Background International agencies such as the World Health Organisation have highlighted the potential of digital information and communications technologies to strengthen health systems, which are underpinned by the 'building blocks' of information, human resources, finances, commodities, leadership and governance, and service delivery. In high income countries, evidence of the positive impacts of 'eHealth' innovations on the cost-effectiveness of healthcare is growing and many governments are now providing incentives for their adoption. In contrast, the use of eHealth in developing countries has remained low and efforts to introduce these new approaches have experienced high failure rates. There is even scepticism regarding the feasibility of eHealth in low-resource settings, which may be hindered by high costs, indeterminate returns on investment, technical problems and socio-organisational barriers. More research is needed to document both the value of eHealth for strengthening resource-limited health systems and the challenges involved in their implementation and adoption, so that insights from such research may be used to inform future initiatives. While many studies of eHealth for patient care in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) are taking place, evidence of its role in improving administrative processes such as financial management is lacking, despite the importance of 'good governance' (transparency and accountability) for ensuring strong and resilient health systems. The overall objective of this PhD was to elucidate the enablers, inhibitors and outcomes characterising the implementation and adoption of a modular eHealth system in a group of healthcare facilities in rural Malawi. The system included both clinical and billing modules. The specific objectives were (i) to understand the socio-technical, organisational and change management factors facilitating or hindering the implementation and adoption of the eHealth system, (ii) to assess the quality of data captured by the eHealth system compared with conventional paper-based records, and (iii) to understand how information within the eHealth system was used for service delivery, reporting and financial management. A further aim was to contribute to the corpus of mixed-methods case studies exploring eHealth system implementation processes and outcomes (including data quality) in LMIC. As described in the following chapters, the research also gave rise to unanticipated and serendipitous findings, which led to new lines of enquiry and influenced the theoretical perspectives from which the analysis drew. Methods Mixed-methods case study was used for the research, taking a 'soft-positivist' approach to analysis, which encompasses both inductive and deductive forms of enquiry. Two case studies were undertaken in rural Malawi: one at a 300-bed fee-for-service hospital, and the other at nine primary care health centres that surround the hospital. At the outset of the research, the 'logic model' underpinning the eHealth system implementation programme was mapped, based on formative scoping to articulate the goals and intentions of those commissioning and supplying the eHealth system, along with literature-informed theory. This provided a framework against which to evaluate the processes and outcomes of eHealth system implementation at the ten facilities. For the hospital case study (Case Study 1), a retrospective single-case embedded design was employed, with outpatient and inpatient departments being the two units of analysis. Qualitative data included document review and in-depth key informant interviews, while quantitative data was obtained from the web-based District Health Information System (DHIS2), patient files and the hospital's finance records. For the study of primary health centres (Case Study 2), a single-case embedded design was also used, with the rollout project as the case and the three units of analysis being 3 Early Adopter Facilities, 4 Late Majority facilities and 2 Laggard facilities. This case study used a prospective design, with data being collected 7 months and 24 months after implementation of the eHealth system due to a mismatch between the independent eHealth implementation project and the PhD research. Data sources included documentation screened against the criteria listed in the Performance of Routine Information System Management (PRISM) tools, information extracted from the eHealth system, health indicators drawn from DHIS2 and qualitative data from focus group discussions. In both case studies, framework analysis was used for qualitative data, while quantitative data was analysed by calculating data completeness, accuracy and agreement. Descriptive statistics and the Mann-Whitney U-test were used for analysing finance data in Case Study 1. Content analysis was also used to gain insights from Case Study 2. Results Based on the initial logic model, staff-, service delivery- and management-level outcomes were moderated through the organisational change management and socio-technical factors described below. Key organisational and process factors influencing system implementation Change management processes: Organisational strategies aimed at facilitating the introduction of the eHealth system included training clinical and clerical staff in the computer skills required to use it (see below) and adapting work processes to accommodate and optimise adoption. At the three health facilities where the billing module was implemented, the latter included introducing new procedures for providing electronic receipts to clients and service providers. At Madalo Hospital this also involved the creation of a new category of administrative staff with responsibility for managing the appropriate capture, entry and exchange of data using the system. However, such data clerks were only introduced within the inpatient department, whilst already over-burdened clinical staff in the outpatient department were expected to integrate the eHealth system into their existing work routines. Outpatient departments at the health centres resorted to task-shifting patient data entry roles from clinicians to lower-educated allied staff such as janitors and security guards. Infrastructure and security issues: Organisational enablers were infrastructural and policy interventions aimed at securing equipment and patient data. These included installations of locks and burglar-proof bars, enhanced engagement of security guards and frequent backup of data. An organisational intervention undertaken at the health centres was the introduction of backup batteries and solar power, aimed at providing a continuous electricity supply. However, problems with battery depletion, frequent connectivity interruptions between the client computers and the server and electricity fluctuations and outages, affected both the efficiency of the batteries and the practical utility of the eHealth system. Highly efficient nano-computing units were later introduced, to reduce electricity demands and improve the consistency of available power for the purposes of using the system. Socio-technical issues arising during the implementation process Technical/software problems: There were 24 problems identified with the eHealth system, encompassing its design flaws, security protocols, and hardware and database limitations. For instance, entry of patient data was in multiple windows needing to be minimised, passwords expired with no one at the facilities with rights to issue new passwords, there were frequent disconnections between the client computers and the server, and lists of drugs and indicators for reporting in its database were limited. Although health centre staff used the system for backup storage and retrieval of data, only Early Adopters reported use of the eHealth system's search function. Socio-technical issues: The technical problems outlined above resulted in a heavy reliance on paper records by the health centres, although centres varied in their attitude towards and persistence with eHealth system implementation, with Early Adopter sites overcoming most challenges. At the hospital, the eHealth system was subjected to such inappropriate use by staff that even establishing rules and an IT centre to regulate usage were ineffective, leading to a system crash in 2012 due to viruses and other malware. Such inappropriate use included staff depleting hospital server space by storing personal files (videos, music, pictures, games), being on Facebook instead of attending to patients, sharing of login credentials and not always logging off their account after use, and removal of cables from the computers. Leadership: At the hospital, there was strong management support for the eHealth system. In contrast, there were strong opinions from staff at Late Majority and Laggard facilities about the ineffective engagement of health facility "in-charges". Further, many system champions were senior staff and thus busier and more mobile, most often leaving the junior staff at the health centres, who were not formally trained, to be using the eHealth system. Training: Limitations in the scope and number of staff formally trained was perceived to be a barrier to eHealth system adoption at the health centres, particularly lack of training in basic troubleshooting and maintenance. Even peer training lacked follow-up formal training. At the hospital, developing an appropriately skilled cadre of system users was hindered by high staff turnover and departmental rotations, which required frequent rounds of basic training. Staff at the hospital and health centres were nevertheless happy about the computer knowledge they had gained as a result of the implementation programme, although most expressed a lack of confidence in using the eHealth system. Technical support: For reasons including those already outlined, staff requested support for a range of hardware and software problems, not all of which it was possible to fulfil in a timely way, due to lack of sufficient IT personnel. Lack of in-country technical support for the software was also a considerable barrier to progress, particularly for the IT team based at the hospital, requiring requests for changes to be passed to the parent company. In one attempt to address this, the rights to a partial version of the software was passed to a local foundation for onward management, however the software developers were unwilling to release the source code so that further enhancements and customisation could be made. Efforts to recruit more hospital IT workers and reorganising responsibilities were frustrated by high staff turnover among the IT team. As a result, response to calls from health centres for technical support by the IT team was said to be slow and ineffective (except at Late Majority Facilities), and there was no transfer of basic troubleshooting and minor repair skills from the IT team to the health facility staff. Perceived outcomes: Despite the challenges described above, some tracer outcomes of the eHealth system were detectable from the qualitative and numerical results, relating to data quality, service delivery, reporting and decision-making, and financial management. Perceived and measured outcomes of eHealth system implementation Documentation and associated workload: In both case studies, implementation of the eHealth system illuminated the dysfunctional paper-based system, particularly loss of documents. At the health centres (Case Study 2), only Early Adopters reported reduced administrative and patient care workload following eHealth implementation, while the other adopter groups reported increased workload due to dual use of paper and electronic systems, as well as staff shortage and high patient load. Data quality: Both case studies reported poor data quality in the eHealth system, mainly due to the dual use of the paper-based and electronic systems, and staff defaulting to using the paper-based system only. This was aggravated by infrastructure and leadership problems at the health centres. Across the health centres, completeness of outpatient registration data in the eHealth system was 82.4%, as compared to DHIS2 (100.0% for Early Adopters, 73.9% for Late Majority), equivalent to an average monthly omission of 1,271 clients. When compared to DHIS2 data at Madalo Hospital, outpatient registration data in the eHealth system was 76.0% complete, under-reporting by an average 577 clients per month. Compared with the hospital's paper-based records, inpatient registration and diagnosis data in the eHealth system, as entered by ward clerks, was 93.6% complete and 68.9% accurate. Service delivery (efficiency and patient experience): At Madalo Hospital, the eHealth system was reported to have made retrieval of patients' paper files faster, as the implementation project had also led to changes in the hospital's filing system. This new filing system also facilitated retrieval of data for patients with lost paper records, and allowed linking of patients' outpatient and inpatient records. Reported service delivery improvements at the health centres included enhanced ability for tracing patients, treatment continuity, identifying the correct patient, ensuring patient confidentiality, keeping health workers alert and available, following clinical protocols, identifying the need to change prescription for (or refer) a recurrent patient, and reportedly showing the patient that the provider was paying attention. Improvements in patient experience were perceived to be through avoiding the need for patient details to be re-entered at subsequent visits, better management of queues, and patients feeling more understood by the service provider and having more confidence in the services. Perceived negative patient experiences were associated with staff members' slow typing skills and unfamiliarity with the eHealth system, dual entry of patient information into both the electronic and paper systems, extra steps added to the patient journey through the care process, and disrupted patient-provider interaction. Efficiency of reporting: After its implementation at the hospital site, the eHealth system had become routinely used to generate data for measuring quality of care, and partly for national reporting purposes (HMIS). Customised reports for the hospital were created and used for decisions such as allocation of wards, advocacy and funding applications. In contrast, all the primary healthcare facilities were still using paper registers to compile HMIS reports, a few in combination with the eHealth system, because of lack of knowledge of the reporting module, poor design of the system's reports, and disruptions in electricity and network connections to the server. Management of finances: Financial management was reported to have improved at Madalo Hospital due to better-quality data capture and tracking of service charges, separation of billing and receiving roles by recruiting ward clerks, enhanced oversight by management, and fraud prevention through greater transparency and accountability. Although median monthly revenue was significantly higher after eHealth system implementation (P=0.024), micro- and macro-contextual factors confounded this effect, and the descriptive and qualitative data revealed that genuine improvement only came about after recruitment of ward clerks towards the end of the study period. At the health centres, the eHealth system reportedly helped staff in the accounts department with billing, the facility in-charges with financial oversight, and clients with more trust in printed receipts. Conclusion Converging the results of these two case studies illustrates the potential of eHealth to strengthen LMIC health systems through developing human resource capacity (skills, staff roles), facilitating service delivery, and improving financial management and governance. However, realising such improvements is dependent upon understanding the socio-technical interactions mediating the integration of new systems into organisational processes and work practices, and implementing appropriate change management interventions. The results of this study suggest that, for effective implementation and adoption of eHealth systems, healthcare leaders should (1) recruit data entry clerks to relieve clinical staff, improve workflow and avoid data fraud, (2) facilitate appropriate data use among system users and an information culture at the facilities, and (3) strengthen knowledge and skills transfer from eHealth system developers to local implementers and system champions, to optimise responsiveness and ensure sustainability. Further interdisciplinary research is needed to obtain additional insights into factors affecting the quality of eHealth data and its use in the management of LMIC health systems, including the role of social, professional and technological influences on financial good-governance.
Issue 9.4 of the Review for Religious, 1950. ; ~uesfions Answered, Books I~evi~wed~ -Report~+o~om~ RI::VIi=W FOR Ri::LI IOUS VOLUME IX JULY, 1"950 NUMBER CONTENTS MEMOIR OF ALFRED SCHNEIDER~-Gerald Kelly, S.J . 169 THE "LITTLE" VIRTUES--Stephen Brown, S.J . 176 ADJUSTMENT OF NEGRO CHILDREN TO A MIXED PAROCHIAL SCHOOL--A Sister of the Holy Names 179 OUR cONTRIBUTORS . 184 ATTEND TO READING--Augustine Klaas, S.J . 185 BOOK REVIEWS-- St. Teresa of Jesus; Storm of Glory; Purgatory; Psychiatry and Asceti-cism . 197 BOOK NOTICES . 201 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 203 FOR YOUR INFORMATION-- Passionist Ghampion; Company of Mary; Servants of Mary; Little Office; Varia . 205 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 18. How to Fill the Water Cruet . ; . 207 19. The Perplexed Conscience . 207 20. Several Hosts to One Communicant . 208 REPORT TO ROME . 209 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, July, 1950. Vol. IX, No.,4. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, a~d November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Copyright, 1950. by Adam C. Ellis. Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscfiptlon price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U. S. A. Before wr|t|ng to us, please consult notice on inside back cover. Memoir 6t:. All:red chneider Gerald Kelly, S.3. ~N OUR MARCH number (p. 112) we announced the sudden death of Father Alfred F. Sc, hneider, S.3. Shortly after this announcement a loyal friend of the Review wrote to us: "The notice about Father Alfred Schneider made'me make remembrance of him. Now I understand that note of gentleness and considerateness which I always found in his prompt and courteous replies." This note is typical of what scores of others might have written. During his years as editorial secretary Father Schneider carried on most of our editorial business with subscribers and authors; and the number of those who benefited by h'is prompt and kindly service is very large. These, we feel sure, would like to know more about him than we were able to put into a brief notice. Another reason for the present sketch is the value of Father Schneider to the Review itself.¯ We are not waxing poetic when we say that he brought us hope in our darkest hour. Our charter sub-scribers will remember that we had hardly launched this enterprise when war, with all its problems, was upon us. The war made it difficult to get materials and raised the price of such as were available. The war and the postwar period made such demands on college and seminary personnel that many priests and religious who would have helped us with articles had not the leisure. And this same shortage of personnel made it necessary for the editorial board to handle countless details for which they were not prepared. Despite the fact that we had the generous help of Jesuit scholastics and young priests, our early years were very dark. The difficulties just outlined grew in intensity through the early ¯ years of our publication until the middle of 1944. That was when Father Schneider brought relief. We do not wish to imply that, without him, we should have had to discontinue publication---only God knows that; but we can certainly say that his. help towards th~ continuance of this Review was immeasurable, if not absolutely essential. The following pages are not a "biography" of Father Schneider. For the most part they simply record the present writer's personal impressions gleaned through more than five years of intimate col-laboration with Father Schneider. These memories are supplemented, 169 GERALD KELLY Ret,qeto for Religious however, with data supplied by others and with a few facts obtained " from Father.Schneider's notes. Alfred F. Schneider was born in St. Paul, Minnesota, February 8, 1899. He was one of the oldest of a large family. He attended St. Agnes Grade School, took a two-year commercial course at St. Thomas College, and went to work. After several years of steno-graphic work in various business houses he became secretary to the President of the St. Paul-Minneapolis Street Car Company. During these years he managed to cover a regular high school course by attending night school. His business and stenographic experience was obviously an invaluable asset to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. He was an excellent typist, a good bookkeeper, and, of course, he knew shorthand. For myself, I found his shorthand both enviable and exasperating. Often I sat at my desk green-eyed as I watched him make notes with light-ning rapidity. Often, too, was I exasperated when I found on my desk a manuscript, the margin of which was covered with "hen scratches"--the common designation in our office for his shorthand notations. The exasperation, incidentally, did not end with his death. Some books he had been reviewing contained only a few scraps of paper covered with the "hen scratches"; and his retreat notes and personal notes, which I was privileged to examine, were scarcely more revealing. I am told that when he first considered the priesthood his thoughts were directed toward the diocesan clergy; later--for some reason contained perhaps in his shorthand legacy--they centered on the Jesuits. At the age of twenty-four he went to Campion College, Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, to review his Latin and other studies. He entered the novitate at Florissant, Missouri, on August 8, 1924. In a Jesuit novitiate (and very likely in other novitiates) a man of twenty-five is considered a sort of patriarch. Regulations to th~ contrary notwithstanding, such men are often christened "Pop." Father Schneider was no exception to this contrary-to-regulations custom; he became Pop Schneider. Moreover, because of his com-paratively venerable age he was transferred to the Juniorate after having completed only one year of novitiate. Among us, these older novices who follow the Juniorate regime during their second year of noviceship are sometimes referred to as "skullcap Juniors." The origin of this expression seems to be that "once upon a time" ~he novices following the Juniorate order wore skullcaps to distinguish 170 July, 1950 MEMOIR OF ALFRED SCHNEIDER them from the ordinary novices, who had no special head covering, and from the full-fledged Juniors, who had taken their vows and were supposed to wear the biretta.' As amatter of fact, though there were several "skullcap Juniors" while I was at Florissant, I never saw a skullcap except on some venerable lay Brother. On the occasion of his first vows, August 15, 1926, the Juniors gave their "skullcap" confrere a grand reception; and his age did not prevent him from responding with as much warmth as would the youngest novice. In a letter to his parents, afte'r having expressed great joy o'~er his religious profession, he added: "I was the only ,lunio~? among the vow men and my fellow- Juniors gave me a specially warm reception. A huge bouquet of snowballs stood on my desk, and a smaller bouquet of other flowers; and then there were letters, and notes of congratulation, with little personal notes, and holy cards, so that when I sat down to read them I felt like a big business man opening his morning's mail. I believe that every Junior in the house had something for me. May God bless them all a thousand times for their kindness.''* His warmth was not confined to his fellow-Jesuits. In this same letter he very beautifully expressed his affection for and gratitude to his parents: "It would, of course, be impossible for me to tell you all that I felt or thought or did on, such a never-to-be-forgotten day as yester-day; but I don't want you to think for a moment that now I am wholly cut off from you. It is true I now belong to the Lord, but my love for the best father and mother in the world is not one whir diminished. The Lord would be ill-pleased with me were I ever to forget the big debt of gratitude that I owe you. It. is only too true that one does not appreciate father and mother.' until one is separated from them; and if I have not always shown you the love, respect, and gratitude that I owe you, I will try now to make up for it by my prayers and true love for you. So, do not think that in giving a son and daughter to Christ [one of his sisters is in the convent] that you are losing. No, Mother and Dad, you are gaining immeasur-ably; and I feel certa,¯ l,n that as the years roll o{n you wdl understand that more and more. 1During my tine at Florissant a "skullcap .lunior" named Peter A. Brooks took his vows. The ,lunlors decorated his desk not only with flowers but with a large sign bearing the words, "Peter Noster." Not so many y~ars later he became "Pater Noster" when he was made Provincial oi~ the Missouri P}ovince. As provincial, he obtained permission for us to start this Reoiet~ and asstste~ us with constant encour-agement during our early years. 171 GERALD KELLY Reoieto tot Religiotts The years did roll on. From 1927 to 1930, Father Schneide~ made his philosophical studies at Mount St. MichaeI's, near Spokane, Washington; from 1930 to 1932, he taught at Campion; and from 1932 to 1936, he made the course of theology at Woodstock Col-lege, Woodstock, Maryland. He was ordained at Woodstock in June, 1935. For the spiritual formation of a Jesuit tbd most important single period is the "Year of Third Probation," commonly called the ter-tianship. During this year, and especially during the long retreat which is made near the beginning of the year, one crystallizes the ideal that has been gradually forming during the preceding years of training. Father Schneider made his tertianship at Cleveland, Ohio, from the beginning, of September, 1936, to the end of June, 1937. For the most part, the spiritual notes made during his long retreat are "hen scratches"--absolutely unrevealing, as far as I am concerned; fortunately, however, the principal items of his ]Election are in long-hand. Among his personal needs he lists the "grace to be an exem-plary priest and Jesuit." That he received this grace and that he co-operated with it admirably would be the unhesitating testimony . of all who lived with him here at St. Mary's. Of very special interest is the fact that be considered human respect and indolence to be the principal obstacles in his pursuit of perfection. This item aptly illustrates the old saying that one never knows the true spiritual stature of a man unless he knows his "old Adam." During all the time I knew him I revered him as a man of principle and industry; and I feel sure that all the others in our office bad similar sentiments. We would not have suspected that he could ever seriously accuse himself of either human respect or indolence. If these vices represented his "old Adam," then in him the "new Adam" seems to have attained a complete victory. Afte'r tertianship Father Schneider was assigned to St. Mary's for two years of private study of canon law. The original plan had been to send him to Rome for a doctorate, but this had to be changed because of the condition of his health. In 1939 he began a series of rapid changes which included two years of teaching at St. Louis University, one year as assistant at the parish of St. Ferdinand's, Florissant, two more years at Campion, then back to St. Mary's in the fall of 1944 as editorial secretary of the Retffew. 'It was his health, not his temperament, that accounted for these many changes. An exceptionally talented man, as well as docile and co-operative, he 172 dulg, 1950 MEMOIR OF ALFRED SCHNEIDER would have been an asset to any college; but he was not strong enough to follow the regular schedule of a high school or college teacher. His assignment to the Reoiew was a b!essing to all concerned. For himself, the flexibility of his schedule allowed him to portion out his work according to his strength. For us, his varied talents made him the ideal secretary. Not only was he efficient at book-keeping, typing, and business details, as I have already mentioned; but his knowledge of theology and canon law, plus a generous endowment of good taste, made him an excellent judge of manu-scripts. Add to these the fact that he was a careful editor and proof-reader, and it is easily seen that his service to us was invaluable. His judgment that a manuscript should be rejected was always sympathetic and was never made without a second reading. But once made, his opinion was very definite; and he was no respecter of persons, not even of editors. (This may be one reason why I was amazed to discover that he had ever considered human respect to be one of his failings!) In my own files are several manuscripts which, in kedping with his suggestions, "await revision before publication." Attached to one of these manuscripts is a neatly typed note bearing this verdict: "The examples given in this article are of relatively rare occurrence in religious life. If you could add some that have more or less daily application, I should think it would enliven the article, especially the first part.---A.F.S., S.J." This is typical of his prac-tical criticisms; he always thought in terms of the readers. Efficiency in handling office details made it possible for him to go out fairly frequently to give retreats, Forty Hours' devotions, and days of recollection. He loved this work and seems to have done it remarkably well. His notes made for retreats, conferences, and ser-mons are filled, of course, with the inevitable "hen scratches"; but there are sufficient longhand and typed notations to indicate that everything was well planned. Moreover, reports were always favor-able. As one Sister superior put it, "He gave us an excellent retreat, one that we shall remember the rest of our lives." To this statement she added, "He reminded me of P~re Ginhac." This last remark referred not only to his solid spirituality, but also to his seriousness. Certainly his appearance was serious. He was tall (well over six feet), gaunt, more than semibald, dark-complexioned-- a perfect replica of the traditional, picture of the ascetic. And he was of serious disposition, too. A man who begins .173 GERALD KELLY Review For Religious each day with the realization that it may be his last is not prone to levity. But as he had the gravity of the saint, he also had the saint's sense of humor. By this Imean a keen and gentlemanly sense of humor. It did not respond to the crude or the unchaiitable, but it reacted instantaneously to the wholesomely amusing. He often com-plained to me that the Review tended to become too heavy, that it needed a lighter touch. He particularly liked the articles of our Fran-ciscan contributors, Father Claude Kean and Father Richard Leo Heppler, because of their cheerytone. In his last act of censorship for the Review he chuckled repeatedly while reading "Eyes Right?" by Father Richard Leo. The next day, scarcely ten minutes before we found him dead on the floor of the office, be was joking with Father Ellis. I have several times referred to the suddenness of his death. In one sense it was very sudden. Father Ellis and I left the office, leaving Father Schneider working at his desk. A few minutes later Father Ellis heard a crash, rushed back to the office, and found Father Schneider stretched out on the floor. Apparently he had left his desk to put something in a filing cabinet and as he turned back toward the desk he was stricken either by a heart attack or by a cerebral hem-orrhage. There was no sign of warning or of struggle; death must have come like the snap of a light bulb. Yet, in another sense, it was not sudden for him. Before he entered the Society a thyroid condi-tion had damaged his heart, and from the early days of his religious life he had known'that he had only a threadlike hold on life. At any moment,the thread might snap. Perhaps it was his coflsciousness of impending death that made him so orderly. His person, his room, his desk, his notes and accounts were always neatly arranged. His record of Mass intentions was kept with perfect clarity right up to the day of his death. During 1948-49 he had much extra work to do, especially in functioning as minister of this large house; and this forced him to get behind in balancing his office books. In the early weeks of 1950, despite very serious headaches, he worked assiduously to bring these accounts up to date. This was accomplished just a week or two before he died. As a boy, Father Schneider had loved sports; in the Society, however, his weakened heart prevented him from taking any active part in athletics. He showed his devotion both to baseball and to his brethren by assuming .the unattractive avocation of umpire. Later, 174 dulg, 1950 MEMOIR OF ALFRED SCHNEIDER even the umpiring had to-cease; but his interest continued. To the day of his death he could give with animation and precision the batting averages, pitching records, and so forth, of various teams and ~ndividuals over a long period of years. Another recreational taste cultivated in his youth was for good music. This, too, remained with him through the years; his occasional opportunities of listening to a broadcast of an opera or a ~symphony were a source of great joy to him. Looking back on the life of a friend, one can usually find many aspects under which to summarize the salient factors. One such gen-eral aspect of Father Schneider's life would be his maturity. He had a definite ideal of priestly and religious holiness and he strove methodically to attain it. He had a tendency to scrupulosity, but, at least in his later years, he was the master, not the slave, of this tendency. For the most part, he solved his own problems; when be needed advice be asked for it and followed it calmly. A man of strong likes and dislikes, as well as of vehement temper, he controlled these emotions in the interests of charity and of his own mental peace. He once told me that he had to be careful to read nothing about Communism in the late evening because such accounts usually made him angry and deprived him of needed ~leep. He adjusted admirably to the inconveniences and frustrations consequent to his illness. He was a good companion at recreation, especially a good listener; he was not the type to leave the little details that make for pleasant and efficient community living to "the other fellow." Another aspect under which I might summarize my impression of Father Schneider's life is suggested by Father Louis Hertling, S.3., in his manual of ascetical theology (Tbeologia Ascetica). In the last part of this book Father Hertling discusses the norms for heroic virtue described by Prosper Lambertini (later Benedict XIV) in his treatise on The Beatit~cation and Canonization of the Servants of God. According to Father Hertling, the pen picture of the saintly religious runs as follows: "He loves his own institute. He observes the rules, even the slightest. He keeps to his dell. He observes both juridical and real poverty. He is &hgent in carrying out his duties ~n rehglon. He ~s modest ~n exterior deportment. H~s separation from the world and worldly things is real. He is reverent towards diocesan priests and members of other religious institutes. He makes the spiritual exer-cises prescribed by rule. He is indefatigable in labor, but modest, and 175 STEPHEN BROWN Revieu~ for Religious without self-seeking.''2 To this list, I might add a few points given by Father Hertling in his sketch of the holy diocesan priest: reverence and earnestness in the things that pertain to divine worship; cultivation of theological knowledge; diligence in preaching and hearing confessions. I cannot say whether Father Schneider practised all these virtues of the priest and religious to a heroic degree; but I feel sure that in his final exam-ination on them be must have bad a very high grade. The "Lit:t:le" Vir!:ues Stephen Brown, S.J. IN SERMONS and various spiritual instructions we are ever hearing repeated those great words, Charity, Mortification, Hu-mility, Faith, Self-sacrifice, Perseverance, and the like. They have become so familiar that we are apt not to PaY attention to them, or, if we do, they awe us with the thought of the lofty vir-tues they stand for. But there are other virtues which the preachers do not so commonly preach about and which yet are worthy of thought. St. Francis de Sales used to call them the "little" virtues. Here is a characteristic passage from one of his letters: "Let us prac-tise certain little virtues proper to our littleness, virtues that are exer-cised rather by going down than going up, and therefore not so hard on our legs--patience, forbearance, service, affability, tolerance of our own imperfection, and.other similar little virtues.". If the great virtues seem too much for us, glorious ideals, no doubt, but so far away and so high above us, we may console our-selves with the thought that we can reach the same end by practising the "little" virtues. We are not called on every day to plank down ten-dollar bills or sign checks for I know not how many dollars. No, we pay our modest dimes or quarters, not disdaining even a copper or two, if more be needed. An hour may come, no doubt, in our lives when God will ask us for our little all. And then, no doubt, He will provide us with grace to make the sacrifice. But meantime we keep on paying our little daily installments. There are people who--if not in theory, certainly in practice-- 2The translation is not literal. 176 Ju!g, 1950 THE "LITTLE" VIRTUES make little of the little virtues. They are ready to be charitable, but in the meantime forget to be merely polite. There are others who have great respect, no doubt, for purity and chastity, but are not overparticular about ordinary modesty. And those are not unknown who practise mortification but on occasion are quite likely to insist on getting the best of what is going. There are even people who extol religion but deprecate piety. Yet it seems to me that a certain saying of Our Lord to the effect that "he that is faithful in that which is least is faithful also in that which is greater" (Luke 16:10) has an application here. And again: "W~I1 done, thou good servant, because thou hast been faith-ful in a little, thou shalt have power over ten cities" (Luke 19:17). We might take the great virtues one by one and descant on the little virtues that go to make them up. Humility is a formidable virtue. But we might begin with it by being modest about our own achievements or refrain from making the conversation turn about our merits. That doesn't seem too hard. Abnegation is a hard word, and no doubt a hard thing, but we might start by occasionally letting other people have their way. It is a little virtue without a name, this art of giving in--at all events, I cannot put a name to it. And so we might go on. But lest our thoughts become too scattered let us fix them for a moment on those "little" virtues that are the small change of charity. I have menti6ned politeness. It may be merely the outcome of good breeding--and wherever it comes from how welcome it is! But it may also be a real virtue. To say the least, as one writer puts it, in order to be holy it is not necessary to be boorish. A man may be actually a gentleman as well as a saint. To another little virtue, cordiality, St. Francis de Sales devotes one of his wonderful confer-ences. After explaining what he means by it, he says it ought to be accompanied by two other virtues, one of which may be called affability and the other cheerfulness. "Affability," he goes on, '~is a virtue which spreads a certain agreeableness over all the business and serious communications we have with one another; while cheerful-ness is that which renders us gracious and agreeable in our recrea-tions and less serious intercourse with one another." How much the one and the other might, and no doubt do, help to oil the wheels of life. St. Ignatius LoYola set value on these little virtues, for he objected to wrinkles on the nose. There is another modest little virtue well worthy of considera-tion, and that is considerateness. It is practised by the person who 177 not only remembers your existence but ac(ually avoid~ hurting your feelings or rubbing you the wrong way, as the saying goes. He refrain~ from needless noise (hearken all ye who live overhead!). He remembers the nerves of nervous people; he does not ask embarrassing questions, and abstains from comment where comment might be unkind or inopportune. It is the most unobtrusive of little virtues, and we are often unaware of it in other people. But we are only too well aware of the lack of it when it is absent. Politeness, urbanity, courtesy may be taken as practically synonymous. And then there is obligingness. Who does not like and value the obliging man? But, like all virtues, it must steer a clear course between extremes-~between grumpiness and disobligingnes, on the one hand, and subservience, not to say flunkeyism, on the other. And what of companionableness or sociability? What of helpfulness? What of tactfulness? They are all just aspects of charity-~charity as it works out in daily life. Nevertheless, besides the people who despise the little virtues through a delusion that they are practising the great ones, there are also people sincerely aiming at higher things who are apt to neglect these virtues as merely natural. Well, everything that is natural is not wrong, nor even negligible. God is the ~iuthor of nature as well as of grace. Man pervbrts it or wrests it to purposes of his own. Moreover, these virtues need not be merely natural. Motive or inten-tion can raise them to the supernatural plane. And the minor virtues that center round charity have a peculiar value of their own. They are social virtues: they concern not ourselves alone but those about us. They help to make life happier for both ourselves and them. And I think we may even say that they help to make us Christlike. Is there one of them that the Master did not practise, one of them that He would have thought beneath Him? And, after all, the littleness of these virtues lies not so much in themselves or their results as in the things and circumstances that occasion the practice of them--trifling words, looks, gestures, mere silences. They are virtues of meal time and recreation time, of the breakfast table, the fireside, and the bus. But they have echoes in heaven. [EDITORS' NOTE: This article is the introduction to what we hope will be a series of articles on "The Little Virtues" by Father Brown. For' another of his articles on a similar topic see "Concerning Patience," in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, "VII, 141.] 178 Adiust:ment: ot: Negro Children t:o a Mixed Parochial School A Sister of the Holy Names ST. JOACHIM'S was not always an interracial school. From its remote beginnings it had served a French national parish. When we first began to enroll the colored the very novelty of each isolated case brought the thrill of pioneering. Five years ago we eased into our present position by accepting Catholic colored children on a larger scale. Naturally others not of the faith sought admission. Some few, at the discretion of the principal, were admitted. Each year since then our colored enrollment has increased until this year seventy-five per cent of our student body is colored. Because we started with Catholic children we did not experience the same difficulties at first that we met later. There was some initial resentment shown by our white pupils but this soon changed to admiration. Now there is a calm and unquestioning acceptance of their biracial school. The very few families who transferred their children to other schools because of the change were no great loss. We Sisters of the Holy Names have several schools for colored children in Florida, as well as five missions in South Africa. But this was our first attempt at interracial education on a large scale. .Hor-rified gasps met our early efforts; but, perhaps to the disappointment of the scandalized, no major issue has yet arisen involving color. Nor, with the grace of God, will any arise. With no established precedent known to us, we have had to feel our way. The results have been happy. Let me begin with some don'ts. Never favor a colored child in the classroom. He wants to be treated like the others, not better. I'll always remember the first colored boy I taught. Everything he said or did seemed amusing, and I had difficulty suppressing my smiles. He soon took advantage of my good nature, occupying the limelight for the remainder of the year. The next year I treated him like the others and we both spent a more profitable year. Similarly, don't even seem to mistreat him. He is likely to assume that you're doing it because of his color. If he deserves punishment and under-stands why you are inflicting it, he will submit without difficulty. But you have lost a friend if he suspectsyou of partiality on the basis 179 SISTER OF THE HOLY NAMES Revtew for Religious of color. Be fair, then, in meting out punishment. If two or more are involved, punish all or excuse all. This may seem obvious. We have a classic incident here which we refer to as the Davis Incident. Mr. Davis, a Negro, is a World War I veteran, a man who married late in life and has a philosophy of life all his own. He is moreover very strict with his children and wants to co-operate with the school in every way. Last year a new white family, the 2osephs., moved into the neighborhood. The children came to our school. Instead of going home one day at dismissal time,, Davis Junior and Joseph Junior chased each other up and down the church steps. Both boys were taken to the school "court" where the Patrol Boys arraign those who disobey school ordinances. The Sister in charge, seeing 2oseph Junior in heart-melting tears, excused him. It was his first offense, and she knew he wouldn't do it again. Davis Junior, on the other hand, was awaiting his punishment like a man. He had been to our school for a full year: therefore he should have known better. Hence, a penance for Davis. That night Mr. Davis held his own court in the convent parlor with the Sisters as accused. He insisted that it was only just either to punish both boys or to excuse both. "But the other boy is new and not familiar with the school customs," we hedged. "All the more reason for punishing both to prevent further breaches," came the relentless reply. After much discussion, Mr. Davis very touchingly ended with, "If you don't punish the white boy (God bless you, Sisters), please don't punish mine." Don't be antagonistic. If you don't like the colored and can't treat them fairly, ask to be changed. Naturally very sensitive, they resent the slightest tendency a teacher may have to dislike them. Per-sonally, I have to think twice beford I list pupils as colored or white. I simply forget the color. They are all little ones to be encouraged, checked or admonished, urged, and taught; but never children of one race or another. Other Sisters tell me they have the same experience. Now for the positive side. Be strict but kind. Strictness will never be resented if they understand that it is for their own good. In most cases their parents are strict (we think sometimes too strict), but the fact remains that their children show a much higher respect for the parents than do the white children we have at present. Of course we must keep in mind that the pupils we teach come, for the most part, from the poorer homes. ¯ There are four large well-equipped public schools within walking distance. In spite of this fact, the parents make great sacrifices to keep their children with u~. dut~,1950 INTERRACIAL SCHOOL ADJUSTMENT As' one earnest mother put it: 'TII work my fingers to the bone before I'I1 be so foolish as to take my boy out of St. Joachim's." Another non-Catholic mother who works nights to pay the fees answered her employer, when be endeavored to persuade her to send her children to'the public school: "As far as I can judge, the Catholic school is giving the better education. The best is none too good for them. If I have to stop eating, they will go to the Catholic school." School standards must be set high and maintained. Nothing mediocre will suffice. Colored parents want for .their children what they have never had: a solid religious education. Though theyhave little.respect for easily-won laurels, they s6metimes expect miracles once their children are in our hands. In this connection a strange (or perhaps not so strange) fact merits attention here. Many chil-dren have come to us from special classes for ungraded pupils in the public schools. (I have five such in my own class.) All, without exception, show a marked improvement. ,We have found that they can learn, in some cases as well as or better than the average pupil. One was an inveterate truant. He has not missed a day of school since he came to us. Is it the personal touch? I don't know. Give plenty of homework. Most parents want to help their children and incidentally learn something themselves. True, a few of them are college graduates. Several more have gone through high school. But the majority have had nothing more than an inter-mittent schooling in the "South." Most home backgrounds are therefore apparently not conducive to scholarship. Yet our colored pupils lead their white classmates in scholastic achievement in every grade. We have found it preferable to enroll new colored students in the lower grades only. They are more amenable, at the age of five or six, to discipline and training than they are when they enter a Cath-olic school for the first time in their early teens. Invariably, non- Catholic pupils accepted for the upper grades are problems. They come with their attitudes fixed and their characters strongly devel-oped along paths that conflict with our teaching aims. Consequently, only Catholic children are accepted into the school for the higher grades; the lower grades are open to all who satisfy the entrance requirements. After two or three year~ with us, these children are more docile to our teaching, their behavior is decidedly improved, and their wholesome outlook on life is reflected in the family" circle. Many parents ask to take religious instructions or are importuned by their children to do so within a year or two. 181 SISTER OF THE HOLY NAMES Reoiew t~or Religious Among the fine qualities which we have had abundant oppor-tunity to admire in our colored people, I'd stress their co-operation, their cleanliness (in spite of their tremendous housing difficulties), their high ideals, and last, but certainly not least, their attraction to and love of things spiritual. Never have we received from our white pupils the co-operation and encouragement which the colored have given. Last fall we needed window shades in our classrooms. Those shades which we could pull down either stayed down or came down altogether. Some windows had none to pull down. The mothers of our colored pupils were invited to discuss the matter. They came, nearly every one, conducted the meeting in.parliamentary style~ spon-sored a very successful party, and really amazed us. We now have new window shades on every window in every classroom. Colored parents follow the behavior and the studies of their chil-dren very closely. They frequently telephone or stop a minute after school hours to find out how Isaiah or Donna is progressing. The bimonthly report is not just another card to sign but a meaningful record which both parents and pupils take seriously. Suppose Wood-row is not behaving properly: a note to his mother sets him right. Should Dorsilla become negligent in her studies, a phone call brings results. Thirty of my forty-five pupils are colored. I find my most care-ful workers among them. Boys especially surprise me by their atten-tion to details, their striving for perfection. They would rather not hand in any paper than one that is poorly written or has a mistake on it. On the whole, I have found them clean and neat physically as well as morally. Of course there are some who are untidy, but they are the exception. The colored have high ideals. Their standards are set for the best in everything; such at least is my experience. That is one reason why our Catholic faith appeals so strongly to them. Some of the parents have made mistakes in their own lives; they are eager to fielp their children avoid the pitfalls into .which they themselves have fallen. They see and appreciate the difference between the behavior of the public-school children and our pupils (speaking again of our own neighborhood). Therefore they make untold sacrifices to insure the best training, the best instruction, the best education for their dar-lings. They are not living aimlessly. They have ambitious futures outlined. The children themselves are imbued with their parents' high ideals. You would perhaps be surprised to hear these poor people express 182 19.50 INTERRACIAL SCHOOL ADdUSTMENT their religious opinions. They are hungry for God. They are seeking not a "revival" religion but one that is solid, secure, and authoritative. One family, whose children were among our first Catholic colored pupils, boasts two altar boys. These boys refused so absolutely to go to a public school that thei~ mother was obliged to send them to St. Benedict the Moor's boarding school in Mil-waukee. There they were baptized and made their first Holy Com-munion. The following year they came to us. The older bo3~, a senior altar boy now, is fidelity personified. He serves the nine o'clock Mass every Sunday, rain, snow, or sunshine. He is an honor student at the Catholic high school he attends. Both boys are fre-quent communicants. And all this, despite the fact that neither mother nor stepfather is Catholic. An aunt who teaches in a special school in New York, also a non-Catholic, made several trips West to assure herself of her nephews' educational progress. Each time she has expressed her admiration and appreciation of Catholic education. Could you but come and see for yourself how nonexistent are the bogeys of interracial education, my explanations would be needless. In class, as well as in church, no distinction is made in seating. Side byside they learn their lessons, say their prayers, play their games. Side by side, too, they bear Mass, receive Holy Communion, and serve at the altar. In instructing the many parents who seek bap-tism, the priests in charge of our parish believe in the "slow but sure" adage. They try the perseverance and constancy of their catechumens before baptism. How fervent these colored converts are. Yes, a very few grow careless with the years: but of course as much can be said of our lifelong Catholics. Many of our newly-converted colored families move to better neighborhoods. Yet, some of the children continue to come to our school, although it means coming halfway across the city by bus or streetcar. Others enroll in the nearest Catholic school; the same school might have refused them entrance a year before. It is our consolation to know that they still receive a Catholic education in their changed circumstances. We plant, others water; but God gives the increase. Our first fully-interracial' graduation took place last year. All these graduates are at present in Catholic high schools. They .are continuing their Catholic education side by side with white students, partaking in all school activities on an equal basis. Now to give some general impressions. Some tendencies must be checked. But they are the tendencies which historians tell us are 183 A SISTER OF THE HOLY NAMES manifested by any minority group. Those who sigh over the diff-culties of our present-day teaching efforts forget the very real diffi-culties they encountered a few years ago with o, tber minorities. Besides, every authority recognizes that the already difficult task of teaching has been made doubly hard by the weakening of family dis-cipline, The undesirable traits which I mention are not monopolized by our colored brethren. Fighting, for instance. Resentment. In-feriority complex. These have to be checked rigorously and sen-sibly. We rarely experience difficulties in this regard between the races. Usually it is the colored who quarrel among themselves (or the white as the case may be). Name-calling is unheard of between white and colored. By taking these youngsters in the lower grades, we are succeeding, with the invaluable aid of parents and priests, in teaching them to live peaceably with one another; to regard all men (even if all men do not so regard them) as friends and brothers: to face their difficulties with courage, confident that with God's help they can succeed here and hereafter. We have iiadustrious pupils and lazy ones, bright ones and dull, quick and slow, polite and thoughtless. But these categories are no respecters of color. Racial tensions develop not in school but in the homes where an older generation, grown fearful, sows the seeds of strife and disunion. With us, the teachings of the Church are fearlessly taught. Non- Catholics are expected to take part in. all religion classes. What a beautiful object lesson a colored altar boy can be as, paten in hand, he serves the priest at the Communion rail. It is with no mere mouthing of fine phrases that we teach the lesson that a compassion-ate Christ taught: His love for all men; that He died for all: that black, brown, yellow, and white, we must love one another as He has loved us. How much better our pupils understand this when they look around and see boys and girls of every shade of brown treated the same as those born white. The. best way to get information on interracial education is to see such a school in action. OUR CONTRIBUTORS GERALD KELLY and AUGUSTINE KL,~AS are members of the faculty at St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. STEPHEN 2. BROWN is a professor at the National University of Ireland, Dublin. 184 Aid:end !:o Reading Augustine Klaas, S.J. 44ATTEND to reading," St. Paul long ago advised Timothy t~ (I Tim. 4:13). By this admonition bishops--and pre-sumably priests, too, since they should be imitating their bishops--are counseled to peruse the Holy Scriptures for spiritual reading. Religious are given to understand the importance of spiritual reading by some of the Fathers of the Church, for example, by St. Jerome, who in his own peculiar way urges Eustochium, a Roman virgin seeking perfection in the nearby convent at Bethlehem, to "let ~leep steal over you holding a book, and let the sacred page receive your nodding head." So necessary for his monks did St. Benedict consider daily reading of the Holy Scriptures and of other spiritual works that he used to send two of the brethren around to check on them strictly during this exercise, for he considered such reading the living spring whence flowed the streams of prayer. This can be said to be the general tradition of religious communities from the earliest times down to the present. While it it true that the cur-rent canon law regarding religious does not mention it explicitly, spiritual reading is certainly included under the heading ~f the "other practices of piety," which superiors must see that their subjects per-form daily (canon 565). As a matter of fact, the constitutions of almost all religious orders and congregations approyed by the Holy See prescribe specifical!y at least a quarter hour of daily spiritual reading or its equivalent, whether in private or in common. Today the laity are becoming increasingly aware of the need of spiritual reading fo~ advancement in prayer and virtuous living, and they are'making use of it more and more. These readers of spiritual books are usually yearly retreatants, active sodalists, and the militants of Catholic Action, but there are many others also. Even non- Catholics are helping in a surprising way to make certain Catholic spiritual books nation-wide best-sellers. I Spiritual reading is not just any sort of reading. It is not casual reading as of a newspaper, novel, or poem. Neither is it "heavy" reading, as of scientific, historical, or philosophical works. It is not 185 AUGUSTINE KLAAS Review [or Reli~lious reading for esthetic pleasure, literary appreciation, historical infor-marion, scientific acumen, or doctrinal erudition: at least, such is not the primary purpose of this kind of reading. What, then, is it? It is the reading of Holy Scripture, spiritual books, lives of Christ, of the Blessed Virgin, and of the saints, not so much for knowledge or for some other similar purpose as for moral improvement, for progress in the spiritual life. Spiritual reading is directed to the will rather than to the intellect; it aims more at the heart than at the head. It seeks principally to stir up the affections, move the will, and produce virtuous action. Father Alvarez de Paz gives the classi-cal definition: "Spiritual reading is perusing the pages of Holy.Scrip-ture or the books of the holy Doctors, not so much"that we may know, but rather that we may advance in spirit, learn the will of God; and do it." Elsewhere be calls it spiritu~al reading when we seek in spiritual books "not only the knowledge but much more the relish ~and love of spiritual things." In some ways the reading of a spiritual book has distinct advan-tages over listening to a sermon or exhortation, having a conference with a religious superior or spiritual guide, or discussing spiritual matters in private conversation with a friend. Verba votar~t . Spoken words easily come and go. The printed word is far more permanent and tends to produce a more lasting effect, since what is printed can be reread, pondered, prayed over, and thoroughly assimi-lated. Without strain or too much distraction the last drop of goodness can be leisurely distilled from it. Books, too, can be fearless informants of faults and defects, while preachers, superiors, and equal~ will sometimes bestitate to speak out, and indeed at times they may not be able to do so. Also, the preacher or counselor may be lacking in the special knowledge required for one's particular case; he may be mediocre, or even downright incompetent, whereas one can always choose one's spiritual reading, adapted to personal, needs, from the Holy Scriptures or the latest encyclical of the Pope, from the spiritual masters, .such as Augustine, Chrysostom, and Basil; across the crowded centuries to Marmion, Meschler, and Leen. M~reover, a spiritual book is a precious thing in itself. The Psalmist says (11:7): "The utterances of the Lord are holy utter-ances, silver tested by fire." Spiritual reading often contains latent power similar to that so impressively noted by the two disciples on the road to Emmaus: "Was not our heart burning within us whilst he spoke to us on the way, whilst he laid open to us the Scriptures?" (Luke 24:32.) And Christ tells us: "The words that I have spoken 186 dul~,1950 ATTEND TO READING to you are spirit and life" (John 6:64). And St. Paul: "For what-soever things were written aforetime were written for our instruc-tion, that through patience and through the comfort of the Scriptures we may have hope" (Rom. 15:4). According to the Holy Books themselves, the Scriptures are truth, fire, a lamp, a hammer, the sword of the spirit, an infinite treasure for men; they convert souls, give wisdom to little ores, enlighten the mind, and .rejoice the heart. What Holy Scripture here says of itself applies also in great part to ill spiritual books worthy of the name. II Undoubtedly spiritual reading is a powerful force for salvation and perfection. How many, like St. Justin, have ascribed to it their conversion to the true religion? St. Eugenia was converted by reading the Epistles of St. Paul; St. Domna by reading the Acts of the Apostles. St. Augustine attributed his moral conversion to spiritual reading. Already convinced intellectually of the true faith, he was still struggling with his unruly passions and perverse will, trying to break with his sinful past, when one day he heard the voice of a child sing-songing in a nearby house: "Tolle, lege," "Tolle, lege," "Take up and read." He recalled that the great St. Antony had been converted to a life of perfection by the chance hearing of the Gospel text: "Go, sell what thou hast, and give to the poor; and thou shalt have treasure in heaven; and come, follow me." So Augustine eagerly took up the New Testament, opened it at random, and read from St. Paul's.epistle to the Romans (13:13-14): "Not in revelry and drunkenness, not in debauchery and wantonness, not in strife and jealousy: But put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and as for the flesh, take no thought for its lusts." These words sent streams of light into his mind, warmth to his affections, and strength into his will. Then and there he broke with his sinful past forever. Cen-turies later Ignatius Loyola likewise found in spiritual reading a powerful stimulus to a better life. While recuperating from battle wounds at his ancestral castle he asked for some light reading, some romantic tales, to speed the tedious hours. None could be found ar the moment, so he had to content himself with reading the life of Christ and some saints' biographies. This re.ading, begun with reluc-tance, together with God's grace, initiated a revolutionary change in his whole !ife and started him on the road to sanctity. Augustine and Ignatius are not isolated instances. Countless men and women, of all states of life, have had the course of their moral and spiritual 187 AUGUSTINE KLAAS Review for Religious life changed for the better by reading the Scriptures and other spir-itual books. ¯ Hence it is not surprising that ascetical masters have been lavish in pointing out in detail the various effects produced by earnest spir-itual reading. Here are some of. the. things they say. It shows us our faults as in a mirror, warns of tempt.ations and helps to overcome them, gradually purifies the,,soul from: sin,, and, makes,,the.,,sense of sin ever more and more delicate. It is also a source of nourishment for the soul, since it feeds the soul with salutary truths, which hre its solid and substantial food, and thus plants wisdom. It disposes us for meditation, then enkindles and feeds the fire of prayer and con-templation; indeed, it is truly the "oil for the lamp of prayer." Or, to change the figure with St. Basil: prayers are the sinews of the soul, but the sinews of prayer are spiritual reading. Also, if prayer has gone. badly in the morning, reading can make up for it to a great exterit later in the day. It deepens faith, hope, charity, and all the virtues, stimulates to fervor and devotion, arouses the affections, and strengthens the will. St. Ambrose remarks that just as monks in winter make for the fire, so must we throw off the chill of the world by reading which kindles our love for God. Moreover, r~ading urges to emulation. Did not the youthful Teresa of Avila, on reading the vivid accounts of the early martyrs, immediati.'ly run off to martyr-dom, taking h~r little brother along? Fortunately they did not get very far on their way to Africa but were promptly fetched back home! Little by little spiritual r~ading produces deep interior peace, delight in God, contempt for the world and worldly things; it gives us to taste and experience how sweet is the Lord. It also stirs up apostolic zeal and can be very useful for the apostolate, since it indirectly supplies material for sermons, religion classes, spiritual guidance, and conversation. On the negative side, it prevents wasting precious time on books, magazines, and newspapers of little or no value to religious. In a word, it helps greatly toward making religious spiritually mature. No wonder, then, that so many saintly persons of the past were devoted to spiritual reading. Did not Our Lord Himself read from the Holy Scriptures in the synagogue? St. Augustine says that Our Lady was reading the prophecies of Isaias concerning the future Mes-sias when the angel appeared to her to announce that she was to be the mother of the Redeemer. The servant of Queen Candace was reading Isaias when the Holy Spirit sent the apostle Philip to baptize him. It is significant that the office of reader is a minor order in the 188 July, 1950 ATTEND TO READING Church. How the Iectio dit~ina was treasured in the early Church and by the monastic orders down the years! St. Dominic made great progress in holiness by constantly reading the C'onferer~ces of Cassian, and St. Thomas Aquinas by reading and rereading the Fathers of the Desert and the Fathers of the Church. In this way St. Je~:ome finally broke his inordinate attachment to the pagan classical authors. And didn't St. Teresa cure herself of excessive novel-reading in much the same fashion? We can say without fear of contradiction that the saints universally practiced spiritual reading. I merely note tha~: St. Francis de Sales Used to read himself to sleep at night with z spiritual book, usually Scupoli's Spiritual Combat. He was evidently-following St. 3erome's advice. No wonder the spiritual masters chant the .praises of spiritual'_ reading. Thomas ~ Kempis says that a convent or monastery with-out spiritual books is a kitchen without vegetables, a table without: food, a well without water, a river without fish, a bag without: clothing, a garden without flowers, a purse without money, a vine-. yard without grapes, a tower without guards, a house without fur-. niture; and be adds in all simplicity: "From all these evils and'. injuries to the soul may the good Lord 3esus Christ deliver us, and'. may He be wholly in all now and forever. Amen." Speaking of his: monks, St. Hugh of Lincoln asserts that spiritual books were their arms in time of war, their occupation in times of peace, their support in time of trial, and their remedy in time of sickness. Perhaps Plus X is the most eloquent of modern recommenders of spiritual reading. What he says in his L~tter to Catholic Priestg about its apostolic and personal value can be applied also to religious. "Great progress is made by priests who persevere in this habit of reading; they preach Christ with unction; instead of enervating and distracting the minds and hearts of their hearers, they lead them .to better things, lifting up their souls to heavenly desires. For another reason, very profitable to you, beloved sons, St. 3erome's precept holds good: 'Let spiritual reading be ever in your hands.' Who does not know the very great influence exercised on the mind by a friend who advises freely, who counsels, rebukes, encourages and preserves from'error? 'Blessed is be that findeth a true friend' (Ecclus. 25: 12); 'He that hath found him, hath found a 'treasure' (Ecclus. 6: 14). Now spiritual books may be accounted as true and faithful friends. They remind u~ forcibly of the precepts laid down by authority concerning, true discipline, awaken in us the still small voices of Heaven, reprehend all falling away from resolutions, disturb 189 AUGUSTINE KLAAS Reoieu2 for Religious deceitful calm, expose less worthy affections and self-deception, and reveal the many dangers that lie in the path of the unwary. This they do with such uhobtrusive kindness that they prove themselves to be, not only friends, but the very best of friends. They are beside us whenever we please, ever ready to minister to our secret needs; their voice is never harsh, their counsel never biased, their utteraBces never deceitful or fainthearted." Ill Spiritual reading can be made in private or in common. It is done in common when one person reads and the others listen. Although this way of reading is practised and even prescribed by many religious communities and has certain obvious advantages, yet reading in common is by no means theideal. It is much less effective in procuring the principal purpose of this exercise, namely, virtuous will-action, chiefly because the personal element of the individual religious is not sufficiently taken into consideration. After all, each religious has his own personality, his own spiritual problems, needs. and so forth. What is pertinent for one may not be for another, and at the moment may even be harmful. Spiritual reading in common seems to be a carry-over from the days when books were scarce and perhaps illiteracy not unknown among religious. At any rate, it cannot compare with private spiritual reading, which is being adopted more and more by religious communities, certainly an adaptive move in the right .direction. However, if it must be done in common, the reader should be a capable one, who with suitable preparation tries to read slowly, distinct.Iy, and reflectively. Even where reading in com-mon is practised by rule, other free periods of the day can be profit-ably utilized for private spiritual reading, if only for a half or quar-ter hour. Spiritual reading in private should be done daily, if possible, and at a fixed time, when one is free from duties, and the surroundings are at least relatively quiet. Some find the chapel an excellent place for private spiritual readir~z. The reading should be preceded by a moment ot recollection and a short prayer or aspiration asking for light and grace to benefit by it. The aim should be to read little rather than much--multum rather than malta--and this should be done slowly, leisurely, so that the matter has a chance to sink into the soul like a gentle rain. The reading must be attentive, reflective, ruminative. A wise old laybrother, on the way to spiritual reading, used to say: "Let us chew the cud; unless a sheep chews the cud, it 190 Jul~,1950 ATTEND TO READING will never grow fat." Hence, a pause from time to time, a pause to think, to pray, to meditate, to listen, for St. Augustine says, "When you pray, you speak to God; when you read, God speaks to you." Should we not listen to Him? An old spiritual writer counsels doing what chickens do when they drink water: they take a sip and then look up to. heaven, and keep repeating the process. When we come to something that strikes us, that stirs the affec-tions, we must stay there, read it over and over again, savor it, per-meate it with prayer and aspirations, even make a note of it for future reference. In this way we shall be like the prophet Ezechiel who was told to eat a book, not to swallow it whole; and then like him we ~oo shall find the book "sweet as honey" in the mouth (Ezech. 3:1-3). Such reading will produce fruit, thirty, sixty, and a hundred-fold, provided we understand, absorb, penetrate, realize, and apply to ourselves what we read. It will make us put on Christ, put on Our Blessed Lady, put on Paul, put. on David, put on all the saints and holy ones of God. Ascetical writers say: Read, not with a view to finding fault, but with a deep spirit of faith. It is so easy to be hypercritical and unfair, like spiders distilling venom where bees sip only sweet nec-tar. Read with humility. That is what h Kempis says: "If you wish to make progress, read humbly." Do not be frightened by the style, especially of the old masters; it is something quite secondary, if not unimportant, for our purpose. Persevere, too, and do not flit superficially from book to book. A sick man will never be cured if be merely browses about among the medicine bottles. IV What to read? We are not concerned here with the reading of spiritual books taken in an improper or analogous sense, though undoubtedly it has great advantage for the interior life.' Such, for example, is reading the book of nature. The writer recalls once travelling with a Cistercian abbot on a train going through the Swiss Alps. The mere sight of those snow-covered peaks bathed in sun-light seemed to take the contemplative abbot right out of this world, up to the beauty and grandeur of God. Many of the saints read the book of nature assiduously. Who does not recall Ignatius Loyola contemplating the stars; Francis of Assisi, the birds, animals, Brother Sun, find Sister Moon; Joseph of Cupertino striking the flowers with his cane to 'keep their beauty from sending him into an ecstasy; Teresa of Avila devoutly pondering the waters of fountains, brooks, 191 AUGUSTINE KLAAS Review [or Religious and streams; Francesca Cabrini gazing prayerfully on the wide expanse of the ocean? Perhaps religious do not do enough of this sort of reading; perhaps religious, especially nuns, are indoors too much. There is another type of this so-called reading: it is reading the book of the crucifix. Saints, like Thomas Aquinas and Bona-venture, found much wisdom in it. Philip Beniti (Breviary, Aug. 23) called the crucifix outright "my book." Neither are we so much interested in this article in spiritual reading taken in a proper but wide sense of the term. By this is meant perusing theological, philosophical, historical books, or reli-gious novels, plays, and poems, for spiritual reading. No doubt Franz Werfel's The Song o[ Bernadette or-Francis Tbompson's poems can readily be converted into spiritual reading, and surely this ought to be done at least occasionally as a relief and diversion from regular spirittial reading. By applying the method of reading sketched above, almost any book, even a grammar or scienc~ book, can become spiritual reading of sorts, but this is not spiritual reading in.the strict and ordinary sense, nor should it take the place of the daily reading prescribed by rule. A good norm is this: for the reading prescribed by rule, particularly if it is done in common, what is ordinarily meant by a spiritual book should be used, except on rare occasions. But for any extra time devoted to this exercise, over and above what is prescribed, one can be much freer in one's choice of books. (I might suggest, by way of digression, that in making this spir-itual reading in the wide sense, religious might keep in mind what Coleridge says of readers in general. He distinguishes four classes. "The first class of readers may be compared to an hour-glass, their reading being as the sand; it runs in and runs out, and leaves not a vestige behind. A second class resembles a sponge, which imbibe~ everything, and returns it in nearly the same state, only a little dirtier. A third class is like a jelly-bag, which allows all that is pure to pass away, arid retains only the refuse and dregs. The fourth class may be compared to the miner of Golconda, who, casting .aside all that is worthless, preserves only the pure gems." If we adopt the method of reading suggested above, surely we shall be mine-workers of Golconda, gathering gems and nuggets of spiritual wisdom to trad~ for heavenly riches. And at the end of each day's .treasure-harvest, should we not give thanks to God for the graces received while reading?) First on the list of spiritual reading books in the strict, sense is the 192 ATTEND TO READING Bible, the spiritual book par excellet~ce. St. Paul writes: "Every-thing in the Scriptures hasbeen divinely inspired, and has its uses: to instruct us, to expose our errors, to correct our faults, to educate us in holy living" (II Tim. 3:16). Do we appreciate the Old Tes-tament sufficiently, and do we read it? Of course, for the beginner a selection of Old Testament Books is advisable. Wisdom, Proverbs, Ecclesiasticus, Ecclesiastes, Tobias, ,lob, Ruth, Esther, Isaias, Psalms --these books contain a rich mine of gpiritual treasure. Gradually one can take on the other books also. A good point as we read is to link up the Old and New Testaments, to note, for example, the shadows and figures of the Old .Testament and their fulfillment and verification in the New. Religious are much better acquainted with the New Testament, especially the four Gospels, which must be gone over and over again to be really assimilated and loved. But have we read the Acts of the Apostles? Or the magfiificent letters of St. Paul?. Or the minor letters of the New Testament? Monsignor Ronald Knox's translation of the Holy Scriptures, whatever its deficiencies from the scholarly angle, has this great advantage that it is highly intelligible for the average reader. We recommend it, particularly for the books of the Old Testament and for the Epistles of St. Paul. An encouragement to read the Holy Scriptures for spiritual reading is the three hundred days' indulgence attached by Pope Leo XIII to at least a quarter hour of such reading. And Pope Benedict XV admonishes that "none can fail to see what profit and sweet tranquility must result in well-disposed souls from such devout reading of the Bible. Whoever comes to it in piety, faith, and humility, and with a determination to make progrez in it, will assuredly find therein and will eat the 'bread that comes down from heaven' (,lohn 6:50) . Our one desire for all the Church's children is that, being saturated with the Bible, they may arrive at the all-surpassing knowledge of desus Christ." (Encyclical Spiritus Paraclitus.) . The Apostolic Fathers are certain ecclesiastical writers of the end of the first century and the first half of the second. Although they are not divinely inspired as are the writers of Holy Scripture, they nevertheless portray vividly the mind and spirit of the early Chris-tians. Perhaps the best known among them are Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp. Who has not been stirred by the fervent letters of Bishop Ignatius of Antioch on his way to Rome .and martyrdom? To the Romhn Christians, who may try to prevent him from dying for Christ, he writes to dissuade them from such action: "God's wheat 193 AUGUSTINE K~AA$ Reuiew [or Religious I am, and by the teeth of wild beasts I am to be ground that I may prove Christ's pure bread." Bishop Polycarp, about to be mar-tyred, replies to the proconsuI trying to make him apostatize: "For six and eighty years I have been serving Him, and He has done no wrong to me; how, then, dare I blaspheme my King.who has saved me!" Who has not thrilled to the heroic courage of these words? Another contemporary source of inspiring spiritual reading is the accounts of the early martyrs, such as Tarcisius, Cecilia, Perpetua and Felicity. And then there are the Fathers of the Church: Cyprian, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Gregory, Athanasius, Basil, Chrysostom, and many others. Their works on martyrdom, virginity, prayer, the ascetical life, the priestly state, make excellent spiritual reading,' reading that has nourished the prayer of .contemplatives down the ages. Also the Fathers of the Desert, such as Antony the Hermit, and the early monastic founders, as Pachomius and Benedict, furnish reading material for advancement in the spiritual life. Pope Pius XII on several occasions has encouraged the reading of these early writers; especially of the first centuries. Since our troub-lous times are much like those of the first Christians, he points out that we need the virtues they especially" exemplified, and he calls attention to four principal ones: 1) an unshakeable confidence in victory, based on profound faith; 2) a serene and unlimited readi-ness for sacrifice and suffering: 3) Eucharistic fervor and recollection arising from the deep conviction of the social efficacy of Eucharistic thought on all forms of social life; 4) a striving after an ever closer and more enduring unity of spirit and of hierarchy. At present there are two series of English translations of these early writings being published: one by The Newman Press, West-minster, Maryland, the other by Cima Publishing Co., New York. Librarians of religious communities should choose from these collec-tions those volumes more suitable for spiritual reading. Com!ng down the centuries, what a cavalcade of spiritual masters passes in review! Bernard, Aquinas, Catherine of Siena, Bonaven-ture, ~i Kempis, Teresa of Avila, John of the Cross, Rodriguez, Francis de Sales, Lallemant, Alphonsus Liguori, Vincent de Paul, Paul of the Cross, and many more. Among the more recent writers we have Lehodey, Goodier, Faber, Newman, Hedley, Th~r~se of Lisieux, Meschler, Chautard, Marmion, and Leen, not to mention the living. Some years ago REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS printed a list of some hundred authors and their works, which may serve as a basis 194 ATTEND TO READING for a re~ding program of the spiritual masters. (Cf. I, 105; II, 117.) Another rich source of spiritual reading is the life of Christ, of Our Blessed Lady, and of St. ,Joseph. These are timeless books, to be read and reread. Then there are the numerous biographies of the saints, especially of those whom the Church has singled out to be the official patrons of various Catholic works, and of the Blessed, and of other holy persons, particularly of the founders of religious com-munities, so instructive, inspiring, and enticing to imitation. In the last twenty or thirty years hagiography has made real progress towards taking the saints from their fragile pious pedestals and, by putting.their feet on the ground, making them attractively real. | V Of course, amid such a wealth of reading material, one must wisely choose. Here are a few suggestions for religious that must not be followed too rigidly but always adapted to special circumstances: Choose those books that will give you the spirit of your own religious order oi congregation, whether active, contemplative, or mixed. These should be preferred tb all others, especially in the early years of the religious life, and they should be reread often. If your community has few or none, then read the books of an order or congregation which has. your identical rule, or has for its purpose one similar to your own. Other books, depicting and implementing other ways of religious life or other states of life than yours, can be read gradually as the years go on. Choose books suitable to your present position in your religious community. The reading of novices is not going to be the same. as that of older religious. Young religious should be directed in their reading by some one experienced in this matter. However, certain authors are recommended by the Holy See to all young religious: St. Bernard, St. Bonaventure, and Father Alphonsus Rodriguez. The latter's Practice of Perfection and Christian Virtues (3 vols. Loyola Press, Chicago) has the added advantage of furnishing a systematic general survey of almost the whole ascetical field--a valuable help at the beginning of one's religious life. Choose books adapted to the spiritual needs of the soul at the moment. This reading will vary according as one is ill, or in con-solation, or in desolation, or in temptation, or in great trials, or has been appointed superior, or removed from some cherished office or employment, and so forth. It will vary, too, according as one has made great or little progr.e.ss in the spiritual life. 195 AUGUSTINE KLAAS Make it a point to read at least one book in harmony with the liturgical year, for instance, something on the Passion during Lent. I~ is good occasionally to read a general survey of the whole of the spiritual life, such as that found in Tanquerey, Garrigou- Lagr~nge, Saudreau, or Parente. A more o~ less systematic reading of the older authors, especially the spiritual classics, should be done by mature religious, while at the same time not neglecting the better books among the moderns. Here a list of books, graded in the order of importance, is a big help. Many modern spiritual books are superficial and ephemeral, and can readily be passed over in favor of the spiritual masters. Mystical books should be read rarely by the young and then only under direction. Older religious of balanced judgment may read such books with profit, especially those of St. Teresa of Avila. With regard to private revelations and mystical phenomena not yet having received the approval that goes with the person's canonization, on~ should always maintain a prudent reserve. This is the Church's own attitude in these delicate matters. An inordinate attachment to ~eading about revelations and mystical phenomena is a sign of' spir-itual immaturity and can be harmful to one's spiritual life. 'Finally, religious should read regularly one or several magazines devoted to the spiritual and religious life, such as Cross and Crown, Life of the Spirit, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, Sponsa Regis, or others in foreign languages. These, besides articles suitable for spiritual reading, furnish careful information on spiritual books and pam-phlets, old and new. To conclude with a common objection: "I am too busy; I have no time for extra spiritual reading." Let St. Robert Bellarmine answer it. After asserting that there is always a margin of time left over in the daily schedule tha~ can "be spent on meditation or pious reading, with great fruit for one's soul," the holy Doctor goes on to say: "Seneca in one of his letters takes to task those who claim that time is all too short;and be proves that their complaint is unfounded, because they waste a great deal of time. If only they would use it, they should have plenty of time . Many are short of time because, not content with honest recreation, they squander their existence in dawdling, gadding about, gossiping, visiting, reading about trifles, and doing nothing useful." Perhaps St. Robert has something there! Book/?ev ews ST. TERESA OF JESUS. By Father Gabriel of St. Mary Magdalen, O.C.D. Translated from the Italian by a Benedictine of Stanbrook Abbey. Pp. xll-~ 123. The Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland, 1949. $2.00 In this book Fathe~ Gabriel does for St. Teresa what he did some time ago for St. John of the Cross (see this REVIEW, VI, p. 377) ; that is, in a series of five conferences he introduces us to the works and doctrine of the celebrated mystic whom he regards as the great founder of what he is pleased to call "the Teresian school." He makes an effort to present the principal points of that doctrine in an ordered and systematic synthesis, and to "determine what is her considered opinion on the more central problems of spirituality" (p. xi). The supremely important aim in the spiritual life is not contem- t plation, but cbarRy, and the perfection of it. .Being most magnani-mous herself and having been treated most liberally by God, St. Teresa conceives this perfection to be love brought to the highest possible peak of generosity. Nothing, absolutely nothing, is to be refused to the divine Lover. Whatever He may ask, in deed or sacri-fice or suffering, the soul is glad to render. In particular it is eager to do all that it can in the apostolic spirit and for the salvation of souls. This lofty perfection is possible to all Christians who have sufficient good will. It is the same as that most excellent form of union with God, that "true union" of conformity of will in love, which above all other forms Teresa herself always desired and sought. After considering the goal, perfect love, it was only natural that a Carmelite and especially a sublime mystic like St. Teresa should turn to "the contemplative ideal." Besides infused contemplation, "We must conclude that, evidently, Teresa also is aware of the exist-ence of an active contemplation," described in The Interior Castle, "Mansion VI," 7. "Such a contemplation will habitually be the prayer even of a soul already mystical, at such times as it is not favored by God with more special divine enlightening. In the illu-minative way the active, or acquired, contemplation will easily alter-nate with the infused. The matter is thus understood by the whole Teresian school" (p. 118). Her understanding of mystical contemplation is narrower and richer than that of some modern authors: it "is a state of prayer 197 BOOK REVIEWS Reoiew for Religious wherein the soul is experimentally aware of God's action within it" (p. 24). "Even in the lower degrees of infused contemplation the divine action within renders itself in some way perceptible to the consciousness; the soul feels moved, drawn, and from seeing how that motion which it suffers causes it to occupy itself wholly in lovingly gazing upon God, it judges: 'God is acting in me. I am very close to God' " (p. 82). In St. Teresa's outlook the contemplative ideal is of course most important. It is a great "short cut" to the higher degrees of charity and virtue. One ardently in love with God experiences a certain need of the peculiar intimacy and inspiration which contemplation brings. Hence it is in every way most desirable. However, it is not necessary, even for perfect holiness. "We cannot conclude that all generous souls must attai'n to such forms of contemplation ['prayer of quiet,' 'sleep of the powers,' 'union'], much less that they can be introduced into that way of contemplation which, through the series of infused forms of prayer, leads the soul to the spiritual marriage as it is described by St. Teresa and St. John of the Cross . So we may speak of a way that leads to holiness, even perfect holiness, without passing through mystical prayers, strictly speaking" (pp. 36, 37). "Synthesizing these teachings of its great Mistress, the Teresian School has distinguished a two-fold way of perfection: the common way and the mystical way, that is the way of contemplation. The common way knows nothing of infused forms of prayer of th~ characteristic type described by St. Teresa" (p. 43). As a matter of fact, God is most liberal with His gifts and is wont to grant infused prayer to those who exert themselves suffi-ciently. "If we are to interpret her thought faithfully, we must say that in the highest way of sanctity, followed by thoroughly generous souls, mystical prayer, although not ~ecessary, is yet ordinary. Such, also, is the traditional position taken up by the Teresian mystical school, formulated by the Teresian Congress of Madrid" (p. 37). After dealing with perfection and contemplation in the first two conferences, Father Gabriel devotes the remaining three to the preparation that St. Teresa advises for contemplation, to an account of the "Mansions" of The lnterior Castle, and finally to the place of the sacred humanity of Jesus in the spiritual system of Teresa of Jesus. Father Gabriel's book is a clear, brief, and highly inspiring intro-duction to the doctrine of St. Teresa. Moreover, it presents the understanding and interpretation of it which the leading authority 198 duly, 1950 BOOK REVIEWS now in Carmelite spirituality considers to be the true and just idea of it. Hence this work is a very valuable addition to our spiritual literature.--(3. AUGUSTINE ELLARD, S.J. STORM OF GLORY. By John Beevers. Pp. viii -f- 23 I. Sheed and Ward, New York, 19S0. $3.00. This short life of St. Th~r~se of Lisieux is written with a two-fold purpose: (1) to reveal St. Th~r~se as a person truly measuring up to the heroic love of God and the neighbor required of a saint, and a person altogether unlike the child-like and sweetly sentimental saint she is made to be in many books about her; and (2) to point out that St. Wh~r~se has a very special relation to our modern times. Read in connection with the Autobiography of St. Th~rbse, Storm of Glory/will give one a very complete picture of the saint. It fills in many details of her family life in early years as well as her life as a Carmelite, all of which help very much to understand St. Th~rbse, and in addition it tells a brief running story of her life enlivened with concrete incidents and eye-witness stories which show Th~r~se to have been truly heroic in a grown-up way in her love and service of God. The second aim of the book is developed in Part II. The author calls St. Th~r~se of Lisieux th~ greatest saint of modern times, prin-cipally because she has made sanctity seem not only attractive but truly possible to thi many, many little people of the world, who but for her would have thought of sanctity as too remote and mysterious andimpractical for such as they. This is true because her own life was so very ordinary--ordinary works, no extraordinary penances, and for the most part no extraordinary spiritual experiences, and also because of the Little Way of Spiritual Childhood which she teaches as a sure way to become a saint. Further, to the author, Th~r~se, with her conviction of her own littleness and her love of God in every detail of her life, stands in direct opposition to the modern worldly spirit with its pride in purely natural accomplishments and its bitter hatred as well of fellowmen ~s of God. Over the years I have found each fresh acquaintance with St. Thir~se of Lisieux to be spiritually inspiring. And that is what Storm of Glory offers to its readers--a good measure of spiritual inspiration.--A. REID, S.J. PURGATORY. By Martin A. dugle, A.A. Translated by Malachy G, Car-roll. Pp. 203. The Newman Press, Wesfmlnster, Maryland, 1949. $3.25. There are very few worthwhile books on Purgatory. This is one 199 Book REVIEWS Reuiew for Religious of them, one of the best. Unlike most, it is written primarily from the viewpoint of the living and stresses throughout the consoling aspect of Purgatory. In it, Father Martin 3ugie, a theologian of high repute, presents and explains the Catholic doctrine in simple, clear language, but with theological exactitude and above all with reserve, especially on the delicate subject of private revelations. In fact, his balanced evaluation and prudent use of private revelations are some of the outstanding features of the book. The location of Purgatory, its inhabitants, its kinds of punishment, its time-length, these and many other topics, some not found in other books, come up for care-ful treatment. The author devotes considerable space ~o the w.ays in which we can help these souls, by Masses, indulgences, prayers, and almsgiving. Finally, he tells bow to avoid Purgatory altogether, or at least shorten one's stay there, by using the multitudinous efficacious means placed by the Church at the disposal of Catholics. He might have developed more at length the theologically well-founded though not certain doctrine of the immediate entry into heJaven of those who receive the sacrament of extreme unction betimes a;ad with the proper disposi-tions. The translator has done a fair job, but he should have done more car,eful proof-reading, and he might have added a helpful index. We recommend the book highly to all and trust that it will match in English the seven editions it has already seen in French. It is a rare book, combining two things: exact information and quiet inspiration. --A. KLAAS, S.J. PSYCHIATRY AND ASCETICISM. By Felix D. Duffey, C.S.C. Pp. 132. B. Herder Book Co., S÷. Louis, Missouri. $2.00. This slender volume points out defects in the exercise of the sci-ence of psychiatry as it is practiced today and as it is popularly preached. From a consideration of some of the defects of the science, the author goes on to a treatment of certain ascetical principles and practices which are basic to a complete understanding of difficulties in man's mental life, principles and practices frequently overlooked or denied in psychiatric treatment. Perhaps the finest chapters in the book are the Psychology of Mental Prayer and the Psychology of Mortification. The present reviewer has a practical problem with this volume, however. Though the author repeats several times that he has no quarrel with psychiatry which stays within the confines of its sub- 200 duly,.1950 BOOK NOTICES ject matter, the overall tendency of the book seems to condemn the science as a whole. A Catholic psychiatrist would find little encour-agement in reading Psgcbiatry and Asceticism. There are many reputable Catholic psychia~;rists who are doing splendid work in their chosen field, and it is fervently hoped that their number will increase. It is true that Freud held a philoso.pby not consonant with our rule of faith, but a distinction must be made between the philo-sophy of the founder and the therapeutic processes and clinical obser-vations and conclusions of the science. By stressing some of the ideas this volume does, the ordinary layman would put little faith in psychiatry.mJ. J. CAMPBELL, S.J. [NOTE: The preceding reviews of Purgatory and of Psychiatry and Asceticism are published through the courtesy of Catholic Review Service, St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas.] BOOK NOTICES GOSPEL GE,MS, by Canon Paul Marc, contains twenty-four meditations on as many events recorded in the Gospels. The .book is recommended to anyone seeking an aid in making familiar contem-plations or meditations on the Gospel scenes. The prayerful perusal of its simple and inspiring treatment of these scenes will help the reader to acquire a deeper knowledge of Christ and to achieve a more intimate union with Him. (Frederick Pustet Co., New York and Cincinnati, 1950. Pp. 226. $3.00.) AN INTRODUCTION TO HOLINESS, by Henri Petitot, O.P., is a clear, well-balanced statement of the essentials for holiness. The book has three main parts (The Ascetic Life; The Active Life; and The Unitive Life) and a conclusion on The Mystical Body. In these various sections the author insists on the necessity of self-denial, humility, prayer, zeal, knowledge of Christian doctrine, union with God and neighbor through charity[ There is a good chapter on the value of Christian art for stimulating devotion; and the theme that the holiness of one member has profound effects on the Mystical Body is excellently developed. The treatise is intended for the fer-vent laity and for religious. Even among these, the author says, comparatively few attain to a superior state of holiness. But all would profit by the thoughtful reading of this book. Irritating minor tones are the frequent references to things French and the author's apparently unnecessary insistence on his "Thomistic" posi-tion. The translation from the French was made by Malachy Ger- 201 BOOK NOTICES Reuie~u for Reliqious ard Carroll. (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Press, 1950. Pp. vii ÷ 176. $2.50.) COME CREATOR SPIRIT, by Rev. A. Biskupek, S.V.D., is a series of considerations centering chiefly around those two magnificent hymns to the Holy Ghost, Veni Creator Spiritus and Veni. Sancte Spiritus. Other chapters deal with the role of the Holy Ghost in the sacraments. The book concludes with comments on the Mass of the Holy Ghost and miscellaneous reflections. The treatment is devotional, simple, full of unction, and directed to the heart. This book might best do service to religious as a well-spring for their meditations~to increase their appreciation of and devotion to the forgotten Paraclete. (Techny, Ill.: Mission Press, 1950. Pp. $3.00.) TAKE THIS SCAPULAR contains the conferences given at the Carmelite Third Order's Second National Conference held in the spring of 1949. In the thirty-four chapters, each by a Carmelite Tertiary or a Tertiary Director, is told the story of Our Lady's Scapular, its origin and history, its use and efficacy in modern life. This book provides valuable source material for study, meditation, and preaching on the Scapular devotion. (Chicago: Carmelite Third Order Press, 1949. Pp. 270. $2.50.) Thomas Merton's latest book, WHAT ARE THESE WOUNDS?, is an interpretation of the contemplative life and mystical experi-ences of St. Lutgarde, a thirteenth-century Yrappistine. It is a com-panion book to his THE WATERS OF SILOE, and THE SEEDS OF CONTEMPLATION, and gives a concrete application of the principles of the contemplative life discussed in these two former books. Although the author is careful to explain that the miraculous is only accidental to the mystical life, it is to be regretted that much of the book is taken up with relating just such experiences. This biography of St. Lutgarde is, however, interesting and pleasant reading, since it does afford an insight into the innermost life of an outstanding con-templative and a lover of the Sacred Heart. (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1950. Pp. xiv + 191. $2.50.) Among the many celebrated writings by St. Athanasius probably none was more influential, over a wider area and for a longer period, than his perennial "best seller," THE LIFE (~F ST. ANTHONY. Atha-nasius had known and esteemed th~ great monastic pioneer and pro-duced this Lit:e shortly after the death of Anthony. The account 202 dulv, 1950 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS literally set the style for Christian hagiography. And, what is vastly more important, it exerted enormous influence East and West in spreading the idea of that full-time pursui.t of Christian perfection that is now organized into religious life under rule and vow. After the Gospels, this Life is really Book One in monastic and conventual literature. The present edition is Number' 10 in the Ancient Chris-tian Writers series. The translator and editor is Robert T. Meyer. .Religious scholars will be grateful to him not only for the smooth translation but also for the annotations with which he interprets the text. (Westminster,Md.: The Newman Press, 1950. Pp. 154. $2.50.) Very noticeable in recent literature on religious vocations is the striving to be realistic, to show young men and women, by word pictures and photographs, just how the religious life is lived. WHAT MUST I Do? by Sister Mary Paul Reilly, O.S.B., is an example of how this purpose.may be accomplished by word pictures. She takes one girl and her companions through the postulancy, noviceship, first and final professions: and, by means of their varied experiences, she shows the girl reader just what she might expect in the religious life. (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1950. Pp. 96. ¯ $1.60.) THE UNHOLY THREE, by Rev. Henry J. Romanowski, is a very readable treatise on ascetical theology for the laity. The "Unholy Three" are, obviously, the world, the flesh, and the devil. Father R0manowski covers the principal ways in which these enemies attack the soul, as well as the various ways of combatting them. This is his first book. May he publish many more. (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1950. Pp. xiii ÷ 160. $2.75.) BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS [For the most part, these notices are purely descriptive, based on a cursory exam-ination of the books listed.] B. HERDER BOOK COMPANY, St. Louis, Missouri. Human Personalit~l. By H. C. E. Zacharias. Pp. viii q- 360. $4.00. Describes the way India and China "by their own unaided efforts caused human personality to emerge out of its stage of collec-tive anonymity," and how Israel was an instrument in the hands of God "who gave to human personality a supernatural sanction and an eternal value, unattainable by merely human endeavors." ,, 203 dul~,1950 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS The Nazarene. By Eugenio Zolli. Translated from thd orig-inal ItaIian by Cyril VolIert, S.3. Pp. 309. $5.00. A volume of exegesis for "Scripture students and others who are confronted with difficulty of explaining obscure passages in the Gospels." Revival of Paganism. By Gustave Combes. Translated by Rev. Augustine Stock, O.S.B. Pp. v + 360. $4.50. "This survey of recent trends, especially those fostered by government, toward the dechristianization of our civilization, focuses attention in particular on Russia, Germany, and France." The Message of Christ. By Adolf Donders. Translated by Rev. Rudolph Kraus. Pp. xi ÷ 477. $6.00. Includes 204 brief suggested sermons, based mostly on the life of Christ, for Sundays and principal feasts of the liturgical year. Should prove useful espe-cially to busy parish priests. THE LITURGICAL PRESS, Collegeville, Minnesota. Tbeoloqg of the Old Testament. By Dr. Paul Heinisch. Eng-lish edition by Rev. William Heidt. Pp. 386. $5.00. Although of special interest to teachers of religion and theology, this book will provide the less specialized reader also with a deeper understanding and fuller apppreciation of Old Testament teaching on the nature and attributes of God, the spirit world, creation, the nature of man, human acts, the Messiah. The treatment is both scholarly and com-prehensive and copiously documented with hundreds of Scriptural references. LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO., 55 Fifth Avenue, New York. St. Anne and the Gouty Rector and Other Plays. By Henri Gh~on ~ Henri Brochet. Pp. xx + 190. $2.50. Contains seven plays and useful production notes for each play. The plays included are: St. Anne and the Gouty Rector, The Sausage-Maker's Interl~de, Parade at Devil's Bridge by Henri Gh~on; Christmas at the Cross-roads, The Gardener Who Was Afraid of Death, The Man Who Died Because He Wore Gloves, St. Felix and His Potatoes by Henri Brocbet. NEWMAN PRESS, Westminster, Maryland. Facing Life, Meditations for Young Men. By Raoul Plus, S.J. Pp. xii + 12I. $1.50. Facing Life, Meditations for Young Women. By Raoul Plus, S.J. Pp. xiv + 158. $1.50. Two small books, reprints. Recommended highly for priests 204 July, 1950 FOR YOUR INFORMATION and religious who want to help young men and women meditate. The Sunday Introits and Graduals. By Reir. E. C. Messenger. Pp. 175. $2.75. The Sunday Collects. Pp. 123. $2.75. The Sunday Epistles. Pp. 182. $2.75. -.-The Sunday G'ospels. Pp. 171. $2.75. These four volumes contain simple explanations of the various parts of the Mass. Helpful for religious who .wish to meditate on these parts of the Mass; for priests who wish to explain the Mass; and for the laity who want a deeper understanding of parts of the Mass. Lioing with God. By Raoul Plus, S.J. Pp. xvi -1- 93. $1.50. Another reprint. Seeks to arouse in the reader a more fruitful realiza-tion of the tremendous significance of union with God through sanc-tifying grace. By Rev. E. C. Messenger. By Rev. E. C. Messenger. By Rev. E. C. Messenger. JOSEPH F. WAGNER, INC., 53 Park Place, New York. In Praise of Our.Lady. By Martin Dempsey. Pp. vi + 225. $2.75. A book of sermons concerning the principal feasts of Our Lady, including a special series for a Novena to Our Lady of Fatima. For Your nrrorma on Passlonist Champion Champion of Church and Pope is an attractive pamphlet sketch of St. Vincent Strambi, the recently canonized Passionist bishop. In his preface to the pamphlet Bishop James H. Griffiths says that "Vincent Strambi is a modern symbol of victory of the suffering Christ and His suffering Church over the force and the fear of the tyrannical state." In the text itself Father Aloysius McDon-ough, C.P., brings out not only the remarkable story of St. Vincent's early life (he was rector of a seminary before being ordained a priest) and of his great courage in the face of Napoleon's tyranny, but also the essential details of Passionist life. The publisher is the Sign Press, Union City, New Jersey. Father McDonough, the author, 205 FOR YOUR INFORMATION. conducts the "Sign-Post" in the Passionis~ magazine, The Sign, and is the author of God's Own Method, a book which offers a "design for living . . . drawn from the lessons taught by the crucified Re-deemer." (See REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, VII, 50-51.) Company o{ Mary A Slave of Jesus in Mary is a pamphlet life of Mother Mary Potter, Foundress of The Little Company of Mary, familiarly known as the "Blue Nuns." The institute began in the latter part of the last century; the foundress died in Rome in 1913; yet the Little Company's hospitals are now circling the globe. The author of this pamphlet is Father Marius McAuliffe, O.F.M. Our readers may obtain it for the asking by writing to The Little Company of Mary Hospital, 95th St. and California Ave., Evergreen Park 42, Ill. Servanfs of Mary Another nursing institute of recent origin is The Sisters, Servants of Mary, a society of trained nurses who care for the sick and infirm in their own homes. It too is fast extending its services to the whole world. Its provincial house for the United States is located at Kan-sas City, Kansas. The foundress, Mother Soledad Torres Acosta, was born in Madrid, Spain, in 1826, and died in the same city 1887. She was beatified on February 5, of this present Holy Year. L~ftle Off;¢e M~I Dail~t Otlice is a 6-p~ge folder on The Little Office of the Blessed Virgin. It contains a brief commentary on the Office and reflections on the psalms and canticles. The author is Ft. Jerome, O.F.M. He found in giving retreats to religious that they do not get lectures on the Little OtSce as often as they would wish; hence, he gave some talks and later abbreviated them into this folder. Copies may be ordered, or sample copies obtained, from Assisi Press, St. Francis, Broad Lane, Cork, Ireland. Price for U.S.A. and Canada: $3.00 for 100; $8.00 for 300; $12.00 for 500. I/arla The Poor Clare Nuns have a new monastery situated on a hill-side overlooking the Santa Clara Valley. The address is: The Immaculate Heart Monastery, Route 2, Box 873, Los Altos, California. "The Boy Saviour, My Model for Life," is the title of a new (Continued on page 224) 206 ( ues {ons and Answers nl8m We have heard, or read somewhere, that the water cruet used at Mass should always be filled to the brim? Is that correct; and, if so, why should this be so? At the Offertory the celebrant is supposed to mix a very slight quantity of .water with the wine in the chalice. The quantity should be relatively slight: that is, slight with reference to the amount of wine that he takes. Yet, even priests who use a comparatively large quantity of wine usually try to limit themselves to only a few drops of water. The cruet should be filled in such a way that the priest can accomplish this without spilling the water. Generally speaking, it is very difficult for the priest to take only a few drops if only the bottom part of the cruet is filled, for in this case the water tends to gush out. For this reason, the stoppers so often used in water cruets are a nuisance. On the other hand, when cruets are filled right to the brim, it is often difficult to pour the water without spilling it. The safest way to fill the water cruet, therefore, seems to be almost to the brim. We might add, however, that cruets differ--and so do priests. Sacristans would do well to ask the priest how he wants the cruets filled. And if there is no opportunity to do this, the sacristan might experiment a bit until he (or she) knows just how much to fill the cruet to allow for the pouring of only a few drops without spilling or gushing. In some places Erlenmeyer flasks are used as cruets because it is so easy to control the flow of liquid from them. ml9m What is meant by a "perplexed" conscience? Is it the same thing as scrupulosity? By a "perplexed" conscience theologians mean a state of mind in which a person thinks he would commit a sin no matter what he does. For instance, suppose a mother thinks she would sin by going to Mass and neglecting a sick child, and would also sin by staying with the child and omitting Mass. She has to do one thing or the other--go to Mass or not go to Mass. Hence, according to her "conscience" she would sin no matter what she would do. Another example is suggested by this problem in Moral Guidance (p. 309), by Edwin F. Healy, S.J.: "What should a surgeon do in an 207 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS emergency case where in his opinion he will probably be doing wrong if he operates and probably be doing wrong if he does not operate? He must do one or the other at once." The "perplexed" conscience does not necessarily indicate scrupu-losity. Even one who normally has no difficulty making decisions for himself might occasionally face a situation so puzzling ~that it seems to involve sin no matter what he does. However, a scrupulous person is certainly more apt to experience this difficulty than are those who are not scrupulous. Since we have mentioned the "perplexed" conscience, it may be well to add here the correct principles of conduct in such an emergency. Theologians give three rules to cover the various possi-bilities : 1) Get advice, if this is possible, and thus do away with the perplexity. --For instance, the mother mentioned above might ask the priest or some prudent friend what she should do. 2) If advice or some similar help is unavailable, do what seems to be the less evil. --For instan6e, the s.urgeon mentioned in Father He.aly's problem has to act in an emergency and may have no oppor-tunity to consult persons or books. In that case he should try to estimate whether operating or not operating would be the less of the two apparent evils and then act accordingly. 3) If one cannot decide which would be the less evil, he may follow either course of action without sin. ---The reason for this last rule is that a person who judges that he will sin equally by acting and by not acting no longer has the freedom necessary for actually committing a sin. The ability to sin presupposes the ability to choose between two things, one of which is sinful, the other not sinful. 2O Is it true that the Holy See has condemned the practice of cjivincj several small Hosts to one communicant.'/ A decree of Pope Innocent XI condemned the practice of giving several small Hosts to one communicant. The reason for this prohibition was that the practice, as existing at the time of the con-demnation, was based on a spirit of false devotion. When there is no question of fostering a false devotion, a priest may give several Hosts to the same communicant: for example, when there is need of emptying a ciborium. 208 Reporl: I:o Rome I We c:ntinue hcre the publishing of the List oI Questions to be answered in the quinquennial report by pontifical institutes. For full explanation see our dan-uary, 1950, number, page 52. We encourage all to read these questions thought-fully, as they furnish an excellen~ survey of the Church's law concerning religious. The eighty-six questions published in our 3anuary, March, and May numbers contain the first three articles of Chapter I, "The Institute and Its Government." The questions are published exactly as they appear in the official English trans-lation. Questions marked with an asterisk (*) concern only institutes of men; those marked with a cross (t) refer only to institutes of women.--ED.] ARTICLE IV Concernin9 the financ;al 9overnmenf of the Institute § 1. - CONCERNING THE ACQUISITION AND LOSS OF PROPERTY Concerning the acquisition and registration of propert~ 87. a) What if any immovable property or precious movable property was acquired by the Institute, Provinces and houses; what was the value of these acquisitions. b) Was the aforesaid property acquired by gift or other gratui-tous title, or by purchase, and ~n this latter case was it with the funds of the Institute, Province or house, or with borrowed money. 88. Has the Institute, the Province and each house an inventory of its movable property, especially of that which is classed as precious (by reason of workmanship, history or material) (c. 1522 2°) and of its immovable property. 89. When must these invehtories be revised, and are they in fact revised. 90. In cases where works which are not the property of the house, such as clerical or religious residence-halls, hospitals, churches, etc., are entrusted to the religious houses, are these properties kept clearly distinct from those which belong to the religious house itself. 91. By what method or in~ whose name before the civil law is the religious property registered; and can this registration be regarded as safe in civil law. 92. What forms of registration have been adopted as the more s~cure in various localities. 93. If societies have been established for this purpose, was every-thing done in accordance with the civil law and is everything actually being kept in good order. 94. As regards the aforesaid societies: 209 REPORT TO ROME Review for Religious a) Were all persons to whom the administration or manage-ment of property is entrusted, chosen with due care, after making all the previous investigations which were necessary or useful. b) Were the members of the Institute itself given the preference over outsiders for oflqces of administration, whenever this could pru-dently be done without loss. c) What safeguards were used against dangers arising from abuses of administration. d) Is a constant vigilance conscientiously exercised according to law, through the checking of accounts and through ordinary and other extraordinary and timely inspections of safety deposits and other properties. Concerning expenses 95. Were extraordinary expenses paid from ordinary or extra-ordinary income proper, or on the contrary with borrowed funds. Concerning contributions 96. Did the individual houses and other units subject to the Provinces contribute toward meeting the expenses of the Provinces. 97. Did the Provinces and equivalent units and the houses which are immediately under the Supe.rior General contribute to the com-mon necessities of the Institute. 98. By what authority (Chapter, Council, General or Provincial Superior), on what principles and in what proportion are the contri-butions'to the general and provincial funds determined. 99. Were these contributions paid willingly or more or less under pressure. I00. Are the Provinces and houses allowed to retain whatever is prudently foreseen to be necessary or very appropriate for their own life and growth, in view of the good of souls and the welfare of the Institute. Concerning the alienation and diminution of property 101. What capital property, whether immovable, or stable (i. e. consisting of capital funds) or precious, was alienated, and by what authority, 102. In the alienation of property, were the provisions of law (cc. 534, 1531), especially regarding the previous appraisal by experts, and the norms of the Constitutions, observed. 103. Did the Institute, Provinces and houses consume any stable or founded property or capital funds; for what reasons and by what 210 July, 19~O authority. 104. Are the general, making serious efforts to red 105. What properties o suffered loss; and what wer! REPORT TO ROME rovincial and local Superiors and Bursars over this property. the Institute, Provinces and houses have the reasons. gilance of Superiors and their Councils ~d 'Bursars (c. 516 §§ 2, 3, 4) according Constitutions: ute. 'ovinces and other similar units. muses and works. 111. Does the Superior §3). 112. Do the Councils exercise vigilance in regard also as Bursars (c. 516 § 1 Concerning 113. How many times cils must the Bursars and o their administration. 114. Was a clear and in any case act also as Bursar (c. 516 ~ave their part in the administration and lit, even when the Superiors are acting how do they do this. rhe rendering of accounts a year and to what Superiors and Coun-her Administrators render an account of :omplete rendering of account demanded 21"1 under the direction and vi (cc. 516 § 2, 532 § I), 110. Are there designat to the common law and thl a) For the entire Insti~ b) For the different P: c) For the individual Concernirig debts and obligations 106. a) What debts w~re contracted, and by whom. b) What debts are ac~ua!ly outstanding. 107. In contracting debts and obligations, were the following faithfully observed : a) The provisions of c. 534. b) The precautions mI e.ntioned in c. 536 § 5. c) The norms of the Constitutions regarding permissions, the consent of the Council, etc. | 108. Was the interest ~n debts and obligations faithfully paid, and is diligent care taken t,oward the gradual payment of a debt or the amortization of the capital~ (c. 536 § 5). § 2. - CONCERNING THE[CONSERVATION AND ADMINISTRATION ~F PROPERTY 109. Is the administra~tion of property conducted, not arbi-trarily, but according to the common law and the Constitutions, REPORT TO ROME Reoiet~ for Religious of all and each of the Bursars and Administrators during the five-year period. 115. Were there presented together with the accounts the docu-ments showing the .expenditures and receipts. 116. Was there regularly an inspection and checking of the safe. 117. Are the necessary directions given to the Bursars and Administrators; if so how is this done, and what sanctions are imposed in case of necessity. 118. Have Superiors, Bursars or Administrators, or any other religious, any money or property which they can freely use without giving a regular account of it, even though it belong to the Institute, Province or house. Concerning the intpestment of money and changes of inuestment 119. Did Superiors, Councils and Administrators lawfully, safely and profitably invest (c. 533) the money which was to be invested according to law and the will of benefactors, observing the rules of law and the Constitutions. 120. Did Superiors, Bursars and Administrators make temporary investments of surplus funds which were not required for ordinary expenses, so that they should not lie idle but might draw a reasonable interest. Concerning the consert~ation of property 121. Are money, securities, contracts, precious articles carefully conserved, observing exactly the common norms and the provisions of the Constitutions. 122. On what terms, if ever: a) Were money or precious articles received from outsiders on deposit. b) Or conversely were such deposits made with outsiders by Superiors, Bursars, Administrators or private religious. 123. Do Superiors, Bursars, Administrators conscientiously strive that all the properly of the Institute, Province and house be religiously conserved and providently administered (c. 532 § 1). Concerning foundations, pious causes, etc. 124. What legacies and pious foundations were accepted. 125. In accepting pious foundations and legacies, were the rules of law (c. 1544, ss.) and of the Constitutions observed. 126. Was the money of foundations and pious causes, according to law and with the consent of the local Ordinary when that was 212 July, 19519 REPORT TO ROME required, invested (cc. 533 §§ 1, 2, 1547) and separately and faith-fully administered (cc. 535 § 3, 2°, 1546, 1549). 127. Were the obligations attached to foundations faithfully and conscientiously fulfilled (cc. 1514, 1549 § 2). 128. Did Visitors demand documentary proof of their fulfilment and an account of the administration of the property. Concerning business and trade, etc. 129. Did any religious, Superiors or subjects, personally or through others, engage in illicit business, that is, business not per-mitted to religious, in violation of cc. 142, 592. 130. In cases where for just reasons the permission of the Holy See. was obtained for engaging in business (give the date and Proto-col number), was every semblance, not alone of fraud but also of avarice, diligently avoided. 131. What precautions were taken that religious who are occu-pied in business dealings may not suffer spiritual harm. 132. Whether Superiors and Councils were attentively watchful that, according to c. 1539 § 2, in the administrative exchange of securities payable to bearer, all appearance of commerce or trading be avoided. Concerning actions or affairs which int)oloe tfnancial responsibility 133. How did Superiors exercise vigilance over the actions and dealings of their subjects from which there might arise according to law a financial responsibility on the part of the Institute or of the Province or house (c. 536 § 2) or of the individual religious (c. 536 §3). 134. Did Superiors clearly and effectively, according as the cir-cumstances required, take prompt action to clear the Institute, Prov-ince and house of all responsibility for actions and dealings done by individual religious without observing the norms of the common or particular law. 135. Do Superiors see to it that, in all matters which concern finances, or in those generally which could give occasion to litigation in the canonical or civil courts, everything be done exactly according to law, on the basis of previous written contracts and with the guar-antee of perfectly valid signed agreements, etc. (e, 1529). 136. Have any law suits or losses resulted from failure to observe the prescribed formalities of civil law according to n. 135. 213 REPORT TO ROME Review for Religious 137. !-!ave Superiors and Bursars diligently seen to it that extern workmen and all persons who work for the Institute, Province or house receive at the agreed time a just and fair compensation accord-ing to law (c. 1524), and that the provisions of law regarding the contract of hire and other matters be faithfully observed. 138. What provision is made for the spiritual welfare of those who work in the house, especially if they also reside there. CHAPTER II CONCERNING THE RELIGIOUS AND THE RELIGIOUS LIFE AND DISCIPLINE Concerning the diversity of classes ~ The vows of each class 139. What are the different classes, if any, among the members of the Institute; does harmony exist among the different classes and is f~aternaI charity observed among them. 140. Besides the persons who belong to the Institute or Society as members, by religious profession or lawful incorporation, are there others who are dedicated or given to it, or the like, without being members. 141. Is provision made in fairness and charity for the spiritual life of these persons and also for their material security. 142. Are there any legitimately approved,statutes for them. ARTICLE I Concerning ÷he admission, formation and profession or incorporation of members Concerning the postulantsbip in the wide sense (Apostolic Schools) 143. Are there in the Institute any aspirantships or postu.lant-ships in the wide sense: apostolic schools, etc. 144. For how long a time does the instruction and education in these places last. 145. In these apostolic schools and similar houses and in the residence-halls, are the students of tender age habitually kept separate from the older ones. Concerning the postulantship in the canonical or strict sense 146. Are the postulantships pro.perly conducted according to law in the houses of noviceship (c. 540 § 1), or in houses where perfect religious observance exists (c. 540). 147. Was the time assigned by the common law (c. 539) or by 214 Julg, 1950 " REPORT TO ROME the Constitutions for the postulantship abbreviated or prolonged; if so, for how long a time and by what authority. Concerning the admission of aspirants 148. What means are used to arouse and attract vocations. 149. Are there also advertisements inserted in public bulletins and papers. If so, in what bulletins or papers did they appear. 150. Taking into account the different circumstances of various localities, what causes are regarded as having an influence on the increase or diminution of vocations. 151. Wha~t are the obstacles which aspirants most frequendy have to overcome in order to follow their vocation. Concerning documents, testimonials and informations 152. Were the documents required by the common law (c. 544) and by the Constitutions demanded before admission in the case of each aspirant. 153. At least before entrance into the novitiate, were the fol-lowing testimonial letters demanded and obtained: a*) The common testimonial letters which are to be given by the local Ordinaries and are.prescribed for all (c. 544 § 2). b) The special testimonial letters which are to be given under oath by the Rector or Major Superior for those who have been in a Seminary or a residence-hall which is equivalent to an ecclesiastical one, or in a postulantship or novitiate of a religious Institute (c. 544 §3). c) Likewise the testimonial letters which are required in the case of clerics and professed religious (c. 544 §§ 4, 5). 154. Besides the documents and testimonials which are specially prescribed by law or by the Constitutions, were further informa-l~ ions, which it seemed necessary or useful to know in order to judge with certainty of the vocation and fitness of the aspirants, diligently sought (c. 544 § 6). Concerning impediments and admissfon 155. From what impediments or defects, if any, which are imposed by the common or particular law, was a dispensation granted; how often and by what authority was this done. 156. Were the admissions of aspirants always done by the com-petent Superiors, observing the rules of law (c. 543). Concerning the nouiceship~The house 157. Was every novitiate house erected or transferred after 215 ~EPORT TO ~OME Review [or Religious obtaining in advance the permission of the Holy See (c. 554 §§ 1, 2). 158. Does perfect religious observance flourish in the novitiate houses. 159. Did Superiors'assign to them or permit to remain in them religious who are hot exemplary in their zeal for religious observance (c. 55¢ § 3). Concerning the beginning of the novicesbip 160. Did all fulfill the prescribed days of spiritual exercises before entering the noyiceship (c. 541)~ 161. Were the rite and the rules prescribed for admission to the noviceship faithfully observed (c. 553). Concerning board and expenses for the postulantsfiip and nouicesbip 162. Is the right of the Institute to demand payment for the expenses of the religious habit and board during the postulantship and noviceship, given in the Constitutions or customarily recognized by express agreement. 163. Who determines the amount to be paid. 164. Was there any instance of the grave abuse of dela.ying the profession because the expenses of the postulantship or noviceshlp had not been paid. Concerning the giscipline of the novicesbip 165. Did all the novices and each of them from the beginning of the noviceship have a complete copy of the Constitutions. 166. Are the novices, according to law and the Constitutions, kept separate from the professed, and is any undue communication between them tolerated (c. 564 §§ 1, 2). 167. Did all and each of the novices before their profession per-form the canonical year of noviceship complete and continuous, without counting the first day, in a house of noviceship lawfully erected, under the care and direction of a Master (cc. 555 § 1, 556, 557). 168. Was the noviceship extended or shortened beyond the limits fixed by law (c. 571 § 2) and the Constitutions; if so, for how long a time and by what authority was this done. Concerning the government of the noviceship 169. Was there always in every novitiate a Master of novices 216 dul~l, 1950 REPORT TO ROME duly appointed or elected (c. 560). 170. Have the novice Master and his Socius all the qualifications and all the requisites prescribed by the common law (c. 559 §§ 1, 2) and the Constitutions, or did dispensations have to be asked for and obtained. 171. Are the Master and Socius free from all offices and minis-tries in or out of the house, which might interfere with their care and government of the novices (c. 559 § 3). 172. Do the Masters of novices, according to law (c. 561) and the Constitutions, under the vigilance and direction of Superiors and Visitors, have full possession of their proper authority and use it for the government and training of the novices. 173. Do all the Masters fulfill their office properly (c. 562) and remain constantly in the novitiate house. 174. Do the Master of novices and his Socius abstain from hearing sacramental confessions unless the penitents of their own accord ask them to do so according to c. 891. Concerning the spiritual training of the nooices 175. Were the novices, under the guidance of the Master, during the first or canonical year of the noviceship, engaged exclusively according to law (c. 565 §§ 1, 2) in exercises of piety and other exercises proper to novices; or on the contrary were they assigned to hearing confessions, preaching and external works or ministries; or " did they apply themselves expressly to the study of literature, sci-ence or humanities (c. 565 § 3) beyond the limited measure in which this has been approved by the Sacred Congregation. 176. During the second year of noviceship or during .the time which is over and above the canonical year, were the norms which were given in the Instruction of the Sacred Congregation of Religious (2 Nov. 1921 ) observed : a) Regarding the manner of exercising the external ministries of the Institute (nn. I, II). b) Regarding the conditions under which alone the novices may be sent outside the novitiate house (III). c) Regarding the two months' preparation for the profession (IV). Concerning the documents to be drawn up before the profession 177. Did all the novices, according to c. 569 § I, before the first 217 REPORT TO ROME Review [or Religious profession of simple vows, freely cede the administration and ~itber cede or dispose of the use and usufruct of their property. 178. In case the aforesaid cession and disposition was not duly made before the profession, or in case new property was acquired thereafter, was it made or completed after the profession (c. 569 § 2). 179. Were any changes of the aforesaid cession and disposition after the profession, made always in accordance with ¢. 580 § 3. 180. a) Did the novices of the Congregation, before their first profession of temporary vows, freely make a will in due form, valid according to the civil law, regarding their present or future property (c. 569 § 3). b) Did they afterward render this will valid according to the civil law (c. 569 § 3). 181. Were any changes which may have been made in this will after profession, made according to c. 583 2°. 182. Are the aforesaid documents a), b) faithfully kept in the Archives. Concerning admission to profession and the act of profession 183. Do the General Superior and General Council carefully and constantly keep a severe watchfulness as regards admissions; have they issued any special norms in this matter. 184. Does there seem to be in any Province too great facility regarding admissions, and have the prescribed norms and sound cri-teria been faitbfhlly observed. 185. Has the first profession, after eight full days of spiritual exercises, always been made validly and licitly according to law and the Constitutions (cc. 572, 573, 575) in the novitiate house itself (c. 574 § 1). 186. Was the prescribed rite observed in making the profession, and was the document attesting it duly drawn up (c. 576). Concerning the canonical examination 187L Did the Major Superioresses, or others acting in their name, two months before admission to the noviceship, to the first temporary profession and to perpetual profession, give timely notice to the local Ordinary (c. 552 § 1), so that he or his Delegate mlght gratuitously conduct the canonical examination regarding the free and conscious will of the postulant or candidate (c. 552 § 2). 188t. Was the prescribed examination always made. 218 July, 1950 REPORT TO ROME Concerning the dowry--The obligation and delivery of the dou)rg 1891". According to the Constitutions, is the dowry obligatory in the Congregation, or is it left entirely or partly optional (c. 547 §3). 1901". Was the delivery of the dowry made according to law (c. 547 § 2) and the Constitutions. Concerning the investment, conseroation, administration and return of the dou)rg 1911". Were the dowries, immediately after the first profession, always invested by the Major Superioress, with the deliberative vote of her Council and the consent of the Ordinary of the place where the capital of the dowries is kept (c. 549). 1921". Were the dowries spent or encumbered in any way b~fore the death of the religious concerned; if so, by what authority was this done. Were the dowries so spent or encumbered, even though it were done after obtaining lawful permission, afterward restored or cleared of the encumbrance; what is their condition at the present time (c. 549). 1931. Where and how are the dowries administered. Are the rules of law faithfully observed regarding their administration (cc. 550, 535 § 2). 1941. Is all property which is brought in as dowry, even though it be in excess of the sum required for a dowry in the Constitutions, or even though there be in the Congregation no obligation to bring in a dowry, accepted, invested, administered, etc. with the observance of the norms which govern dowries. 195t. In case of the departure of a professed religious, for what-ever cause it occurred, and in case of transfer, were the dowry and likewise the persona.l belongings which the novice brought with her at her entrance, in the condition in which they were when she left, restored to the religious departing or transferring, without the income which had already accrued (cc. 551, 570 § 2). 1961". Is this done also with property freely contributed for increasing the dowry even beyond the sum required by the Consti-tutions. 1971". In case of the departure of a professed religious who had been received without a dowry or with an insufficient one, if she was unable to provide for herself out of her own property, did the Insti-tute out of charity, according to law (c. 643 § 2), give her Whatever 219 REPORT TO ROME Reoieu; [or Religious was needed that she might safely and decently return home and be decently supp.orted for'a time. Concerning the profession and the renewal of profession 198. What if any dispensations were necessary for the pro-nouncement of the vows. 199. How many and what sanations were afterward necessary. 200. Were the temporary vows which are prescribed by law and by the Constitutions (c. 574 § 1), when the time for which they were taken had elapsed (c. 577 § 1), always renewed according to law (c. 577 § 2), so that no one ever remained without vows. 201. How often was the temporary profession extended beyond the six-year period allowed by law, and by what authority was this done (c. 574 § 2). 202. Conversely, how of
. Objetivo. Determinar el número total y la topografía de la población de conos en roedores adultos utilizando rutinas automatizadas que nos permita investigar objetivamente los efectos de diferentes modelos experimentales de patologías humanas tales como la degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE), retinosis pigmentaria (RP) y la neuropatía óptica glaucomatosa (NOG) sobre la población de fotorreceptores. Material y métodos. Se han utilizado cinco cepas distinta de roedores: Sprague-Dawley (SD), Piebald Virol Glaxo (PVG) y la rata transgénica P23H-1, y ratones Swiss y C57/BL6. Todos los experimentos y procedimientos se han realizado bajo el estricto cumplimiento de las recomendaciones de la "Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO)" y la "European Union guidelines for the use of animals in research", y todos los procedimientos utilizados han sido previamente aprobados por el Comité Ético de Experimentación Animal (CEEA) de la Universidad de Murcia. Se han utilizado diferentes técnicas para el estudio histológico y morfológico y se han analizado en retinas montadas a plano y en secciones transversales; se han utilizado tecnologías de imagen avanzadas como la Spectral Domain Optical Coherence Tomography (SD-OCT)y se ha realizado análisis de proteínas mediante Western Blot. Como modelo de RP se ha utilizado la rata transgénica P23H-1, esta rata es portadora de una mutación autosómica dominante en el gen de la rodopsina que causa distrofia y muerte de los fotorreceptores. Se ha desarrollado un nuevo modelo experimental útil para la comprensión de la patología de la DMAE, la fototoxicidad localizada de los fotorreceptores tipo cono inducida por LED (FTIL). Por último se ha utilizado un modelo experimental de hipertensión ocular (HTO) inducida mediante láser que permite la evaluación de los efectos de la NOG sobre la población de fotorreceptores. Resultados. El número medio de conos que expresan la opsina-L es de 231.736 ± 14.517 en la rata SD; 239.939 ± 6.494 en la rata PVG; 117.424 ± 17.721 en el ratón Swiss y 135.155 ± 8.742 en el ratón C57/BL6. El número medio de conos que expresan la opsina-S es de 41.028 ± 5.074 en la rata SD; 27.316 ± 2.235 en la rata PVG; 146.682 ± 24.958 en ratones Swiss y 119.616 ± 8.756 en ratones C57/BL6. El porcentaje de conos duales en la rata SD es del 3,2%, del 2,9% en la PVG, de un 73% en el ratón Swiss y de un 40% en el C57/BL6. En todas las cepas de ambas especies existe un paralelismo en la distribución de las células ganglionares de retina (CGR) y los conos-L. La topografía de los conos-L en todas las cepas de rata y ratón analizadas es similar, se observan zonas de alta densidad en el eje nasotemporal superior, las densidades medias alrededor del nervio óptico y un descenso de densidad gradual desde las zonas centrales hacia las periféricas. Sin embargo, existen claras diferencias en la distribución de los conos-S entre las especies y cepas analizadas. El la rata P23H-1, la degeneración de los bastones ocurre antes que la de los conos y de forma rápida: primero con el acortamiento de los segmentos externos, a P30 existe una gran pérdida de bastones y a P180 la pérdida es prácticamente en la totalidad de la retina exceptuando la extrema periferia. La degeneración de bastones y conos está espaciotemporalmente relacionada, ocurre en forma de anillos que aparecen alrededor de P90 y se extiende por toda la retina. A P180, los anillos de degeneración son más abundantes en la retina ecuatorial y de mayor tamaño en la retina dorsal. En un nuevo modelo in vivo de fototoxicidad focal de los fotorreceptores inducido por LED, la SD-OCT muestra un daño en una región circular situado en la retina superotemporal. En esta región se observa una disminución progresiva del espesor de la retina desde 183,4 ± 5 mm (12 h) hasta 114,6 ± 6 mm (7 d). Las secciones transversales muestras una pérdida masiva de bastones y conos en la región dañada por la luz. En las retinas montadas a plano se observa una región circular con disminución del número de conos-L y conos-S. En este área circular en las retinas izquierdas y en la región correspondiente de la retina control derecha, el número total de conos-L o conos-S es de 7.118 ± 842 ó 661 ± 125 en las retinas fotoexpuestas (n=7) y de 14.040 ± 1.860 ó 2.255 ± 193 en las retinas control (n=7), respectivamente. Aunque el CNTF no, la brimonidina, el BDNF, PEDF y el bFGF muestran efectos neuroprotectores significativos sobre los conos-L y conos-S. La HTO provoca sectores con su vértice en el disco óptico carentes de CGR Brn3a pero que aún contienen gran número de núcleos DAPI positivos. Los niveles de todas las opsinas disminuyen a las 2 semanas y esta disminución progresa hasta el 20% de los niveles basales a los 3 meses. Las secciones transversales revelan áreas focales de degeneración en las capas externas de la retina (CER). Las CGR supervivientes a los 15 días representan aproximadamente el 28% y no cambian con el tiempo, mientras que de las poblaciones de conos-L y conos-S sobreviven un 80% y un 65% a un mes o un 35% y un 20% a 6 meses, respectivamente. Conclusiones. Se ha establecido, por primera vez, el número total y la distribución topográfica de los conos-L y conos-S en dos cepas de rata y dos de ratón y se ha demostrado el paralelismo topológico de la distribución de los conos-L y las CGR. Se han proporcionado las bases para estudiar la degeneración de conos y su prevención en condiciones patológicas. Se ha descrito por primera vez que, en la rata P23H-1, la degeneración de bastones y conos está espaciotemporalmente relacionada y se produce en anillos. La pérdida de conos sigue a la pérdida de bastones, que comienza de forma temprana, incluso antes de P30, la primera edad analizada. Las características de los anillos sugieren que la degeneración secundaria de conos está influenciada por la localización en la retina y / u otros factores intrínsecos o extrínsecos. Se ha evidenciado que la FTIL provoca una pérdida de conos y bastones y es un modelo fiable, cuantificable y reproducible para estudiar la degeneración de los fotorreceptores. La administración intravítrea de BDNF, PEDF o bFGF, o la administración tópica de brimonidina proporcionan neuroprotección significativa sobre los conos, en este modelo. Se ha demostrado que la HTO induce una pérdida selectiva de CGR en la capa de la CGR que no progresa después de 1 mes, mientras que los conos-L y conos-S presentan una pérdida progresiva hasta los 6 meses. Por lo tanto, HTO provoca graves daños tanto en las capas más internas como en las CER. SUMMARY. Purpose. To determine the total number and topography of the cone population in two rat and two mouse strains using automated routines which allowed us to investigate objectively the effects of different experimental models of human pathologies such as Aging Macular Degeneration (AMD), Retinitis Pigmentosa (RP) and Glaucomatous Optic Neuropathy (GON) on the photoreceptor population. Material y methods. A total of 303 rats and 23 mice were used in this thesis, five different strains of rodents were used: albino Sprague-Dawley (SD), pigmented Piebald Virol Glaxo (PVG) and P23H-1 transgenic rats, albino Swiss and pigmented C57/BL6 mice. All experimets and procedures were carried out in strict accordance with the recommendations in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO) and the European Union guidelines for the use of animals in research, and all the protocols were approved by the Ethical and Animal Studies Committee of the University of Murcia. Several techniques such as, the identification of the three different types of photoreceptors and other retinal populations by immunohistofluorescence analyzed in whole flat-mounted retinas and in oriented radial sections, classical staining as H-E, imaging advanced technologies as Spectral Domain Optical Coherence Tomography (SD-OCT), and protein analysis by western blot, have been used. In this thesis the P23H-1transgenic rat has been used as a model of RP, this animal bears an autoasomal dominat mutation in the rhodopsin gene (proline to histidine substitution at codon 23 of the rodopsin protein) that causes photorecptor dystrophy and death. A new experimental model useful to understand the AMD pathology, has been developed for this thesis, Light Emmitting Dioede (LED)-induced cone-photoreceptor phototoxicity (LIP), the blue-light LED exposition on the rat retina causes a damage-area located in the retinal zone with maximun L-cones densities and a cone to rod ratio similar to the human macular fovea. And finally, an experimental model of Laser-induced ocular hypertension developed recently in our Laboratory of Experimental Ophthalmology at the University of Murcia has been used to understand the effects of GON on the cone population. Results. The mean number of L-opsin+cones is 231,736 ± 14,517 in SD rat; 239,939 ± 6,494 in PVG rat; 117,424 ± 17,721 in Swiss mouse and 135,155 ± 8,742 in C57/BL6 mouse. The mean number of S-opsin+cones 41,028 ± 5,074 in SD rat; 27,316 ± 2,235 in PVG rat; 146,682 ± 24,958 in Swiss mouse and 119,616 ± 8,756 in C57/BL6 mouse. The percentage of dual cones is 3.2% in SD rat; 2.9% in PVG rat; 73% in Swiss mouse and 40% in C57/BL6 mouse. In all strains, and both species, there is a parallel distribution of retinal ganglion cells (RGC) and L-cones. The topography of L-cones is similar in all strains of rats and mice analyzed, the highest densities are observed in the superior nasotemporal axis, medium densities around the optic nerve, and this density gradually decreases from the center to the periphery. However, obvious differences are found in S-cones distribution. While in the two rat strains there is a increasing gradient of S-cones density along the inferonasal quadrant and the highest densities are found in the retinal rim, in the Swiss mouse strains S-cones are abundant in the dorsal retina although their highest densities are ventral but the C57/BL6 mouse shows a low number of S-cones in the dorsal retina and very dense population in the ventral retina, being densest in its nasal aspect. In P23H-1 rats, rod degeneration occurs rapidly: first the rod outer segment shortens, at P30 there is extensive rod loss, and by P180 rod loss is almost complete except for the most peripheral retina. The numbers of L cones are, at all postnatal ages, lower in P23H-1 rats than in control SD rats, and decrease significantly with age (by P180). Rod and cone degeneration is spatiotemporally related and occurs in rings that appear already at P90 and spread throughout the entire retina. At P180, the rings of rod-cone degeneration are more abundant in the equatorial retina and are larger in the dorsal retina. In a novel in vivo model of focal LED-induced photoreceptor phototoxicity SD-OCT showed damage in a circular region of the superotemporal retina, whose diameter varied from 1,842.4 ± 84.5 mm (at 24 hours) to 1,407.7 ± 52.8 mm (at 7 days). This region had a progressive thickness disminution from 183.4 ± 5 mm (at 12 h) to 114.6 ± 6 mm (at 7 d). Oriented cross-sections showed within the light-damaged region of the retina massive loss of rods and cone-photoreceptors. Wholemounts documented a circular region containing lower numbers of L- and S-cones. Within a circular area (1 mm or 1.3 mm radius, respectively) in the left and in its corresponding region of the contralateral-fellow-retina, total L- or S-cones were 7,118 ± 842 or 661 ± 125 for the LED exposed retinas (n=7) and 14,040 ± 1,860 or 2,255 ± 193 for the fellow retinas (n=7), respectively. Brimonidine, BDNF, PEDF and bFGF but not CNTF showed significant neuroprotective effects on L- and S-cones. Ocular hypertension (OHT) resulted in wedge-like sectors with their apex on the optic disc devoid of Brn3aRGC but with large numbers of DAPI+nuclei. The levels of all opsins diminished by 2 weeks and further decreased to 20% of basal-levels by 3 months. Cross-sections revealed focal areas of outer retinal layers (ORL) degeneration. RGC survival at 15 days represented approximately 28% and did not change with time, whereas the L-cone and S- populations diminished to 80% and 65%, or to 35% and 20% at 1 or 6 months, respectively. Conclusions. It has been established, for the first time, the total number and the topographical distribution of S- and L-cones in two rat and two mouse strains and demonstrated the correlation of L-cones and RGC spatial distribution. It has been provided the basis to study cone degeneration and its prevention in pathologic conditions. It has been described for the first time that in the P23H-1 rat, rod and cone degeneration is spatiotemporally related and occurs in rings. Cone loss follows rod loss and starts very soon, even before P30, the first age analyzed here. The characteristics of the rings suggest that secondary cone degeneration is influenced by retinal position and/or other intrinsic or extrinsic factors. It has been evidenced that LIP results in rod and cone-photoreceptor loss, and is a reliable, quantifiable model to study cone-photoreceptor degeneration. Intravitreal BDNF, PEDF or bFGF, or topical BMD afford significant cone neuroprotection in this model. It has been demostrated that OHT induces in the ganglion cell layer selective RGC loss that does not progress after 1 month, whereas the S- and L-cones exhibit progressive loss up to 6 months. Thus, OHT results in severe damage to both the innermost and the ORL. Palabras clave: Retina, Fotorreceptores, Conos, Retinosis Pigmentaria, Degeneración Macular Asociada a la Edad, Glaucoma. Key words: Retina, Photoreceptors, Cones, Retinitis Pgmentosa, Aging Macular Degeneration, Glaucoma.
Das International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) ist ein länderübergreifendes, fortlaufendes Umfrageprogramm, das jährlich Erhebungen zu Themen durchführt, die für die Sozialwissenschaften wichtig sind. Das Programm begann 1984 mit vier Gründungsmitgliedern - Australien, Deutschland, Großbritannien und den Vereinigten Staaten - und ist inzwischen auf fast 50 Mitgliedsländer aus aller Welt angewachsen. Da die Umfragen auf Replikationen ausgelegt sind, können die Daten sowohl für länder- als auch für zeitübergreifende Vergleiche genutzt werden. Jedes ISSP-Modul konzentriert sich auf ein bestimmtes Thema, das in regelmäßigen Zeitabständen wiederholt wird. Details zur Durchführung der nationalen ISSP-Umfragen entnehmen Sie bitte der Dokumentation. Die vorliegende Studie konzentriert sich auf Fragen zur Arbeit, Beschäftigungsverhältnissen und Arbeitsorientierungen.
SummaryPROBLEMS OF DEVELOPMENT PLANNING IN REGIONS OF CONCENTHATION GERHARD ISBARYModern planning is an expression of society in evolution. It finds itself in the polarity between planning undertaken by the state, and community, town and regional planning carried out by local government. Its coordinating activities are an important democratic means of opposing the arbitrary actions which still create – without having the slightest notions about planning – very momentous data in a given area. Planning therefore is most active in those zones where economy and population have reached such a degree of density that the still existing open areas have to be treated with greatest care. It is the more strange that there are only few contacts between planning and agriculture in these urbanized areas. The sociological problems which arise from the continuous infringement on hitherto agriculturally used land, are often overlooked by planning in these urbanized areas as well as they appeal only very little to agrarian policies.The reason for this lack of contacts between both subjects seems to be not so much the different training of those working in these fields, but the fact that the economic integration of numerous farmers and agricultural employees started sooner than that of agricultural holdings into the national economy. Consequently, symptoms of structural dissolution predominated over the development of new agricultural forms. The great enticement to sell land at favourable prices, as well as the perseverance in traditional forms of farm management and a petrified class‐consciousness impeded the vast market chances in these urbanized areas which resulted from urbanization and its socioeconomic dynamics. Only in the fringe areas where no continuous contact with the 'urban way of life' existed, belts of intensive farming developed. It must, however, be mentioned that in the urbanized areas various groups found ways to assimilate themselves to the changed conditions of agricultural land use. Here horticultural and other holdings with intensive methods of cultivation, sparetime farmers, and often newly‐created lease‐holdings must be mentioned.If one accepts as a fact that in spite of all endeavours to decentralize, the process of increasing densities of population and industries in favourable locations goes hand in hand with the evolution of industrial society, it is obvious that the encroachment on agricultural land in the urbanized areas will continue. It must therefore be asked whether in future it will be possible for farms with an extensive use of land to have a location in these core zones. Planning has always emphasized that it is most important to loosen up these urbanized areas in order to create decent conditions of living for their inhabitants and to facilitate its functioning with as few frictions as possible. Priority must be given to the solution of the problem of preventing the merger of different centres which are connected by their functions within the conurbations, in order to preserve the character and entity of the various local units. Past experience does not show conclusively that the maintenance of these open spaces in the hand of agricultural holdings the productivity of which is related to an increased area of farmland, can be guaranteed even by the preparation of local development plans. Furthermore, planning by statute can give no guarantee for the viability of those agricultural holdings which do not try to reach an economic integration. Consequently, this kind of holdings has few chances in the core zones of the urbanized areas.In the field of international planning the idea has been promoted that public authorities ought to buy land in the open spaces of the 'buffer zones' between the different centres and to develop it for recreational purposes. The working of these open areas could then be undertaken either by special institutions, by public administration or by leasing. Taken as a whole, the land use of the open spaces within the urbanized areas will have to be organized under the principle that – moving from the outer borders of the fringe areas towards the centres – more or less independent holdings (full‐time farmers, part‐time farmers and specialized holdings of all kinds) will be followed by service undertakings (public and corporate property, the areas of permanent allotments, of private property such as parks, inns with gardens, and recreational institutions). In order to realize a plan of this kind a long‐term programme and considerable funds are needed, the use of which will be significant whith regard to the necessary redevelopment of urbanized areas.Parallel to regional economic policy, in international planning policy the tendency to plan integrated socio‐economic regions finds acceptance to an increasing degree. The development of contingent areas and the solution of problems arising therefrom are taken as an entity. The logical consequence will be the evolution of a regional sociology. Its main task will be the investigation of sociological problems in a changing regional community. It will then be in a position to recommend solutions which are urgently needed in planning and administration.RésuméPROBLÈVES DE LA PLANIFI CATION DU DÉVELOPPEMENT DANS LES RÉCIONS DE CONCENTRATION: GERHARD ISBARYLa planification moderne est pour la société en évolution une façon de s'exprimer. Elle se polarise entre une planification établie par l'Etat national et une planification émanant de l'autonomie des localités, des villes, des régions. Son action coordinatrice, orientée vers le bien commun, en fait un puissant moyen démocratique de s'opposer à l'arbitraire suivant lequel, maintenant encore, sans vue d'ensemble et pour ainsi dire inconsciemment, se fait la mise en place de choses importantes dans l'espace. C'est pourquoi la planification s'effectue le plus activement dans les zones où l'éducation et de promotion, une participation à la culture en général correspondent au caractère de notre société démocratique. Le planificateur doit essayer de contribuer à leur réalisation, en créant une structure écologique optimale.économie et la population ont atteint une telle densité qu'il importe de traiter avec le plus grand soin les espaces demeurés libres. Il est d'autant plus ttrange de noter que dans ces terri‐toires à densité croissante il existe peu de contacts entre la planification et l'agriculture. Les problèmes sociologiques qui, en de telles régions, résultent des emprises continuelles qui s'opèrent sur des espaces jusqu'ici utilisés par l'agriculture échappent souvent aussi bien aux conceptions d'améagement qu'éducation et de promotion, une participation à la culture en général correspondent au caractère de notre société démocratique. Le planificateur doit essayer de contribuer à leur réalisation, en créant une structure écologique optimale.à la politique agricole elle‐même. L'absence de relations entre ces deux domaines s'explique moins, pense‐t‐on, par la formation différente des hommes que par le fait que dans les zones à densité croissante l'articulation économique de nombreux exploitants et travailleurs agricoles s'est rélisée plus tôt que l'intégration économique des entreprises dans l'ensemble de l'économie. C'est ainsi que des phéomènes de dissolution structurelle l'ont emporté sur la création de nouvelles structures agraires. La tentation séduisante de vendre les terrains à des prix avantageux, mais aussi l'obstination à maintenir les formes d'exploitation traditionnelles, dans un sentiment de dasse figé, ont empêché dans les zones dont il s'agit la perception des grandes possibilités que la densité démographique croissante et le dynamisrne socio‐économique qui s'ensuit offraient au développement du marché. C'est seulement à l'extrĉme périphérie, là où ne se manifestait aucun contact permanent avec la vie citadine, que s'est développée une ceinture d'agriculture intensive. Sans doute, au sein même des espaces en voie d'agglomération, des groupes isolés ont su adapter l'emploi du sol aux conditions nouvelles. On pourrait mentionncr ici en particulier les exploitations de création de jardins et d'embellissement, les entreprises en rapport avec l'emploi des loisirs et souvent aussi de vraies fermes nouvellement constituées.En constatant que, malgré tous les efforts de décentralisation, la population et l'économie continuent à se concentrer dans les endroits appropriés, à mesure que progresse la civilisation industrielle, on se rend compte aussi que, dans les zones à densité croissante, les emprises de terrains jusqu'à présent agricoles ne sont pas arrivées à leur terme. La question se pose ainsi de savoir si à l'avenir, dans de pareilles zones, il restera une place quelconque pour des exploitations agricoles. Un des principaux postulats de la planification est de dégager les zones de concentration afin d'y créer des conditions de vie satisfaisantes pour la population et aussi pour que les fonctions s'y accomplissent sans s'incommoder l'une l'autre. Cela impose qu'on s'efforce d'empêcher l'imbrication mutelle sur le terrain des centres agglomérés qui constituent des ensembles fonctionnels, de manière à maintenir les possibilités d'existence et de dégagement de la résidence particulière. Or, l'expérience du passé montre que les plans d'origine locale n'ont euxmêmes pas assez pourvu au maintiem de tels espaces libres à la disposition des exploitants agricoles. Au surplus, la planification juridique ne saurait aucunement assurer l'existence d'entreprises qui, de leur côté, ne s'efforcent pas de participer à l'intégration économique. De telles exploitations n'ont par conséquent que peu de chances de subsister à I'intérieur des zones de concentration.Ainsi est apparue, dans l'aménagement international, une conception suivant laquelle, dans les zones intercalaires, les espaces libres seraient acquis par l'autorité publique et réservés aux besoins de détente immédiate de la population. La mise en exploitation de ces terrains peut se réaliser au moyen d'institutions particulières soit par voie administrative soit par voie d'affermage. En somme, l'utilisation des espaces libres à l'intérieur des zones à densité croissante se conformerait à un principe d'articulation suivant lequel, depuis la bordure périphérique en direction des centres, le territoire passerait graduellement des exploitations plus ou moins autonomes (agriculteurs à temps plein, agriculteurs d'appoint et exploitations d'agrément de tout genre) à des entreprises de service (propriétés publiques et corporatives, ceinture de petits jardins, domaines privés tels que parcs, établissements d'hôtellerie ou de détente). Pour réaliser un tel plan il est nécessaire d'établir un programme à long terme et de disposer d'importants capitaux, ce qui se justifiera nénmoins par la nécessité d'assurer les conditions d'assainissement indispensables aux zones d'agglomération croissante.Dans la politique internationale d'améagement du territoire se manifeste toujours davantage, parallèllement à la politique économique régionale, une tendance à planifier et à répartir l'espace en régions socio‐économiques constituant un réseau serré. Le développement d'espaces cohérents et les problémes nouvellement apparus se trouvent également impliqués dans ces conceptions. C'est pourquoi il est inévitable que se développe une sociologie régionale correspondante. Sa mission consistera à examiner par priorité les problèmes sociologiques qui se posent dans la communauté régionale en voie d'évolution. Elle se trouvera ainsi en mesure de recommander des solutions dont la planification et la pratique administrative devront tenir compte.
Good afternoon ladies and gentlemen. I am very pleased that you were all able to accept my invitation to join me here today on this landmark occasion for nursing education. It is fitting that all of the key stakeholders from the health and education sectors should be so well represented at the launch of an historic new development. Rapid and unpredictable change throughout society has been the hallmark of the twenty-first century, and healthcare is no exception. Regardless of what change occurs, no one doubts that nursing is intrinsic to the health of this nation. However, significant changes in nurse education are now needed if the profession is to deliver on its social mandate to promote peopleÃ'´s health by providing excellent and sensitive care. As science, technology and the demands of the public for sophisticated and responsive health care become increasingly complex, it is essential that the foundation of nursing education is redesigned. Pre-registration nursing education has already undergone radical change over the past eight years, during which time it has moved from an apprenticeship model of education and training to a diploma based programme firmly rooted in higher education. The Secretary General of my Department, Michael Kelly, played a leading role in bringing about this transformation, which has greatly enhanced the way students are prepared for entry to the nursing profession. The benefits of the revised model of education are clearly evident from the quality of the nurses graduating from the diploma programme. The Commission on Nursing examined the whole area of nursing education, and set out a very convincing case for educating nursing students to degree level. It argued that nurses of the future would be required to possess increased flexibility and the ability to work autonomously. A degree programme would provide nurses with a theoretical underpinning that would enable them to develop their clinical skills to a greater extent and to respond to future challenges in health care, for the benefit of patients and clients of the health services. The Commission has provided a solid framework for the professional development of nurses and midwives, including a process that is already underway for the creation of clinical nurse specialist and advanced nurse practitioner posts. This process will facilitate the transfer of skills across divisions of nursing. In this scenario, it is clearly desirable that the future benchmark qualification for registration as a nurse should be a degree in nursing studies. A Nursing Education Forum was established in early 1999 to prepare a strategic framework for the implementation of a nursing degree programme. When launching the ForumÃ'´s report last January, I indicated that the Government had agreed in principle to the introduction of the proposed degree programme next year. At the time two substantial outstanding issues had yet to be resolved, namely the basis on which nurse teachers would transfer from the health sector to the education sector and the amount of capital and revenue funding required to operate the degree programme. My Department has brokered agreements between the Nursing Alliance and the Higher Education Institutions for the assimilation of nurse teachers as lecturers into their affiliated institutions. The terms of these agreements have been accepted by all four nursing unions following a ballot of their nurse teacher members. I would like to pay particular tribute to all nurse teachers who have contributed to shaping the position, relevance and visibility of nursing through leadership, which embodies scholarship and excellence in the profession of nursing itself. In response to a recommendation of the Nursing Education Forum, I established an Inter-Departmental Steering Committee, chaired by Bernard Carey of my Department, to consider all the funding and policy issues. This Steering Committee includes representatives of the Department of Finance and the Department of Education and Science as well as the Higher Education Authority. The Steering Committee has been engaged in intensive negotiations with representatives of the Conference of Heads of Irish Universities and the Institutes of Technology in relation to their capital and revenue funding requirements. These negotiations were successfully concluded within the past few weeks. The satisfactory resolution of the industrial relations and funding issues cleared the way for me to go to the Government with concrete proposals for the implementation of degree level education for nursing students. I am delighted to announce here today that the Government has approved all of my proposals, and that a four-year undergraduate pre-registration nursing degree programme will be implemented on a nation-wide basis at the start of the next academic year, 2002/2003. The Government has approved the provision of capital funding totalling Ã'£176 million pounds for a major building and equipment programme to facilitate the full integration of nursing students into the higher education sector. This programme is due to be completed by September 2004, and will ensure that nursing students are accommodated in purpose built schools of nursing studies with state of the art clinical skills and human science laboratories at thirteen higher education sites throughout the country. The Government has also agreed to make available the substantial additional revenue funding required to support the nursing degree programme. By 2006, the full year cost of operating the programme will rise to some Ã'£43 million pounds. The scale of this investment in pre-registration nursing education is enormous by any yardstick. It demonstrates the firm commitment of myself and my Government colleagues to the full implementation of the recommendations of the Commission on Nursing, of which the introduction of pre-registration degree level education is arguably the most important. This historic decision, and it is truly historic, will finally put the education of nurses on a par with the education of other health care professionals. The nursing profession has long been striving for parity, and my own involvement in the achievement of it is a matter of deep personal satisfaction to me. I am also pleased to announce that the Government has approved my plans for increasing the number of nursing training places to coincide with the implementation of the degree programme next year. Ninety-three additional places in mental handicap and psychiatric nursing will be created at Athlone, Letterkenny, Tralee and Waterford Institutes of Technology. This will yield 392 extra places over the four years of the degree programme. A total of 1,640 places annually on the new degree programme will thus be available. This is an all-time record, and maintaining the annual student intake at this level for the foreseeable future is a key element of my overall strategy for ensuring that we produce sufficient "home-grown" nurses for our health services. I am aware that the Nursing Alliance were anxious that some funding would be provided for the further academic career development of nurse teachers who transfer to one of the six Universities that will be involved in the delivery of the degree programme. I am happy to confirm that up to Ã'£300,000 in total per year will be available for this purpose over the first four years of the degree programme. In line with a recommendation of the Commission on Nursing, my Department will have responsibility for the administration of the nursing degree budget until the programme has been bedded down in the higher education sector. A primary concern will be to ensure that the substantial capital and revenue funding involved is ring-fenced for nursing studies. It is intended that responsibility for the budget will be transferred to the Department of Education and Science after the first cohort of nursing degree students have graduated in 2006. In the context of todayÃ'´s launch, it is relevant to refer to a special initiative that I introduced last year to assist registered nurses wishing to undertake part-time nursing degree courses. Under this initiative, nurses are entitled to have their course fees paid by their employers in return for a commitment to continue working in the public health service for a period following completion of the course. This initiative has proved extremely popular with large numbers of nurses availing of it. I want to confirm here today that the free fees initiative will continue in operation until 2005, at a total cost of at least Ã'£15 million pounds. I am giving this commitment in order to assure this yearÃ'´s intake of nursing students to the final diploma programmes that fee support for a part-time nursing degree course will be available to them when they graduate in three years time. The focus of todayÃ'´s celebration is rightly on the landmark Government decision to implement the nursing degree programme next year. As Minister for Health and Children, and as a former Minister for Education, I also have a particular interest in the educational opportunities available to other health service workers to upgrade their skills. I am pleased to announce that the Government has approved my proposals for the introduction of a sponsorship scheme for suitable, experienced health care assistants who wish to become nurses. This new scheme will commence next year and will be administered by the health boards. Successful applicants will be allowed to retain their existing salaries throughout the four years of the degree programme in return for a commitment to work as nurses for their health service employer for a period of five years following registration. Up to forty sponsorships will be available annually. The new scheme will enable suitable applicants to undertake nursing education and training without suffering financial hardship. The greatest advantage of the scheme will be the retention by the public health service of staff who are supported under it, since they will have had practical experience of working in the service and their own personal commitment to upgrading their skills will be informed by that experience. I am confident that the sponsorship scheme will be warmly welcomed by health service unions representing care assistants as providing an exciting new career development path for their members. Education and health are now the two pillars upon which the profession of nursing rests. We must continue to build bridges, even tunnels where needed to strengthen this partnership. We must all understand partnerships donâ?Tt just happen they are designed and must be worked at. The changes outlined here today are powerful incentives for those in healthcare agencies, academic institutions and regulatory bodies to design revolutionary programmes capable of shaping a critical mass of excellent practitioners. You have an opportunity, greater perhaps than has been granted to any other generation in history to make certain those changes are for the good. Ultimately changes that will make the country a healthier and more equitable place to live. The challenge relates to building a seamless preparatory programme which equally respects both education and practise as an indivisible duo whilst ensuring that high tech does not replace the human touch. This is a special day in the history of the development of the Irish nursing profession, and I would like to thank everybody for their contribution. I want to express my particular appreciation of two people who by this stage are well known to all of you – Bernard Carey of my Department and Siobhán OÃ'´Halloran of the National Implementation Committee. Bernard and Siobhán have devoted considerable time and energy to the project on my behalf over the past fourteen months or so. That we are here today celebrating the launch of degree level education is due in no small part to their successful execution of the mandate that I gave them. We live in a rapidly changing world, one in which nursing can no longer rely on systems of the past to guide it through the new millennium. In terms of contemporary healthcare, nursing is no longer just a reciprocal kindness but rather a highly complex set of professional behaviours, which require serious educational investment. Pre-registration nurse education will always need development and redesign to ensure our health care system meets the demands of modern society. Nothing is finite. Today more than ever the health system is dependent on the resourcefulness of nursing. I have no doubt that the new educational landscape painted will ensure that nurses of the future will be increasingly innovative, independent and in demand. The unmistakable message from my Department is that nursing really matters. Thank you.
Telegrams from Fernando Torreblanca to Roberto V. Pesqueira requesting to use the plane he had offered o Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles so he can travel to San Diego for an exhibition. He asks Roberto to pass a message to Rodolfo. Note written by Fernando Torreblanca while he was in Honolulu, Hawaii regarding a newspaper publication about Mexico in Honolulu. Fernando Torreblanca informs Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles in March 2, 1936 of his daughter's birth. Correspondence between Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles who is living in exile in San Diego, CA and his son-in-law Fernando Torreblanca regarding the meeting the latter had with Agustín Legorreta from the National Bank of Mexico. They met to reach an agreement for the loan the bank granted to the Developer Company of Jorge Almada. Legorreta accepted the proposal of Aarón Sáenz from the Sugar Bank in which the bank would liquidate or manage the company to settle the debt. Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles sends to Fernando Torreblanca copies of the journal "Today", so he can distribute them. He asks him to suggest D. Abel Pérez to reproduce it in the newspaper "La Crítica". Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles tells Fernando Torreblanca about his daily life in San Diego, his opinions concerning the situation in Mexico and asks him to give money orders to their recipients. Fernando Torreblanca explains to Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles that his trip to San Diego was delayed because the problem with the banks has not been solved. He informs him he visited Arturo M. Elías to talk about the lawsuit by the Brooker Store in New York against Alfredo Elías Calles. Attorney Glenn will take the case. Fernando Torreblanca informs Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles that he completed some errands. Reply of acknowledgment. Fernando Torreblanca informs Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles of the situation in the country and the causes of the change of attitude of Juan Andrew Almazán. He tells the administration of President Ávila Camacho is acting with sense. Two memorandums signed by Retouch explaining that Ávila Camacho will not support more strikes. Aarón Sáenz had a disagreement with president Cárdenas before he left the office. The good impressions the bankers have of President Ávila Camacho. A statement that Almazán is preparing. The situation in El Mante, which seems to be favorable for Aarón Sáenz. Reply of acknowledgement from Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles informing of his coming return to Mexico. Fernando Torreblanca informs Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles he is getting ready to travel to San Diego so he can accompany him during his trip back to Mexico. Fernando tells he is waiting for news of Albita's weeding so he can make the arrangements for the trip. He informs of the situation of Gustavo regarding his business of insurance policies. Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles informs Fernando Torreblanca that he left the Mercy Hospital where he was hospitalized due to a bronchitis. He comments on the currency exchange. Telegrams regarding the arrangements for the return of Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles to Mexico. / Telegramas en los que Fernando Torreblanca solicita a Roberto V. Pesqueira el avión ofrecido para que el general viaje a una exposición en San Diego y a Agustín González que transmita recado a Rodolfo. Recado telefónico que recibió Fernando Torreblanca en su hotel en Honolulu, Hawai respecto a una nota relativa a México publicada en un periódico de esa ciudad. Fernando Torreblanca avisa al general PEC, el 2 de marzo de 1936, desde San Diego, Cal., del nacimiento de su hija. Correspondencia entre el general PEC, quien vive en el exilio en San Diego, Cal. y su yerno Fernando Torreblanca relativa a: resultado de entrevista que tuvo el segundo con Agustín Legorreta, del Banco Nacional de México para tratar asunto de rescate de garantía de préstamo que ese banco hizo a la Cía. Desarrolladora, de Jorge Almada, y su buena disposición para aceptar la propuesta de arreglo que propone Aarón Sáenz, del Banco Azucarero, para que sean los bancos los que queden con la deuda y ellos administren o liquiden la Cía. para cobrarse. El general PEC envía a Fernando Torreblanca ejemplares de la revista Today para que los reparta y pide le sugiera a D. Abel Pérez la posibilidad de reproducirlo en su periódico La Crítica. El general PEC comenta con Fernando Torreblanca asuntos de la vida cotidiana en San Diego, sus opiniones respecto a la situación en México y le pide le entregue giros que le envía a sus destinatarios. Fernando Torreblanca explica al general PEC el retraso en su viaje a San Diego porque no se ha podido solucionar el asunto de Jorge y los bancos; a la visita que hizo a Arturo M. Elías para hablar de la demanda que la Casa Brooker de Nueva York interpuso contra Alfredo Elías Calles y el propio general por un adeudo del primero, ya que es importante saber el nombre del empleado que entregó a Fernando Torreblanca carta que también se entregó al abogado Glenn, quien llevará el caso. Fernando Torreblanca informa al general PEC del cumplimiento de diversos encargos, respuesta de enterado. Fernando Torreblanca comenta al general PEC la situación del país, la situación que causó la incalificable actitud de Almazán (Juan Andrew), de la buena disposición del nuevo gobierno del presidente Ávila Camacho, quien está actuando con mucha sensatez. Dos memoranda firmados por Retouch que explican el rechazo de Ávila Camacho a dar su apoyo a más huelgas; de un disgusto que tuvo Aarón Sáenz con el ex presidente Cárdenas antes de que este dejara el gobierno; de la buena impresión que los banqueros tienen del presidente Ávila Camacho; de una declaración que prepara Almazán afirmando que sus amigos lo saquearon con el pretexto de levantarse en armas; del asunto de El Mante, que parece podía solucionarse favorablemente para Aarón Sáenz. Respuesta del general PEC de enterado y comentando su próximo retorno al país. Fernando Torreblanca comenta al general PEC que ya están preparándose para viajar a San Diego y acompañarlo en su viaje de regreso a México, que sólo esperan noticias del matrimonio de Albita Obregón para combinar ambos viajes y le informa de la situación de Gustavo, quien poco a poco va saliendo adelante en la venta de seguros y del acopio de dólares que hace el Banco de México. El general PEC en febrero de 1941 escribe a Fernando Torreblanca diciéndole que ya salió del Hospital Mercy, donde se atendió una fuerte bronquitis, y comentando la situación del cambio peso-dólar. Telegramas relativos a los arreglos para el viaje de regreso a México del general PEC.
Il Volontariato nella Governance dei Servizi Sanitari Toscani: Dall'Aggregazione all'Integrazione di Modelli Sociali, Organizzativi ed Individuali Il fenomeno del Volontariato sta ricevendo progressivamente attenzione dagli studiosi di management, con particolare riferimento al ruolo che le Organizzazioni Non-profit (NPO) svolgono nella società moderna, oltre alla modalità con cui i cittadini si impegnano attivamente nel Terzo Settore al fine di far fronte ai cosiddetti 'fallimenti' dello Stato (government failures) e dei mercati (business failures). La letteratura di riferimento studia come la Società Civile sia in grado di fornire efficacemente i servizi socio-umanitari, rappresentando in tal modo un importante attore sociale al pari dell'Ente Pubblico, rappresentato dalle Istituzioni Governative (GOV), e del mercato, rappresentato dalle imprese ed i business commerciali (BUS). Nella presente ricerca il fenomeno del Volontariato è concettualizzato ed analizzato empiricamente attraverso tre prospettive – macro, meso, micro – le quali corrispondono alle tre sezioni della tesi di ricerca. A tal fine, abbiamo preso in considerazione l'area geografica della Regione Toscana, che rappresenta uno standard di riferimento ed eccellenza per l'implementazione da parte delle NPO di servizi socio-sanitari, in particolare nell'ambito dell'emergenza ed urgenza (Servizio 118). Infatti, il Terzo Settore toscano ha un'antica tradizione storico-culturale sviluppatasi fin dal Medioevo – la nascita della prima associazione di Volontariato fiorentina risale al 1244 – e durante i secoli è stato in grado di contribuire in modo significativo all'evoluzione del social welfare regionale, grazie all'implementazione di servizi socio-sanitari nei confronti della propria comunità locale. Quali sono le ragioni essenziali, le caratteristiche peculiari, e le leve strategiche che permettono il successo di tale realtà filantropica regionale? Per rispondere a tale domanda, abbiamo in primo luogo analizzato l'evoluzione storica delle interazioni istituzionali tra GOV e NPO toscane. Facendo riferimento alla letteratura di partnership ed alleanze strategiche, il focus è stato sul fenomeno delle partnership sociali cross-settoriali (CSSP – Cross-Sector Social Partnership), che si riferiscono ad alleanze strategiche tra i tre attori sociali, ossia lo Stato, le imprese for-profit ed il Terzo Settore, al fine di perseguire obiettivi sociali capaci di creare valore per la comunità di riferimento e soddisfarne le esigenze. La letteratura pertinente concettualizza tale fenomeno attraverso tre fasi, denominate 'formazione', 'implementazione', 'risultati'. Inoltre, tali fasi sono costituite da stage i quali a loro volta sono suddivisi in micro-processi. Uno dei gap della letteratura fa riferimento agli aspetti dinamici e contingentali che influenzano l'evoluzione delle CSSP in relazione a tali fasi, stage e micro-processi. Il nostro obiettivo è stato di contribuire a tale letteratura analizzando la specifica fase di 'implementazione' della partnership sociale cross-settoriale tra Regione Toscana e Associazioni di Volontariato, indagando l'evoluzione dei tre stage definiti 'selezione', 'design' e 'istituzionalizzazione'. Attraverso la metodologia della 'critical event analysis', abbiamo analizzato archivi storici, documenti, report, norme legislative, interviste con Presidenti e Direttori delle NPO toscane e responsabili della Regione Toscana, al fine di esaminare l'evoluzione della CSSP toscana negli ultimi 35 anni, ossia dal 1978 (creazione del Sistema Sanitario Nazionale) ai giorni d'oggi (2013-2015). Per tale livello 'macro' di analisi, è emerso come la partnership sociale sia stata caratterizzata dal cosiddetto 'isomorfismo coercitivo' il quale ha imposto alle Associazioni di Volontariato di adattarsi dinamicamente al contesto ambientale di riferimento per essere in grado di rispondere a pressioni contestuali esterne. Tali fattori hanno scaturito 5 principali criticità, ossia la legittimazione, il potere, la fiducia, l'identità, l'absorptive capacity, che sono evolute dinamicamente nel corso delle interazioni storiche tra i partner regionali. Nella seconda sezione della tesi abbiamo utilizzato una prospettiva 'meso', in particolare l'analisi di uno specifico modello di business e governance che sempre più caratterizza le organizzazioni non- profit, ossia il modello 'ibrido'. Tale modello fa riferimento alla compresenza di attività filantropiche/non-profit e commerciali/for-profit nella stessa organizzazione. Il fenomeno dell'ibridizzazione è sempre più un elemento significativo per le moderne realtà organizzative, poiché molte imprese sia for-profit che non-profit stanno sempre più convergendo verso un modello di 'impresa sociale', che sottolinea l'orientamento e l'attitudine imprenditoriale verso la responsabilità sociale delle strutture organizzative nei confronti di stakeholder e ambiente di riferimento. In particolare, tale fenomeno sta progressivamente caratterizzando le Associazioni di Volontariato toscane le quali devono organizzare innovativi modelli di business e governance al fine di essere autonome finanziariamente, divenendo così sempre più indipendenti dalle Istituzioni Governative e più sensibili ai bisogni di volontari e comunità locale. La letteratura ha individuato due tipologie di modelli ibridi, ossia il modello integrato e quello disintegrato, focalizzandosi in maniera marginale sulle possibili implicazioni manageriali. Al fine di contribuire a tale filone di letteratura, abbiamo effettuato un caso di studio multiplo analizzando tre NPO toscane 'ibride'. Grazie alla coding analysis delle interviste semi-strutturate effettuate con i Presidenti e i manager delle Associazioni di Volontariato, è stato possibile individuare implicazioni manageriali significative per tali realtà organizzative. In primo luogo, abbiamo concettualizzato una terza tipologia di modello di business e governance ibrido, ossia il modello semi-intergrato; in secondo luogo, abbiamo individuato sei categorie concettuali emerse dall'analisi che influenzano la gestione di tali realtà, ossia legittimità interna, legittimità esterna, scambi e flussi monetari, struttura organizzativa, perdita di identità, limiti alla crescita organizzativa. I risultati dell'analisi sottolineano come il modello ibrido integrato sia caratterizzato da alti livelli di criticità in riferimento ai limiti alla crescita; il modello disintegrato dal rischio di perdita identitaria; infine, il modello semi-integrato da criticità concernenti la legittimità interna e limiti alla crescita. La terza sezione della tesi fa riferimento ad una prospettiva 'micro', analizzando in primo luogo il concetto socio-antropologico del dono all'interno del contesto di volontariato; in secondo luogo, indagando le motivazioni psico-socio comportamentali dei volontari, oltre che le loro attitudini ed intenzioni comportamentali. In particolare, mentre il primo capitolo della sezione fa riferimento all'analisi concettuale del dono utilizzando importanti teorie antropologiche – come la Teoria del Dono di Marcel Mauss – il secondo capitolo presenta un'analisi empirica attraverso un modello ad equazioni strutturali (SEM – structural equation modeling), in grado di analizzare simultaneamente le relazioni ipotizzate tra significative variabili latenti delle attitudini, intenzioni e comportamenti dei volontari. Abbiamo utilizzato scale di questionari convalidati in letteratura e collezionato 379 questionari completati da volontari di 20 NPO toscane. Dopo l'analisi esplorativa fattoriale delle dimensioni oggetto di analisi – motivazioni (sociale, carriera, valori, conoscenza, protezione dell'io, avanzamento dell'io), atteggiamento verso l'organizzazione, religiosità, reciprocità positiva e negativa, intenzione a donare – abbiamo costruito un modello SEM e analizzato sia gli indici di significatività (modello di misurazione) sia le relazioni ed 'influenze' esistenti tra variabili (modello strutturale). Le principali implicazioni manageriali fanno riferimento alla capacità del management delle NPO di analizzare e conoscere i segnali relazionali emanati dai volontari, al fine di rispondere in modo appropriato ed incentivare lo sforzo di tali preziose risorse strategiche. Infatti, i volontari non rappresentano solamente il principale 'fornitore' di tempo, risorse, know-how e abilità per le Associazioni di Volontariato, bensì al contempo sono i beneficiari di gratificazione, soddisfazione e spirito associazionistico ottenuti dalla partecipazione all'organizzazione. In particolare, la dimensione di reciprocità insieme all'intenzione di donare sottolineano come la relazionalità sia un elemento cruciale per la gestione delle NPO, che presuppone una profonda conoscenza dei tratti psicologici dei volontari, oltre alle loro attitudini ed intenzioni comportamentali. Tali fattori sono importanti per rendere le Associazioni di Volontariato il veicolo sociale efficace in grado di rispondere ai bisogni della comunità locale e cercare di risolvere i 'fallimenti' dello Stato e dei mercati, grazie in modo particolare alle loro risorse più importanti, ossia i volontari. Voluntarism in the Governance of Tuscan Socio-health services: From the Aggregation to the Integration of Social, Organizational, and Individual Models The phenomenon of voluntarism is increasingly achieving attention by management scholars, specifically focusing on the role of Non-profit Organizations (NPOs) in modern society and the way citizens actively commit themselves in the Third Sector in order to cope with government and business failures. Pertinent literature questions how the organized Civil Society successfully provides human service delivery, thus traditionally representing an important societal actor along with both the Public Entity, represented at a local level by Governmental Institutions (GOV), and the market, represented by enterprises and for-profit business (BUS). In the present thesis, such a phenomenon has been conceptually and empirically analyzed following three perspectives, namely a 'macro', 'meso', and 'micro' perspective, which correspond to the three sections of the research. To this purpose, we chose an emblematic geographical area, the Region of Tuscany, which represents a paradigmatic excellence and national benchmark for the provision of emergency-urgency socio-health services. Actually, the Tuscan Third Sector has a historical and long-lasting tradition that started in the medieval period, precisely 1244 in Florence, and during the Centuries has significantly contributed to the evolution of regional welfare, especially by providing socio-health services to its own local community. What are the essential reasons, peculiar characteristics, and strategic levers that allow such a regional successful philanthropic reality? To answer this question, we firstly analyzed the historical evolution of the institutional interactions between regional GOV and Tuscan NPOs. Drawing on partnership and strategic alliances literature, we focused on the notion of cross-sector social partnership (CSSP), which refers to strategic arrangements between the three societal actors, namely GOV, BUS, and NPOs, aiming at social purposes. CSSP literature conceptualizes such arrangements through a tripartite framework which is composed by three phases, namely formation, implementation, and outcome of the social partnership. Further, each phase is characterized by stages which in turn are composed by micro-processes. However, scarce attention has been given to the analysis of evolving CSSP focusing on dynamic and contingent elements influencing and affecting such arrangements. We attempted to contribute to this stream of literature by choosing the implementation stage of the CSSP between Tuscan GOV and NPOs, and its three stages, namely selection, design, and institutionalization. By using critical event analysis, we examined historical archives, documents, reports, legislative frameworks, interviews with NPOs Presidents and Directors and GOV representatives, in order to assess the evolution of the Tuscan CSSP in the last 35 years, particularly from 1978 (the creation of the Italian NHS) to the present period (years 2013-2015). At this first 'macro' level of analysis, it emerged how the examined Tuscan CSSP has been characterized by an institutional 'coercive isomorphism' which imposed NPOs to adaptively respond to external pressures. These environmental factors resulted in five main CSSP internal outputs, namely legitimacy, power, trust, identity, and absorptive capacity, which dynamically evolve throughout the historical interactions between partners. In the second section of the thesis we used a 'meso' perspective, particularly the analysis of a specific business and governance model which is increasingly characterizing NPOs realities, the hybrid model. Such a model refers to the implementation of both for-profit and non-profit activities within a single organization. Hybridization is actually an important element in modern organizations, mainly because many for-profit enterprises and traditional NPOs are converging toward the so-called 'social enterprise' model, which stresses the socially responsible entrepreneurial mindset of modern management and organizational structures. Such a phenomenon is progressively characterizing Tuscan NPOs, which have to arrange innovative forms of business model in order to be financially autonomous and thus becoming, on the one hand, more independent of regional GOV and, on the other hand, more trustworthy toward its own volunteers and local community. Pertinent literature has individuated two types of hybrid business and governance models, namely the integrated and disintegrated ones, although few attempts have provided managerial implications for such hybrid arrangements. We attempted to contribute to this stream of literature by conducting a multiple case study of three Tuscan 'hybrid' NPOs. Specifically, the coding analysis of semi-structured interviews with NPOs Presidents and Directors resulted in significant managerial implications for these organizations. Firstly, we conceptualized a third hybrid business and governance model, the semi- integrated one; second, we individuated six conceptual categories affecting the hybridization phenomenon – internal legitimacy, external legitimacy, monetary exchange and flows, organizational structure, loss of identity, growth constraints. Interestingly, the integrated model resulted affected by high critical levels of growth constraints; the disintegrated model by risk of loss of identity; and, finally, the semi-integrated model by internal legitimacy and growth constraints. The third and final section of the thesis builds on a 'micro' perspective by firstly analyzing the socio- anthropological concept of the gift and donation in the voluntary context, and secondly investigating volunteers' motivations, attitudes, and behavioral intention to donate in order to deepen how these essential strategic resources of NPOs behave. While the first part of the section is a conceptual analysis of the notion of gift-giving building on anthropological theories (e.g. The Theory of the Gift by Marcel Mauss), the second part presents an empirical analysis using a structural equation model (SEM), which allowed to simultaneously assess the hypothesized relationships between important latent dimensions of volunteers' behavior, intention to donate, and attitude toward the NPO. Particularly, we used validated psychological and managerial scales and collected 379 questionnaires completed by Tuscan volunteers of 20 NPOs. After an exploratory factor analysis of the analyzed latent dimensions – volunteers' motivations (social, career, values, understanding, ego protection, ego enhancement), attitude toward charities, religiosity, positive and negative reciprocity, intention to donate – we implemented SEM procedure and evaluate both the 'measurement' model (fit indices) and the 'structural' model (hypothesized relationships) of the proposed constructs. Main managerial implications refer to the importance for NPO board to assess and understand volunteers' relational signals, in order to appropriately respond to and incentive such crucial strategic resources of the organization. Actually, volunteers represent not only the main 'provider' of time, resources, know- how, and ability for NPOs, but also and at the same time the main 'beneficiary' of gratification and satisfaction derived from being part of a committed philanthropic association. Particularly, the reciprocal dimension of volunteers' behavior, along with their intention to donate, stress how the relational element is important in the management of such realities, which presupposes a deep understanding of individual psychological traits, attitudes, and behavioral intention. Such elements make NPOs the effective and successful societal vehicles able to respond to community needs and to cope with government and market 'failures', thanks to their most precious resources, the volunteers.
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Every mention of the film Barbarian carries with it the warning to not spoil anything, to experience it completely ignorant so as to be best frightened by its particular twists and turns. [Fair Warning: I will spoil everything here] For that reason it is not entirely clear if the title refers to anything. It could just be a vaguely menacing word. Many horror movies from the last few years seem to take their title from a series of such words, Insidious, Malignant, Terrifier, as if someone was just looking up "evil" or "scary" in a thesaurus. The opening scenes of the film, however, suggest that this title is not just a vaguely scary word, after all, it would be an odd choice suggesting that the we are running out of synonyms for scary, but that the film is very much about what it means to be a barbarian and what it means to be civilized. The film opens when Tess (Georgina Campbell) arrives at her Airbnb rental in Detroit. Everything seems to go wrong at once, it is pouring rain, someone named Marcus keeps calling even as she has no interest in answer, and, worst of all, the key is not in the lockbox to the house. It turns out that the Airbnb has been double booked. A man named Keith (Bill Skarsgard) is already inside. He invites her in, and offers to share the house for the night, even opting to take the couch. It is around these gestures that the film makes clear what is at stake in civilization and what might define a barbarian. Keith makes her a cup of tea even though she declines his offer. The camera lingers over the tea cup asking the question if perhaps he slipped something into it. The threat of violence, of specifically sexual violence, hovers unstated over all of these scenes.A gesture of friendliness and comfort could also contain a threat. However, as the two talk and get to know each other, it becomes clear that not only does he not mean her any harm, they actually have things in common, and are both interested in Detroit's emerging arts scene. For a few minutes one could forget that one is watching a horror movie, and believe that one is watching the "meet cute" of a romantic comedy. Horror returns the next day. First, the sunlight reveals that the rented house is alone in a block of dilapidated and abandoned buildings. (Like It Follows before it, Barbarian uses Detroit to be a scene in which urban decay is the setting for modern horror.) Second, when Tess returns to the house later that day she is chased by an apparently homeless and unstable person who aggressively yells at her to get out of that house. These are all only the beginning. The real horror begins when Tess goes into the basement to search for toilet paper and finds a subbasement, and a basement below that, both of which seem to be constructed as prisons or torture chambers. One room is just a bed, a bucket, and a video camera on a tripod. A bloody handprint on the wall suggest that the camera has documented unimaginable horrors. When Keith returns to the house we begin to see how unimaginable these horrors are, in exploring the subbasement he is attacked and killed by a monstrous woman, seven feet tall, naked, deformed, and capable of massive brute strength. Before the audience can even make sense of what they have seen the screen goes black, and cuts to a convertible driving along sunny day on the California highway. The car is being driven by AJ Gilbride (Justin Long) and is takes the film awhile to connect him, and sunny California, to a tunnel under a home in Detroit. In the meantime he has the worst day of his life, but one that has nothing to do with monsters, at least the literal kind, at least yet. AJ is a sitcom actor. He gets a call informing of him that he has been accused of sexual assault by one of his costars. His life begins to fall apart quickly after this, his show is cancelled, even his financial planner wants nothing to do with him. It is only then, in a brief mention of rental properties in Michigan that we learn of his connection to the house that opened the film. AJ travels to Detroit to escape the negative attention and liquidate his property. He finds the house exactly as Tess and Keith left it, their bags still on the bed, toiletries near the sink. He too eventually finds the basement, and the hidden tunnels below, setting up one of the funniest scenes in the whole film. AJ immediately googles the question whether or not basements count as part of the square feet of a home in its listing. What Tess sees as a horrible scene of past violence, he sees as an investment opportunity. He immediately get a tape measure and begins to calculate the size of his investment property. It is then that he meets "the mother" creature that killed Keith and he is thrown into a pit with Tess who has been its captive. Once again the film cuts from darkness and horror to the light of day, to a flashback to the same house on Barbary Lane years earlier when the block was a picture of suburban paradise. Horror films have their own particular economy, their own particular way of regulating and maintaining fear and anxiety. In general this is indexed to sunset and sunrise. When the sun comes up the audience breathes a sigh of relief. What is interesting about Barbarian is that every time it cuts from the dark tunnels beneath the house to the sunlight of the world above the momentary relief from the horror actually deepens the extent of the horror. Even though we do not see the rape that AJ is accused of, his actions, referring to his accuser as a lying bitch, and his description of her "reluctance" when telling the story to his "bro," make it abundantly clear that he is exactly the sort of person that Tess feared in the opening scene, justifying her wariness at spending the night in a house with a strange man. The second cut to daylight goes even further into the barbarism hinted at the beginning of the film, in it we meet Frank the past owner of the home. Voices on the car radio date the scene to be during the beginning years of the Reagan administration, and before deindustrialization devastated Detroit. He goes to the grocery store searching for "baby stuff" and meets an incredibly friendly worker at the supermarket who is all too willing to help him with his "home birth." She even sells him the nursing videotape that we see later. Frank then stalks a young woman he sees at the grocery store, masquerading as a Detroit Public Works employee to get into her house and leave a window unlocked. Later, when we he returns home, his neighbor tells him of his plans to sell his house, beginning the "white flight" that would transform the neighborhood into the broken down ruins we see in the present day. The exodus from the neighborhood only expands Frank's domain, his property grows, at least underground, as his neighbors leave.The scenes with Frank are striking, because not only do they begin to spell out the backstory of the house, and the horrors that took place there, but they do so in a way in which the darkness of the horrors contrast with the brightness of the day. Frank is the architect of the underground subbasement. It was where he kept the women he kidnapped and raped, their children, and the children of those children. "Mother" the creature lording over the dungeon now is the unholy offspring of those offspring. All of this is revealed not only during the light of day, but in the face of friendly neighbors and cashiers. Frank's world seems to be not just that of a world gone by, of large American cars and VHS tapes, but a fantasy of what America supposedly used to be, a world where neighbors stop by to say hi and you can always find good help. Who then is the barbarian of the film's title? The obvious answer would be "Mother," she is naked, speaking only in grunts, so outside of civilization to be almost feral. However, she is the product of Frank, of his cruelty and brutality, cruelty and brutality that did not hide in the dark, but took place nearly in full sunlight. Jameson writes "Today all politics is about real estate. Postmodern politics is essentially a matter of land grabs, on a local as well as a global scale." I have always wondered about this line, but it is hard not to see in the case of this film the connection between property, privilege, and power. Frank is able to exploit the private nature of his home, the fact that his neighbors do not care what he does so long as he keeps the yard clean and muffles the screams from the basement. The two monstrous men of the film, Frank and AJ, are not only both rapists, but they are both owners of the house, and they each use this property to protect them. For Frank it becomes the scene where his crimes take place, where the evidence is hidden away, while for AJ selling it can make it possible to afford the kind of lawyer who could not only protect him from his crimes, but also silence his victim through an anti-defamation suit. This connection between property and privilege is further underscored when Tess manages to escape and calls the police. That the police are going to be useless is almost a given in a horror movie, one the genre's consistent subversive elements, but the question is how are they going to be useless, are the going to be skeptical, arrogant, or simply overwhelmed. In this case the police do not believe Tess's stories of underground tunnels and monstrous women in part because she has no key to the house, and because her time spent underground has left her looking strung out and crazed. She is black woman without property and she is treated as such. The police are more inclined to arrest her for breaking the window than they are to break down a door to rescue someone. Police protect property not people. From the opening of the film, in which Tess is desperately calling the company who manages the Airbnb to get them to address the mistake of double booking the house, to the appearance of the police towards the end, the film is clear that those who own property are protected, even to the point that their crimes can go unnoticed, and those without are left exposed and vulnerable. As Benjamin says there is no document of civilization that is not also that of barbarism, and in this case what connects them is property, the private property of the home. The doctrine that makes the home one man's castle also makes it his dungeon and torture chamber. The one person who offers real help, who believes Tess and tries to help her, is that man that screamed at her to get out of the house, a yell that was more of a warning than a threat. This man, Andre, offers both Tess and AJ help and shelter, but in the end he cannot shelter or protect them. Without a home he has no protection to offer, and mother kills him.This deleted scene underscores the connection with property as well as how funny this film can be.What then about "the Mother'? If she is not the barbarian of the film's title then what is she. How are we to read this monster. It is worth noting that she is excessively, even monstrously maternal. She kidnaps Tess and AJ not to torture or kill them, but to keep them and care for them. Her one bit of civilization, of education, is the instructional video tape on nursing, and, in one of the most talked about scenes of the film, she forces AJ to nurse from her breast. I am sure that Freudians and Lacanians will have a lot to say about this monstrous mother, but I am tempted to read it politically. If Frank is the true barbarian, and his evil is tied to property, to the privation and seclusion that the home makes possible, and if the home continues to be a condition of violence even as it is changed to an asset, to revenue, then the home as the privatization of care, as Sophie Lewis puts it, is both the condition of that seclusion and what it in some sense represses. Even in the underground dungeon that Frank has created babies are raised, care goes on even in a place that exists for the purpose of violence and exploitation. Of course that care has become warped by its very relation to the violence that made it possible. Thus we can in some sense reverse Benjamin's saying, there is civilization, care and nurturing, in every element of barbarism. This seems to be the real merit of Barbarian in all of its twists and shocks, in the end it changes how we see both a suburban home and the homeless that surround it. seeing barbarism where we are used to seeing civilization and civilization where we might expect barbarism.
The aim of the following article is to find whether the European Court of Justice has reacted in its recent rulings to the growing reluctance of many Europeans and their political representations towards quasi-automatic rights of migrating of European Union citizens to move to another Member State and enjoy there the benefits of social policy on equal footing with this country´s nationals. The result of the referendum held in the United Kingdom on 23 June 2016 regarding the UK's membership in the EU demonstrates the importance of the issue in question. The authors analyse recent case law of the European Court of Justice in comparison with its earlier case law regarding the access of Union citizens to social assistance and the status of third country nationals as family members of European Union citizens. The authors have come to the conclusion that so far, the European Court of Justice tightened the interpretation of the European Union law in force in the area of welfare tourists' rights unlike in the case of economically active migrants. First, Martinez-Sala, Grzelczyk, Bidar, Trojani and other judgments are mentioned to remind the previous approach of the European Court of Justice, based on the principle of broad solidarity between Member States. Second, this approach is confronted with more recent case law, i. e. Dano, Alimanovic, Garcia-Nieto, Commission against the United Kingdom. In those cases, the court did not require the host Member States to recognize the value of EU citizenship as an individual's "fundamental status" nor to show a degree of solidarity. The court stood for the uncomplicated and rigorous application of Directive 2004/38. When it comes to third country nationals as family members of Union citizens, their status it is not only confirmed but even extended. The authors analyse briefly earlier case law of the European Court of Justice, namely the Singh, O. and B., Metock, Zambrano and Dereci cases. These judgments are characteristic of broad interpretation of Directive 2004/38 and provisions of the Treaty on EU citizenship in favour of the family members. Protection of fundamental rights also plays an important part. Other than in the case of social tourism, there has been no change in the approach of the European Court of Justice. On the contrary, in Marín, Chavez-Vilchez, Lounes or Coman judgments, the European Court of Justice confirms its previous line of reasoning and further develops it. Nevertheless, the authors hold the view that the European Court of Justice should more carefully balance and try to reconcile free movement rights, fundamental rights, as well as the sovereign rights of Member States in order to contribute to the prevention of European disintegration. ; The authors are thankful for support to the Charles University research program "PROGRES Q02 – Publicization of law in the European and international comparison" ; Magdaléna Svobodová: svobodom@prf.cuni.cz ; Václav Šmejkal: smejkalv@prf.cuni.cz ; Magdaléna Svobodová - Senior lecturer at Charles University, Faculty of Law, Department of European Law. Prague, Czech Republic. ; Václav Šmejkal - Associate professor at Charles University, Faculty of Law, Department of European Law. Prague, Czech Republic. ; Magdaléna Svobodová - Charles University (Czech Republic) ; Václav Šmejkal - Charles University (Czech Republic) ; Blauberger, M. & Schmidt, S. K. 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Adequate energy supply has become one of the vital components of human development and economic growth of nations. In fact, major components of the global economy such as transportation services, communications, industrial processes, and construction activities are dependent on adequate energy resources. Even mining and extraction of energy resources, including harnessing the forces of nature to produce energy, are dependent on accessibility of sufficient energy in the appropriate form at the desired location. Therefore, energy resource planning and management to provide appropriate energy in terms of both quantity and quality has become a priority at the global level. The increasing demand for energy due to growing population, higher living standards, and economic development magnifies the importance of reliable energy plans. In addition, the uneven distribution of traditional fossil fuel energy sources on the Earth and the resulting political and economic interactions are other sources of complexity within energy planning. The competition over fossil fuels that exists due to gradual depletion of such sources and the tremendous thirst of current global economic operations for these sources, as well as the sensitivity of fossil fuel supplies and prices to global conditions, all add to the complexity of effective energy planning. In addition to diversification of fossil fuel supply sources as a means of increasing national energy security, many governments are investing in non-fossil fuels, especially renewable energy sources, to combat the risks associated with adequate energy supply. Moreover, increasing the number of energy sources also adds further complication to energy planning. Global warming, resulting from concentration of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere, influences energy infrastructure investments and operations management as a result of international treaty obligations and other regulations requiring that emissions be cut to sustainable levels. Burning fossil fuel, as one of the substantial driving factors of global warming and energy insecurity, is mostly impacted by such policies, pushing forward the implementation of renewable energy polices. Thus, modern energy portfolios comprise a mix of renewable energy sources and fossil fuels, with an increasing share of renewables over time. Many governments have been setting renewable energy targets that mandate increasing energy production from such sources over time. Reliance on renewable energy sources certainly helps with reduction of greenhouse gas emissions while improving national energy security. However, the growing implementation of renewable energy has some limitations. Such energy technologies are not always as cheap as fossil fuel sources, mostly due to immaturity of these energy sources in most locations as well as high prices of the materials and equipment to harness the forces of nature and transform them to usable energy. In addition, despite the fact that renewable energy sources are traditionally considered to be environmentally friendly, compared to fossil fuels, they sometimes require more natural resources such as water and land to operate and produce energy. Hence, the massive production of energy from these sources may lead to water shortage, land use change, increasing food prices, and insecurity of water supplies. In other words, the energy production from renewables might be a solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but it might become a source of other problems such as scarcity of natural resources.The fact that future energy mix will rely more on renewable sources is undeniable, mostly due to depletion of fossil fuel sources over time. However, the aforementioned limitations pose a challenge to general policies that encourage immediate substitution of fossil fuels with renewables to battle climate change. In fact, such limitations should be taken into account in developing reliable energy policies that seek adequate energy supply with minimal secondary effects. Traditional energy policies have been suggesting the expansion of least cost energy options, which were mostly fossil fuels. Such sources used to be considered riskless energy options with low volatility in the absence of competitive energy markets in which various energy technologies are competing over larger market shares. Evolution of renewable energy technologies, however, complicated energy planning due to emerging risks that emanated mostly from high price volatility. Hence, energy planning began to be seen as investment problems in which the costs of energy portfolio were minimized while attempting to manage associated price risks. So, energy policies continued to rely on risky fossil fuel options and small shares of renewables with the primary goal to reduce generation costs. With emerging symptoms of climate change and the resulting consequences, the new policies accounted for the costs of carbon emissions control in addition to other costs. Such policies also encouraged the increased use of renewable energy sources. Emissions control cost is not an appropriate measure of damages because these costs are substantially less than the economic damages resulting from emissions. In addition, the effects of such policies on natural resources such as water and land is not directly taken into account. However, sustainable energy policies should be able to capture such complexities, risks, and tradeoffs within energy planning. Therefore, there is a need for adequate supply of energy while addressing issues such as global warming, energy security, economy, and environmental impacts of energy production processes. The effort in this study is to develop an energy portfolio assessment model to address the aforementioned concerns.This research utilized energy performance data, gathered from extensive review of articles and governmental institution reports. The energy performance values, namely carbon footprint, water footprint, land footprint, and cost of energy production were carefully selected in order to have the same basis for comparison purposes. If needed, adjustment factors were applied. In addition, the Energy Information Administration (EIA) energy projection scenarios were selected as the basis for estimating the share of the energy sources over the years until 2035. Furthermore, the resource availability in different states within the U.S. was obtained from publicly available governmental institutions that provide such statistics. Specifically, the carbon emissions magnitudes (metric tons per capita) for different states were extracted from EIA databases, states' freshwater withdrawals (cubic meters per capita) were found from USGS databases, states' land availability values (square kilometers) were obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau, and economic resource availability (GDP per capita) for different states were acquired from the Bureau of Economic Analysis.In this study, first, the impacts of energy production processes on global freshwater resources are investigated based on different energy projection scenarios. Considering the need for investing on energy sources with minimum environmental impacts while securing maximum efficiency, a systems approach is adopted to quantify the resource use efficiency of energy sources under sustainability indicators. The sensitivity and robustness of the resource use efficiency scores are then investigated versus existing energy performance uncertainties and varying resource availability conditions. The resource use efficiency of the energy sources is then regionalized for different resource limitation conditions in states within the U.S. Finally, a sustainable energy planning framework is developed based on Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) and Post-Modern Portfolio Theory (PMPT) with consideration of the resource use efficiency measures and associated efficiency risks.In the energy-water nexus investigation, the energy sources are categorized into 10 major groups with distinct water footprint magnitudes and associated uncertainties. The global water footprint of energy production processes are then estimated for different EIA energy mix scenarios over the 2012-2035 period. The outcomes indicate that the water footprint of energy production increases by almost 50% depending on the scenario. In fact, growing energy production is not the only reason for increasing the energy related water footprint. Increasing the share of water intensive energy sources in the future energy mix is another driver of increasing global water footprint of energy in the future. The results of the energies' water footprint analysis demonstrate the need for a policy to reduce the water use of energy generation. Furthermore, the outcomes highlight the importance of considering the secondary impacts of energy production processes besides their carbon footprint and costs. The results also have policy implications for future energy investments in order to increase the water use efficiency of energy sources per unit of energy production, especially those with significant water footprint such as hydropower and biofuels.In the next step, substantial efforts have been dedicated to evaluating the efficiency of different energy sources from resource use perspective. For this purpose, a system of systems approach is adopted to measure the resource use efficiency of energy sources in the presence of trade-offs between independent yet interacting systems (climate, water, land, economy). Hence, a stochastic multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) framework is developed to compute the resource use efficiency scores for four sustainability assessment criteria, namely carbon footprint, water footprint, land footprint, and cost of energy production considering existing performance uncertainties. The energy sources' performances under aforementioned sustainability criteria are represented in ranges due to uncertainties that exist because of technological and regional variations. Such uncertainties are captured by the model based on Monte-Carlo selection of random values and are translated into stochastic resource use efficiency scores. As the notion of optimality is not unique, five MCDM methods are exploited in the model to counterbalance the bias toward definition of optimality. This analysis is performed under (")no resource limitation(") conditions to highlight the quality of different energy sources from a resource use perspective. The resource use efficiency is defined as a dimensionless number in scale of 0-100, with greater numbers representing a higher efficiency. The outcomes of this analysis indicate that despite increasing popularity, not all renewable energy sources are more resource use efficient than non-renewable sources. This is especially true for biofuels and different types of ethanol that demonstrate lower resource use efficiency scores compared to natural gas and nuclear energy. It is found that geothermal energy and biomass energy from miscanthus are the most and least resource use efficient energy alternatives based on the performance data available in the literature. The analysis also shows that none of the energy sources are strictly dominant or strictly dominated by other energy sources. Following the resource use efficiency analysis, sensitivity and robustness analyses are performed to determine the impacts of resource limitations and existing performance uncertainties on resource use efficiency, respectively. Sensitivity analysis indicates that geothermal energy and ethanol from sugarcane have the lowest and highest resource use efficiency sensitivity, respectively. Also, it is found that from a resource use perspective, concentrated solar power (CSP) and hydropower are respectively the most and least robust energy options with respect to the existing performance uncertainties in the literature.In addition to resource use efficiency analysis, sensitivity analysis and robustness analysis, of energy sources, this study also investigates the scheme of the energy production mix within a specific region with certain characteristics, resource limitations, and availabilities. In fact, different energy sources, especially renewables, vary in demand for natural resources (such as water and land), environmental impacts, geographic requirements, and type of infrastructure required for energy production. In fact, the efficiency of energy sources from a resource use perspective is dependent upon regional specifications, so the energy portfolio varies for different regions due to varying resource availability conditions. Hence, the resource use efficiency scores of different energy technologies are calculated based on the aforementioned sustainability criteria and regional resource availability and limitation conditions (emissions, water resources, land, and GDP) within different U.S. states, regardless of the feasibility of energy alternatives in each state. Sustainability measures are given varying weights based on the emissions cap, available economic resources, land, and water resources in each state, upon which the resource use efficiency of energy sources is calculated by utilizing the system of systems framework developed in the previous step. Efficiency scores are graphically illustrated on GIS-based maps for different states and different energy sources. The results indicate that for some states, fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas are as efficient as renewables like wind and solar energy technologies from resource use perspective. In other words, energy sources' resource use efficiency is significantly sensitive to available resources and limitations in a certain location.Moreover, energy portfolio development models have been created in order to determine the share of different energy sources of total energy production, in order to meet energy demand, maintain energy security, and address climate change with the least possible adverse impacts on the environment. In fact, the traditional (")least cost(") energy portfolios are outdated and should be replaced with (")most efficient(") ones that are not only cost-effective, but also environmentally friendly. Hence, the calculated resource use efficiency scores and associated statistical analysis outcomes for a range of renewable and nonrenewable energy sources are fed into a portfolio selection framework to choose the appropriate energy mixes associated with the risk attitudes of decision makers. For this purpose, Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) and Post-Modern Portfolio Theory (PMPT) are both employed to illustrate how different interpretations of (")risk of return(") yield different energy portfolios. The results indicate that 2012 energy mix and projected world's 2035 energy portfolio are not sustainable in terms of resource use efficiency and could be substituted with more reliable, more effective portfolios that address energy security and global warming with minimal environmental and economic impacts. ; 2013-12-01 ; Ph.D. ; Engineering and Computer Science, Civil, Environmental and Construction Engineering ; Doctoral ; This record was generated from author submitted information.
[spa] La actual organización geopolítica y económica ha configurado una situación laboral y social que implica una serie de riesgos para los trabajadores (Sennett, 2000, 2001, 2006, 2009, 2011) derivados de un contexto global, de la presión e inestabilidad laboral y de las exigencias de la tarea, a los que la Organización Internacional del Trabajo (OIT) ha clasificado como riesgo psicosocial. Simultáneamente, la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) ha manifestado que las nuevas enfermedades profesionales, entre las que destacan el estrés, la depresión y la ansiedad, son la epidemia del siglo XXI. De todo ello, cabe destacar que el creciente interés por la salud laboral y el "bienestar psicológico" ha propiciado un gran avance en la investigación de estos trastornos, concienciando a los trabajadores y a las organizaciones de la necesidad de poner en marcha programas de prevención, evaluación, formación, información e intervención para mejorar la calidad de vida tanto a nivel personal, como a nivel laboral y social. Por otra parte, el actual contexto global y el auge de las nuevas tecnologías, han puesto de manifiesto la aparición de riesgos emergentes que representan una amenaza para la seguridad de las personas, de sus bienes y del medio ambiente donde se mueven y, que debido a su complejidad, son difusos y difíciles de controlar. Tal es así, que lo que acontece fuera de la propia comunidad puede trascender o afectar de forma directa o indirecta al entorno próximo, como sucede en grandes catástrofes y atentados terroristas, entre otros. Ello ha obligado a las diferentes comunidades, tanto en el orden nacional como internacional, a reorganizarse y analizar nuevas estrategias para hacer frente a este tipo de amenazas. Seguridad y defensa son términos complementarios que analizaremos en el presente estudio, así como la estructura necesaria para el desarrollo de las tareas de seguridad en el marco de las emergencias. Dentro de esta estructura, los cuerpos y fuerzas de seguridad del Estado, a nivel gubernamental y también algunas organizaciones no gubernamentales, constituyen el sector de profesionales y voluntarios implicados en la resolución de situaciones consideradas de riesgo o emergencia para la población. Cuando todavía son pocos los estudios en el área de emergencias, consideramos que la importancia de este trabajo radica en aportar una visión práctica de la intervención en emergencias. En la revisión teórica, inicialmente, se abordarán algunas variables conductuales del personal de emergencias y su relación con las variables psicosociales, motivacionales y organizacionales, centrando el foco de atención en las respuestas de mayor riesgo, la ansiedad y el estrés, consideradas conductas de riesgo psicosocial. Ello implica a su vez, el análisis del medio donde se desarrollan estas conductas con el fin de canalizar este tipo de conflictos dentro de un contexto global. En esta línea, la clínica y la intervención estratégica en emergencias se centra, en primer lugar, en mantener el equilibrio entre los recursos y necesidades de las personas y en el análisis de las demandas y oportunidades del medio, dando lugar a nuevos modelos para afrontar situaciones de riesgo, tanto a nivel individual como a nivel comunitario. En cuanto a las variables conductuales, partiendo de los trabajos pioneros de Selye (1936, 1960,1974) respecto a la respuesta fisiológica del estrés, se ha revisado el modelo de Lazarus y Folkman (1986), el cual considera el estrés como un proceso de afrontamiento (adaptativo o no adaptativo, eficaz o ineficaz) que no siempre guarda relación con los resultados, ya que éstos dependen en gran medida del contexto. Más adelante, Carver y Scheier (1994) presentaron dos tipos de afrontamiento, definiendo el afrontamiento situacional en función de los cambios del entorno y, el afrontamiento disposicional en base a dos componentes, denominados estilos de afrontamiento y estrategias de afrontamiento. Finalmente, los trabajos de Lazarus y los trabajos de Moos sobre el afrontamiento han sido el eje principal de este estudio por su visión integral de la persona y el contexto en el marco de las emergencias. Respecto a las variables motivacionales, los trabajos pioneros de McClelland, Atkinson, Clark y Lowell (1953) publicados en su obra "La motivación de logro" (The Achievement Motive), fueron un avance sobre las teorías cognitivas y sociales. De igual forma, los trabajos de R.H. Moos (2005) destacan el papel de la atmósfera social en la satisfacción de las personas, identificando los principales factores del clima laboral en el desarrollo organizacional, en la salud laboral y en la productividad. En la actualidad, se consideran "organizaciones inteligentes" aquellas que disponen de un sistema abierto en el que sus miembros, además de relacionarse, pueden desarrollar su capacidad creativa y de aprendizaje (Senge, 1992, 1995, 2014). Finalmente, sin entrar en valoraciones o criterios personales, nos ha parecido importante mostrar algunos modelos de afrontamiento, tanto a nivel personal como a nivel comunitario, desde el enfoque de la psicología positiva, tales como el pensamiento sistémico, la resiliencia y el crecimiento postraumático, entre los que destacan autores como Siegrist (1996), Grotberg (1998, 2001), Folkman y Moskowitz (2000), Calhoun y Tedeschi (2001), Seligman (2003), Zuckerfeld y Zonis (2006), Cyrulnik (2007), Leka y Cox (2010) y Wollin (2010), entre otros, y también cabe mencionar la propuesta de la UNESCO respecto a la educación en emergencias, como principal estrategia de afrontamiento. La segunda parte del estudio se centra en el análisis y tratamiento estadístico de las respuestas de afrontamiento del personal de emergencias. Para ello hemos revisado algunos instrumentos de medida elaborados por diferentes autores tales como la Escala de Modos de Afrontamiento de Folkman y Lazarus (1980), el Inventario COPE de Carver, Scheier y Weintraub (1989), el CSI de Tobin, Holroyd y Reynolds (1984,1989) y el CRI-A de R.H. Moos (1993), entre otros. En este contexto, los objetivos que se plantean en el presente estudio pretenden validar una serie de hipótesis capaces de aportar un enfoque eminentemente práctico respecto al perfil del profesional de emergencias y a las estrategias más utilizadas por los intervinientes, con objeto de presentar o validar un instrumento ágil y eficaz que nos permita establecer cuáles son las estrategias de afrontamiento más adecuadas en los procesos de selección y formación e intervención del personal de emergencias. Resumiendo, nuestro esfuerzo va dirigido a proporcionar una visión integral del profesional de emergencias en relación al contexto donde se desarrolla la tarea, poniendo el foco de atención en los estresores laborales que afectan la salud y el bienestar psicológico, personal, familiar, laboral y social y, como éstos pueden ser manejados de forma más eficaz por el propio interviniente y por la organización. ; [eng] The actual geopolitical and economic structure has given place to a social and occupational situation which involves new risks for workers (Sennett, 2000, 2001, 2006, 2009, 2011), deriving from the global context, of inestability and persistent pressoure in employment and the demands of the job, which the International Labour Organisation (ILO) has classified as a psychosocial risk. At the same time, the World Health Organization (WHO) has declared that the new professional diseases, amongst which they attach great importance to stress, depression and anxiety, are the epidemic of the 21st century. Above all, we must underline that the growing interest in occupational and "psychological well being" has propitiated a great advance in the investigation into these disorders, making workers and also institutions aware of the need to implement programmes for prevention, evaluation, formation, information and intervention in the hope of improving the standart of life as much on a personal, as on occupational and social level. On the other hand, the current global context of events and the increase in new technologies, have made it evident that the consequent new risks represent a threat to personal safety, to personal property and the environment in which we move and, due to their complexity, they are disordered and difficult to control. And this means, that what may occur outside of our own community can extend or can cause an affect in a direct or indirect way on our immediate surroundings, such being the case during large scale disasters or terrorist attacks, amongst other matters. This fact has made many different communities, as much on a national level as on international level, reorganise and analyse new tactics to be able to face up to this kind of treats which we will see throughout this study. Security and defense are complementary terms that we will analyse in this study, as well as the essential framework necessary for the development of safety duties within emergency settings. Within this structure the nation´s security forces, on a governmental level and also some non-governmental organizations, make up the sector of professionals and volunteers involved in the resolution of situations considered to be of a high risk, a threat, or an emergency for the population. While there are still few investigations in the emergency field, we consider that the importance of this study lies in providing a practical view of interventions in emergencies. In the theoretical revisión, we will initially broach some of the behavioural variables of the emergency personal and their relation to psychosocial, motivational and organizational variables, focusing our attention on the reponses of greater risk, anxiety and stress, that are considered to be conducts of high psychosocial risk. This involves at the same time, an analysis of the environment where these conducts develop with the aim of canalizing this type of conflicts within a global context. On these lines, the current clinical and strategic intervention in case of emergency centre, in the first place, on maintaining a balance between the resources on hand, and the needs of the people and on the analysis of the demands and opportunities of the environment, giving rise to new ways of confronting hazardous situations as much as on, an individual level as on a communitarian scale. As for the behavioural variables, starting with the pioneering works of Selye (1936, 1960, 1974) in relation to the physiological reponse to stress, we have reviewed Lazarus` model (1986) which considers stress to be a coping process (adaptive or not adaptive, effective or not effective), that does not always bear any relation to the results, as these depend in greater part on the context. At a later date, Carver and Scheier (1994) presented two kinds of confrontation, defining situational coping as relating to the changes in our surroundings and, dispositional coping as based on two components designated as manners of coping and coping strategies. And finally, Lazarus` studies and Moo`s Works on coping have been the main crux of this investigation because of his integral visión of the person and its context within an emergency framework. With regard to motivational variables, the pioneering works of McClelland, Atkinson, Clark and Lowell (1953), in this field with their studies published as "The Achievement Motive", maked an advance in cognitive and social sciencies. In the same way, R.H. Moos (2005), underlines the role of a social atmosphere for personal satisfaction, identifying the principle factors of the working atmosphere as organizational development, in occupational health and in productivity. Nowadays we regard as "intelligent organizations" the institutions that provide an open system in which their members as well as mixing socially can develop their creative and learning abilities (Senge, 1992, 1995, 2014). Finally, without entering into personal evaluation or personal judgement, we have thougtht it important to offer some patterns of coping, as much at a personal level as at a communitarian level, from the point of view of positive psychology, such as systemic thinking, resilience and post-traumatic growth , with works by noteworthy authors such as Siegrist (1996), Grotberg (1998, 2001), Folkman and Moskowith (2000), Calhoun and Tedeschi (2001), Seligman (2003), Zuckerfeld and Zonis (2006), Cyrulnik (2007), Leka and Cox (2010), and Wollin (2010), amongst others, and also the UNESCO´S proposal with regard to education for emergencies, as the main coping strategy. The second part of this work centres on the analysis and statistics treatment of coping responses used by a representative simple of emergency staff. For this matter we have review a several scales of measurement worked by different authors, for example Folkman and Lazaru´s "Scale of Coping Modes" (1980), Carver, Scheier and Weintraub´s COPE Inventary (1989), CSI by Tobin, Holroyd and Reynolds (1984,1989) and R.H. Moos CRIA (1993), amongst others. In this context, the objetives set out in the present study are those which seek to validate a series of hypotheses capable of forming a highly practical point of view with regard to the profile of the emergency personnel and the strategies most used by the professionals who intervene in emergencies, whit the purpose of presenting or validating an effective and flexible instrument that will let us establish the most appropiate confrontational strategies for the procedures of selection, formation and intervention of emergency personnel. Summing, our main endeavour is directed at proportioning an overall view of the professionals who deal with emergencies in relation to the context in which their task evolves, focusing our attention on the factors of occupational stress that affect their health and their psychological well-being, on a personal and social level, at work and within the family and, how these factors can be dealt with in the most efficacious manner by the person intervening and by the organization.
La ricerca mira a rispondere a due quesiti che sorgono per così dire spontaneamente a un "primo impatto" con il nuovo formante normativo risultante dagli interventi legislativi che hanno caratterizzato la stagione – forse appena conclusa – dei Jobs Act, secondo una linea che parte idealmente dal decreto legislativo n. 81 del 2015, recante la disciplina organica dei contratti di lavoro per culminare nella legge n. 81 del 2017, recante misure per la tutela del lavoro autonomo «non imprenditoriale». L'intreccio tra le novità introdotte da tali interventi ha prodotto – come è stato da più parti osservato – un piccolo "sisma", che ha interessato tanto la dimensione della qualificazione dei rapporti di lavoro, quanto quella della tutela applicabile ai rapporti di lavoro non subordinato. Le discussa riconduzione alla disciplina del lavoro subordinato dei rapporti di collaborazione c.d. etero-organizzata (art. 2, d.lgs. 81/2015), la successiva ma parallela norma di interpretazione autentica della nozione di coordinamento, introdotta in calce all'art. 409, n. 3, c.p.c. (art. 15, l. 81/2017) e il contestuale riconoscimento di forme di lavoro subordinato organizzato per fasi, cicli e obiettivi e senza precisi vincoli di orario o di luogo di lavoro (art. 18, l. 81/2017) impongono una rimeditazione delle nozioni tradizionali, in quanto finiscono per innestare sulla (pur sempre fondamentale) summa divisio tra lavoro subordinato e autonomo una serie di ulteriori partizioni, che si declinano secondo un continuum dai confini spesso difficilmente individuabili. La previsione di forme di tutela destinate a rispondere alle esigenze del lavoro autonomo purché «non imprenditoriale», poi, richiede di interrogarsi sul senso dell'etichetta adoperata dal legislatore e di esplorare la linea di confine intercorrente tra mondo del lavoro (autonomo) e mondo della (piccola) impresa. Si tratta dunque innanzitutto, questo il primo itinerario di ricerca, di individuare i confini esterni della fattispecie del lavoro autonomo, tradizionalmente raffigurato come un'area residuale compressa tra il mondo del lavoro salariato e quello della piccola impresa, nonché i confini interni tra il lavoro autonomo "puro" e quello variamente coordinato, su base più o meno consensuale, rispetto a un committente principale. Tale operazione richiede inoltre di interrogarsi sulla persistente attualità della grande dicotomia autonomia-subordinazione – a tutt'oggi oggetto di una giurisprudenza che fatica a trovare punti di riferimento più solidi che non siano le copiose massime tralatizie, tanto rigorose quanto circolari – e di chiedersi se le recenti riforme abbiano individuato partizioni interne al sistema del lavoro autonomo (lavoro autonomo etero-organizzato, lavoro autonomo coordinato e continuativo, lavoro autonomo non coordinato ma continuativo, lavoro autonomo "puro"), per consentire una graduazione delle tutele, ovvero se esse abbiano solo spostato la linea di confine tra rapporti di lavoro soggetti alla disciplina protettiva del lavoro subordinato e rapporti che ne sono esclusi. Al contempo, dal punto di vista della disciplina applicabile, l'introduzione su base universalistica di una disciplina a tutela del lavoro autonomo «non imprenditoriale», modellata sulla falsariga delle regole e dei principi che presiedono alla tutela civilistica del contraente debole, si candida, quantomeno nelle intenzioni del legislatore, a riempire lo spazio vuoto in cui il decreto di riordino dei contratti di lavoro aveva lasciato i collaboratori «genuini». È nell'intreccio di queste diverse dimensioni di «novità» che si spiegano la scelta del titolo Il «nuovo» lavoro autonomo e quella di articolare il lavoro nei quattro capitoli che lo compongono. Nel primo capitolo, dopo avere svolto alcune riflessioni introduttive sul concetto di «autonomia» e sulla sua caratterizzazione normativa in termini negativi impressa dalla codificazione del 1942, si tenta di effettuare una ricostruzione genealogica dell'istituto oggetto dell'indagine, per apprezzare come nel secolo breve il lavoro autonomo tenda a muoversi nel "solco" del lavoro subordinato, compresso dapprima dalla cosiddetta «tendenza espansiva» del diritto del lavoro e quindi da un approccio regolativo concepito in termini che rimarranno a lungo di carattere spiccatamente antiabusivo, di repressione cioè del «falso» lavoro autonomo. Tale indugio preliminare richiederà inevitabilmente di dare conto, sia pure per sommi capi, della speculare evoluzione della figura del contratto di lavoro subordinato, nelle cui pieghe il lavoro autonomo è stato dapprima fagocitato, fino quasi a scomparire, e quindi riemerso, orfano di tutele, richiedendone le più svariate, a tratti con grida e più spesso sottovoce. Nel secondo capitolo si cerca invece di ricostruire i tratti caratterizzanti la fattispecie posta ad oggetto dell'indagine e, in particolare, i suoi confini esterni e interni. A tal fine, dopo avere dato conto della perdurante attualità del binomio autonomia / subordinazione e dell'assetto attualmente raggiunto dall'elaborazione dottrinale e giurisprudenziale, il lavoro prosegue in una sorta di climax, passando in rassegna le partizioni interne al mondo dell'autonomia – lavoro etero-organizzato e coordinato – delle quali vengono analizzati gli elementi costitutivi, per poi soffermarsi sul confine esterno rappresentato dall'universo contermine dell'imprenditorialità, la cui analisi si rende necessaria in virtù dell'espressa esclusione dei piccoli imprenditori dal novero dei beneficiari delle nuove tutele statutarie. Il terzo capitolo, dedicato alle tutele del «nuovo» lavoro autonomo, si articola in tre sezioni, aventi ad oggetto tre nuclei concettuali, e, in particolare: i) la tutela contrattuale del lavoro autonomo disegnata dal nuovo Statuto, che attinge a piene mani dagli approdi raggiunti del diritto civile di "seconda generazione" nella tutela dei rapporti negoziali caratterizzati dallo squilibrio di forza contrattuale delle parti; ii) le tutele "fuori dal rapporto", vale a dire quelle di carattere previdenziale, fiscale e promozionale introdotte dalla novella, rispetto alle quali si cercherà di accompagnare l'analisi puntuale delle disposizioni rilevanti all'individuazione del fil rouge che le lega; iii) le tutele collettive, rispetto alle quali pare opportuno valutare, anche in riferimento ai vincoli provenienti dal diritto europeo, gli spazi di agibilità sindacale e le potenzialità nei diversi modelli di associazionismo delle varie categorie di lavoratori autonomi. I primi due nuclei individuano, pur senza sovrapporvisi, le principali direttrici d'intervento dello Statuto, anche se vi saranno ricomprese questioni trascurate dallo stesso (come il nodo dell'equo compenso, che verrà invece affrontato anche alla luce delle ultime novità relative al mondo del lavoro libero professionale); l'ultimo è invece dalla novella quasi del tutto omesso, nonostante le mai sopite sollecitazioni sul punto lo rendano oggi un oggetto di studio obbligato nell'ambito di una ricerca sulle tutele del lavoro autonomo. Il quarto e ultimo capitolo, infine, ha ad oggetto il fenomeno della gig economy, sul quale gli interpreti si affaticano ormai da qualche anno a questa parte. La scelta di destinare il capitolo conclusivo al tema del lavoro "digitale" si spiega con il fatto che esso, nella misura in cui viene ricondotto, a ragione o a torto, al mondo dell'autonomia – opzione per nulla scontata, ma pare sia questa la direzione imboccata dalla nostra giurisprudenza – si candida a costituire il prototipo di quel lavoro economicamente debole, che, orfano delle tutele del lavoro a progetto (in primis in materia di compenso), non può che guardare alle nuove tutele statutarie, rappresentando, in altri termini, un privilegiato "banco di prova" per saggiarne le potenzialità applicative. ; The doctoral research aims to give an answer to a series different questions arising at a first impact with the new Italian discipline regulating self-employed work as provided for by the legislative decree 81/2015, concerning the reform of the contractual models, and by the law 81/2017, concerning the protection of self-employed «non-entrepreneurial» work. The combination of these new provisions produced indeed a little "earthquake" in the system of Italian labour law, and, in particular. The innovations represented by the discussed introduction of a new discipline regarding bogus self-employment (so called hetero-organized collaborations: art. 2, d.lgs. 81/2015) together with the specification of the elements of a genuine self-employed collaboration (art. 15, l. 81/2017) calls for a rethinking of the traditional notions of labour law, as they introduce new categories in the area comprehended by the two poles represented by autonomous work and dependent (subordinate) work. On the other hand, the label «non-entrepreneurial» that the Legislator used to individuate the beneficiaries of the new discipline calls for an investigation regarding the border between (self-employed) work and (medium and small) businesses. Therefore, it seems necessary to individuate, in the first place, the external borders of the complex legal situation «self-employed work», which has traditionally been considered as a residual area compressed by the world of employment and the world of small businesses. In the second place, it seems also necessary to individuate the internal borders of self-employed work, which is articulated in several subcategories covering the area of those self-employed workers who devote the main part of their activity to a main client on a continuative basis. Meanwhile, the introduction on a universalistic basis of a protective regulation, which is structured as the private law remedies applicable to contractual relations characterized by the imbalance of bargaining power of the parties, requires a rethinking of the techniques of protection of «genuine» self-employed work. It is in the combination of these two different elements of innovation that it is possible to appreciate the title chosen (The «new» self-employed work. Qualification and legal protection after the legislative decree n. 81/2015 and the law 81/2017) and the articulation of the thesis in four chapters. In the first chapter, after some introductive reflexions about the concept of «autonomy» and its legal characterization under Italian law, we tried to make a genealogical analysis of the subject, in order to appreciate how during the XXth century self-employed work was compressed by the predominant figure of the employment contract and that for a long time the regulatory approach has been conceived mainly in terms of repressing bogus self-employment. In the second chapter we try to individuate the main characteristics of self-employed work and its internal and external borders. To this end, after having underlined that the dichotomy autonomy-subordination is still a cornerstone of the Italian labour law system, the dissertation continues examining the internal partitions of the figure – hetero-organized work, coordinated work – and its constitutive elements and then investigating the complex relation between the world of (self-employed) work and the world of (medium and small) businesses, expressly excluded from the new protective measures dedicated to «non-entrepreneurial» work. The third chapter deals more in particular with the new protective measures introduced in 2017 and it is articulated in three sections. The first section regards the contractual protection of self-employed work and it analyses the elements of the new discipline that recall closely the innovations coming from the field of private law, with particular regard to the B2b contractual relationships. The second section examines the innovations brought in the field of social security and tax regulation. The third section deals with the instruments of collective protection applicable to self-employed workers, in order to verify, also under European law, potentialities and limits of collective dialogue and conflict in the field of non-subordinate work. The last chapter, finally, deals with the phaenomenon of the so-called gig economy. The decision to dedicate the final part of the dissertation to this topic derives from the fact that insofar as the new forms of work emerged in the gig economy are qualified as self-employed relationship – and it seems that this is the direction taken by Italian case law – they represent the perfect prototype of "weak" self-employed work that shall look at the new protective provisions.
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On Wednesday, Erik Hurst presented a lovely paper, "The Distributional Impact of the Minimum Wage in the Short and Long Run," written with Elena Pastorino, Patrick Kehoe, and Thomas Winberry, at the Hoover Economic Policy Working Group seminar. Video (a great presentation) and slides here. This is a beautiful and detailed model, which won't try to summarize here. I write to pass on one central graph and insight. Suppose there is some "monopsony power," at the individual firm level. Don't argue about that yet. Erik and coauthors put it in, so that there is a hope that minimum wages can do some good, and it is the central argument made by minimum wage proponents. In the paper it comes because people are uniquely suited to a particular job for personal reasons. Professors don't like to move, they've figured out the ropes at their current university, so the dean can get away with paying less than they could get elsewhere. Why this applies to MacDonalds relative to the Taco Bell next door is a good question, but again, the point is to analyze it not to argue about it. "Labor demand" here is the marginal product of labor. (\(f'(N)\) It's what labor demand would be in a competitive market. The monopsnists' demand is lower). Monopsony means that the "marginal cost of labor" rises with the number of employees. There is a core of people that really love the job that you can hire at low cost. As you expand, though, you have to hire people who aren't that attached to this particular job, so you have to pay more. And you have to pay everyone else more too, (by reasonable assumption -- no individually negotiated wages), so the average cost of labor rises. Thus, the monopsonies firm chooses to hire fewer people \(N_m\), produce less, and pay them a wage \(W_n\) below their marginal product. ("Average cost of labor" is really the labor supply curve, call it \(w=L(N)\). Then \(\max (f(N)-wN\) s.t. \(w=L(N)\) yields \(f'(N)=w+NL'(N)\). The "marginal cost of labor" in the graph is this latter quantity: the wage you pay the last worker, plus all workers times the extra wage you must pay them all. Disclaimer: the equations are me reverse-engineering the graph.) Now, add a minimum wage. As the minimum wage rises above \(W_m\), we initially see a rise in the number of workers, and their incomes. The firm moves along the arrow as shown. (\(\max f(N)-wN\) s.t. \( w \ge L(N)\), \( w \ge w^\ast\) gives \(w^\ast = L(N)\) .) Keep raising the minimum wage, though. Once we get past the point that labor supply ("average cost of labor") requires a wage greater than the marginal product of labor, the firm turns around and hires fewer people: (Really, the problem all along was \(\max_{w,N} f(N)-wN\) s.t. \( w \ge L(N)\), \( w \ge w^\ast\). Once the minimum wage rises enough, the solution \(w^\ast=L(N) \) has \(f'(N)<w^\ast\). The firm does better by hiring fewer people than are willing to work at that wage. With the second constraint slack, \(f'(N)=w^\ast\) is the optimum.) So, in this best case, minimum wages do first raise employment, and income. But if you keep going, they eventually turn around and lower employment and raise unemployment (people between the equilibrium and the "average cost of labor" curve want jobs but can't get them.) We join the local "monopsony" view with the latter "neoclassical" view. The actual model is way more realistic, with multiple kinds of workers, firms that can substitute between workers, dynamics that include capital investment in worker-specific technologies, a search model for unemployment and more. Each seems to me just complicated enough to capture an important effect. Multiple kinds of workers is really important: a big part of the "labor demand" is not just a fixed marginal product of a given kind of worker, but the firm's ability to substitute other kinds of workers and machines for a given task. It's nicely calibrated to match the US economy. A bottom line: Start raising the minimum wage from $7.50. At first, this raises employment of low-skilled workers, but the above mechanism. It does nothing to medium and high skill workers, since they are already being paid more than the minimum wage. (I'm not sure why we don't see substitution toward higher skills here.) As the minimum wage rises toward $10, however, we hit the neoclassical part of the low-skill curve, and it starts hurting low-skill employment. In their calibration, "monopsony" lowers wages by about 25%, so once the minimum wage has cured that, i.e. about $10 an hour, workers are being paid their marginal products, so requiring even more just quickly lowers their employment. Bit by bit the minimum wage starts to help each group as it hits the point between what they are actually paid and their marginal product. People whose marginal products are less than $7.50 an hour are missing from the picture. They were already driven out of the market by the current minimum wage. (The conclusions about the optimum minimum wage are potentially flawed by this omission. It could be even less!) This is a lovely story. An obvious implication: Don't quickly generalize too far from local estimates or small interventions. Big minimum wage changes can have the opposite effects as small ones! The big question of minimum wages is always which workers are helped vs hurt, not overall labor. Much of the other work on minimum wages (Jeff Clemens, for example) emphasizes that it helps a few, who can work the hours employers want, are already skilled, speak English, etc., at the cost of many others, who tend to be less well off to start. The dynamic part of the paper is great too. Minimum wages are like rent controls: the damage takes time to show up. In the model, dynamics show up as firms have structured their capital to the current employment mix. It takes time to put in, say, video screens to substitute away from order-takers. The shaded part is the duration of typical studies. Studies that examine the short run reactions to small minimum wage changes completely miss the long-run effect of large changes. Finally, once again, the minimum wage like so many other policies, is an answer in search of a question. If the issue is "how does policy address labor market monopsony," the minimum wage is a very ineffective answer to that question. Once you spell out the nature of the actual problem, all sorts of other policies are more effective. If you fix the monopsony, wage subsidies are better. But starting with figuring out why there is monopsony in the first place and what policies are inadvertently supporting it is better still. ****Update: "Minimum Wages, Efficiency and Welfare" by David Berger, Kyle Herkenhoff and Simon Mongey is a similar paper along these lines -- careful modeling of minimum wages with heterogeneity of workers and firms. This paper adds different kinds of firms: From Simon:"when you start accounting for firms also being heterogeneous... a similar logic carries over. A small minimum wage lifts employment at the small firm with a slither of monopsony power before tanking them, while it's tanking them it starts raising employment at the slightly bigger firm, then tanks that. By the time you get up to the wages paid by any firm that might have considerable market power you've blown up employment at a whole load of firms. A perturbation argument essentially leads you to never increase the minimum wage."Put another way, a minimum wage increase from $7.50 to $9.00 might actually increase employment at McDonalds... because it puts all the taco stands out of business. Then at $12.00, McDonalds goes out of business but Applebees expands, and so forth. (Or, "corner store" and "supermarket" in Simon's beautiful slides with lots of great supply and demand graphs.) They find that the efficiency maximizing minimum wage is close to where we are now. "Efficiency" means "offsetting monopsony." As in Hurst et al, only a small sliver of people are actually hurt by monopsony and helped by the minimum wage. Everyone whose productivity is below $7.50 an hour is already out of the labor force, and everyone whose productivity is higher than the proposed minimum wage is largely unaffected: Again, "raise the minimum wage to offset labor monopsony" is an answer in search of a question. (They go on to evaluate redistribution, which I didn't look at. But I will ask the same question. "raise the minimum wage to redistribute income" sounds to me like an answer in search of a question; if the question is "redistribute income with minimum economic disincentive" I bet there are better answers.) ****Update 2. Now, let's think a bit about this "monopsony" business. Both papers include monopsony really for good rhetorical reasons: Let's give the model some reason for minimum wages. Both cite long literatures. Hurst et al summarize that wages are about 25% less than marginal products. Really? At McDonalds? Without getting in to the weeds, think for a minute just how hard this is. What is the marginal product of workers at your job? The marginal product of an extra professor in your department? That's awfully hard to measure! Kudos to those who try. It's easier to measure average products: how much the company makes, divided by number of employees. But wages should be below average products. Someone has to pay for the other inputs and a competitive return to capital. Did we really tease out average vs. marginal products? Well, build a model, add lots of assumptions, and here we go. That's the best we can do, but recognize how hard it is. Pervasive monopsony means two things, both suspicious. First, it means that each company would have to pay more to hire more people, to do the exact same job as current people, and then it has to pay everyone more. The labor supply curve to the company is upward sloping. That's key in the graph above. Really? Do a restaurant really have to pay everyone more in order to get one more employee? Second, it means there are substantial "rents." Where does the extra 25% go? Not just to an ordinary return to capital, but to extraordinary profits. Together with the view that price markups over marginal costs are large, it's just hard to see large monopoly and oligopoly rents spewing out of businesses. I think this illustrates two problems in our general economic discourse. First, econ 101 tends to be a week of how a hypothetical free market works, and then a 9 week litany of market failures, each remediable by an omniscient "planner" -- monopoly, monopsony, externality, asymmetric information, and so on. Our students, like two year olds with hammers, go out and see those nails. But are they really there, and are the available instruments actually able to fix them? Second, there is a pervasive tendency for answers to search for questions. Clearly the minimum wage came first, a centuries old idea, long before monopsony. Monopsony is only the latest item in the shopping cart of reasons for a pre-exiting policy idea. As above, if the question is monopsony, however, the answer is not a minimum wage. This problem abounds. (If the question is how to raise GDP 5% in 100 years, there are 99 answers better than force everyone to buy electric cars today, for example.) Let's be honest. The idea behind minimum wages is to try to transfer income from businesses -- and thus from their customers, investors, and high-wage workers -- to low-wage employees. Mongey et al. explicitly consider "redistribution" as an objective, and this is the objective. The many unintended consequences -- more unemployment, lower employment, favoring the better off at the expense of the most precarious of low-wage employees, etc. -- bear on that issue. Here to, though, if the question is "how should we redistribute income to low-wage workers" or even "how should we improve the lot of low-skill workers," there are 100 better answers. The EITC looks better in Hurst et al, though it too has many problems including a very high marginal tax rate as it phases out. Economic discourse would be a lot more productive if instead of focusing on answers that have been around a long time -- let's find a new reason for minimum wages -- we focused on the question and the mechanisms.
