme R. The thesis mainly contributes to the energy policy and economics literature, but it is also relevant to related disciplines, such as other social sciences, engineering, and psychology. Energy savings in private households play an important role in achieving reduction targets for the European Union and its member states, as the residential sector constitutes about 25 percent of total nal energy consumption. As only 1 percent is added to the building stock in new housing per year in the EU, the majority of savings must be realized through retrotting and changes in consumption habits. Evidence from policy programs in the last couple of decades has been mixed and it appears that households are harder to reach than previously thought. This has led to the perception that there is an Energy Efficiency Gap, describing a situation in which households are not aware of the nancial savings they could achieve by investing in more energy efficient technologies. However, more recent evidence indicates that the nancial potentials at the household level may have been overstated. While there is still no consensus on whether there is an Energy Efficiency Gap, a pragmatic way forward suggests a more contextual approach that pays closer attention to barriers and promoters of energy efficiency in private homes. Against this background, the thesis applies dierent methodologies to investigate the role of context in energy policies targeted at private households: a meta-analysis drawing on existing evidence in the literature, an ex-post policy analysis based on data from an energy audit programme in Southern Denmark, and a novel experimental economic framework. The rst analysis provides indicative evidence that income, age, and education positively in uence a household's propensity to invest, while household size has a negative effect. However, these ndings are only partly signicant due to a limited base of comparable evidence, highlighting a need for compatibility in empirical studies, and more repetition studies. The second analysis shows that changes in certain life situations increase the propensity for households to have an audit and make energy investments; specically we nd that moving and retiring make households more likely to join a free energy audit programme, while getting married and moving correlates with higher investments. This indicates opportunities to develop more efficient policy programmes that depend on a household response, by reaching out to households at a time when they are more likely to be encouraged. The nal analysis investigates potential spillover eects induced by behavioural policy interventions, i.e. when an intervention aimed at one behaviour may also aect another behaviour positively or negatively. In an economic experiment we nd evidence for a positive spillover induced by a social norms based intervention, but the primary contribution of this part of the thesis is the novel experimental framework developed for the purpose of a systematic analysis of spillovers. Overall, the results of this thesis indicate that a more contextual policy approach holds promise to encourage energy eciency improvements and savings by incorporating the context in which decisions are made, be it the socio-economic circumstances, changes in life situation, or the decision environment. Although the insights generated by the thesis are also relevant for policy design, its main contributions are to future policy research, as it highlights the need for energy policy research to be put on a more robust and evidence-based foundation, mainly through increased application of experimental methods.

The text analyses the intelligence activity against Poland in the period 1944-1989. The paper also contains a case study, i.e. an analysis of the American intelligence service activity held against Poland. While examining the research thesis, the author used the documents and analyses prepared by the Ministry of Internal Affairs. In order to best illustrate the point, the author presented a number of cases of persons who spied for the USA, which was possible thanks to the analysis of the training materials of the Ministry of Internal Affairs directed to the officers of the Security Service and the Citizens' Militia. The text tackles the following issues: (1) to what extent did the character of the socio-political system influence the number of persons convicted for espionage against Poland in the period under examination?, (2) what was the level of interest of the foreign intelligence services in Poland before the year 1990?, (3) is it possible to indicate the specificity of the U.S. intelligence activity against Poland? 1) The analysis of data indicates that the period 1946-1956 witnessed a great number of convictions for espionage, which is often associated with the peculiar political situation in Poland of that time. Up to 1953, the countries of the Eastern bloc had reproduced the Stalin's system, which only ceased due to the death of Stalin himself. Since then, the communist systems gradually transformed into the system of nomenklatura. Irrespective of these changes, Poland still witnessed a wave of repressions, which resulted from the threats continuously looming over the communist authorities – combating the anti-communist underground movement, fighting with the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, the Polish government-in-exile, possible revisionism of borders, social discontent related to the socio-political reforms. Hence, a great number of convictions for espionage at that time could be ascribed to purely political sentences. Moreover, equally significant was the fact that the then judicial practice was preoccupied assessing negatively any contacts and relations with foreigners. This excessive number of convictions could ensue from other criminal-law provisions, which applied with respect to the crimes against the State, including espionage. What is also important is the fact that in the Stalin's period the judiciary personnel acquired their skills and qualifications through intensive courses in law with the predominant spirit of the theory of evidence and law by Andrey Vyshinsky. Additionally, by the decree of 1944 the Penal Code of the Polish Armed Forces was introduced; the code envisaged the increase in the number of offences classified as penalised with death penalty, whereas the high treason was subject to the military jurisdiction (the civilians were prosecuted in military courts till 1955; the espionage, however, still stood under the military jurisdiction). In 1946, there was introduced the Decree on particularly dangerous crimes in the period of the State's recovery, which was later called a Small Penal Code. 2) The interest that foreign intelligence services expressed in relation to Poland was similar to the one they had in all countries of Eastern and Central Europe. In the case of Poland, it should be noted that foreign intelligence services recruited Polish citizens who had previously stayed abroad and after WWII returned to their home country. The services also gathered information from Poles staying in immigrant camps (e.g. in FRG). The activity of the American intelligence service on the territory of FRG and West Berlin played a key role. The documents of the Ministry of Internal Affairs pointed to the global range of this activity, e.g. through the recruitment of Polish sailors in the ports of the Netherlands, Japan, etc. In line with the development in the 1970s, espionage, which had so far concentrated on the defence and strategic sectors, became focused on science and technology of the People's Republic of Poland. The acquisition of collaborators in academic circles was much easier, as PRL opened to academic exchange. Due to the system of visas, the process of candidate selection for intelligence services (e.g. the American) began in embassies. In the 1980s, the activity of the foreign intelligence services concentrated on the specific political situation in Poland, i.e. the growing significance of the "Solidarity" social movement. 3) The specificity of the American intelligence activity against Poland was related to the composition of the residency staff, which was the largest in comparison to other Western countries. The wide range of these activities can be proved by the quantitative data of convictions for espionage in the years 1944-1984 (however, one has to bear in mind the factors mentioned earlier in the text, which led to the misinterpretation of these data). Analysing the data and the documents prepared by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, one should treat them with caution, as, frequently, the Polish counter-intelligence service used to classify the ordinary diplomatic practice and any contacts with foreigners as espionage threats. It is clearly visible in the language of the training materials concerned with "secret service methods of the intelligence activity" as well as in the documents on operational activities of the Security Service in relation to foreigners. The level of interest the USA had in Poland was mirrored in the classification of diplomatic posts, according to which Warsaw occupied the second place (the so-called Group "B") on the three-point scale. The CIA experienced spectacular defeats during their activity in Poland: supporting the Polish underground anti-communist organisation Freedom and Independence and the so-called Munich-Berg episode (both cases took place in the 1950s). The text focuses only on selected issues related to the espionage activities against Poland. Similarly, the analysis of the problem has been based on selected sources, which has limited the research scope - however, it was not the aim of the author to present the espionage activity against Poland in a comprehensive way. In order to assess the real threat posed by the espionage activity, one should analyse the case of persons convicted for espionage in the period 1944-1989, as the available quantitative data, mentioned in the text, cannot constitute an explicit benchmark for the scale of espionage activity. The inaccuracies in the interpretation of data and variables, which can affect the evaluation of this phenomenon, have been pointed out in the text. ; The text is treats of the espionage against Poland in the period 1944-1989. The above analysis has been supplemented with the quantitative data from the period 1944-1984 as regards those convicted for participating in, acting for, and passing on information to the foreign intelligence agencies. The espionage issues were presented on the example of the American intelligence activity, which was illustrated by the cases of persons who were convicted for espionage. While examining the research thesis, the author used the documents and analyses prepared by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, which were in its major part addressed to the Security Service and the Citizens' Militia officers. The author made an attempt at the verification of the following research hypotheses: (1) to what extent did the character of the socio-political system influence the number of persons convicted for espionage against Poland in the period under examination (1944-1989)?, (2) what was the level of foreign intelligence services' interest in Poland before the year 1990?, (3) is it possible to indicate the specificity of the U.S. intelligence activity against Poland?