Not Available ; Quality Protein Maize (QPM): Importance and production requirements Ramesh Kumar, DP Chaudhary, AK Das and Sujay Rakshit ICAR - Indian Institute of Maize Research, Ludhiana Introduction The present scenario of increasing population puts pressure on agriculture not only to increase production and productivity but also the grain quality. It is imperative that increasing production of food crops to ensure food and nutritional security of the nation has become a necessity rather a matter of choice. However, the challenge to meet the growing demand for food seems to be a daunting task due to rapid reduction in agricultural land, reduced availability of water resources and climate change. Moreover, ensuring the nutritional security or improving the nutritional status of the poorer section on sustainable manner is an added challenge. The present food production scenario indicates that much of the future food production is expected to come from coarse cereals, particularly maize because of its highest yield potential as compared to any other food crop. Maize has already credited as queen of cereal and further due to its high content of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and some of the important vitamins and minerals, it has also acquired a well - deserved reputation as 'poor man's nutri - cereal'(Kumar et al .,2012). Maize contributes 15% of the world's protein and 19% of the calories derived from food crops (Vasal SK, 2002). Millions of people in the world, and particularly in developing countries, derive a part of their protein and daily calorie requirements from maize (Mbuya et al.,2011). In recent years the diversified uses of maize as food, feed and as an industrial raw material is also increasing. In addition to this maize is part of the livestock - to - meat cycle across the world (Tanumihardjo et al., 2019). The food processing industries are coming up with new value - added products of corn like flakes, chips, biscuits, sooji etc. Increased demand from consumers has led to higher per capita consumption and demand for maize. Improved growth in Indian economy has increased per capita income thereby improving the purchasing power of its people. The consequence of all these events has led to change in the food habits with an increased non - vegetarian population of the country. The increased non - vegetarian populations had its own cascaded of events on food/feed and meat industries. The increased demand of meat has increased the demand of maize from poultry and piggery feed industries. In this particular context, quality protein maize (QPM) can play a crucial and very important special role in ensuring the food and nutritional security of the country. Nutritive Value of Quality Protein Maize The maize grain on an average contains around 15 % moisture, 8 - 12 % protein, 2 - 4 % fat, 3 % fibre, 67 - 72 % starch and around 1.5% minerals. Hence it is a good source of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and some of the important vitamins and minerals and, therefore, termed as nutri - cereal. Majority of the population depend on cereals for their livelihood and maize is the staple cereal food for several million people, especially in the developing countries across Sub - saharan Africa who derive their >30% of the total dietary protein and >20% of the daily calories requirements from maize as it supplies many macro and micronutrients necessary for human metabolic needs. The kernel protein is made up of five different fractions, viz., albumin 7 %, globulin 5 %, non - protein nitrogen 6 %, prolamine 52 % and glutelin 25% and the left - over 5 % is residual nitrogen. The quality of maize protein is poor due to the presence of large concentration of an alcohol soluble protein fraction, prolamine also known as zein in the endosperm. Zein is very low in lysine and tryptophan content and since this fraction contributes more than 50 percent of the total protein, the maize protein is, therefore, deficient in lysine and tryptophan content. On the other hand, zein fraction contains very high amount of leucine and imbalanced proportion of isoleucine. The ill - proportion of four essential amino acids in normal maize kernels results in poor protein quality of traditional maize kernels affecting its biological value i.e. the availability of protein to the body. Thus, the composition of maize protein has an in - built drawback of being deficient in two essential amino acids, viz., lysine and tryptophan. However, high - quality protein sources, such as eggs, meat, dairy products and legumes provide total or complementary sources of these amino acids, but many rural poor have limited access to these foods. Therefore, populations depending on maize as their staple food generally show the protein deficiency disorders like Marasmus and Kwashiorkar. In addition, maize lacks vitamin B and also due to high concentrations of phytate some minerals in the maize grain have low bioavailability. Therefore, a need was felt to improve the biological value of protein in maize varieties. In early 1960s the breeders at Purdue University obtained the natural mutants of maize which have soft and opaque grains. The biochemical and genetic analysis of mutant kernels revealed that they contain higher concentration of lysine and this nutritionally superior maize was named opaque - 2 maize, after discovering that "opaque - 2" single gene mutation is responsible for the improved protein quality (Mertz et al., 1964). It was mentioned that the original mutants obtained were soft and opaque, but they have some draw - backs like higher susceptibility to storage and ear rot. Therefore, to overcome this problem International Center for Maize and Wheat Improvement (CIMMYT) introduced endosperm modifier genes through continued recurrent selection breeding programme led by Dr. S. K. Vasal and team. As a result, hard endosperm o2 stocks were developed and were designated as quality protein maize (QPM) to distinguish it from soft o2 strains. Quality protein maize (QPM) was created by selecting genetic modifiers that convert the starchy endosperm of an opaque2 (o2) mutant to a hard, vitreous phenotype. However, not all of the hard endosperm o2 lines retained high levels of the critical amino acids. Later the genetic studies on QPM have shown that there are multiple, unlinked o2 modifiers (OPM), but their identity and mode of action are unknown. In QPM the concentration of zein is lowered by 30 percent, as a result the lysine and tryptophan content increases in comparison to maize. The lower contents of leucine in QPM further balance the ratios of leucine to isoleucine (Table1). The balanced proportion of all these essential amino acid in QPM enhances the biological value of protein (Table - 2). The true protein digestibility of maize vis - à - vis QPM is almost same, but the biological value of QPM is just double as compared to maize varieties (Fig1), rather it is highest among all cereals and pulses (Fig1). The reason behind it is that all cereals except QPM are deficient in lysine, an essential amino acid and all pulses are deficient in another essential amino acid methionine. Maize breeders have developed several QPM hybrids by incorporating opaque - 2 mutant gene modifiers in different parental lines. QPM looks and taste like normal maize, but it contains nearly twice the quality of lysine and tryptophan along with balanced amino acid profile. QPM as Food and Nutritional Security In India, tribal population constitutes approximately 10% of the total population and is found in most parts of the country especially in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, etc. Thus, a sizable tribal population exist which is economically deprived. Further, most of tribal population depends on maize as their basic diet. In these areas the scope for QPM to ensuring food and nutritional security is paramount. Substituting maize with QPM is a viable option for ensuring their nutritional requirements. Tribal peoples are acknowledged to have very close association with ecosystem and environment because of their dependence on nature directly for daily requirements. However, the problem of malnutrition arises due to inadequate intake of nutrients in the diet. The situations are almost same in some African countries. Several studies are conducted on human beings and animal and are continue to be conducted on positive health benefits of QPM consumption in their daily diet. Gunaratna et al., 2010 reported that consumption of QPM instead of maize leads to an increase in growth rate of height and weight by 12 and 9%, respectively in infants and young children coming from population with mild to moderate under nutrition where maize is the significant component of the diet. This happened due to the higher biological value of QPM as compared to the maize (Table 2). The results are encouraging and based on these results the Indian policy makers can think of providing QPM in the tribal belt or in the areas where there is a problem of malnutrition. Government of India can also think of introducing QPM in public distribution system and QPM based food in mid - day meal in schools and Aanganwadis. Government of India has already started Tribal - Sub Plan (TSP) and under this programme the Directorate of Maize Research has provided QPM hybrid seeds for cultivation in the areas where tribal population is more. Some on - farm trainings have also being organized in these areas for creating awareness to use QPM as staple food. QPM and Animal feed Maize is an integral part of the animal feed used in India and outside. There are several studies where maize has been replaced by QPM as an ingredient of animal feed and encouraging results have been observed in case of broilers, chickens and pigs. Feed trials have repeatedly shown that pigs fed with QPM grow twice as fast as those fed with commercial maize (Krivanek et al., 2007). Some nutritional studies with pigs and chicken diets have shown that performance is improved when QPM is substituted for maize without any additional protein supplement. In broiler diet, the substitution of QPM for maize at a rate of 60% substantially reduces the need for soybean meal and therefore the cost (Subsuban et al., 1990). Similarly, in an experiment with finisher pigs, less soybean meal was needed to maximize performance in diets based on QPM compared with diets having maize. Beef steers fed on high–lysine maize gained faster weight compared to those fed on normal maize. Thus, QPM can reduce the cost of animal feed by decreasing the expenditure incurred on more expensive high protein sources. Linear programming models allow feed companies to identify the cheapest way of providing the minimum dietary requirements for farm stock. Calculations for pig and poultry ration containing maize, QPM, sorghum, soybeans meal and synthetic lysine and tryptophan showed that the usage of QPM instead of maize resulted in saving of 2.8% on chickens feed and 3.4 % on pig feed (Lopez - Pereira, 1992). It is also evident that if QPM was to replace maize in broiler feed in Kenya, the 5% cost reduction would translate into a gain of US dollars 300,000 either as reduced costs for farmers or profit for feed manufactures. In India also it can happen if we use QPM as an ingredient in animal feed. It will help in reducing the cost of feed as well as in increase the growth of the animal either it is broiler, chicken, pig or cattle. The broilers and chickens fed with QPM matured in less time as compared to non QPM fed ones and the farmer benefitted by selling more number of animals in a short span of time. Additionally, QPM fed pigs experience rapid weight gain and are ready for market sooner or can provide an additional quality protein source for small farm families. Impact of QPM Babies and adults consuming QPM are healthier and at lower risk for malnutrition disorders such as marasmus and kwashiorkor. Data from Latin America and Africa showed the role of QPM in reversing the effects of malnutrition in those who are already affected. QPM offers 90% the nutritional value of skim milk, the standard for adequate nutrition value. At a time when UNICEF reports that 1,000,000 infants and small children are starving each month, the inclusion of QPM in daily rations improves health and saves lives. Additionally, QPM fed pigs experience rapid weight gain and are ready for market sooner or can provide an additional quality protein source for small farm families. The commercial success of QPM can be achieved as several QPM hybrids have been developed and tested across varying climatic and growing conditions. At present QPM varieties are grown on roughly 9 million acres (36,000 km²) worldwide. Meanwhile, QPM research and development have spread from Mexico to Latin America, Africa, Europe, and Asia. In Guizhou, the poorest province in China, where QPM hybrid yields are 10% higher than those of other hybrids, and the crop has enabled new pig production enterprises, bringing increased food security and disposable income. In total, the QPM germplasm is being grown worldwide and it is contributing over $1 billion annually to the economies of developing countries. Production requirements Isolation distance The foremost requirement for QPM cultivation is isolation distance of minimum 400 meters. There should not be any other maize crop (non - QPM) in surrounding of 400 meters. The opaque - 2 gene is expressed when it present in homozygous conditions, if any other maize crop is there in surrounding area and pollen of other maize will fall on QPM silk and it will create heterozygous conditions resulting opaque 2 gene will not express that is why it is strongly recommended that we will have to grow QPM crop in isolation or we can grow this in a specified area where only QPM is grown. Soil and climate QPM can be grown successfully in a wide range of soil from loamy sand to clay. But it performs well in high organic matter content soil with high water holding capacity and neutral in pH. Soil should have high drainage capacity as maize is more susceptible to water logging condition. QPM can be successfully grown in varied climatic conditions though out the country in an altitude from mean sea level to 3000 m height. Selection of cultivar A no. of QPM hybrids have been released in India for cultivation namely, HQPM1, HQPM 4, HQPM 5, HQPM 7, Shaktiman 1, Shaktiman 2, Shaktiman 3, Shaktiman 4, Shaktiman 5, Pusa HM 8, Pusa HM 9, Vivek QPM 9 and Pusa Vivek QPM 9 improved. The farmers can select anyone among these hybrids in consultation with local maize breeder/agriculture expert. Sowing time QPM can be grown in all the seasons viz. kharif, rabi and spring. Seed rate Seed rate varied according to seed size, season, sowing method. But on an average 20 kg/ha is optimum for higher yield. Seed treatment To protect the seed from seed and soil borne diseases and pest seed should be treated before sowing with fungicide Bavistin + Captan in 1:1 ratio @ 2 g/kg seed. Method of sowing Line sowing in furrows at 60 - 70 x 20 - 25 cm (row x plant) spacing to obtain the optimum plant population of 70000 to 80000 per ha with sowing depth of 4 - 5 cm is the best method. Nutrient management The requirement of nutrient and fertilizers are as follows: Nutrient Dose Form Requirement (Kg/ha) N 150 - 180 Urea 3255 - 3906 P2O5 70 - 80 SSP 438 - 500 K2O 70 - 80 MOP 116 - 133 Besides that ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha and FYM @ 10 t/ha is required for high productivity of QPM. FYM should be applied at 10 - 15 days before sowing. The whole amount of SSP, MOP, ZnSO4 and 10% of urea should apply as basal in furrows. The remaining urea should be applied in three split applications. 20% urea at 4 leaf stage, 40% at 8 leaf stage and remaining 30% at flowering stage. Fertilizers should be applied from both sides of rows. Three days before application of fertilizers light hoeing is needed for optimum use of nutrients by crops. Water management If irrigation facility is available then irrigation should be done in furrows up to 2/3rd height of the ridge at knee high stage, flowering and grain filling stage. Weed management Weed is a serious problem of maize in Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh which may causes yield loss up to 35%. Therefore, timely weed management is essential for good yield. Pre - emergence herbicide atrazine @ 1.0 - 1.5 kg a.i./ha in 600 litre water is very effective for control of weed. Tembotrione @ 262 ml in 375 litre water is recommended for post - emergence application and it should be applied when the crop is 25 - 30 days old. Earthing up Earthing up is a very essential operation in QPM cultivation. Earthing up should be done when the crop is 35 - 40 days old. Insect Pest Management: Maize stem borer (Chilo partellus) The pest lays eggs on the lower surface of central whorl leaf and the larvae enter the plant from the central whorl and eventually results in dead heat formation Foliar application of Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @ 0.3 ml / litre water in 200 litre water per ha is quite effective The spray should be done at the appearance of symptoms on 2 - 3 weeks old crop. It can also be controlled by release of 8 trico cards (Trichogramma chilonis) per ha at 10 & 17days after germination. Pink stem borer (Sesamia inferens) This insect is more serious in peninsular India during rabi season. Foliar application of Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @ 0.3 ml / litre water in 200 litre water per ha is quite effective. The spray should be done at the appearance of symptoms on 2 - 3 weeks old crop. Shoot fly (Atherigona spp.) It is more serious during spring season in northern India. It lays eggs on emerging seedlings and maggets cuts the growing point resulting in dead heart formation. Seed treatment gaucho 600FS @ 6.0 ml/ kg seed is most effective. Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) It is new exotic pest in maize ecosystem. It feeds heavily on central whorl leaves and it is more serious on crop up to six weeks old. It lays eggs in clusters on upper and lower surface of the leaves. Young larvae cause papery windows on leaves while grown larvae feeds by making bigger irregular wholes, cut the leaf margins and may damage the central whorl leaves also. The infected plants are filled with its excreta. The seed treatment with Cyantraniliprole 19.8% + Thiamethoxam 19.8% FS @ 6 ml/kg of seed offers protection for 15 - 20 days of crop growth against Fall Armyworm is quite effective up to 3 leaves/ 20 days old crop. Release of egg parasitoids viz., Telenomus remus (4000/ ac) or Trichogramma pretiosum @ 50,000/acre at 7 and 14 days following first spray using neem formulation with the trap catch of one moth/day observed continuously. Note: Parasitoid release may be alternated with neem spray at weekly intervals, but not to be applied simultaneously. For management of early instar larvae with a damage level of 5 - 10%, whorl application of Bacillus thuringiensis v. kurstaki formulations 2% (400g/acre) applied @ 2g/l or Metarhizium anisopliae or Beauveria bassiana (1kg/acre) applied @ 5 g/liter is recommended. If infestation is more than 10%, spray with anyone of the recommended insecticides with label claim, viz., Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC (80 ml/acre) applied @ 0.4 ml/l or Thiamethoxam 12.6 % + Lambda cyhalothrin 9.5% ZC (50ml/acre) applied @ 0.25 ml/l or Spinetoram 11.7 % SC (100ml/acre) applied @ 0.5 ml/l is recommended. DISEASE MANAGEMENT Turcicum leaf blight: Spray Zineb/Meneb @ 2.5 - 4.0 g/l water 2 - 4 times at 8 - 10 days intervals as a control measure. Maydis leaf blight: It can be controlled by 2 - 4 times spraying of Dithane Z - 75 or Zineb @ 2.4 - 4.0 g/l water at 8 - 10 days intervals after first appearance of the symptoms of disease. Banded leaf and sheath blight: Seed treatment of peat - based formulation (Pseudomonas fluorescence) @ 16 g/kg of seed or soil application @ 7 g/l water as soil drenching or foliar spray of Sheethmar (Validamycin) @ 2.7 ml/l water is effective against this disease. Bird management In some places mature cobs are damaged by birds. In such situations matured cob can be protected from bird damage by tying cobs with leaf of the same plant. Harvesting Harvesting should be done at optimum moisture content (20%) in grain to avoid postharvest loses due to store grain pest and diseases. Harvesting immediately after shower should be avoided. The harvested cobs should be sun dried before shelling and should be shelled at 13 - 14% grain moisture. During storage the moisture content of grain should be 8 - 10 %. Table 1. Essential amino acid content of maize Amino acid Normal (mg per g N) QPM (mg per g N) Lysine Isoleucine Leucine Sulphur amino acid Aromatic amino acid Threonine Tryptophan Valine 177 206 827 188 505 213 35 292 256 193 507 188 502 199 78 298 Table 2. Protein quality of maize Quality measures Normal QPM True protein digestibility Biological value (%) Amount needed for equilibrium 8040 - 47547 92 80 230 References Gunarathna NS, De Groote H, Nestel P, Pixley KV and McCabe GP. (2010). A meta - Analysis of community level studies on quality protein maize. Food Policy. 35: 202 - 210. Krivanek AF, De Groote H, Guraratna NS, Diallo AO and Friesen D. (2007). Breeding and Disseminating quality protein maize (QPM) for Africa. African J. Biotech. 6 (4):312 - 324. Kumar RS, Kumar B, Kaul J, Chikkappa GK, Jat SL, Parihar CM and Kumar A. (2012). Maize research in India - historical prospective and future challenges. Maize Journal. 1(1):1 - 6. Lopez - Pereira MA.(1992). The economics of quality protein maize as an animal feed: Case Studies of Brazil and EI Salvador, CIMMYT, Mexico, DF. Mertz ET. (1970). Nutritive value of corn and its products. In: Inglett GE, editor. Corn: culture, Processing, products. Westport, Conn.: Avi Publishing. p 350–9. Subsuban CP, Olanday PO, Cambel IH. (1990). Advantages of quality protein maize (QPM) In broiler ration. Research and Development Journal (Philippines). 1(1): 5 - 17. Vasal, S.K. (2002). Quality protein maize development: An exciting experience. In Integrated Approaches to Higher Maize Productivity in the New Millennium, Proceedings of the Seventh Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Maize Conference, Nairobi, Kenya,5–11February2002;Friesen,D.,Palmer,A.F.E.,Eds.;CIMMYT(InternationalMaize and Wheat Improvement Center) and KARI (Kenya Agricultural Research Institute): Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 2–9. 3. Mbuya, K.; Nkongolo, K.K.; Kalonji - Mbuyi, A. (2011). Nutritional analysis of quality protein maize varieties selected for agronomic characteristics in a breeding program. Int. J. Plant Breed. Genet. Vol.(5): 317–327. Tanumihardjo, S., McCulley, I., Roh, R., Lopez - Ridaura,S., Palacious - Rojas,N. and Vellakumar, S.(2014). Introgression of low phytic acid locus (lpa2 - 2) into elite maize (Zea mays) inbred through marker Assisted backcross breeding. Aust. J Crop Sci., 8:1224 - 1231. ; Not Available
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Robert Wade on Zombie Ideas, Being inside the World Bank, and the Death of Ethics in Economics after the Marginal Revolution
The global economy is at the core of some of the main issues in contemporary International Relations. But how do we understand the global economy and what impact does that have on how we deal with the power politics around it? A fault line seems to have emerged between those who take economic theory seriously and those who denounce it for being part of the problem. Informed by his training as an anthropologist, Robert H. Wade—professor at the LSE—takes a different tack: he bases his engagement with the way in which Adam Smith has been appropriated to advocate for a dominant view of 'free markets' on real-world economics and in-depth accounts of insiders. In this Talk, Wade—among others—discusses experimentation in international economic regimes, why the International Financial Institutions don't fight economic crises, and the powers and perils of being inside the World Bank.
Print version of this Talk (pdf)
What is, according to you, the biggest challenge / principal debate in current International Relations? What is your position or answer to this challenge / in this debate?
If we'd reframe your question as being more broadly about global studies, I think that one of the really fundamental questions is how and why it is that the precepts of neoliberalism have penetrated into every nook and cranny of Western societies, and have penetrated to a very large extent many non-Western countries.
This has happened especially, but not only, through the agency of the IMF and the World bank, which have imbued these neoliberal principles; through the mechanism of graduate education: children of the elites in developing countries go out to American, British, other Western universities, and they learn that this is 'true' economics, or 'true' IPE, or 'true' Political Science, and then they come back and implement these same principles and make them a reality back home. But across the globe, this even holds for the Nordic countries. In Iceland and other Nordic countries, from the 1980s, networks of people sharing a belief in neo-liberal precepts, began to form and sort of place each other in key positions within the state, and in politics, and built a momentum in this direction. These precepts have become understood as just natural, as in Margaret Thatcher's 'there is no alternative'.
I live in the UK, and the great bulk of the British public really does believe that the government is just like a household writ large, and the same rules of budgeting that apply to the household should apply to the state. That when times are tough the household has to tighten its belt, cut back on spending, and it is only fair that the government does the same, and if the government does not, if the government runs a deficit in hard times, then the government is being irresponsible. And this is a completely mistaken and pre-Keynesian idea, but it is a 'zombie idea'—that is, however much arguments and evidence may be mounted against it, it just keeps coming up and up and up, and governments come to power riding on this zombie idea and a flotilla of related ideas.
The persistence of this zombie idea is all the more amazing as we just had a global financial crisis in 2007/8, which would prompt a rethinking of these ideas. But these neoliberal precepts have been, if anything, more strongly reinforced. In previous hard times—and obviously the 1930s depression is the exemplary case—there has been a stronger move towards, what you could call, social democratic precepts. But not this time! Indeed, even after the crisis, the whole of the European Union with 500 million people is even more thoroughly structured on the basis of these ideas. I am thinking of what is popularly known as the Fiscal Compact signed by the EU Member States in 2012, which commits all governments to balance budgets all the time—that is, first, the structural deficit may not rise above 0.5 percent of GDP. Second, the public debt may not rise above 60 percent of GDP. Third, automatic financial sanctions are levied on governments that exceed these two thresholds. Fourth, the whole procedure is supervised by the European Commission, and this is presented as in the name of sound budgeting. This package is presented as justified by the proposition that government is a household writ large. The most elementary principles of Keynesian macroeconomics show why this is not simply mistaken, but a disaster, and will keep generating recessionary pressures. It is sold as a kind of excuse for avoiding to put in place the essential conditions for the monetary union, namely, a common budget and a sizable transfer mechanism to the regions just as exists in the United States. But they do not want to do that, but still they call this agreement 'cooperation', which is all about not cooperation, but about writing these dictates around this zombie idea written into the very basic architecture of the EU. Beyond EU politics, it materializes all the way down to, I don't know, the function of the privatization of the Post Office, it goes all the way down to the sort of capillaries of how universities are run, and the incentive systems that have placed upon academics, and there is very little pushback. The one reason, why I am almost completely delighted about Jeremy Corbyn's election as the leader of the Labour party, is that this is one small case of where there seems to be some concerted pushback against these zombie ideas. The point being that the established Labour party basically bought into this whole set of neo-liberal ideas. It combined maintaining the overall structure of inequality in society with more emphasis on providing some help to the poor, but they had to be hardworking poor.
Yet, one knows that there can be dramatic changes in the prevailing zeitgeist of norms. One knows that there can be big changes in the space of a few decades and the question is can one imagine a scenario in which they might be a big change in norms back to a more kind of social-democratic direction. So where will this take place? Because of technological change in the labor market, there is a real big crisis of employment with many middle-class jobs cut out and polarization in the labor market. This might then induce a political movement to have a much bigger change in income distribution than anybody with power is now talking about. Talk of re-distribution these days is really almost entirely around redistribution through the state, but the point I would make is that if there is to be any significant reduction of inequality, especially inequality at the top, there has to be more attention to changes in market-income distribution.
Let me explain. The share of profits in national income has been going up and the share of labor income has been going down. So we should harness the shareholder structure of the market to affect a more equal income distribution by enabling a much wider section of the population to buy into the profit share. At the moment the profit share goes to senior executives and equity holders, but equity holders are highly concentrating at the top of the income and wealth distribution. If equity earners could be spread much more equally, then a much wider section of the population would get income, while they sleep so to speak. We could institute something like trusts, whose members could be the employees of a company, the customers, the neighbors of the company, and the trust would borrow on capital markets and take out insurance against the repayment of the lending of loan and then it would buy shares, it would use that borrowed money to buy shares in the company, and the company would pay out dividends on the shares and then that dividend income coming out of profits would be distributed to the members of the trust. That would be a way of getting the rising share of profits in national income distributed out to the population at large. I particularly like this metaphor of "earning income while you sleep", since at the moment it is only the rich people, who are earning income while they sleep. Somehow that facility of earning income while you sleep has to be made much more widely and available—by using the market against itself, so to speak.
How did you arrive at where you currently are in your thinking about International Relations?
I suppose the starting point was really this; my father was a New Zealand diplomat, so we moved quite often. By that time I was twelve my parents were posted to Colombo, Ceylon as it was called then. After having lived just in Western countries, I suddenly encountered at this very formative age Colombo and Sri Lanka. I was just amazed by that experience; by the color, the taste, the exoticness, but I was also very struck by how the many boys at the same age as me, were walking around with no shoes. I particular remember this boy carrying a baby on his shoulder, the baby looked half-dead and covered in scabs, and I think it was then I got the idea of just how unequal the world was. Then at university I studied economics, but I also visited my parents in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and I got another sense of that great disparity in wealth and living standards. At this time I had come across Adam Smith and the wealth of nations question and that helped to encapsulate or to crystalize my interests. So I wanted to go the Institute of Development Studies in Sussex and got enrolled for a PhD in economics, but en route I spent several weeks in India and during that time I began to dwell upon just how boring and how useless everything I studied under the name of microeconomics. I kept thinking of these dreadfully dry textbooks of marginal cost curves and marginal revenue curves and utility function and difference curves etc., which I had forced myself to sit exams in. By this time I had done a little bit of fieldwork, living on Pitcairn Island in the middle of the Pacific.
When I got back to Sussex after fieldwork I announced that I wished to not do a PhD in economics, but to do one in anthropology thinking all the time, that this would actually be more use for understanding why for example India, where I had been, was so very poor. So that's what I did: a PhD in anthropology… In some ways I regard that as having been a mistake, because the sort of mainstream of anthropology is very far away from the Adam Smith questions. Having done the degree in anthropology, pretty soon I began to change direction and pay much more attention to the state, to the state bureaucracy. I went to India and I studied the Irrigation Department and other related departments. I went to South Korea and I studied state irrigation agencies and I went to Taiwan and I studied the state more broadly. So I was kind of moving up from my Italian village, moving kind of up the scale in terms of state agencies and then the state as a whole.
Then I went to work for the World Bank in the 1980s and my main reason for doing that was not to do the research the World Bank wanted me to do, but rather to study the World Bank from the inside as fieldwork. If in some ways switching to anthropology was a mistake, in other ways it was not, because I approached those kind of Wealth-of-Nations-questions in a way very different from how economists approached them. For example when I went to Taiwan and studied the trade regime, the first thing I did was to go and talk to people who operated through the trade regime, whereas I noticed that the published works by economists celebrating Taiwan's free trade regime was based on what the rules said and what certain government officials told them was the case. They had never actually talked to people who traded through the trade regime. If they would have, they would have learned about all the covert controls that went on such that there was quite a distinction between the liberal face of the trade regime and the reality of the trade regime. The reality was that the government was managing trade in line with industrial policy, but the government absolutely did not want the world to know that. So all this was kept hidden and I was really regarded as rather unwelcome visitor—and in fact to this day my book Governing the Market (1990, read the introduction here) is not well received in Taiwan. It says the government of Taiwan did a good job of managing the market, but they want the world to believe that Taiwan is a free trade country. So that is the kind of intellectual trajectory that I have been on.
So I think that the value of the anthropology PhD was that it really taught me, in practical terms, the meaning of the anthropological maxim, which is 'soaking and poking'. To put it another way—I love this—anthropologists are social scientists, who believe that the plural of anecdote is evidence. And indeed I place a lot of weight on anecdotes, on gossip, on the stories people tell, whereas economists would be much happier reducing, let us say, South Korea's trade regime to one data point in a matrix, and then compare that data point with, let us say, Malaysia's data point to see how the trade regimes are correlated with growth, or something like that, and that is really not my interest.
What would a student need to become a specialist in IR or understand the world in a global way?
Despite what I've just said, I do think that a graduate training in economics is very useful, provided one does not believe it. And that is really difficult, because the socialization pressures are intense: if you do not say the right things—which are neoliberal type things on the whole—then you will likely not get a high grade. But I have noticed that economists tend to know how to think, how to make arguments, they tend to understand the idea of causality, and that may seem an astonishing thing to say on my part, because it implies that students coming from other disciplines are often weak in understanding the very basic ideas of causality, but that is my experience. I had many students coming from, who knows, IR or Political Science or Sociology or Anthropology, who clearly do not have much idea of causality; they can describe things, but they find thinking in terms of cause and effect, in terms of independent and dependent variables, in terms of left and right side, they just find it difficult. So I do think that there is a lot to be said for studying economics, and mastering the maths, provided that the critical facility is not lost. That is point number one.
Point number two is that I think that there is a huge premium on doing fieldwork, and the field work maybe in developing countries, but when I say field work, I don't just mean going out to villages, going out to see poor people 'over there'. I am talking of fieldwork inside bureaucracies: to try and understand the culture, the incentive systems that people are working under—fieldwork at home so to speak, in the countries one comes from. From the students' point of view, it is clearly much easier to sit in the LSE library to do the research. So in my marking I give quite a premium to a student actually doing fieldwork, going out and interviewing, and having the experience of writing up and interpreting the interviews and somehow fitting it back into a larger argument—but really few students actually do that, and I think that that is a real, real big mistake. Mind you, the same risk holds for fieldwork in economics as it does for studying economics: I encourage students to work for (do fieldwork in, experience) the World Bank; and several have—but to the best of my knowledge almost none of them has kept their critical perspective. They really come to buy into it.
The relations between states are settled either through diplomacy or warfare. Why would we have to focus on economics to understand IR?
Because economics—such as for example balances of payment, surpluses and deficits—set the constraints and incentives on countries in terms of their relationships with each other. A great deal of diplomacy is driven by economic pressures: diplomacy to get other countries to for example open their markets, or to cut deals with countries—'if you do this, we will do that'—deals that may relate to areas that are rather different, for instance if you buy more of these of our exports, we will help you fight such and such country, because the manufactures are in my constituency.
So, in a way, the way you framed the question is part of the reason why I react against the discipline of IR: because it tends to treat diplomacy, war, and so on, as somehow rather separate from economic pressures, and I see these economic pressures as very powerful drivers of both of the other two things. As another example, one of the drivers of the Syrian conflict was that there was an acute drought (like Weizman observed in Theory Talk #69, red), which meant that many people were rendered destitute; rural areas flooded into the cities, and the Assad regime just was—understandably—unable to cope; and large numbers of young men, concentrated in cities, rootless and with no jobs, just were recruiting fodder for the Wahhabi sect. I have always thought of economics—not so much as in the making choices in conditions of scarcity, that is sort of Lionel Robin's definition—in the sense of Alfred Marshal, about how people make a living, as a very fundamental driver of a lot of what happens in International Relations.
Pikkety recently published Capital in the 21st Century, causing quite the stir. But why would inequality between people matter for IR?
Let me comment by invoking a very contemporary exhibit—the migration crisis in Europe now. Maybe a decade ago I looked at the figures and if you took the average income of the EU-15 prior to latest extensions and then expressed the average income of countries outside of the EU—including sub-Sahara Africa—as a percentage, then there was a really dramatic falling away of income levels relative to the EU, in countries all around the EU and whether you took market exchange rates or purchasing power parity. If you went round to sub-Sahara Africa and took the average, it was more like two percent in market exchange rates and seven percent in purchasing power parity; and the 'problem' is that there is certainly here a rather thin slither of sea between Africa and the promised land of Europe and to the east there are these great open planes, where armies can go up and down to the speed of light, so to speak, but people can also move pretty quickly across these planes.
So all one has to do—and this might just be only a bit of an exaggeration—if one is on the poor end of this poverty pyramid is hop across the border and you have a chance at least of getting a very appreciable increase in living conditions and income, with which you can then get savings to remit back to home. So the migrations pressures are just huge. So that is one reason for linking inequality to issues in International Relations—really fundamental issues, and very very difficult to dissolve.
You've done anthropological fieldwork inside the World Bank—an institution drawing a lot of criticism from its detractors in IR. Can you shed some kind of light about what kind of 'animal' the World Bank is?
First of all, let me say that at the micro-level—the level of the people you know and the people I know inside the World Bank—I agree that there are people doing a lot of good work. But if you look at the organization more generally—the World Bank and also the IMF—they are clearly instruments mainly of US foreign policy—and any number of US senators, members of the House, have basically said that. When they are defending the International Financial Institutions (they often criticize them), they do so by saying they are important for US foreign policy. And you have to look at the governance structures to see how it is that the US in particular—but Western states more generally—have from the beginning, through the very Articles of Agreement, created a structure which locks in their power, and has made it very difficult for other countries (including Japan) to significantly increase their shareholdings. The US has kept the presidency of the Bank and the much less recognized Number Two position of the IMF, and has used these positions to have a very strong influence.
Just to illustrate what the Bank and the Fund do: at the time of the East-Asian crisis—specifically the Korean crisis in 1997-1998—the IMF mission was in Seoul. The negotiations were in a hotel there. David Lipton from the US Treasury (and a former student of Larry Summers who was by then Deputy Secretary) was just down the corridor of where the negotiations took place, and every so often the IMF people would walk out of the negotiations and consult with David Lipton, then come back in and—as Paul Blustein reports in his book called The Chastening—often said something rather different from what they had been saying before they consulted with David Lipton.
Just to take another example, the US being able to appoint the president of the Bank—to appoint a person known personally to the Treasury Secretary or to the Secretary of the State, or both—is really of great value: when there is a 'trustful relationship'—or a relationship of dependency, the president being dependent on those who appointed him in the Administration—it is possible for those people in the Administration, or people close to them, to just ring up the president of the Bank, and talk in a very informal, confidential, trustful way about what is happening in Latin America, or what is happening in the Middle East, and what the US thinks the Bank should or should not be doing in those places. Larry Summers appointed a protégé of his to one of the regional development banks, and this person—who is very senior in the bank—told me that Larry would frequently ring him, while he is being driven home in the evening from the Treasury, just to have a chat about how things were going in her region, and to pass on suggestions about what the Bank should be doing there, and to get intelligence from her about what was happening in the region, and so on. The point is that, making these personal connections is of immense value, but at the same time, the US Congress, in particular, is very much against having a big Bank against allowing a capital increase for the World Bank—so that the bank could, as it should be doing, increase its lending for infrastructure investment ten times. It is just a complete scandal how little the Bank has been lending for the past 20 years or more for infrastructure, for roads and power stations and so on. The US does not want the Bank providing socialistic competition with the private sector: it says these things are for the private sector to do, and the Bank has to take care of poverty, because the private sector is not interested in poverty.
So the US wants to keep the presidency of the Bank, it wants to keep, secondly, its unique veto right on the big decisions, such as decisions on whether to increase the capital base—but provided those two things are met it does not care that much about the Bank. In the case of the Fund, the US is also very powerful, but of course the Europeans have a bit more relative power. Right now I think the world is in an even more dangerous sort if financial condition than might appear, because the IMF is acutely short of secure or guaranteed lending resources, so if there is to be another round of crisis—as I think is entirely likely within the next five years—the Fund depends upon borrowing short-term from member countries, like on six months terms, but member countries can say 'no', and that means that the Fund's ability to fight crises is quite constrained. The Fund should implement what was agreed in 2010 by all the member countries represented on the board of the IMF: to roughly double the quote of the guaranteed lending resources, that is, resources the countries actually hand over to the Fund, over which they actually give up country control. All the relevant capitals ratified it with one exception—the US—because Congress refused because the individual barons, who are not under that much party discipline, each said to the Treasury: 'look, the question of the IMF is of zero significance to my electorate, so if you want my vote on the IMF, you have to give me things that I want like projects in my constituency and so on'. The Treasury added up the demands of the people, whose vote had to be won, and it considered those demands were just way, way, way over the top. As long as a Democrat is in the presidency, while the House is controlled by Republicans the world is sort of held hostage to this. Beyond this example, this actually entails a structural problem: the US blocking or producing a gridlock in international organizations, because the Congress is hostile to international organizations, because Congress sees it to imply a loss of US sovereignty. The only way to end this gridlock is to end the US veto in the Fund and the Bank, but the problem is that the US can veto any measures.
One response of the big developing countries is to create bypass organizations—such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Banks, such as the new Development Bank, such as the Contingent Reserve arrangement the BRICs have established, and then a growing number of sort of regional development banks. And I think that that is a good thing, but it does raise questions about coordination, about who is looking after, if you will, the global interests, global issues such as climate change. In short, we need a genuine World Bank, rather than the American-Bank-in-the-World we have today.
You engage thoroughly with economics and economic theory. Now there seem to be two kinds of critical approaches to economics in IPE: one criticizes its rationality as flawed, and another buys into its rationality but attempts to point out where actual policy gets it wrong. Where do you stand in this?
If you take the example of how the EU attempted to impose fiscal rules on Greece, you see a notion of rationality which draws upon these very primitive notions that I referred to right at the beginning, where the government is just a household writ large, and the same set of rules that apply to the budgeting of the household must apply to the government as well. Here, the assumption is that any macroeconomic proposition must have microeconomic foundations, that it must be derivable from propositions about microeconomic agents acting in this sort of self-maximizing way, and if you cannot derive macroeconomic propositions from those micro foundations, then there is something unreliable, un-rigorous about your macroeconomics. So what are then the sources of these micro-economic assumptions?
This leads us to one fundamental and almost completely unaddressed weaknesses of economics can be traced back to the Marginal Revolution in the late 19th century. From that moment onwards, there has been an attempt to model economics on physics, and that was very explicit on the part of people like Pareto and Walras, and Jevons, early Marginalist thinkers. They even drew up tables with terms of physics, like velocity, on one side, and then corresponding terms in economics on the other. That had a huge benefit in terms of the 'science' of economics, because it cut economics loose from Adam Smith's and other classical economists' preoccupations with issues of morality and ethics. Adam Smith thought his most important book was not the Wealth of Nations but his Theory of Moral Sentiments, on which he was working, revising yet again, when he died. For Smith, economics and morals were never separate worlds, but intimately related. So for him, the Theory of Moral Sentiments and the Wealth of Nations were just twins. The point about the marginalist revolution, and the embrace of physics as the model, was that it cut economics free of all that sort of subjective stuff about values. So economics after the marginalist revolution set off with the assumption that not production, but the movement of individuals in markets engaged in trading with each other became the center of gravity of economics. Making the study of exchange rather than the study of production central was analogous to, say, Boyle's Law in physics. Boyle's Law in physics explained the movement of molecules in gasses, as a function of the pressure applied to the gas. So why did they make that analogy?
The point of likening of individuals in microeconomic actions with molecules in gasses was the following. Everybody knows that we do not apply any consideration of ethics or moral sentiments to the movement of the molecules in gas, so neither should we apply any notions of ethics or moral sentiments to the movements of individuals in market exchanges. And that was the way that all considerations of ethics, of morality were just removed from economics. I for instance asked the question to well-known American growth theorist, as we were walking down the street in Providence at Brown University: 'is it moral for people to freeride?' And he said, 'yes of course, provided they do not break the law'. So ethics and questions of morality have been almost completely expunged from economics in a way that would horrify classical economists including Smith; and a particular idea of rationality has been an important part of cleansing economics from those moral considerations. George DeMartino, editor of the Oxford Handbook of Professional Economics Ethics which just appeared has a wonderful phrase to capture this—'econogenic harm': the harm built into the way that economics, professional economists work.
Haven't specific fields, like development economics—a field you engage with yourself—advanced to overcome these weaknesses in economic theory?
Let me root my answer again in observations about the linkages between theory and practice, for it is in practice that economic theory really does its work and its politics becomes visible. It always amazes me we have had a development industry in place for roughly the past 70 years with vast numbers of people, organizations, money all orchestrated underneath this umbrella of development; yet if you go back and read what the early writers about development and economic growth said—I am thinking of people like Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, Myrdal, Hirschman, Prebisch, but also Moses Abramovitz. If you go back and look at what they were saying, it seems to me that we have not advanced all that much. Sure, we have advanced a lot in terms of econometric techniques, but in terms of substance we have not. One conclusion I draw from that is that it is really important that international regimes—for example, World Bank and IMF loan conditions, but also WTO regimes—give room for experimentation, because it is really not the case that 'there is no alternative'. This Washington Consensus agenda has clearly not been effective in accelerating production, upgrading it, and production diversification, or export upgrading, or export diversification. So, there should be written into the regimes a lot of room for experimentation. But this isn't there because of the political origin of these regimes; because of what western countries want for the rest world, namely, to open the rest of the world to their markets.
In the 80s there were a lot of experts in industrial development in the World Bank and they did good work, promoting industrial growth and investment in productive infrastructure. But then Anne Krueger came in as chief economist, and brought in a whole lot of people with her—who, like here, were arch-neoliberals. The industrial growth people were invited to find employment elsewhere, or to rebrand themselves as experts in who knows what, environmental assessment, primary education, or good governance. There was no room for them. This also fitted well with some bad experiences the Bank had had with investing in infrastructure. It had gotten into a lot of trouble with large-scale infrastructural interventions such as roads and dams and the like from, especially, US NGOs mobilizing Congress—which then put pressure on the Treasury and so on. My lament throughout this whole conversation has been that we seem to have become just locked into this direction that was set in the 1980s, and it is very difficult to see what kind of economic catastrophe would be necessary to give a sufficient shock to reroute the global system of economic governance.
So after the 1980s, the Bank sort of backed off and began saying that development, economic development, was about poverty reduction—the slogan of the Bank became, 'our dream is a world free of poverty'. You can understand that shift partly in terms of pulling out of the concern with production to get into safe territory, but also because poverty reduction seemed to sort of take care of inequality, because you reduced inequality to poverty—to the poor 'over there', and we can feel good about helping them; but we do not want talk about inequality, which involves us, because then there is the question of justice of our income.
But then the most recent turn is that we're seeing a renewed push for infrastructure in the World Bank and western development agencies. I think that you can link this recent infrastructure push to uncertainty about the sources of economic growth. In the West there is a real question about sustaining economic growth without housing bubbles and stock market bubbles—in other words, without endogenously building financial instability. There may well be a similar sort of issue in terms of the growth of developing countries.
Last question. Adam Smith seems to be constantly present in your work as a critical interlocutor. How come?
I kind of engage in a critical debate with Adam Smith, but especially with people today, who believe his ideas. I often start to frame arguments in terms of his famous 40 word summary of the causes of the relative wealth of nations, which he actually wrote in 1755, which is to say long before the first edition of the Wealth of Nations. I will just tell you what these 40 words say, and then I will tell you the significance of them. He said:
'Little else is requisite to carry a state to the highest degree of opulence from the lowest barbarism than peace, easy taxes, and tolerable administration of justice; all the rest being brought about by the natural course of things.'
So I am struck by how today many economists say or imply that this is essentially right; you need some qualifications of course, but essentially that is the nub of it. You might have to translate peace, easy taxes, tolerable administration of justice into more modern terms, but that is the essence of it. For example, Gregory Mankiw—Professor of economics at Harvard, former chair of the National Council of Economic Advisers during the Bush administration, and author of a very popular textbook in economics—said in the Wall Street Journal in 2006: Adam Smith was right to say that – and then he gave the 40 word quote. The renowned economists Timothy Besley and Torsten Persson wrote Pillars of Prosperity, which also begins with Smith's 40 words, and they even see the book as a kind of elaboration, but in that same kind of spirit, of Smith's basic idea. So my point is that these ideas are still current; they are still the sort of front of a lot of neoliberal thinking. I am just astonished these ideas all these centuries later remain so powerful. I have had at the back of my mind the idea of organizing an international competition to provide a contemporary 40 word statement, which is sort of equivalent to Smith's, which would obviously have to be of a more global character, encompassing the globalized world economy.
Robert Hunter Wade worked at the Institute of Development Studies, Sussex, 1972-95, World Bank, 1984-88, Princeton Woodrow Wilson School 1989/90, MIT Sloan School 1992, Brown University 1996-2000. Fellow of Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton 1992/93, Russell Sage Foundation 1997/98, Institute for Advanced Study, Berlin 2000/01. Fieldwork in Pitcairn Is., Italy, India, Korea, Taiwan. Research on World Bank 1995-continuing. Author of Irrigation and Politics in South Korea (1982), Village Republics: The Economic Conditions of Collective Action in India (1988, 1994), Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asia's Industrialization (1990, 2003). Latter won American Political Science Association's award of Best Book in Political Economy, 1992.
Related links
Faculty profile at LSE Read Wade's The Piketty phenomenon and the future of inequality (2014, real-world economics review) here (pdf) Read Wade's Capitalism and Democracy at Cross-Purposes (2013, Challenge) here (pdf) Read Wade's Rethinking Industrial Policy for Low Income Countries (2007 ADB Conference paper) here (pdf) Read Wade's Bringing the State Back In (2005, IPG) here (pdf) Read Wade's Is Globalization Reducing Poverty and Inequality? (2004, World Development) here (pdf) Read Wade's Creating Capitalisms (Introduction to 2003 book 'Governing the Market') here (pdf)
2005/2006 ; Questa tesi di dottorato è stata realizzata nell'ambito del progetto ECOManage (Jntegrated Ecological Coastal Zone Management System ), un progetto internazionale che ha come obiettivi comprendere e descrivere come gli ecosistemi estuarini rispondano agli impatti antropici, allo scopo di promuovere l'uso sostenibile, la protezione e la gestione della risorsa idrica; e fornire un supporto scientifico agli enti ambientali locali riguardo alle migliori pratiche politiche da attuare. I siti di interesse del progetto sono tre diverse aree costiere: un estuario con mangrovie (Santos, in Brasile), un grande estuario con estese aree intertidali (Bahia Bianca, in Argentina) e un fiordo (Puerto Aysen, in Cile). Le fasce costiere sono oggigiorno una delle zone più minacciate del mondo a causa della loro attrattiva e della disponibilità di risorse per lo sviluppo urbano e industriale. Per questo motivo molte di queste aree hanno raggiunto condizioni ambientali critiche come risultato della forte pressione antropica e del sovrasfruttamento delle risorse. Le aree costiere sono tra le più vulnerabili della Terra, quindi qualsiasi attività messa in pratica, dovrebbe essere accuratamente pianificata. Inoltre ciò che accade sulle coste ha effetti che vanno molto al di là delle comunità acquatiche e umane locali, causando conseguenze a lungo termine o irreparabili. In questa tesi ci si è occupati di due delle aree di studio costiere del progetto ECOManage: Santos e Bahia Bianca. Le due aree di studio sono sottoposte ad un notevole stress, causato specialmente da una mediocre pianificazione del territorio e dalle attività umane. La baia di Santos è contraddistinta dalla presenza di ecosistemi unici e di grande valore come la Mata Atlantica (foresta atlantica) e le foreste di mangrovie che sono costantemente sotto forte pressione provocata da un enorme sviluppo urbano nell'area che influenza anche la qualità dell'estuario stesso. Per questa ragione e per avere un'idea chiara delle condizioni di inquinamento dell'acqua dell'estuario di Santos, è stato calcolato un indice di qualità, applicando i principi dell'analisi Fuzzy, sulla base di campionamenti di acqua, sedimenti e organismi effettuati dal CETESB nel 1999 e nel 2000. L'indice di qualità evidenzia quelle aree dell'estuario in cui è presente un grado elevato, moderato e accettabile di inquinamento. Bahia Bianca è caratterizzata da estesi campi agricoli e da pascoli che la rendono una delle principali province argentine per l'esportazione di grano e di lana. Quest'area, pur essendo meno disturbata dal punto di vista ambientale rispetto alla baia di Santos, subisce un rilevante stress a causa delle attività agricole intensive che provocano erosione del suolo e degradazione del terreno. Lo scopo generale di questa ricerca è di creare un sistema di informazione completo e integrato usando le tecniche di telerilevamento e GIS, come fonte di dati per l'analisi dei problemi locali di Santos e Bahia Bianca, come ad esempio la perdita di suolo e l 'urbanizzazione. Inoltre stimare e comparare i risultati ottenuti da due modelli di erosione per evidenziare l'importanza della copertura vegetale come prevenzione dei processi di perdita del suolo che affliggono queste due aree. Nell'area di Santos è stata inclusa anche, come importante fonte di informazioni per gli studi attuali e futuri, un'analisi multitemporale della copertura del suolo, per determinare i cambiamenti di uso del suolo lungo un periodo di sette anni e la predizione dei cambiamenti nel futuro, applicando specifici software e tecniche di modellizzazione. Un sistema di supporto alle decisioni spaziale (SDSS) è stato elaborato per l'area di studio brasiliana per analizzare uno dei più importanti problemi di Santos: l'urbanizzazione, fornendo alle autorità locali uno strumento affidabile per i processi decisionali. L'analisi dei cambiamenti di copertura del suolo ha evidenziato le aree più vulnerabili alle pressioni antropiche (principalmente a causa della deforestazione e dell'urbanizzazione). I risultati ottenuti enfatizzano come le aree soggette maggiormente alle attività umane siano localizzate in zone di bassa e media elevazione, mentre le aree con maggior altitudine e forte pendenza ne sono meno influenzate. La maggior parte delle classi nelle due mappe di copertura del suolo (derivate dalla classificazione di due immagini satellitari Landsat del 1993 e del 2000) sono rimaste le stesse. Ciò è molto significativo in termini di impatto ambientale. La predizione della copertura del suolo per il 20 l O è stata ottenuta attraverso un'interpolazione basata sulle mappe di copertura del 1993 e del 2000. L'andamento di copertura del suolo per il 2010 rileva un apparente diminuzione degli effetti antropici e una copertura più uniforme. Ciò può essere giustificato dal miglioramento dell'applicazione delle leggi ambientali vigenti nell'area (CONAMA, 2002). La possibilità di predire la copertura del suolo del futuro è molto importante per effettuare valutazioni ambientali e per prevenire attività umane incontrollate, prevedendo possibili scenari riguardanti l'uso e la copertura del suolo dopo un numero specifico di anni. Per lo studio della degradazione del terreno e degli impatti dell'uomo sull'ambiente nelle due aree di studio, sono state elaborate delle mappe di rischio di erosione usando due diversi modelli, il RUSLE e l'USPED. Quest'ultimo permette di quantificare non solo la perdita di suolo ma anche i processi di deposizione che hanno luogo in una determinata regione. Il tasso di erosione è piuttosto basso sia per Santos che per Bahia Bianca, dove sembra che i processi di erosione siano determinati principalmente dalle caratteristiche topografiche delle due aree. Più bassi livelli di erosione sono stati trovati in terreni pianeggianti: in Santos le mangrovie hanno un tasso molto basso di erosione, mentre la vegetazione bassa ha un tasso più elevato; in Bahia Bianca le pianure intertidali hanno un tasso molto basso di erosione, mentre il suolo nudo a maggiori altitudini presenta un incremento dell'erosione. Ciò nonostante nell'area di Santos, la Mata Atlantica delle zone montane (che si trova prevalentemente ad altitudini maggiori a 570 m) presenta un'erosione molto bassa, evidenziando l 'importanza di una buona copertura vegetale nelle aree altrimenti soggette ad un elevato rischio di erosione. Comunque i livelli di erosione riscontrati nelle due aree di studio sono inferiori a quanto ci si aspettava: un'erosione molto elevata è stata rilevata solo nei terreni a maggior pendenza. Sfortunatamente la validazione dei risultati di erosione/sedimentazione non è possibile dal momento che non sono disponili misure in campo, ad ogni modo i risultati appaiono affidabili se confrontati con studi precedenti effettuati in località vicine con peculiarità simili. Inoltre i modelli di erosione sono un importante strumento per la valutazione dei processi di perdita di suolo e per l'elaborazione di mappe di rischio di erosione che possono essere utilizzate come utile riferimento per la pianificazione delle attività future, allo scopo di diminuire gli effetti erosivi attuali e di prevenire future degradazioni del suolo. Infine, l'elaborazione di un sistema di supporto decisionale spaziale per l'analisi dei problemi di urbanizzazione di Santos è stato possibile utilizzando i GIS. L'SDSS è stato progettato per valutare i problemi urbani di Santos, poiché c'è un numero considerevole di persone che vivono in aree protette come le riserve ecologiche delle mangrovie, comportando una forte pressione su questo fragile ed unico ecosistema, rendendo la loro sistemazione un importante problema da risolvere. Nella maggior parte dei casi queste persone appartengono alle classi sociali più basse, con stipendi miseri e uno stile di vita molto povero, aumentando la difficoltà della loro risistemazione. Essi dovrebbero venire al più presto spostati in zone più adeguate e più salubri. L'SDSS indica i posti più appropriate per realizzare questo progetto, tenendo in considerazione una serie di criteri. I fattori e le limitazioni considerate sono la topografia, la presenza di corpi d'acqua, la localizzazione di insediamenti urbani già esistenti, il tasso di erosione, il tipo di copertura del suolo, l'esistenza di aree protette. Tale strumento è un elemento prezioso che facilita la proposta di possibili soluzioni e gestioni del territorio attuabili per migliorare il problema dell'urbanizzazione a Santos e nei dintorni. Per questa ragione la realizzazione di un SDSS in questa tesi viene considerata come un metodo utile e affidabile per aiutare le autorità locali con i processi decisionali riguardanti le politiche da attuare per risolvere questo ed altri problemi critici che minacciano la città di Santos al momento attuale. È molto importante, quindi, fornire ai responsabili regionali e locali dei mezzi utili come i GIS, il telerilevamento, e strumenti di pianificazione attendibili come l'SDSS, come quelli realizzati in questa tesi, per aiutarli nel prendere decisioni, nel gestire il territorio e nell'affrontare i problemi odierni evitando un peggioramento dello scenario attuale. ; This thesis is developed within the ECOManage Project which have the strategic objectives to understand and quantify similarities and differences of estuarine system function in response to anthropogenic impacts in order to recommend restoration and/or sustainable development measures and to provide scientific support to local environmental managers on best-practice policies on 3 different coastal zones, including an estuary with mangroves (Santos-Brazil), a large estuary with wide intertidai areas (Bahia Bianca-Argentina) and a fiord (Aysen-Chile). This thesis focus mainly on two of Ecomanage study areas: Santos (Brazil) and Bahia Bianca (Argentina). Coastal areas, broadiy defined as near-coast waters and the adjacent land area, are nowadays one of the most threatened zones all over the world, due to their attractiveness, convenience and availability of resources for urban and industrial development. Therefore, many of these areas worldwide have reached critical environmental conditions as a result of great anthropologic pressure and overexploitation of their resources. Coastal areas are among the most vulnerable of Earth's ecosystems, any activity carried out in these areas should be carefully planned since what happens to the coasts has effects that reach far beyond their local aquatic and human communities, thus, causing irreparable or long term consequences. The two study areas that this thesis approach are characterized for being under significant environmental stress specially caused by poor urban planning and other anthropogenic activities like intensive agriculture. Santos is characterized by the presence of valuable and unique ecosystems as Mata Atlantica (Atlantic forest) and mangrove forests that are currently under great stress due to strong urban development in the area, which is also affecting the quality of its estuary. For this reason and so to have an appreciative idea of water quality conditions of Santos Estuary a quality index was also calculated applying Fuzzy set principles and based on water, sediment and organism samples collected by CETESB in 1999 and 2000. The quality index highlighted those areas with bad, moderate and acceptable pollution in the estuary. Bahia Bianca it is characterized by its extensive crop fields and pastures for grazing which make of i t one of the most important provinces in Argentina for grain and wool exportation. These area is under stress due to the intense agricultural activities which cause soil erosion and land degradation, however it is less environmentally affected than Santos Estuary. The general aim of this research is to create a complete information system using GIS and remote sensing techniques as data sources for the analysis of local problems of Santos and Bahia Bianca i.e. soil loss, urbanization. Furthermore, to estimate and compare rates of soil erosion obtained by two different erosion models stressing the importance of vegetation coverage as prevention of soil loss processes affecting these two study areas. The integration of landcover analysis making emphasis on multitemporal studies in the area of Santos to detect landcover change over a seven year period and the prediction of landcover change using specific software and modeling techniques was also included as an important source of information for the present and future studies. A Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) was elaborated for Santos study area to tackle one of its most important problems, urbanization, therefore providing local authorities with a reliable tool for decision making processes. Santos landcover change analysis highlighted the most vulnerable areas regarding anthropogenic pressures, mainly deforestation and urbanization. Results obtained emphasize that areas mostly affected by anthropogenic activities are located on low and medium elevations, while those areas characterized by high elevations and steep slopes are less influenced by human activities. Most of the classes in both cases seem to remain as themselves, between 70% and 90% of the area represented by each class does not suffer any impact or transformation into other class, which is quite significant in terms of environmental impact. Landcover prediction of 2010 was obtained through interpolation of surfaces based on the input landcover maps of 1993 and 2000. Landcover trend map of 20 l O highlight an apparent decrease of anthropogenic effects and a more uniform landcover. This could be justified by the improvement in application of environmental laws in the area (CONAMA, 2002). The possibility to predict future landcover is quite significant for performing environmental assessment and preventing uncontrolled anthropogenic activities in this way foreseeing possible scenarios regarding landuse and lancover after a specified number of years. Another important factor that was taken into consideration for Iand degradation and environmental impacts of human activities in these two areas, was the calculation of erosion risk maps using two different models, the RUSLE and USPED, the latest one also gives a quantification of deposition processes taking place. Erosion rates tend to be quite low for both study areas. In Santos and Bahia Bianca it seems that erosion processes are mainly determined by topographic characteristics of each area. Lower erosion rates are found on plain terrains: in Santos mangroves have very low erosion rates, while low vegetation have higher erosion rates; for Bahia Bianca intertidal flats have very low erosion rates, while bare soil at higher elevation increase its erosion rates. Nevertheless, in Santos Mata Atlantica of highlands is mainly found at elevations of more than 570 m, but erosion rates are still very low, this fact highlight the importance of a good vegetation cover in those areas at high risk of erosion. However, erosion rates obtained for Santos and Bahia Bianca, are quite lower than expected, very high erosion values were found only on steep slopes. Unfortunately, validation of erosion-sedimentation results was not possible since in-situ field measurements were not available, nevertheless, results tend to be quite reliable if compared to previous studies performed in nearby areas with similar characteristics. Nevertheless erosion modeling is an important tool for assessment of soil loss processes and elaboration of soil erosion risk maps which are useful references for planning future activities, decreasing current erosion effects as well as preventing future soil degradation. Finally, the elaboration of a Spatial Decision Support System for analyzing urbanization problems in Santos was also possible by the application of GIS. The SDSS was designed to evaluate urban problems in Santos, as there is a considerable number of people living in protected areas as mangrove ecological reserves, which put significant pressure on this fragile and unique ecosystem, so making their relocation an important issue to be solved. In most of the cases these people belong to the lowest social class, characterized by very low incomes and living in extreme poor conditions, which make the difficult task of relocation even more difficult. These people must be conveniently moved as soon as possible to adequate and safe areas. The SDSS indicates the most appropriate places for doing so, taking into consideration a series of local factors and constraints such as, topography, water bodies, existing urban settlements, erosion and landuse, that are the basis of the analysis performed to determine "suitable" locations. The SDSS was an important asset that facilitated the proposal of feasible solutions and viable recommendations to improve urbanization problems in the area of Santos and surroundings. For this reason the elaboration of a SDSS within this thesis, was intended to be a useful and reliable tool to help local authorities with the decision making process for solving Santos most critical threats affecting the city at the present time. It is important to provide regional responsible authorities with the right tools as remote sensing and GIS and reliable planning sources like SDSS thus, helping them in the decision making process for efficiently face current problems avoiding a worsening of the present scenarios. ; XIX Ciclo ; 1973 ; Versione digitalizzata della tesi di dottorato cartacea.
A partir do âmbito da formação do individuo desde o campo da educação visual, formula-se a promoção e difusão das diferentes abordagens do pensamento contemporâneo, levando ao público geral para o desenvolvimento da educação na arte contemporânea, desde os diferentes espaços de socialização do individuo, na cidade, como fator de democratização ao aceso do conhecimento, projetando-se nas estruturas arquitetónicas das áreas centrais mais importantes das urbes, levando a educação a través da cultura de "massa", da cultura visual, por meio da projeção de vídeo, como um artefacto que procura ser um sistema de formação e reflexão para impulsionar a cultura, especialmente o pensamento artístico contemporâneo, que têm como objetivo a inclusão de grupos de indivíduos que não tiveram a oportunidade de ter formação na Arte Contemporânea, proporcionando ferramentas para a compreensão, de forma que os cidadãos possam assimilar o pensamento crítico e a criatividade, onde se permite ao individuo ter uma nova aproximação e assimilação das diferentes linhas do pensamento, aumentando as perspetivas e a apreciação dos diferentes paradigmas que nos propõe a contemporaneidade, na expansão do pensamento do novo individuo e a reflexão de nossa própria sociedade, desde a própria urbe, como uma proposta de projeção multimédia mural, que visa não só a difusão da cultura, como também do conhecimento da arte contemporânea, colmatar a lacuna, para permitir a conexão e assimilação dos novos conceitos e o acesso as reflexões que a contemporaneidade nos propõe. Pretende-se a evolução do individuo procurando meios para alcançar a sua educação artística na área da arte contemporânea, como linguagem de expressão atual de forma democrática e inclusiva. Pelo qual torna-se imperativo, propor um novo sistema de formação e reflexão para impulsar a cultura, desde uma difusão democrática, especialmente no pensamento artístico contemporâneo. Sendo necessário oferecer ferramentas para a compreensão e assimilação da arte contemporânea, de forma que o cidadão assimile o pensamento crítico e a criatividade artística. Criando-se assim um novo paradigma para a difusão do conhecimento artístico. Este novo paradigma pretende a intervenção na área do vídeo digital como meio de ensino, considerando aqui a educação visual, a partir da projeção multimédia mural no espaço público, na perspetiva de chegar a maior quantidade de indivíduos, considerando especialmente aqueles que não têm aceso a cultura e formação, quer pelo tempo, estilo de vida ou circunstâncias diversas, que pretende a inclusão de todos os grupos, entendendo que é fundamental e prioritário para os indivíduos de grupos mais vulneráveis. Partindo do principio de que todo ser humano é influenciado pelo entorno, pelas imagens que circunda o ser, pois não há duvida que toda nossa vida se desenvolve dentro do contexto visual, todo é assumido na primeira mão pela imagem que recebemos da denominada cultura visual, permitindo contextualizar a importância da cultura visual na sociedade, onde a cultura visual refere imagens como ponto central para a representação do significado do mundo, utilizando reiteradamente a linguagem visual para fomentar e induzir as pessoas, apresentando a cultura visual que emerge como um crescente e importante campo interdisciplinar. Na criação e desenvolvimento dos objetivos baseados no processo de conceção e implementação no cenário educativo, fora dos espaços propostos pelo sistema tradicional de ensino, pelo qual destina-se a ocupar uma vaga existente na formação, falando especificamente da educação no espaço público como meio de difusão e ensino do conhecimento da contemporaneidade, assumindo como base os conhecimentos das novas linguagens na atualidade da arte e da cultura. Para isso propõe-se especificamente a criação, desenvolvimento e a exploração de um artefacto, tomando como base de reflexão os cenários de arte experimental do projeto "+ PROJECTION AC - Projeção da arte contemporânea no espaço público", onde opta-se como base a arte contemporânea como área de conexão do pensamento atual, pois a arte contemporânea tem sido fundamental no processo de construção de novas perspetivas, transformando a compreensão e a perceção da realidade. Escolhendo pela sua amplitude o tema da instalação na arte contemporânea, por ser a linguagem por excelência da arte contemporânea. Levando o que com ela está implícito e as suas reflexiones perante o individuo da massa, o individuo geral da urbe que vive e deambula pela cidade, com a proposta de uma formulação que traz novas visões e novos desafios para a educação, que propõe o oportuno que é oferecer conteúdos baseados na arte contemporânea aos cidadãos que conformam as urbes. Surgindo a necessidade de utilizar os meios visuais que já são parte do ser contemporâneo e utiliza-os como ferramentas de educação visual, para isto foi fundamental elaborar, organizar, programar e realizar diferentes vídeos digitais, para o trabalho inicial de aproximar a contemporaneidade e seus diferentes conteúdos. Na perspetiva de converter algumas estruturas arquitetónicas da cidade em telas de projeção nos espaços públicos, tornando-se as cidades em espaços de educação, reflexão, difusão e intercambio de pensamentos, o artefacto, que é a constituição diária de possíveis experiências com enorme poder, não apenas expressivo, mas persuasivo e revelador de conhecimento. Desde os enfoques e técnicas de desenvolvimento da imagem digital referente a projeção, a partir do importante campo interdisciplinar com os meios da tecnologia computacional, para a realização do artefacto de vídeo pedagógico para impartir conhecimento, desde o desenvolvimento da mediação e curadoria dos elementos a utilizar como base teórica dos dados rigorosos, de forma sintetizada e criar processos de aprendizagem, onde são expostos saberes e reflexões filosóficas. Para a captação, medição e estudo do comportamento dos indivíduos perante a proposta, foi utilizado os inquéritos no seu estudo da implementação da intervenção no espaço público, na captação, medição e analises do comportamento dos indivíduos perante a proposta, na avaliação das variáveis das unidades de análises, de modo de obter os dados necessários para o estudo da investigação na verificação da aparência da realidade social e apreciação do publico, tendo em conta que a recoleção de dados leva os pontos específicos e necessários para realizar o modelo da matriz de inquérito, onde se têm em consideração os elementos de medição no projeto como as tipologias do individuo entrevistado (inquerido) e seus elementos de identificação social e cultural, onde os parâmetros permitam valorizar o comportamento e a forma como os indivíduos assumem o projeto dentro do contexto, além de um estudo do comportamento e aptidões do público perante a intervenção, na investigação de campo, como uma importante forma do método etnográfico. Verificando também em cada uma das tabelas de visualização de dados, onde podemos apreciar que, de todas as variáveis, seja a idade, o sexo/género, o nível de estudos ou profissão, ou ainda as respostas relativas à visualização, foi possível determinar que a proporção de aceitação do projeto foi de uma percentagem bastante elevada, demonstrando pelas respostas um apoio quase total à iniciativa, com as seguintes percentagens em cada uma das 13 perguntas do inquérito: 1- 99,22% apreciaram positivamente; 2- 99,22% considerou esta iniciativa interessante; 3- 71,32% não tinha visto projeções sobre edifícios públicos na cidade antes desta iniciativa de projeção; 4- 99,22% considerou positivo que se realizassem intervenções em espaços públicos com projeções sobre as fachadas de edifícios institucionais; 5- 99,22% concordaram com a utilização de projeções para evidenciar conteúdos que transmitam conceitos relacionados com a arte contemporânea; 6- 76,74% afirmaram saber pouco ou nada sobre os temas mencionados sobre a arte contemporânea na projeção, especificamente sobre a instalação; 7- 100% consideraram que é apropriado colocar conteúdos que ofereçam conhecimentos sobre a arte contemporânea à população em geral; 8- 100% consideraram que esta proposta é útil ou muito útil a nível cultural; 9- 97,67% consideraram que a informação colocada na projeção é importante; 10- 100% consideraram que esta iniciativa deveria ser repetida mais frequentemente; 11- 97,67% consideraram que é possível adquirir novos conhecimentos a partir da informação fornecida nas projeções; 12- 98,45% consideraram que a informação adquirida através da projeção pode melhorar os seus conhecimentos sobre arte e cultura; 13- 98,45% consideraram que a informação adquirida através da projeção pode melhorar os seus conhecimentos, especificamente sobre conceitos relacionados com a arte contemporânea. Assim, podemos determinar que existe uma apetência evidente por parte dos cidadãos para acederem a conteúdos informativos potenciadores de aquisição de conhecimento sobre os temas discutidos, independentemente das suas variantes socioculturais, onde o indivíduo assume a iniciativa de uma boa forma, demonstrando interesse nas respostas e reafirmando a série de questões colocadas, também tal como apresentadas no estudo etnográfico, onde foi possível verificar o interesse dos diferentes tipos de pessoas que se apresentavam com diferentes indumentárias e possivelmente interesses culturais diferenciados. O trabalho apresenta os resultados favoráveis obtidos no projeto piloto, com a esperança de que existam possibilidades futuras de abertura para realizar um programa formativo/educativo estabelecido, que expanda a videoteca para uma maior cobertura de aspetos teóricos e dados da arte contemporânea, assim como ampliar as ferramentas de reflexão do cidadão e o desenvolvimento e evolução do ser, em direção a um futuro mais reflexivo e de pensamento aberto a novos desafios, que permita considerações que visem contribuir para novas possibilidades de estudo, colocando em prática a relevância e a coerência da sua implementação, como um programa democrático e estável de educação de arte contemporânea através da vídeo-arte, como uma nova forma, mesmo paradigma, para expor as práticas e teorizações educacionais no espaço público. Ficou assim estabelecido como necessidade a flexibilização dos conteúdos no seu tempo e espaço, reconfigurando as práticas de ensino e aprendizagem, com um ambiente acessível e motivador, rápido, organizado e dinâmico, que permita ao público assumir quantas vezes deseje e a quantidade de conteúdos que desejar assumir, segundo as circunstâncias do contexto da urbe e do espaço público onde se implemente a intervenção, o que implica pensar mais além da escola e dos espaços formalmente concebidos para o ensino, pensando também em outros espaços e instâncias sociais nas comunidades existentes nas cidades. Transpor as obras para o espaço urbano, implica também transferir o que leva à revelação da reflexão e dos novos paradigmas da arte contemporânea, que modificam o pensamento, geram conhecimento, que em certa medida é transferido para o público, transformando-se em uma forma de democratizar o acesso ao conhecimento, criando abertura para novas possibilidades de reflexão. Torna-se imperioso repensar a urbe e os seus espaços públicos para que possam cumprir com o papel de encontro, de visualização, de diferença, de enriquecimento social, de formação e educação, onde nas cidades se seja capaz de potenciar a escuta do pulsar da vida urbana contemporânea, abrindo canais de democratização no acesso ao conhecimento para os seus cidadãos, em implantações do pensamento e das novas formas de abordar a contemporaneidade, na base da cidadania participativa, voltando à democracia e às suas origens, base fundamental da democracia com uma verdadeira participação, pois a nossa sociedade deve ver a importância da transferência de conhecimento e tomar consciência do valor da educação, já que cada ser humano é em grande medida aquilo que resulta da sua educação. Ficou demonstrado que o recurso à projeção mural multimédia como ferramenta de média-arte digital para proporcionar cenários de educação/formação visual na área da arte contemporânea permite ampliar as ferramentas de reflexão do cidadão e o desenvolvimento e evolução do ser, augurando um futuro mais reflexivo e de pensamento aberto a novos desafios de âmbito educativo/formativo nos espaços públicos, o que permite considerações que visem contribuir para novas possibilidades que estudem e coloquem em prática a relevância e a coerência de sua implementação, através de um programa democrático e estável de educação na arte contemporânea, nas comunidades das cidades, para a transformação do ensino, com uma nova possibilidade de educação, criando um novo paradigma que emerge em favor da evolução do ser humano. No âmbito da implementação do programa estável o objetivo é, em primeiro lugar, expandir o conhecimento acerca da arte contemporânea recorrendo a fundos e apoio institucional e governamental para desenvolver a implementação de um programa estável e continuador do projeto "+ PROJECÇÃO AC - Arte Contemporânea no Espaço Público", do estudo "Projeção Digital de Arte Contemporânea no Espaço Público: Formação e Divulgação a partir da Cidade", na cidade do Funchal, na Região da Madeira, Portugal, uma vez que foi selecionado o projeto "+ PROJECÇÃO AC - Projeção da Arte Contemporânea" Nº 33 na lista de candidaturas, apresentado na Convocatória de Projetos "Funchal 2027 Capital Europeia da Cultura", nos resultados "PROJECTOS CULTURAIS Funchal 2027", da convocatória aberta a nível regional, nacional e internacional. Neste contexto podemos nos permitir ter uma grande perspetiva para uma programação estável nos próximos anos, com o apoio financeiro necessário para pôr em prática a programação e produção de novos vídeos com conteúdos diversificados, para levar estas intervenções às diferentes freguesias da cidade e mais tarde às diferentes cidades e vilas da região, permitindo assim a possibilidade de instanciar inovação na transformação das formas de ensinar recorrendo à projeção mural, implementando um novo paradigma de ensino público, em defesa da expansão do conhecimento, em favor da evolução do pensamento humano. ; En el ámbito de la formación del individuo desde el campo de la educación visual, se formula la promoción y difusión de los diferentes enfoques del pensamiento contemporáneo, llevándolos al público general para el desarrollo de la educación en el arte contemporáneo. Desde los diferentes espacios de socialización del ser humano, en la ciudad, como factor de democratización al acceso del conocimiento, proyectándose en las estructuras arquitectónicas de las áreas centrales mas importantes de las urbes. Llevando la educación a través de la cultura de "masa", de la cultura visual, por medio de la proyección de video, como un artefacto que busca ser un sistema de formación y reflexión para impulsar la cultura, especialmente el pensamiento artístico contemporáneo, que tiene como objetivo incluir a grupos de individuos que no han tenido la oportunidad de tener formación en el Arte Contemporáneo. Proporcionando herramientas para la comprensión, de modo que los ciudadanos puedan asimilar el pensamiento crítico y la creatividad, donde se permite al individuo tener una nueva aproximación y asimilación de las diferentes líneas de pensamiento, aumentando las perspectivas y la apreciación de los diferentes paradigmas que nos propone la contemporaneidad, en la expansión del pensamiento del nuevo individuo y la reflexión de nuestra propia sociedad. Desde la propia urbe, como una propuesta de proyección multimedia mural, que visa no solo la difusión de la cultura, sino también del conocimiento del arte contemporáneo, cerrando la brecha, para permitir la conexión y asimilación de los nuevos conceptos y el acceso a las reflexiones que la contemporaneidad nos propone. ; In the context of the individual formation from the field of visual education, formulates the promotion and dissemination of different approaches to contemporary thinking, leading them to the general public for the development of education in contemporary art, since the different spaces for man socialization, in the city, as a factor of democratizing access to knowledge. Projecting into the architectural structure of the most important central areas of cities, teaching contemporary art through the culture of "mass" of visual culture, through video projection, as an artefact that seeks to be a training and reflection system to boost culture, especially contemporary artistic thinking, which targets to include groups of individuals who in one way or another did not have the opportunity to learn about contemporary art, offering tools for understanding, so that the citizen assimilates and expands critical thinking and creativity, where it allows the individual to have a new approach and understanding of the different lines of thinking , increasing different perspectives, and appreciating different paradigms that proposes to contemporary, expanding the new individual thought and reflection of our own society, from the metropolis itself, as a proposal for multimedia projection wall aiming not only to diffusion culture, also from the knowledge of contemporary art, closes the gap that does not allow the connection and assimilation of the new concepts, and access to the reflections that the contemporaneity proposes to us.
La clave geopolítica número uno se llama recursos naturales.Eje central es la existencia de yacimientos petrolíferos y la posibilidad tecnológica, inexistente en los 80, de explotarlos de manera rentable. Este eje central tiene en su vértice otro elemento ausente en 1982, un Brasil poseedor de uno de los mantos petrolíferos más grandes mundo y que lo pone en una posición muy expectante en el mercado mundial de los hidrocarburos, así como también, aunque en menor medida por ahora, la positiva impresión que han dejado las prospecciones costa afuera de Uruguay, que están ejecutando empresas británicas. Un eje secundario, pero no menor, en lo relacionado con la relevancia de los recursos naturales, es la riqueza ictiológica de la zona adyacente la cual, poco a poco, se ha ido situando en un lugar preponderante en la vida económica de los habitantes de las islas e interesando a empresas de distintos países a participar en tan floreciente negocio (1).En efecto, el revival del interés argentino por las islas se produce en 2010 de forma coetánea a las primeras confirmaciones de existencias de petróleo susceptibles de ser explotadas en gran escala, y que empezaron a cambiar las apreciaciones sobre el valor comercial de las islas. El proceso se inicia en 1993 con el interés de Shell y varias otras petroleras tras conocerse los primeros estudios geológicos del British Geological Survey, que advertían sobre las posibilidades de que 200.000 km2 alrededor de las islas contuviesen petróleo. En 1996 surgen nuevas evidencias y el gobierno británico procede a licitar 19 áreas, otorgando licencias de exploración off shore a Shell, Amerada Hess, Rockhopper Exploration, Lasmo, Falklands Oil & Gas, International Petroleum Corporation y Desire Petroleum, entre otras. Varias de ellas se crearon ex profeso para estas exploraciones, pero no todas tuvieron éxito y fueron retirándose producto de los elevados costos.Sin embargo, desde 2008, gracias a nuevos estudios se visualizó la posibilidad teórica, de obtener 60 billones de barriles off shore, lo que significaba existencias potenciales superiores a las reservas que el Reino Unido tiene en el Mar del Norte. Ahí se desató un renovado interés que alcanza un peak en febrero de 2010 cuando Londres autoriza a Desire, Falkland Oil y Rockhopper que realicen más prospecciones centrándose en la costa norte de las islas, el sector más promisorio. Tan solo un año más tarde, en septiembre de 2011, Rockhopper Exploration, una de las que más había invertido en las etapas previas, anunció que en las cuatro áreas adjudicadas, al norte de las islas, habría existencias superiores a los 400 mil millones de barriles, o sea 15% de las disponibilidades británicas en el Mar del Norte. Confirmó los rumores que la explotación comenzará a más tardar en 2016, con cerca de 12 mil millones de barriles por día, y que alcanzará una cota de 120 mil barriles por día en 2018 (2).Los pronósticos más favorables señalan que las islas podrían ubicarse entre los grandes exportadores del oro negro del mundo y que las reservas superarían en un 300% a las de la Argentina. Los kelpers pasarían a ser una de las poblaciones más ricas del planeta.En la actualidad los 3.145 isleños disfrutan ya de US$ 35 mil de ingreso per capita que los ubica en cuarto lugar en el mundo (únicamente por debajo de Qatar, Liechtenstein y Luxemburgo), pese a que se explican solo por dos actividades comerciales que, si bien no son las principales (la ganadería ovina sigue siendo la más extendida con unas 500.000 cabezas de ganado ovino), son las que están generando mayores réditos: las licencias de pesca y el turismo, a través del recale de cruceros. Según datos del gobierno de las islas compilados en el "Economic Briefing & Forecast for the Falklands", entre 2009 y 2010, visitaron las islas 62.500 personas. Puesto de otro modo, desde el 2009 a la fecha ha habido un incremento del 200% de turistas (3).En tanto, el negocio de la pesca es inmensamente beneficioso para los isleños. Únicamente por concepto de licencias entregadas a terceros países por 30 y hasta 40 años, el fisco en Port Stanley recauda sobre US$ 70 millones. Los principales interesados en adquirir, aumentar e ir renovando estas licencias son los españoles, los taiwaneses y surcoreanos. Solamente de España hay 116 navíos con derechos. Si a esto se le suman beneficios adicionales a partir de las capturas (otros impuestos, participación en la comercialización, servicios y otros) la recaudación se eleva a cerca de los US$ 1.600 millones (un octavo de los cuales se destina a financiar el ítem Defensa). La tendencia es tan positiva que las previsiones para el presente indican que el conjunto de beneficios a partir de la pesca rozará los US$ 2 mil millones. En el mercado internacional, por ejemplo, cada vez son más apreciados el illex y el coligo, dos variedades de calamar por el que en Europa se llega a pagar hasta seis euros por kilo, sus capturas, solo hasta 1992, eran 10 veces mayores a las realizadas en la Zona Económica Exclusiva de Argentina (4). A modo comparativo, en 1985, es decir poco después de la guerra, esta cantidad apenas se empinaba por sobre los US$ 8 millones. Nuevamente, a modo de comparación, la pesca en Argentina alcanza 900 mil toneladas, en las islas poco más de 200 mil toneladas, con una tendencia al alza notoriamente superior. En definitiva, el potencial ictiológico en los 320 kms en torno a las islas es enorme, tanto en cantidad como en variedad de recursos.Sin embargo, es la explotación del petróleo la que está aumentando la importancia geopolítica de las islas, estimándose que hacia el 2016 ese será por lejos el foco central de la disputa. La tendencia al escalamiento se observa al ver la evolución cualitativa de esta variable, que se detalla en Anexo, que alcanza una primera cota máxima a inicios de 2010 cuando la empresa Argos Resources hizo importantes anuncios y una segunda a principios de 2011, cuando se instalan dos plataformas petroleras, la Ocean Guardian y Leiv Eriksson, ambas de la Falkland Oil que, por la proximidad de sus operaciones con la costa argentina, causan el mayor escozor en la Casa Rosada y que desemboca en la dura reacción de canciller Héctor Timmerman. El alto funcionario de la administración cristinista indica que su país ha intentado disuadir "de forma pacífica" la ejecución de estas actividades en plataformas, agregando la posibilidad de "otra forma de interferencia", con lo que coquetea por primera vez con el eventual uso del instrumento armado. Timmerman también insinuó que bancos y sociedades de accionistas estarían actuando en complicidad, cuando no directamente "de mala fe", y que sufrirían consecuencias (5).Los blancos hacia donde apuntan los dardos argentinos son los siguientes: a) Desire Petroleum plc. Empresa de gas y petróleo fundada en 1996 por antiguos ejecutivos de la Royal Dutch. En ese año comenzó sus tareas de prospección al participar como subcontratista de Rockhopper y FOGL. En tal condición fue la primera en comprobar existencias de gas y petróleo. Posteriormente se adjudicó derechos en la cuenca del norte de las islas, tanto en joint venture con la australiana Arcadia Energy como propios. Y más tarde se adjudicó otras en el sur, donde opera junto a Rockhopper. Se encuentra enlistada en la London Stock Exchanges. Ahí sus acciones se triplicaron entre septiembre de 2011 y marzo de 2012, justo en el período en que confirmó el monto de las existencias, viabilidad comercial y técnica para su extracción. En prácticamente todos sus proyectos se encuentra asociado con el banco Barclays, el que además oficia como colocador de deuda argentina en el exterior. Ha hecho estimaciones del orden de 3,5 mil millones de barriles como existencias totales en su sector (6).b) Falkland Oil & Gas Limited (7): empresa de gas y petróleo fundada en 2004. Opera derechos adjudicados en la zona sur y este de las islas. Su plataforma principal es la Leiv Eriksson. Su partner principal es la australiana BHP Billiton, empresa que posee, además, yacimientos de variados minerales en el norte argentino y a lo largo de la frontera con Chile. En un estudio efectuado en 2010, FOGL estimó las reservas en sus áreas licitadas en 8 billones de barriles y en 60 billones la totalidad de reservas off shore en las islas. Información de prensa indica que la Falkland Oil Gas es la empresa que habría presentado los primeros síntomas de sensibilidad ante las advertencias de la administración cristinista y habría puesto a la venta algunos de sus derechos (8).c) Rockhopper Exploration (9): empresa de gas y petróleo fundada en 2004. Se adjudicó cuatro derechos de exploración y explotación principalmente en la parte más septentrional de las islas (PLO 32, PL033, PLO23, PLO24) aunque también participa como socio minoritario de Desire en dos concesiones en la zona sur (PL03 y PL04). Ambas comparten en la zona norte una misma plataforma de perforación, la Ocean Guardian llevada a las islas en febrero de 2010. Fue la primera en comprobar, en mayo de 2010, la existencia de grandes reservas de hidrocarburos en la parte norte de las islas, denominada Sea Lion. Su accionista principal es HSBC, el cual además elabora estudios geológicos en el Atlántico sur. Está enlistada en London Stock Exchanges.d) Borders & Southern Petroleum: empresa de gas y petróleo fundada en 2004. Se adjudicó cinco derechos de exploración y explotación en la parte meridional de las islas. Pese a ser la más reciente en estas tareas, ha comprobado la existencia de al menos 760 millones de barriles. Ha instalado varias plataformas, algunas con mayor proximidad con la costa argentina que las de las otras empresas. Su plataforma Darwin, a 140 kms de la costa de las Falkland, debía presentar sus evaluaciones finales a inicios de marzo de 2012, pero anunció "problemas técnicos" y la suspensión de tales entregas públicas hacia inicios de mayo del mismo año. Estimaciones de prensa señalan que las advertencias pudieron haber influido en la postergación. Igualmente es probable que busque matizar los últimos descubrimientos de su plataforma Stebbing, que inicialmente cifra su manto en 1.300 millones de barriles. Entre sus principales accionistas está la Minera Alumbrera poseedora de varios yacimientos de oro y plata en Argentina (10). e) Argos Resources Limited (11): es una empresa de gas y petróleo fundada en 1995, como subsidiaria de Argos Exploration, y conocida posteriormente como Argos Evergreen. A inicios de los 90 comenzó a participar en las primeras prospecciones en la cuenca del norte de las islas, asociada a Amerada Hess y a Lasmos. Se adjudicó en 1997 la licencia de producción PLO01 en esa zona de las islas. En 2010 fue severamente reprendida por el gobierno argentino por sus actividades de prospección (12).Un elemento adicional que debe ser tomado en cuenta en esta confluencia de variables geopolíticas es Brasil, cuyos intereses han ido aumentando sustancialmente en los últimos años. Sin ser un actor directamente involucrado en esta disputa británico- argentina, sí parece más sensible a los reclamos argentinos a juzgar por sus declaraciones. En este punto se observa una diferencia importante con lo ocurrido durante la "Guerra de los 73 Días", en que la administración de Joao B. Figueiredo, si bien apoyó retóricamente a los argentinos, optó por la distancia e incluso prestó apoyo a la Fuerza Aérea británica en dos casos de accidentes menores ocurridos en el transcurso de las acciones bélicas. Sin embargo, también ha sido revelado que Figueiredo advirtió a Washington que su posición cambiaría drásticamente si los británicos atacaban territorio continental argentino. En ese caso, Brasil se reservaba el derecho a intervenir (13).Es probable que ahora la estatal brasileña Petrobras no desee tener competencia de otras empresas en zonas relativamente cercanas, dado que avizora convertirse en una de las grandes petroleras a escala mundial en los próximos años. Tal suposición es coherente con las aspiraciones de presencia hegemónica de Brasil en el Atlántico sur. A tono con lo precedente deben tenerse presente dos asuntos nada triviales: uno, que Brasil siempre se ha mostrado receloso ante cualquier presencia no-regional en el Atlántico sur, y dos, relacionado con lo anterior, que flota en el aire cierto orgullo brasileño por sus logros en explotación off shore. Además, la variable brasileña irá adquiriendo o perdiendo peso a medida que se materialicen las prospecciones off shore en Uruguay, asignadas a empresas británicas lo que complejiza sustancialmente la situación descrita.En tanto, el tráfico marítimo y aéreo en torno a las islas pasará a ser una vía más utilizada que ahora cuando entren de lleno al mercado mundial de hidrocarburos. Asimismo, a medida que el tamaño de los buques no permita el uso del canal de Panamá, el tránsito por el Atlántico Sur debería aumentar. Es probable que surja un triángulo estratégico en el Cono Sur (Falkland-Malvinas, Tierra del Fuego y costas antárticas).Finalmente debe señalarse que tanto estudios argentinos como británicos coinciden en que el valor "geoeconómico" (como lo señala el propio Informe Rattenbach) es necesariamente mayor a lo que se ha supuesto hoy debido a que las islas son continuación de plataformas sudamericanas y/o africanas y debería contener silicio ferroso, diamantes, cobalto, níquel, cromo, manganeso. Por el lado argentino existen depósitos submarinos (frente a la provincia de Santa Cruz) de nódulos polimetálicos compuestos de magnesio y manganeso.La clave geopolítica número dos se denomina proyección antártica.El continente helado representa otro de los grandes intereses en juego, en el escalamiento del conflicto es su necesaria vinculación con la Antártica. Gran Bretaña (14) y Argentina (15) tienen pretensiones sobre el territorio antártico que se sobreponen casi totalmente entre sí y parcialmente con la de Chile (16).En la actualidad este traslape no representa una fuente de conflictividad. Sin embargo, los precedentes de tipo geopolítico que se establezcan en el Ártico, junto a la actitud general de los países respecto a la Antártica (no debe perderse de vista que el Tratado Antártico ha sido suscrito solo por 48 países, o sea faltan dos tercios aproximadamente) más las existencias de hidrocarburos que se vayan cuantificando y, last but not least, los efectos del cambio climático, no auguran una perspectiva amistosa ni menos un clima benigno para ir resolviendo los diferendos que plantean las pretensiones. Claramente, el ir situando piezas con antelación forma parte de las configuraciones geopolíticas que se avecinan. En este sentido, el Atlántico sur y la Antártica tendrán una gravitación con claras líneas de interdependencia de una con la otra.Rosendo Fraga explica que esta línea analítica, que visualiza la convergencia entre el actual conflicto en el Atlántico sur y las proyecciones antárticas futuras, está acorde a la estrategia desarrollada por la administración de Cristina Fernández, que apuntan a sudamericanizar el conflicto apoyándose decisivamente en Mercosur y Unasur (17), así como de forma más atenuada en los países ALBA. A su juicio, la política exterior argentina ha conseguido alinear a los países del Mercosur (miembros plenos y asociados) en una condena pública al Reino Unido y establecer con ellos un boicot a los buques que porten bandera de las Falklands. El supuesto basal de esta estrategia es que los países sudamericanos, y por extensión latinoamericanos, se alinearán con fuerza tras los reclamos de Buenos Aires tanto por una cuestión epidérmica anti- colonialista (de cuyas reminiscencias Londres difícilmente puede sustraerse) como por el sentido común de región. Subyace en el texto de Fraga que en esta clave radica una postura chilena necesariamente cautelosa. En tal sentido, es probable que Fraga no haya querido ahondar en su reflexión para no tener que admitir que, por las mismas razones de sobreposición de pretensiones mencionadas anteriormente, se trata más bien de una cautela con tendencia a crecer en el tiempo, por lo que la estrategia cristinista tendrá en Chile una excepción insoslayable. Hay un cierto sustrato histórico que emana de las reflexiones de Cañas Montalva, "la Antártica es el natural complemento de nuestras tierras fueguinas" (18).Finalmente, la clave geopolítica número tres es el control efectivo del archipiélago.Las capacidades militares británicas (en las islas) son holgadamente superiores a las argentinas, especialmente en el aspecto tecnológico. Se trata de potencialidades civiles y militares que se esparcen por todo el archipiélago de manera efectiva y regular. Nadie podría cuestionar que el ejercicio de soberanía sobre las islas es cumplido a cabalidad por los británicos.La fuerza disuasiva tiene un punto central, Mount Pleasant, una base moderna que alberga cuatro Eurofighter Typhoon, diez aeronaves-tanque más un avión Hércules de transporte. La base dispone en estos críticos momentos de 1.200 efectivos y se ha emplazado en diversos puntos del archipiélago un número indeterminado de baterías antiaéreas del tipo Rapier. La Armada Real ha dispuesto el despliegue a esa zona del moderno destructor Dauntless que alterna misiones con la fragata Montrose; además de un patrullero, un submarino y una nave de apoyo. En otro aspecto, Mount Pleasant dispone de equipamiento sofisticado que le permite monitorear, de manera satelital, una amplia extensión mucho más allá del territorio de archipiélago, compuesto por 340 islas, islotes y cayos.Quizás el único tema que plantea una vulnerabilidad es la escasa densidad poblacional. Hay preocupación por la falta de personas para poblar los 11.400 kilómetros cuadrados. Continuamente se observan anuncios de prensa para llenar vacantes en la prestación de servicios, por lo general ocupadas por sudamericanos o los santa-helénicos, y también en las áreas de salud y educación. Sin embargo, es difícil pensar que esta vulnerabilidad esté pasando inadvertida a los círculos de decisión política y militar de Londres.ConclusionesDe los antecedentes expuestos deriva que este conflicto seguirá escalando. El control de los recursos de que disponen las islas, especialmente el petróleo, constituye la principal variable de carácter geopolítico.La imposibilidad argentina de recurrir al instrumento militar (por la acción sinérgica de: falta de inversiones en el sector Defensa, una política exterior pacifista, ausencia de apoyo ciudadano a una nueva aventura militar y ausencia total del factor Goa,1961) implica que la escalada será básicamente político-diplomática.Las características épicas que Argentina busca darle a su demanda traerá consigo un previsible deterioro de la relación del Reino Unido con América Latina, y una tensión adicional en la relación de Estados Unidos con el resto del hemisferio. Más allá de las fragmentaciones que vive la región sudamericana, se aprecia una tendencia a la solidaridad con la postura argentina.Para Chile la agudización de este conflicto no puede ser indiferente por varias razones. Primero, por el impacto que la controversia genere al interior de UNASUR y, segundo, ya que podría repercutir en su condición de país antártico. No solo se abrirá un diferendo por la superposición de las pretensiones de los tres países, sino que podría impactar en el régimen jurídico mismo que rige para el continente helado. Un asunto adicional es la presencia de una comunidad de chilenos residentes en las islas. En cuanto al petróleo mismo, la eventual accesibilidad a las exportaciones de crudo extraído de las islas no podría ser indiferente para un país (Chile) con estrechez energética evidente. Tampoco el transporte del mismo hacia terceros mercados, que podría provocar un cambio cualitativo estratégico en el triángulo formado por las costas antárticas, las islas y el extremo sur de Chile. Referencias: (1) Como advertencia conceptual se señala que para referirse al problema en su conjunto se ha optado por las nociones neutras de "Atlántico sur" o "disputa británico-argentina", mientras que para referirse a alguna cuestión específica desde la perspectiva argentina se utiliza "Malvinas" y en el caso desde la óptica británica, "Falkland". Igualmente, dentro de lo posible se privilegia la expresión "isleños" por sobre la de "kelpers". (2) Información corporativa en http://www.rockhoppercorporation.co.uk(3) Información más detallada en sitio del gobierno isleño http://www.falkland.gov.fk (4) Más información sobre este punto en Wurfgaft, Romy, "La pesca, clave en el alto PIB per cápita de los habitantes de las Malvinas", El Mundo, s.p. (5) ARGENTINA amenaza a las empresas que buscan petróleo en las Malvinas, El Mundo, s.p. (6) El nombre de esta empresa recuerda la denominación del barco que descubrió las islas en 1592. Información corporativa en http://www.desireplc.co.uk (7) Información corporativa en http://www.fogl.com (8) PETROLERA británica vende licencia para buscar petróleo en las Malvinas La Nación, s.p. (9) Información corporativa, viz nota 13 (10) Información corporativa en http://www.bordersandsouthern.co.uk (11) Información corporativa en http://www.argosresources.com (12) Argos warned by Argentina to abstain from drilling in the Falklands or. Mercopress, s.p. (13) En el sitio http://www.zonamilitar.com.ar se encuentran materiales estadounidenses recientemente desclasificados que se refieren a este punto. (14) Meridianos 20° O y 60° O, el paralelo 80° S y el Polo Sur, comprendiendo 1.709.400 km2. (15) Meridianos 25° O y 74° O, el paralelo 60° S y el Polo Sur, comprendiendo 1.461.597 km2. (16) 27Meridianos 53° O y 90° O, el paralelo 60° S y el Polo Sur, comprendiendo 1.250.257.6 km2. (17) FRAGA, Rosendo, "Hay un rearme argentino?", Nueva Mayoría, s.p. Agrega que el gran tema de largo plazo en el Atlántico sur son los recursos naturales de la Antártida, aunque ésta esté internacionalizada y recuerda que este Tratado está firmado solo por 48 naciones y no lo han firmado más de dos tercios, incluidas potencias importantes.(18) Op. Cit. , p.193.Anexo Hitos relevantes1975. Gobierno británico envía sucesivas misiones de geólogos a las islas con la finalidad de hacer prospecciones. Una de las misiones es encabezada por el parlamentario e ingeniero de la Shell, Colin Phipps quien, años más tarde, pasó a ser asesor en materias de hidrocarburos de la premier Margaret Thatcher. Una de las misiones que insinuó la posibilidad real de existencias de yacimientos petrolíferos en las islas es la que se denominó Shackleton. El 4 de febrero de ese año se produce un incidente, cuando un navío argentino lanza un cañonazo de advertencia a otro navío británico, que formaba parte de estas misiones científicas. 1982. Tras el fin de la guerra, la empresa argentina YPF pierde los derechos monopólicos de suministro de energía y la empresa aérea LADE pierde también los derechos que poseía para volar el tramo Port Stanley- Comodoro Rivadavia (que ejercía también de forma monopólica desde 1971). 1986. Gobierno británico define unilateralmente una zona de exclusión marítima de 200 millas alrededor de las islas. 1990. Se reanudan las relaciones diplomáticas entre Reino Unido y Argentina. Como parte de un criterio compartido, al menos tácitamente, aproximadamente 900 efectivos británicos son emplazados de manera estable en las islas, teniendo como base principal la recién construida Mount Pleasant, cerca de Port Stanley. Los dos países firman una serie de acuerdos comerciales entre los que destaca uno sobre explotación marina. 1995. Londres y Buenos Aires firman un acuerdo para fijar términos de referencia en materia de exploración y explotación petrolera en los sectores adyacentes a las islas. 1996. Londres autoriza unilateralmente a ciudadanos y empresas británicas a operar en lo que denomina Zona Económica Exclusiva con un radio de 320 kilómetros. Entrega seis licencias de exploración off shore. 1998.Tras recriminaciones mutuas, la comisión ad hoc para monitorear acuerdo sobre materias petrolíferas de ja de funcionar. Londres acusa a Buenos Aires de falta de interés. Casa Rosada asegura que rompimiento fue unilateral pues los británicos desean seguir licitando pozos. 1999. Acuerdo entre las partes, que permite conexión aérea semanal operada por LAN Chile entre Punta Arenas y Port Stanley, con escala técnica en Río Gallegos. 2000. Gobierno de las islas solicita a expertos a la Oficina Hidrográfica de Londres y el Centro Oceanográfico de Southampton estudios que permitan fundamentar la existencia de una misma plataforma submarina entre las Falkland y las Georgias del Sur. 2007. El gobierno de Néstor Kirchner decide desahuciar definitivamente acuerdo sobre los términos de referencia en materia de exploración y explotación petrolera en los sectores adyacentes a las islas y anuncia acciones contra empresas interesadas en el negocio petrolero. 2009 (Febrero). Gobierno británico señala que no habrá diálogo con Buenos Aires debido a que los isleños no desean formar parte de Argentina. 2010 (18 enero). Argentina cierra sus puertos a naves procedentes de las islas. 2010 (12 febrero). Un barco que asistía logísticamente tareas de prospección petrolera es retenido en el puerto de La Campana mientras se reaprovisionaba. 2010 (13 febrero). Sectores de la oposición argentina solicitan a la Casa Rosada retirar la licencia del banco Barclays por participar en empresas petroleras activas en las islas (1). 2010 (22 febrero). La presidenta argentina, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner obtiene que la Declaración Final de la Cumbre de Cancún (México) de jefes de Estado de los otros 32 países latinoamericanos y caribeños (incluidos los integrantes de la Commonwealth) incluya una mención a favor de "los legítimos derechos argentinos" sobre las Malvinas. "El gobierno argentino agotará todas las disposiciones que tiendan a reafirmar nuestra soberanía sobre los archipiélagos del Sur", aclaró Fernández al hacer uso de la palabra ante los mandatarios reunidos en México. La mandataria también agradeció el apoyo para crear una mesa de negociación con Gran Bretaña. Argentina pide un diálogo directo con Londres. 2010 (23 febrero). La plataforma Ocean Guardian inicia sus trabajos (2). 2011 (Diciembre). Gobierno argentino condena trabajos de prospección petrolífera y anuncia que entra en vigor prohibición de recale en puertos argentinos de navíos procedentes de y con destinos a las islas. Pide a países de Mercosur y Unasur solidarizar con medidas semejantes, petición que es aceptada por Brasil, Chile, Uruguay y otros. 2012 (19 enero). El Premier David Cameron califica de "colonialista" la intención argentina de retomar el control sobre las islas. 2012 (4 febrero). Reunión cumbre de países ALBA en Caracas con el conflicto en el Atlántico Sur como tema principal. Acuerdan "analizar la posibilidad de sancionar a Gran Bretaña por rehusar el diálogo". Las expresiones más duras, con fuertes alusiones al anti-colonialismo, provienen del Presidente ecuatoriano Rafael Correa. 2012 (10 febrero). Canciller argentino eleva reclamo a ONU ante lo que califica de "militarización" del área en torno a las islas y señala que "es un riesgo para la seguridad internacional". Londres reacciona señalando que despliegue del destructor "Dauntless", de un submarino y del escuadrón de aviones "Typhoon" corresponden a maniobras "rutinarias", y que el viaje por seis semanas del príncipe Guillermo a la base de Mount Pleasant es parte de su entrenamiento en operaciones de búsqueda y rescate de la RAF. Contra-reacción argentina califica de "provocación" la conducta británica en estas materias. Medios de prensa británicos señalan que el submarino enviado no es uno del tipo "Vanguard" con ojivas nucleares, como señaló Timmerman ante la ONU, sino uno del tipo Trafalgar sin capacidad de transporte de armas nucleares. 2012 (22 febrero). Un grupo de 17 intelectuales liderado por Beatriz Sarlo solicita al gobierno de Cristina Fernández tener en consideración la opinión de los isleños a la hora de reclamar soberanía sobre las Malvinas (3). 2012 (2 marzo). Buenos Aires anuncia su intención de reemplazar el vuelo semanal de LAN Chile por tres, desde Buenos Aires y operados por Aerolíneas Argentinas. La materialización ha sido postergada sin explicaciones oficiales. 2012 (14 marzo). Canciller Timmerman anuncia acciones legales contra empresas que participen la búsqueda y explotación de napas petrolíferas en el Atlántico sur "por estar contraviniendo la Resolución 625 de la ONU". De forma críptica advierte que "es significativo también el rol que desempeñan las consultoras y analistas de riesgo, por ser las mismas que censuran a Argentina por el manejo de su economía y ocultan información. En sus informes, ellas omiten las resoluciones de referentes a las Malvinas e inducen a los accionistas a cometer un delito" (4). 2012 (19 marzo). Se inicia la explotación de una las plataformas petroleras instaladas en la zona norte de las islas. 2012 (30 marzo). Canciller uruguayo Luis Almagro reitera apoyo a reclamo argentino, pero alerta sobre la eventualidad de que la acción termine en un bloqueo similar al que está sometido Cuba. 2012 (2 abril). Acto oficial en conmemoración del desembarco argentino en las islas en Usuahia. 2012 (8 abril). Argentina, con apoyo de países ALBA, solicita incluir tema Malvinas en Declaración Final de la VI Cumbre Hemisférica de las Américas en Cartagena de Indias, Colombia. Tres días más tarde cancillería colombiana en su calidad de anfitriona anuncia que tema de Malvinas será tema de los debate, pero no se incluirá en Declaración Final por falta de unanimidad entre los participantes.Referencias de Anexo: (1) Los datos de las dos últimas notas al pie provienen de THEURER, Marcus y MOSES, Carl "Der Krieg, das Öl und die Insel" (La guerra, el petróleo y las islas), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, s.p. (2) Desire alquiló de forma compartida con Falkland Oil and Gas los servicios del Ocean Guardian, una plataforma petrolera con el pabellón de las islas Marshall, que llegó a Malvinas tras tres meses de viaje. Tras prestar servicios a Desire, ésta se desplazó al sur de las islas, área licitada a Falkland Oil and Gas. (3) ROMERO, Luis Alberto "¿Son realmente nuestras las Malvinas?", s.p. Agrega: "no habrá solución argentina a la cuestión de Malvinas hasta que sus habitantes quieran ser argentinos e ingresen voluntariamente como ciudadanos a su nuevo Estado. Es imposible no tenerlos en cuenta, como lo hace el gobierno argentino". (4) WURFGAFT, Romy "Argentina amenaza a las empresas que buscan petróleo en las Malvinas". El Mundo, s.p. Información adicional sobre este punto en MOSES, Carl y THEURER, Marcus "Erdöl auf die alten Wunden" (Petróleo sobre viejas heridas), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, s.p. FUENTE: BASADA EN PRENSA ARGENTINA, ESPAÑOLA, ALEMANA, URUGUAYA, BRITÁNICA Y ESTADOUNIDENSE. BibliografíaAguiar, Felix R. (editor) Operaciones terrestres en las islas Malvinas Biblioteca del Oficial, Bs.As., 1983.ARGENTINA amenaza a las empresas que buscan petr�leo en las Malvinas, El Mundo, [En l�nea], [consulta: 3.5.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.elmundo.es ARGENTINA no es amenaza militar, DEF [En l�nea] [consulta: 23.4.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.defonline.com.arARGOS warned by Argentina to abstain from drilling in the Falklands or. Mercopress, [En l�nea], [consulta: 3.4.2012]. Disponible en http://www.en.mercopress.comAuel, Heriberto Justo "La situaci�n estrat�gica del Atl�ntico sur en el a�o 2012", Revista Digital N° 791, [En l�nea], [consulta: 3.5.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.1884editorial.com.arBalza, Martin Malvinas, la gesta incompleta, Atl�ntida, Bs.As., 2003. Barre, Le�n "Zoolog�as cristinistas", El Mostrador, [En l�nea], [consulta 3.4.2012]. Disponible en http://www.elmostrador.cl .Bilbao Richter, Jos� "En b�squeda de principios estrat�gicos coherentes" Revista Digital N° 791, [En l�nea], [consulta: 3.5.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.1884editorial.com.arBriley, Harold "Yes, they have not bananas (in Falkland and in Buenos Aires)", Mercopress, [consulta: 3.4.2012]. Disponible en http://www.en.mercopress.comCa�as Montalva, Ram�n Geopol�tica oce�nica y austral, Academia de Guerra del Ej�rcito de Chile, Santiago de Chile, 2008.Castro Jorge "Malvinas: ¿Regionalizaci�n del conflicto?" (entrevista) Revista Digital N° 791, [En l�nea], [consulta: 3.5.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.1884editorial.com.arCoconi, Luciana "¿Islas Malvinas o Falkland Islands?. La cuesti�n de la soberan�a sobre las islas del Atl�ntico sur", Universidad de Barcelona, Barcelona, 2010.Cox, Robert "Put the Islanders first: key to the Malvinas/Falkland dispute", Mercopress , [En l�nea] [consulta: 3.4.2012]. Disponible en http://www.en.mercopress.comDe los Reyes, Marcelo Javier "Las islas Malvinas y el Atl�ntico sur", Revista Digital N° 791, [En l�nea], [consulta: 3.5.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.1884editorial.com.ar_____________ "Las islas Malvinas y el Atl�ntico sur: configuraciones estrat�gicas y econ�micas" de Marcelo Javier de los Reyes, Revista Digital N° 791, [En l�nea], [consulta: 3.5.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.1884editorial.com.arDozer, Rudolf, "The territorial status of the Falkland (Malvinas): past and present", Oceana Publications Inc, N.Y., 2000.Escud�, Carlos "Un experimento pacifista: las pol�ticas exteriores y de seguridad de Argentina en el siglo XXI", Documentos de Trabajos N° 426, Universidad del CEMA, Bs.As., 2010.Espinosa Moraga, Oscar La cuesti�n de las islas Malvinas, 1492-1982, Biblioteca del Oficial, Santiago de Chile, 1983.ESTADOS UNIDOS. Oficina de Asuntos P�blicos de la Secretar�a de Estado La Crisis del Atl�ntico sur, antecedentes, consecuencias y documentaci�n, Washington DC, 1982.Fleischmann, Luis "The Falkland/Malvinas Islands: another case of regional Chauvinism", Organizaci�n Latinoamericana para la Defensa de la Democracia, OLADD. [En l�nea], [consulta: 3.4.2012]. Disponible en http://www.ciempre.comFraga, Rosendo "La globalizaci�n de la estrategia argentina por Malvinas", [En l�nea], [consulta: ]. Disponible en: __________ "Malvinas: Pasado y futuro", Nueva Mayor�a [En l�nea], [consulta: 2.4.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.nuevamayoria.com__________ "¿Hay un rearme argentino?", Nueva Mayor�a [En l�nea]. [ consulta: 30.3.2012]. Disponible en:Freedmann, Lawrence y Gamba-Stonehouse, Victoria Se�ales de guerra, Vergara Editores, Bs.As., 1992.Jastreblansky, Maia "La propuesta secreta de los ingleses a Per�n por las Malvinas", La Naci�n [En l�nea] [consulta: 30.3.2012]. Disponible en http://www.lanacion.com.arKlare, Michael, "Resource wars. The new global landscape of global conflict", Owl Books, NY., 2012.Kon, Daniel Los Chicos de la guerra Galerna, Bs.As., 1982. MALVINAS es una causa sudamericana, DEF [En l�nea], [consulta: 5.4.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.defonline.com.arMoses, Carl y Marcus Theurer "Erd�l auf die alten Wunden" (Petr�leo sobre viejas heridas), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, [En l�nea], [consulta: 5.4.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.faz.de______ "Der Krieg, das �l und die Insel" (La guerra, el petr�leo y las islas), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, [En l�nea], [consulta: 5.4.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.faz.de Mu�oz Azpiri, Jos� Luis "La herida abierta: nuestras Malvinas" Revista Digital N° 791, [En l�nea], [consulta: 3.5.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.1884editorial.com.arPalermo, Vicente, "Sal en las heridas. Las Malvinas en la cultura argentina y contempor�nea", Sudamericana, Bs.As., 2007.PETROLERA brit�nica vende licencia para buscar petr�leo en las Malvinas, La Naci�n, [En l�nea], [consulta: 15.3.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.lanacion.com.arRECLAMO brit�nico, DEF [En l�nea], [consulta: 23.4.2012]. Disponible en http://www.defonline.com.arRomero, Luis Alberto "Las Malvinas no visi�n alternativa" La Naci�n, [En l�nea], [consulta: 15.3.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.lanacion.com.arWest, Nigel "La guerra secreta por las Malvinas", Sudamericana, Bs.As, 1997.Wurgaft, Romy "Argentina amenaza a las empresas que buscan petr�leo en las Malvinas", El Mundo, [En l�nea] [consulta: 15.3.2012]. Disponible en: http://www.elmundo.es________"La pesca, clave en el alto PIB per capita de los habitantes de las Malvinas", El Mundo, [En l�nea] [consulta: 15.3.2012]. Disponible en http://www.elmundo.es Sobre el autorProfesor de Universidad Alberto Hurtado (Chile) Ph.D. en Comunicación (Universidad Carlos IV, República Checa)
The Chameleon Literary Journal has served as Norwich University's arts and creative writing magazine since 1961. Under the mentorship of its advisor Professor Sean Prentiss, third-year student Lydia Brown analyzed all past publishings in order to understand the extent to which Norwich University students represented LGBTQ+ members, people of color, and women throughout the years. This internship also allowed her to explore the overall history of The Chameleon Literary Journal, including its distinct differences from era to era. As the final product, such findings were accumulated over the course of a single semester and comprised into the following written report. ; Winner of the 2022 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the University Archives category. ; Brown 1 Looking Back on the Representation of LGBTQ+ Members, People of Color, & Women An Analysis of The Chameleon Literary Journal, 1961 — Present Lydia Brown Department of English & Communications, Norwich University EN 415: English Internship Professor Sean Prentiss Fall 2021 Brown 2 Abstract The Chameleon Literary Journal has served as Norwich University's arts and creative writing magazine since 1961. Under the mentorship of its advisor Professor Sean Prentiss, third-year student Lydia Brown analyzed all past publishings in order to understand the extent to which Norwich University students represented LGBTQ+ members, people of color, and women throughout the years. This internship also allowed her to explore the overall history of The Chameleon Literary Journal, including its distinct differences from era to era. As the final product, such findings were accumulated over the course of a single semester and comprised into the following written report. Brown 3 The Chameleon | 1961 - Present Brief Historical Background Founded in 1961, The Chameleon Literary Journal continues to serve as Norwich University's arts and creative writing magazine under a team of student editors. Norwich University undergraduate and graduate students are welcome to submit various pieces for review, such as visual arts, drama, poetry, creative nonfiction, and fiction. Sean Prentiss, a published author and professor of creative writing, was selected to be the advisor of the journal when he arrived on campus in 2012. Since his arrival, he has assisted the journal in becoming multilingual by translating students' creative writing pieces into multiple languages. In addition, three-four creative writing awards are issued annually to writers who distinguish themselves amongst the rest of the student body. Brown 4 Introduction Significance of Representation Representation is a system for unambiguously organizing values, ideas, and conduct — all of which enable communication and social exchange amongst members of a particular group or community. From birth onward, an individual's self-c 1 oncept and values are affected by the surrounding environment. Adolescence is an especially critical period for identity development as the classroom serves as the primary site of socialization, although the American K-12 and college school systems have previously marginalized students who were perceived as different. Women are also encouraged from an early age to adhere to the traditional role of a homemaker, rather than pursue vocational training, higher education, and careers in STEM. As the reader will observe in the following excerpts from The Chameleon Literary Journal, Norwich University is no stranger to marginalization as women were not officially admitted for enrollment prior to the mid-1970s. Telltale signs found in the language used by Norwich student contributors indicate that slurs, stereotypes, and insults used against minorities and women were normalized for much of the Chameleon's history. It was not until the early 2000s that there appears to be a significant social shift within the student body due to the increasing presence of minorities and women on campus. Based on these findings, American society seemed to finally be becoming more inclusive, allowing minority Norwich students to express themselves freely, develop social stability, and gain a sense of acknowledgment through positive identity formation as well as representation. 1 "APA Dictionary of Psychology." American Psychological Association, https://dictionary.apa.org/social-representation. Brown 5 Baby Boomers | 1946 - 1964 Brief Historical Background Following World War II and the Great Depression, a significant spike in birth rates occurred throughout the United States. Approximately 76.4 million babies were born over the course of these nineteen years. Most historians claim that this phenomenon stems from the general population's desire to establish their own families — an undertaking that was previously postponed due to World War II. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act also gave soldiers an additional reason to have larger families as the G.I. Bill granted stipends for college tuition, job-finding assistance, and housing expenses. During this time period, economic growth began to increase and the majority of Americans had an optimistic outlook for the future. This encouraged families to relocate from the sparse countryside to the bustling atmospheres of nearby cities. Once these cities were overcrowded by newcomers, plans for large residential communities were undertaken by housing pioneer William Levitt who created the suburbs as a result.2 However, those with xenophobic tendencies followed quickly relocated to the suburbs as cities became miniature melting pots of integrated immigrants with various political, social, and economic backgrounds. This sparked disputes among the American people as legalized statutes remained persistent in enforcing segregation at both the state and local capacity.3 2 Nohria, Nitin, Anthony Mayo, and Mark Benson. "William Levitt, Levittown and the Creation of American Suburbia." Harvard Business School Case 406-062, December 2005. (Revised March 2010.) 3 The first three years of the Chameleon were released during the Baby Boomers generation but were mostly written by students who were born during the Silent Generation (1928-1945). Brown 6 Baby Boomers Overview of Significant Events • Brown v. Board of Education becomes a landmark Supreme Court case (1954). • Civil Rights Movement begins (1954). • Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat to a white man on a public bus (1955). • Montgomery Bus Boycott tackles segregation on the public transit system (1955). • Emmett Till, a 14-year-old African American, is lynched in Mississippi (1955). • 1956 Sugar Bowl becomes the first integrated college football game in the South (1956). • Civil Rights Act becomes the first federal civil rights legislation since 1875 (1957). • Little Rock Crisis prevents students from enrolling in a racially segregated school (1957). • Greensboro sit-ins initiate protests regarding the South's policy of segregation (1960). • Nashville sit-ins initiate protests regarding the South's policy of segregation (1960). • Gay Liberation Movement begins (1960). • Alliance for Progress initiates improved economic cooperation with Latin America (1961). • Katherine Johnson assists NASA's 1962 Friendship 7 Mission (1962). • Civil Rights Act establishes federal inspection of voter registration polls (1960). • Children's Crusade addresses segregation within the school system (1963). • Martin Luther King Jr. leads the March on Washington (1963). • Betty Friedan publishes The Feminine Mystique (1963). • President Johnson proposes the Great Society to combat poverty and racial injustice (1963). • Civil Rights Act outlaws discrimination based on race, religion, and sex (1964). Brown 7 Baby Boomers The Chameleon Highlights "A young woman driving a truck!? That was unusual, no doubt about it…Stupid woman, all guts, and no brains! … Maybe you can imagine what went on inside the young man when an officer stopped him and hurriedly said; Never mind, mister, there's nothin' you can do, she's dead, just some dirty n***** woman truck driver" (1963). 4 —- An excerpt from "The Wanderers" by R. Reid The use of profanities towards both people of color and women appears to be a commonality amongst Norwich student contributors from the Chameleon's founding in 1961 through much of the decade. In this short story, "The Wanderers," terms such as stupid and dirty are used to target a woman of color for being a trucker. The author continues to expand the character's description by using calling the woman the N-word. Deriving from the Spanish word negro, the N-word is now considered taboo as its connotation has been predominantly used by white people to demean those of color. Black social identity has been especially damaged by the usage of this word as it severs their overall sense of national belonging. 5 4 Complete usage of the word is censored in respect of the black community. 5 Pryor, Elizabeth Stordeur. "The Etymology of N*****: Resistance, Politics, and the Politics of Freedom in the Antebellum North." Colored Travelers: Mobility and the Fight for Citizenship before the Civil War, 2016, https:// doi.org/10.5149/northcarolina/9781469628578.003.0002. Brown 8 "…I saw everything. The city has been purified, swept clean, and now fosters only the black scars and in glorious moments of the past…You liar! You had to see the city die! You had to see it spill its false entrails out in the rotten streets to be devoured by the cleansing fires. This place is no longer dirty…" (1961). —- An excerpt from "The Dream Monger" by Anonymous In this short story, "The Dream Monger," the phrase cleansing fires reveals itself to be the cause of death and destruction. Like the Holocaust, mass genocides often surround ideologies associated with ethnic cleansing. This allows for a geographical area to become ethnically homogeneous under an establishment of power. In 20th-century America, for example, Anglo- American colonialism constituted the genocide of countless Natives in America and around the world. Such events will never be widely coined as genocide, however, due to the number of those who survived exploitation, disease, malnutrition, and neglect. 6 The term black scars also leads to further speculation that this short story may involve post-slavery events of America's racial segregation system. One of which included the Tulsa race massacre, decimating the Black business ecosystem and killing 6,000 community members. 7 Many other excerpts were found focusing on a more negative portrayal of the BIPOC community and women, although there was no mention of LGBTQ+ members.8 6 Anderson, Gary C. Ethnic Cleansing & the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America. University Of Oklahoma Press, 2015. 7 Kapadia, Reshma. "The Tulsa Massacre Left a Lasting Impact on Wealth." Trade Journal, vol. 101, no. 22, 31 May 2021. 8 Many other excerpts were found focusing on a more negative portrayal of the BIPOC community and women during this time. However, there was no mention of LGBTQ+ members. Brown 9 Generation X | 1965 - 1980 Brief Historical Background Those who grew up during this time were accustomed to having a sense of independence from an early age. This was caused by the increased divorce rates throughout the United States, the unique dynamics of single-parent households, and dual-income parents who were not able to spend as much time at home. Most parents found a life-long career in computers, business management, construction, or transportation. Although routinely working long hours, they still managed to find a healthy balance between exhibiting their creative freedoms within the workplace and maintaining personal relationships with their children. Also referred to as latchkey kids, Gen Xers often spent their downtime conversing with friends via email, channel surfing on the television, or playing video games. They also seemed to have a deep interest in musical genres associated with social-tribal identities, including punk rock and heavy metal. This meant that music became an important self-identifying factor, even influencing the type of attire an individual wore on a daily basis. In the 1960s and 1970s, a countercultural movement known as the hippie era catalyzed other self-identifying factors — especially for those who identified as members of the LGBTQ+ community. American writer Allen Ginsberg formed the core of the movement as he openly opposed all military efforts, sexual repression, and capitalism.9 Ginsburg also identified as gay, serving as positive a role model for members of the LGBTQ+ community and allies alike. 10 9 Silos, Jill Katherine. "Everybody Get Together: The Sixties Counterculture & Public Space, 1964-1967." University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository, 2003. 10 Eleven years of Chameleon issues were released during Generation X but were mostly written by students who were born during the Baby Boomers generation (1946-1964). Brown 10 Generation X Overview of Significant Events • Selma to Montgomery marches promote voting rights for African Americans (1965). • Thurgood Marshall becomes the first African American Supreme Court Justice (1965). • Immigration & Nationality Act outlaws de facto discrimination against immigrants (1965). • Voting Act outlaws racial discrimination in voting (1965). • Malcolm X is assassinated (1965). • Watts Riots occur in light of Marquette Frye's arrest (1965). • Nation Organization for Women is established (1966). • American Indian Movement is founded (1967). • Detroit Riot sheds blood between black residents and the Detroit Police Department (1967). • Martin Luther King Jr. is assassinated (1968). • Fair Housing Act outlaws discrimination regarding housing (1968). • Shirley Chisholm becomes the first black woman elected to Congress (1968). • East Los Angeles Walkouts are organized by Mexican American students (1968). • Stonewall Riots call for LGBTQ+ members to respond to police raids (1969). • Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg becomes a landmark Supreme Court case (1971). • AIM protests against injustice under law enforcement towards Native Americans (1972). • Roe v. Wade becomes a landmark Supreme Court case (1973). • Billie Jean King wins the "Battle of the Sexes" tennis match (1973). • Beverly Johnson becomes the first black model on the cover of Vogue (1974). Brown 11 Generation X Relevance to The Chameleon "The pedestrian Walks, talks, and discriminates On such vital and valid criteria as Color, breeding and religion. Sees sex, and is offended. Grows indignant. Has a firm conviction that freedom of speech sometimes goes too far When it lets Martin Luther King "cause trouble" and "incite" riots" (1965). —- An excerpt from "The Pedestrian" by Jacob Sartz Unlike most pieces of writing from the 1960s publishings, this free verse poem seems to call out the discriminatory tendencies of others. The author especially targets any person whose ideologies are rooted in racism, sexism, and other gateways leading to unequal treatment. By labeling them as the pedestrian, such subtlety creates an effect where anyone can be the principal character and thus the reader may begin to question their own actions. As the author begins to shift towards a more political ambiance, African American activist Martin Luther King Jr. is mentioned. From the pedestrian's perspective, however, King is known to overstep the principle of free speech with the exception of cases where it benefits the white majority. Brown 12 "He had gone through a variety of different girls in the next six years, and he had accumulated an assortment of different names in his address book, including a few of the local sweethearts that he'd called up in dire sexual emergencies… When he had heard that his little "streetlight girl" had been married, he put a check next to her name in the book as he had done for several other old flames that had been put out of commission for one reason or another. He thought of her a little while after that, but closed the book as he had always done" (1970). —- An excerpt from "The Street Light" by Paul LeSage Unlike our example directly above, there are several alarming factors sprinkled throughout this short story, revealing how a man uses the sexual objectification of women to his advantage. The man's use of an address book further proves this implication as the women he has been sexually involved with are jotted down in writing. Visually speaking, the reader may think of a grocery list or an inventory of stock goods when it comes to the address book's description. The man proceeds to check off the women who no longer sexually benefit him all while refusing to use their real names, ultimately dehumanizing them in the process. This allows the reader to further explore the harmful effects of sexual objectification, pushing them to decipher the differences between sex and sexualizing.11 11 Many other excerpts were found focusing on a more negative portrayal of the BIPOC community and women during this time. However, there was no mention of LGBTQ+ members. Brown 13 Generation Y | 1981 - 1996 Brief Historical Background Many of those who were either born into this generation or lived through it prioritized their careers and personal interests above marriage. This means that they were having fewer children than their predecessors. Like Gen Xers, Millenials were known to be tech-savvy with a specific preference to communicate through email or text. MTV brought them further reason to enjoy screen time when the cable channel was launched in 1981. Originally created to showcase music videos, MTV quickly moved to television personalities. Michael Jackson, for example, served as the precedent for television personalities and leading artists, topping the charts throughout the duration of the 1980s. He eventually became one of the most well-loved television personalities who dedicated much of his offscreen time to charitable efforts. Prince, Whitney Houston, Diana Ross, and many others followed closely behind. Based on the increased media representation of minority artists, it's safe to say that this particular time frame allowed for people of color to debut their own music videos for the first time. This urged the public to gravitate towards soul music and R&B, marking the start of this generation's willingness to embrace black creators. Alongside music, technological advances in STEM were budding with breakthroughs. Women paved the way towards many of these breakthroughs under large startups and federal organizations, inspiring younger girls to do the same through higher education. 12 12 Eighteen years of Chameleon issues were released during Generation Y but mostly written by students who were born during Generation X (1965-1976). Brown 14 Generation Y Overview of Significant Events • Asian American/Pacific Islander Heritage Week is implemented in May (1979). • Boston African American National Historic Site is established (1980). • AIDS Epidemic begins, causing numerous deaths in the LGBTQ+ community (1981). • Sandra Day O'Connor is nominated as the first female Supreme Court Justice (1981). • Federation of Survival Schools leads legal education seminars for Native students (1984). • Ellison Onizuka, the first Asian-American in space, dies in the Challenger disaster (1986). • Minneapolis AIM Patrol refocuses on protecting native women in Minneapolis (1987). • Sally K. Ride becomes the first American woman in space (1983). • Susan Kare made typeface contributions to the first Apple Macintosh (1983). • Michael Jordan is named the NBA's "Rookie of the Year " (1985). • Nadia Perlman invents the spanning-tree protocol (1985). • Carole Ann-Marie Gist becomes the first African American to win Miss USA (1990). • Freddie Mercury dies from AIDS (1991). • Rodney King is brutally beaten by LAPD officers (1991). • AIM revives the Sun Dance ceremony in Pipestone, Minnesota (1991). • Los Angeles Riots result in numerous deaths and $1 billion in damage (1992). • Mae Jemison becomes the first African American woman in space (1992). • National Coalition in Sports & Media Forms is established by native leaders (1992). • "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" bars the LGBTQ+ community from military service (1993). Brown 15 Generation Y Relevance to The Chameleon "I slowly adapt myself to another man's world, But I soon realize that my character is a reflection Of a foreign spectrum I see myself through another man's eyes, My words come from another man's mouth, And my ideals are relocated from another man's mind" (1980). —- An excerpt from "A Nostalgic Experience" by Noble Francis Allen America's social construction has continued to uphold whiteness throughout the duration of its history, while people of color must condition themselves to that of the norm. In this case, the author speaks in the first person, signifying their position as the principal character who is faced with having to mirror the way others perceive the world. This implies that the narrator may have had a weakened sense of self-identity at the time this poem was written. Self-identity is an especially important feature as it consists of the traits, characteristics, social relations, and roles that define who one is. An individual's racial and ethnic 13 background is also included within the same realm due to the distinguishment of their given group's cultural values, kinship, and beliefs.14 13 Oyserman, Daphna, and George Smith. "Self, Self-Concept, and Identity." Handbook of Self and Identity, edited by Kristen Elmore, 2nd ed., The Guilford Press, New York, NY, 2012, pp. 69–104. 14 Woo, Bongki, et al. "The Role of Racial/Ethnic Identity in the Association Between Racial Discrimination & Psychiatric Disorders: A Buffer or Exacerbator?" SSM - Population Health, vol. 7, 7 Apr. 2019, p. 100378., https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100378. Brown 16 "Across his back is a deerskin quiver, and in the quiver, there are seven feathered arrows. Gripped in his sweaty palm is an oak bow. A golden-handled sword, whose blade is as long as a man's leg, hangs from his waist. Its once binding shine has been replaced by a thick coat of blood. His skin is the color of golden honey, and his hair is the reflection of yellow sunshine… A woman emerges from the foliage of the wildwood. Warm sunshine gleams off of browned skin. Raven-black hair drops over a slender neck, and ends upon soft shoulders. Unsuspecting almond-eyes gaze wildly at the sky. She is nude. Her breasts are round, full, and tipped with chocolate nipples. A thin waist gives way to broad hips, and eventually slender legs" (1980). —- An excerpt from "A Blind Odin" by Mitchell T. Kubiak This short story, "A Blind Odin," depicts a deep contrast between the description of a man and the description of a woman. The man embodies characteristics associated with a skilled hunter, such as strength and courage. The woman, however, is only described based on her physical features, all of which seem to align with the male gaze. For those who are not familiar with feminist theory, the male gaze is perceived from a masculine heterosexual perspective with aspects of voyeurism, objectification, fetishism, and scopophilia attached.15 Further descriptions of the woman's bodily proportions also suggest clues about the author, although it is crucial for the reader to understand that Norwich University had very few female candidates at the time this short story was written. 16 15 Snow, Edward. "Theorizing the Male Gaze: Some Problems." Representations, vol. 25, 1989, pp. 30–41., https:// doi.org/10.2307/2928465. 16 Many other excerpts were found focusing on both positive and negative portrayals of the BIPOC community and women during this time. However, there was no mention of LGBTQ+ members. Brown 17 Generation Z | 1997 - 2009 Brief Historical Background Gen Zers are the first to experience technological advances from birth onward. Once the majority reached adolescence, it became evident that there was a growing demand for portable devices. Although the first smartphone was released by IBM during the early 1990s, its overall bulkiness and poor battery life were not ideal for communication lines. Apple has since become the most popular phone brand in the United States. It also helped that the company released the iPod, a portable music device with, at the time, the ability to store over 200 songs. The same year also marked the events of several terrorist attacks on September 11th. Two jet airliners shattered the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in a series of terrorist attacks, killing nearly 3,000 people and injuring twice as many. Those responsible were later identified as members of al-Quaeda, a militant Islamist organization led by Saudi Arabian terrorist Osama bin Laden. Life became all the more difficult for Muslim Americans as they continuously experienced the dangers of Islamophobia on a daily basis. Such dangers surrounded an ongoing spike in hate crimes, ranging from cold-blooded murder to vandalism of places of worship. Even when there was a slight decline in hate crimes years later, Muslim Americans continued to struggle with employment discrimination. Many of those who practiced Islam were either laid off or turned away during the hiring process for reasons directly relating to their religion. By the end of Generation Z, religion no longer served as a determining factor during the hiring process and diversity became a primary focus in the workplace. 17 17 Thirteen years of Chameleon issues were released during Generation Z but were mostly written by students who were born during Generation Y (1977-1995). Brown 18 Generation Z Overview of Significant Events • Gary Locke becomes the first Asian American governor of a mainland state (1996). • Kalpana Chawla boards Columbia as the first woman in space of Indian origin (1997). • Serena Williams wins the U.S. Open Women's Singles Tennis Championship (1999). • Maurice Ashley becomes the world's first black Grandmaster in chess (2000). • Permanent Partners Immigration Act is introduced to Congress (2000). • Equality Mississippi is founded as an LGBT civil rights organization (2000). • Millennium March on Washington raises awareness of LGBT issues (2000). • Elaine Chao is selected as the first Asian American to be Secretary of Labor (2001). • Patriot Act allows the indefinite detention of immigrants and warrantless searches (2001). • Cincinnati-based riots spark unrest following Timothy Thomas' death (2001). • Balbir Singh Sodhi's death is deemed the first fatal act of violence as a result of 9/11 (2001). • Dennis Archer becomes the first African American to be President of the ABA (2002). • Goodridge v. Dept. of Public Health becomes a landmark Supreme Court case (2003). • Grutter v. Bollinger becomes a landmark Supreme Court Case (2003). • Same-sex marriage is first legalized in the state of Massachusetts (2004). • Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon are wed, becoming the first legal same-sex marriage (2004). • Condoleezza Rice is named the first black woman to be Secretary of State (2005). • Nancy Pelosi becomes the first female Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives (2007). • Barack Obama is elected as the first African American to hold office (2009). Brown 19 Generation Z Relevance to The Chameleon "You called me a fa***t and said no one would love me But I am here to say what goes around comes around And now it's your turn to get knocked down" (2004). —- An excerpt from "The Bastard Son" by James A. Hoffman Now used as a slur in reference to homosexual men and boys, the term fa***t has its own unique origin. The term's former use in the Norwegian dialect was originally emplaced to describe a bundle of firewood. Because these bundles were large in size, the term eventually moved towards describing heavyset women who were often seen as slovenly and thus placing them near the bottom of all social classes. When British English ha 18 d made a far greater influence on the Scandinavian languages, the term was combined with bugger, also known as a person who engages in anal or oral sex. Premodern Europe was known to persecute heretics during this time, including homosexuals, as they did not conform to the belief systems of the Church. 19 This short story, "The Bastard Son," is one of the first positive representations of LGBTQ+ members found in the Chameleon as the narrator gains the courage to speak against negative attitudes and feelings surrounding the LGBTQ+ community. 18 Johansson, Warren. "The Etymology of the Word 'Fa***t'." William Percy. 19 Karras, Ruth Mazo. "The Regulation of 'Sodomy' in the Latin East & West." Speculum, vol. 95, no. 4, 2020, pp. 969–986., https://doi.org/10.1086/710639. Brown 20 Generation Z Relevance to The Chameleon "Mother, you are the greatest woman I know. I have based my life upon yours, all the great things you have done and all the obstacles that you were able to overcome; the thing that I admire most about you is the fact that you were a single mother of four and didn't need a man's help, but I always knew that was a great challenge for me, in this world that is much too different from the one that you grew up. To me, that was the greatest obstacle that you conquered" (2004). —- An excerpt from "Mother's Love" by A.M.T Lebron In this dedication, "Mother's Love," the author retrieves past memories in writing to celebrate their mother. It is not often that Norwich student contributors write about the entailments of motherhood. Although it remains unclear whether the author's mother was divorced, widowed, or remained unmarried, the family has a relentless source of love for one another and proceeds to use their shared affection to overcome challenges. Such challenges include economic hardships and increased states of stress as a single mother often relies on one source of income. There is also reason to believe that those raised in similar households develop a sense of independence resembling that of their mother. Some may even develop additional 20 internal resources that will allow them to construct their own identity far from the gender roles typically seen within the American household. 21 20 Kinser, Amber E. Motherhood & Feminism. Seal Press, 2010. 21 Many other excerpts were found focusing on both positive and negative portrayals of minority communities and women. Brown 21 Generation Alpha | 2010 - Present Brief Historical Background Many of those who are either born into this generation or currently living through it witness technological advances at an accelerating rate to the extent of replacing the previously known means of childhood entertainment with mobile devices and streaming services. The dawning of this generation also brought Instagram, the most frequently preferred social media platform to date. The thought of having children was generally delayed across the United States following the economic crisis of 2008, while young adults reportedly dealt with increasing stress from education debt. Following the economic crisis of 2008, it is not uncommon for young adults to deal with increasing stress from education debt. Many Gen Zers who previously planned on extending their families during this time were also affected as financial worries prevented them from having children. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused further economic turmoil when small businesses had to close down to prevent the spread of the virus. Those who were employed under larger corporations, however, moved their offices to home. Between dual-career families and remote work, the boundaries separating professional and personal life became blurred. 22 Such challenges have proved that the young faces of Generation Alpha are capable of resilience, utilizing their own diverse backgrounds to tackle the more difficult questions. This includes advocating for fairness in all aspects of society and questioning the validity of gender. 22 Jha, Amrit Kumar. "Understanding Generation Alpha ." OSF Preprints, 20 June 2020. Brown 22 Generation Alpha Overview of Significant Events • Apple's iPad is released, also known as the first touchscreen tablet PC (2010). • President Barack Obama begins his second term (2013). • Defense Against Marriage Act is struck down by the Supreme Court (2013). • Black Lives Matter emerges as a political movement (2013). • Michael Brown is fatally shot by a Ferguson police officer (2014). • Nine African Americans churchgoers are killed during a Bible study in Charleston (2015). • Same-sex marriage is legalized in all 50 states (2015). • Pulse Nightclub shooting causes the deaths of 49 LGBTQ+ members (2016). • Unite the Right, a white supremacist rally, leads to three deaths in Charlottesville (2017). • Me Too movement is relaunched following the Harvey Weinstein accusations (2017). • Director Jon M. Chu breaks box office records with his film Crazy Rich Asians (2018). • California Synagogue shooting causes the injuries of three and the death of one (2019). • President Trump's wall receives $2.5 billion in funds under the Supreme Court (2019). • Kobe Bryant, along with his daughter, dies in a helicopter crash (2020). • Geroge Floyd is murdered by a Minneapolis police officer during an arrest (2020). • Kamala Harris becomes the 49th vice president (2021). • Spa shooting in Atlanta leaves eight dead, with six being of Asian descent (2021). Brown 23 Generation Alpha Relevance to The Chameleon "It had only been four days since I was bought from the Greens. The Green House was known for cutting off the body parts of slaves and letting them bleed out slowly or waiting for them to die of infection. They used to take other slaves to the field and pick different parts to cut off. If they cut off too much and you couldn't work anymore, they'd leave the bodies in the field as an example of what happens when you make mistakes. " (2019). —- An excerpt from "Mixed Voices" by Alain Cropper-Makidi The author moves to educate the reader on a particular building utilized during America's slavery period. Also known as the Green House, the building lay separate from the main house and lodged slaves who were being punished for fieldwork mistakes. Whipping, burning, branding, raping, and imprisoning were some of the most common punishments for slaves. However, the Green House resorted to dismembering the slaves' limbs and allowing them to bleed out. This short story, "Mixed Voices," also addresses that some slaves received educational instruction from the main house's mistress. This was most likely executed in secret as slaves were generally prohibited from reading and writing out of fear that they would forge travel passes and escape. 23 23 "Literacy as Freedom - American Experience." SAAM, Smithsonian American Art Museum, https:// americanexperience.si.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Literacy-as-Freedom.pdf. Brown 24 "One day You tell me that let's be Together I shake my head Say I'm tired of your lies Rather to get myself alone" (2020). 有⼀天 你对我说我们在⼀起吧 我摇摇头 说我厌倦了你的虚伪 宁愿孤独 —- An excerpt from "Untitled" by Zenghui Zhang Like several others, this poem was both written and translated by a student under Professor Lenny Hu. Since his arrival at Norwich, Professor Hu has assigned his Chinese students the task of writing and translating poetry. This allows them to expand their Chinese literacy and gain a sense of passion for the language itself. As the Norwich language department continues to grow, translations will continue to be included in future Chameleon issues for the benefit of promoting diverse students and staff who already understand or aim to learn beyond that of the English language. Brown 25 Conclusion Sustains & Improves After reviewing all past issues of the Chameleon, it is clear that Norwich's literary journal previously published pieces of writing representing LGBTQ+ members, the BIPOC community, and women in a negative light. This was especially true from 1961 through the late 1990s. Gradually, the Chameleon has begun to positively represent our communities. During our current time period, for example, positive representations have become the primary focus under Professor Sean Prentiss and his team of student editors who have made a conscious effort in improving the Chameleon as a whole. Student writers who distinguish themselves amongst the rest of the student body are oftentimes selected for awards. One of which is the "Be You, Be True Prize" for the best writing by or about the LGBTQ+ community. Additionally, many Norwich University professors currently include culturally sustaining pedagogies within their curricula. Such pedagogies include seeking nontraditional texts, merging language varieties, and encouraging students to explore cultural spaces. To maintain as well as improve such efforts, Norwich University affiliates must remain aware that America's long history of combating minorities often resulted in bloodshed. Although not to the extent of our previous generations, similar events still continue to occur today. Therefore, as one of the most renowned military colleges in the United States, it is our responsibility to protect minority students and ensure that they perceive themselves as valuable members of the community. Without them, the future stands for nothing. Brown 26 References Anderson, Gary C. Ethnic Cleansing & the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America. 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Uricchio, V. Peragine, M. Aulenta, Manuale di scienza delle finanze, diritto finanziario e contabilità pubblica, Molfetta (BA) 2017. ; Uricchio A.F., Percorsi di diritto tributario, Bari 2017. ; Uricchio A.F., Manuale di diritto tributario, Bari 2020. ; Busani A., Imposta di donazione su vincoli di destinazione e trust, "Corriere tributario" 2007, no. 5. ; Versiglioni M., Reddito liquido e Imposta Liquida. Riforma fiscale e Modello Logico dell'Imposta, "Rivista telematica di diritto tributario" 2021, no. 1. ; Vicini Ronchetti A., La trasformazione delle DTA in crediti d'imposta prevista dal Decreto "Cura Italia": profili interpretativi a fronte di un legislatore impreciso, "Rivista telematica di diritto tributario" 2020, no. 2. ; Vignoli A., Successioni e donazioni come imposta sul patrimonio e ricchezza trasferibile senza atti formali, (in:) R. Lupi (a cura di), Diritto delle imposte. Dai presupposti economici d'imposta alle basi imponibili nella "parte speciale" del diritto tributario, Milano 2020. ; Viotto A., Il contributo a favore di imprese e lavoratori autonomi di minori dimensioni, previsto dal c.d. decreto Rilancio: una misura in chiaroscuro, "Rivista telematica di diritto tributario" 2020, no. 2. ; Viotto A., Decreto legge "cura Italia": riflessioni sulla cumulabilità della sospensione "emergenziale" dei termini di proposizione del ricorso con quella stabilita in caso di presentazione dell'istanza di accertamento con adesione, "Tax News" 2020, no. 1. ; Viotto A., Criticità sullo svolgimento dei giudizi tributari nel periodo dell'emergenza sanitaria alla luce dell'art. 27 del "Decreto Ristori", "Tax News" 2020, no. 2. ; Yang T., Istituti di diritto tributario e ragioni fiscali a supporto del sistema produttivo, "Rivista telematica di diritto tributario" 2020, no. 1. ; Zagà S., L'applicabilità ai vincoli di destinazione ed ai trust della re(istituita) imposta sulle successioni e donazioni, "Diritto e pratica tributaria" 2010, no. 5. ; Zaremba J., Axiology of Financial Law, "Białostockie Studia Prawnicze" 2020, vol. 25, no. 1. ; Żukowski M., Żukowska H., Tax Reforms in Russia, "Białostockie Studia Prawnicze" 2009, vol. 5. ; Busani A., La Cassazione ci ripensa: il trust si tassa alla fine, "Il Sole 24 Ore" 18 January 2019, no. 17. ; Busani A., La Cassazione si stabilizza: imposte in misura fissa per l'atto di dotazione di qualsiasi tipologia di trust, "GT – Rivista di giurisprudenza tributaria" 2019, no. 7. ; Busani A., Rassegna ragionata e ricostruzione critica (alla luce di dottrina, prassi e giurisprudenza) della "terza stagione" della corte di cassazione in tema di tassazione dell'atto di dotazione del trust, "Rivista di diritto tributario" 2020, no. 2. ; Busani A., Imposta di successione e donazione, Milano 2020. ; Busani A., Tassato il trasferimento dal trustee al beneficiario, "Il Sole 24 Ore" 16 February 2021, no. 45. ; Busani A., Trust, l'imposta di donazione scatta con il trasferimento ai beneficiari, "Il Sole 24 Ore" 6 April 2021, no. 93. ; Busani A., Papotti R.A., L'imposizione indiretta dei trust: luci e ombre delle recenti pronunce della Corte di cassazione, "Corriere tributario" 2015, no. 16. ; Busani A., Papotti R.A., Ulteriormente frammentati in Cassazione gli orientamenti sulla tassazione del trust, "GT – Rivista di giurisprudenza tributaria" 2019, no. 2. ; Buttus S., Brevi considerazioni sulle effettive possibilità di ripresa del processo tributario nella seconda fase dell'emergenza sanitaria, "Rivista telematica di diritto tributario" 2020, no. 1. ; Cannizzaro S., Addio all'imposta proporzionale per la costituzione di trust?, "Rivista di diritto tributario – Supplemento online" 21 November 2016. ; Carinci A., Tassani T., Manuale di diritto tributario, IV ed., Torino 2021. ; Carunchio S., Imposte ipotecaria e catastale in misura fissa sul trust autodichiarato, "Il fisco" 2016, no. 46. ; Clò M., "Decreto liquidità": novità riguardanti il trattamento fiscale delle cessioni di farmaci ad uso compassionevole, "Tax News" 2020, no. 1. ; Conte D., Il contributo unificato di giustizia e l'intervento innovativo del D.L. n. 23/2020 tra dubbi di costituzionalità, interpretazioni necessarie ed effettiva utilità, "Tax News" 2020, no. 2. ; Contrino A., Trusts liberali e imposizione indiretta dopo le modifiche (L. n. 383/2001) al tributo sulle donazioni, "Rassegna tributaria" 2004. ; Contrino A., Sulla nuova (ma in realtà inesistente) imposta sui vincoli di destinazione "creata" dalla Suprema Corte: osservazioni critiche, "Rassegna tributaria" 2016, no. 1. ; Contrino A., Prefazione, (in:) A. 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This PhD dissertation proposes a geopolitical analysis of a centrasiatic transborder region, theFerghana Valley, which is today divided between the Republics of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan andKyrgyzstan.A basis of the research, field trips spread over the past three years enabled the development ofinstruments such as border analysis, analytical cartography, qualitative interviews with experts andinhabitants, and bibliographical research in the Ferghana as well as the Uzbek capital city Tashkent– noticeably at the French Institute for Central Asian Studies (IFEAC). As a complement to thefield trips in Central Asia, a research period in France permitted both a consolidation in geopoliticaltheory at the French Institute of Geopolitics (IFG) of the University of Paris 8-Vincennes, andadditional bibliographical research at the French National Library (BNF).The topic of the research is hence the analysis of power rivalries between "territorial actors" overthe "territorial stake" of the Fergana Valley, a fertile basin of strategical location within the largergeopolitical context of Central Asia. Always a stake disputed by various territorial actors over time,the Fergana Valley now experiences power rivalries from contemporaneous territorial actors firstand foremost on the border and transborder levels.By doing so, the dissertation introduces a new actor in the classical geopolitical pattern of analysis:the cultural regionalism. The dissertation hence offers a detailed presentation of the culturalregionalism as well as an evaluation of its past and current importance.First focusing on the centrasiatic context and the peculiarities which stem from its borders, theintroduction presents the "stake" Fergana and its economic and physical resources which explainits importance as a territory. A rapid summary of the theory of geopolitics follows, with thejustification of the choice of the French Lacostian school as the theoretical frame of this work. Theintroduction closes on a first analysis of the Fergana as a space of border or frontier.First partThe thesis is structured in two main parts. The first, more theoretical, analyses each of the threeterritorial actors which aim for power over the Fergana: the Nation, the Religion, and the CulturalRegionalism. The presentation of the actors, of their respective embodiments and of theirmanifestations within the ferganian territory is organised according to a conceptual rationale; eventsthat occurred simultaneously are thus not considered following a chronological order, butseparately, according to their respective relations with the actors evoked.The first chapter focuses on the actor Nation. By this word we understand not only the effectiveentity of the Nation-State, and its three embodiments (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan), but alsothe Nation as an ideology which acts upon the territory through nationalistic policies. The force oflegitimation of the actor Nation did certainly not have a neutral role in the rise of this actor in theFerganian landscape, a process which led the Nation to the top of the geopolitical actors' hierarchyin the region. This chapter also analyses the representations of the Fergana which are defined andimplemented by the actor Nation since its birth in the 1920s. In fact, the Fergana valley first becamea transborder region only in these years, through its integration to the Union of the Socialist SovietRepublics (USSR) and its partition between three of the five newly created Socialist SovietRepublics in Central Asia. In the 1990s, following the fall of the USSR and the independence of thethree Republics, the borders which divided the Ferghana stopped being only internal, but becamereal and proper international borders. Among the main representations that this study looks at, aparticular attention is devoted to the study of the national borders , their creation and theirevolution. The chapter also looks at the relations between the different Nation-States, which form aunique actor when they rival against the other territorial actors – the Religion and the CulturalRegionalism –, but three well different ones when they rival among themselves.The second chapter concentrates upon the second territorial actor, the Religion. The Fergana valleyis one of the most pious and practicing region of Central Asia, and the Islamic religion alwaysplayed a major role in the society's administration and organization.The chapter proposes first an analysis of the religion's representations in the Fergana: theautochthonous sufism and its sacred geography within the Fergana valley ; the traditional Islam ofthe soviet times, which became a legal weapon used by Moscow to fight the sufi orthodoxy in theFergana ; the recently appeared wahabbite fundamentalism, imported from Afghanistan, Pakistanand Saudi Arabia following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the encounter it inducedbetween the soviet muslims and the afghan mujaheddins.It is then examined how the different variations of the actor opposed themselves to the actor Nation,over the years, for the control over the power and the resources of the Fergana. We look at how thegeopolitical rivalries vary dramatically from the soviet era to that of the independence. A specialattention is devoted to the phenomenon of politization of the actor Religion and the way this led theReligion to endorse a role of protagonist in many of the Fergana's events.The third actor is the Cultural Regionalism. It is hereby referred to the geo-cultural identity of thisregional entity, which persists in spite of nationalistic and religious pressures. In fact, as long as theFergana has existed as a place, it has always constituted a geographical, political and social whole.Although its population has been characterized during the past centuries by high levels ofmultiethnicity and linguistic heterogeneity, this did not prevent the societal amalgamation ofpopulations which always held multiethnicity as normality, and always attributed to each "group" aspecific social role within the system Fergana.Be they of language and culture persian and sedentary, turk and sedentary or turk and nomadic,these populations always shared, each in its own social role, a common life within the region. Thisvery phenomenon is the main characteristic of what we call the Cultural Regionalism of theFergana.However, this equilibrium changes with the loss of political sovereignty of the region and the rise ofnationalism under the soviet sovereignty. This chapter analyzes the main representation of the actorCultural Regionalism over time, and how it took stand against the other territorial actors, especiallythe Nation.Second partThe second part of the dissertation as dedicated to the current manifestations of the territorial actorsin the Fergana valley, particularly in its border zones. This part results from the interviews and fieldobservation undertaken in Central Asia and the Fergana in 2007, 2009 and 2010.The first chapter analyzes the border of this region from a theoretical point of view, especially in thelight of the geostrategical categories of "first line of defence" or "last line of defence".In the context of a transformation of the border from the soviet era to that of the independence, thesecond chapter explores the definition of the centrasiatic border, mainly through the analysis ofborder bureaucracy, control posts and documents required to cross the border. The chapter looks atthemes connected to the commercial transborder relations : how the "three" Fergana still manage tointeract despite growing border rigidity, which social relationships subsist today. The qualitativeinterviews led in the Fergana are a major source in this process of reviewing the difficulties ofpassage and communication within the valley, and of tracking the actual presence of the threegeopolitical actors which play a major role in the border relations and conflicts.The third chapter focuses on the Ferganian urban centres: their history, the relations that theFerganians have with them, et above all the internal and external representations of these centres ina now fully transborder region.The fourth chapter concentrates on the demographical evolutions of the Ferganian population. Upuntil then a land of immigration, the Fergana became a land of emigration following theindependence and the materialization of the borders.The fifth chapter deals with the Ferganian infrastructures, especially the rail and road networks, andtheir relationship of reciprocal influence with the mutation of the borders in the region.The sixth chapter builds on the theoretical interrogations evoked in the introduction of thedissertation and develops a conclusive analysis of the Fergana of the borders nowadays.ConclusionThe conclusion of this research depicts the current Fergana, the relations between the differentgeopolitical actors and underscores the persistence of the actor Cultural Regionalism.It establishes the existence of tremendous changes in the region Fergana from various viewpoints:the Ferganian population has new frames of cultural, political and social reference whoseimportance increased dramatically ; new political forms and cultural structures influenced its selfimage,its very identity: "russian, muslim, ferganian", then "soviet, uzbek (or tajik or kyrgyz),atheist, ferganian", finally "uzbek (or tajik or kyrgyz), secular, ferganian".However, although the territory, its borders and inhabitants changed, and despite the strongobstacles set by the actor Nation, the cultural regionalism succeeded in maintaining itself, byadapting to the new tendencies and ways of interpretation of the Fergana.The conclusion ends with the most recent events of the Fergana, the Andjian massacre in 2005 andthe Osh clash in 2010, which are both analysed in the light of the geopolitical power rivalries whichpersist in the region. ; IntroductionCette thèse de Doctorat propose une analyse géopolitique d'une région transfrontalière de l'Asiecentrale, la vallée du Ferghana, aujourd'hui divisée entre les Républiques d'Ouzbékistan, duTadjikistan et du Kirghizistan.Des séjours sur le terrain répartis sur trois ans ont constitué la base de la recherche, au travers del'analyse des frontières, de la cartographie analytique, d'entretiens qualitatifs avec experts ethabitants, et de recherches bibliographiques dans le Ferghana ainsi que dans la capitale ouzbèkeTachkent – notamment près l'Institut Français d'Etudes sur l'Asie Centrale (IFEAC). Ces périodesde terrain ont été complétées par un séjour de recherche en France, articulé principalement autourd'un approfondissement théorique à l'Institut Français de Géopolitique (IFG) de l'Université ParisVIII-Vincennes et de recherches bibliographiques à la Bibliothèque Nationale de France.L'objet de ce travail est donc l'analyse des rivalités de pouvoir entre les acteurs territoriaux surl'enjeu territorial de la vallée du Ferghana, bassin fertile à la position stratégique dans le contextegéopolitique centrasiatique élargi. Si le Ferghana a toujours constitué un enjeu disputé pardifférents acteurs territoriaux, les rivalités des acteurs actuels jouent aujourd'hui surtout au niveaufrontalier et transfrontalier.Ce faisant, cette thèse introduit un nouvel acteur dans le schéma d'analyse géopolitique classique:le Régionalisme culturel. Le Régionalisme culturel en tant qu'acteur territorial y fait donc l'objetd'une présentation approfondie ainsi que d'une évaluation de son importance passée et actuelle.Concentrée d'abord sur le contexte centrasiatique et les particularités qui découlent de sesfrontières, l'introduction présente ensuite « l'enjeu » Ferghana et ses ressources physiques etéconomiques, qui expliquent l'importance de ce territoire. Elle se poursuit sur un rapide pointthéorique sur la géopolitique et la justification du choix de l'école de pensée géopolitique de YvesLacoste comme cadre théorique de cette recherche, avant de s'achever sur une première analyse del'espace Ferghana à l'aune des catégories de frontières et de confins.Première partieLa thèse est structurée en deux grandes parties. La première, à dominante théorique, analyse à tourde rôle les trois acteurs territoriaux qui rivalisent pour le pouvoir sur le Ferghana: il s'agit de laNation, de la Religion, et du Régionalisme culturel. La présentation des acteurs, de leursdifférentes incarnations et de leurs représentations respectives du territoire ferghanien sont ainsiabordés selon un ordre conceptuel ; des évènements s'étant produits simultanément ne sont ainsipas analysés chronologiquement mais séparément, en tant qu'ils se rapportent aux acteurs évoqués.Le premier chapitre est consacré à l'acteur Nation. Par cette expression nous entendons nonseulement l'entité effective Etat-Nation et ses trois incarnations (Ouzbékistan, Tadjikistan,Kirghizistan), mais aussi la Nation comme idéologie qui agit sur le territoire au travers depolitiques nationalistes. La force de légitimation de l'acteur Nation n'est pas étrangère àl'accroissement de son importance sur ce territoire, qui l'a sans aucun doute mené au sommet de lahiérarchie des acteurs géopolitiques dans cette région. Ce chapitre analyse les représentations duFerghana définies et mises en oeuvres par l'acteur Nation depuis son apparition dans les années1920. La vallée du Ferghana est en effet devenue une région transfrontalière à cette époque, avecson intégration à l'Union des Républiques Socialistes Soviétiques (URSS) et sa partition entre troisdes cinq Républiques Socialistes Soviétiques nouvellement créées en Asie Centrale. Dans lesannées 1990, avec la chute de l'URSS et l'indépendance des trois Républiques, les frontières quidivisaient le Ferghana ne sont plus simplement internes, mais deviennent bel et bieninternationales. Parmi les représentations majeures qui font l'objet d'une étude dans ce chapitre,une attention particulière est portée aux frontières nationales, leur création et leur évolution. Lechapitre s'intéresse également aux relations entre les différents Etats-Nations, qui constituent unacteur unique lorsqu'ils rivalisent contre les autres acteurs territoriaux – la Religion et leRégionalisme culturel – mais aussi trois acteurs différenciés lorsqu'ils se disputent le territoireFerghana entre eux.Le deuxième chapitre est consacré au deuxième acteur territorial, la Religion. La vallée duFerghana est l'une des régions d'Asie centrale les plus croyantes et pratiquantes, et la religionislamique y a toujours eu un rôle important dans la gestion de la société.Ce chapitre propose d'abord une analyse des représentations de la religion dans le Ferghana : lesoufisme autochtone et la "géographie sacrée" des hauts lieux de ce courant de l'Islam dans leFerghana ; l'Islam traditionnel de la période soviétique, devenu une arme légale utilisée parMoscou pour combattre l'orthodoxie soufie du Ferghana ; le fondamentalisme wahabbiterécemment apparu, importé d'Afghanistan, du Pakistan et d'Arabie Saoudite à la suite del'invasion de l'Afghanistan par les Soviétiques en 1979 et de la rencontre qui s'en est ensuivieentre les musulmans soviétiques et les moudjahiddines afghans.Ensuite est examinée la manière dont les différentes variantes de l'acteur Religion se sontopposées, au cours des années, à l'acteur Nation pour le contrôle du pouvoir et des ressources duterritoire Ferghana. Nous y voyons comment la rivalité géopolitique entre deux acteurs varie dutout au tout selon que l'on parle de l'acteur Nation au cours de la période Soviétique ou bien aucours de l'ère ayant succédé à l'indépendance.Une attention particulière est portée au phénomène de politisation de l'acteur Religion et à lamanière dont cette politisation a amené la Religion à assumer un rôle de protagoniste dans denombreux évènements du Ferghana.Le troisième acteur est le Régionalisme culturel. Avec cette expression nous faisons référence àl'identité géo-culturelle de cet ensemble régional, qui persiste malgré les pressions nationalistes etreligieuses. Car aussi loin que remonte son existence en tant que lieu, la vallée du Ferghana atoujours constitué un ensemble géographique, politique et social à part entière. Bien que sapopulation se soit distinguée au cours des derniers siècles par une grande multiethnicité ethétérogénéité linguistique, cela n'a pas empêché un amalgame sociétal de cette population qui atoujours considéré la multiethnicité comme normale, et toujours a attribué à chaque « ethnie » unrôle social déterminé au sein du système Ferghana.Qu'elles soient de langue et de culture persane et sédentaire, de langue et de culture turque etsédentaire, ou bien de langue et de culture turque et nomade, ces populations ont toujours partagé,chacune dans son propre rôle social, une vie communautaire au sein de la région, et ce phénomèneest la caractéristique principale de ce que nous appelons le Régionalisme culturel du Ferghana.Cependant, cet équilibre change avec la perte de souveraineté politique de la région, l'avènementdu nationalisme sous l'action de l'URSS, et la partition de l'espace entre trois Etats nations del'Asie centrale soviétique. Ce chapitre analyse ainsi les principales représentations de l'acteurRégionalisme culturel au cours du temps, et comment il s'est opposé aux autres acteursterritoriaux, en particulier à l'acteur Nation.Seconde partieLa seconde partie de ce travail est dédiée aux manifestations actuelles des acteurs territoriaux dansla vallée du Ferghana, plus spécialement dans ses zones de frontière. Cette partie est le résultat desentretiens et des observations de terrain réalisés en Asie centrale et dans le Ferghana au cours deséjours en 2007, 2009 et 2010.Le premier chapitre analyse la frontière de cette région du point de vue théorique, à la lumièrenotamment des catégories géostratégiques de "première ligne de défense" ou "dernière ligne dedéfense".Dans le contexte d'une modification de la frontière entre l'époque soviétique et celle del'indépendance, le deuxième chapitre approfondit la définition de frontière centrasiatique, autravers principalement de l'analyse de la bureaucratie de frontière, des postes de contrôle et desdocuments requis pour le passage de la frontière. Les thématiques liées aux relations commercialestransfrontalières y sont examinées : comment les "trois" Ferghana parviennent encore à interagirmalgré la rigidité croissante des frontières, quelles relations sociales transfrontalières subsistent ausein du Ferghana d'aujourd'hui. Les entretiens qualitatifs réalisés dans le Ferghana jouent un rôlemajeur pour recenser les difficultés de passage et de communication dans la vallée et déceler, dansles descriptions et jugements recueillis, la présence des trois acteurs géopolitiques qui toujoursjouent un rôle fondamental dans les relations et conflits de frontière.Le troisième chapitre est dédié aux centres urbains du Ferghana : leur histoire, le rapport que lesFerghaniens entretiennent avec eux, et surtout les représentations internes et externes que lescentres urbains assument au sein d'une région désormais tout à fait transfrontalière.Le quatrième chapitre se concentre sur les évolutions démographiques de la population. Jusque làterre d'immigration tout au long des années tsaristes et soviétiques, le Ferghana est devenu uneterre d'émigration avec l'indépendance et la concrétisation des frontières.Le cinquième chapitre s'intéresse au Ferghana des infrastructures, notamment les réseaux ferré etroutier, et leur rapport d'influence réciproque mutations frontalières de cette région.Le sixième chapitre reprend les interrogations théoriques posées dans l'introduction et développeune analyse conclusive sur le Ferghana des frontières aujourd'hui.ConclusionLa conclusion de cette recherche dresse le bilan actuel du Ferghana et des rapports entre lesdifférents acteurs géopolitiques, et observe la persistance de l'acteur Régionalisme culturel.Force est de constater l'existence de changements dans la région Ferghana à différents points devue. La population ferghanienne dispose de nouveaux cadres de référence culturels, politiques etsociaux qui ont pris une importance majeure. Des nouvelles formes politiques et de structuresculturelles ont eu un impact sur son image d'elle-même, sur son identité: "russe, musulmane,ferghanienne", puis "soviétique, ouzbèke (ou tadjike ou kirghiz), athée, ferghanienne", et enfin"ouzbèke (ou tadjike ou kirghiz), laïque, ferghanienne".Cependant, bien que le territoire, ses frontières et la société qui l'habite aient changé, et malgré lesobstacles forts posés par l'acteur Nation, que Régionalisme culturel a réussi à survivre, ens'adaptant aux nouvelles tendances et aux nouveaux modes d'interprétation du Ferghana.La conclusion s'achève sur les évènements les plus récents du Ferghana; massacre d'Andijan en2005 et affrontements à Osh en juin 2010, qui sont analysés à la lumière des rivalités de pouvoirgéopolitique qui persistent encore dans la région.
How to Cite This Article: Ahmadi Doulabi M, Sajedi F, Vameghi R, Mazaheri MA, Akbarzadeh Baghban AR. Socioeconomic Status Index to Interpret Inequalities in Child Development. Iran J Child Neurol. Spring 2017; 11(2):13-25.AbstractObjectiveThere have been contradictory findings on the relationship between Socioeconomic Status (SES) and child development although SES is associated with child development outcomes. The present study intended to define the relationship between SES and child development in Tehran kindergartens, Iran.Materials & Methods This cross-sectional survey studied 1036 children aged 36-60 month, in different kindergartens in Tehran City, Iran, in 2014-2015.The principal factor analysis (PFA) model was employed to construct SES indices. The constructed SES variable was employed as an independent variable in logistic regression model to evaluate its role in developmental delay as a dependent variable.Results The relationship between SES and developmental delay was significant at P=0.003. SES proved to have a significant (P<0.05) impact on developmental delay, both as an independent variable and after controlling risk factors.Conclusion There should be more emphasis on developmental monitoring and appropriate intervention programs for children to give them higher chance of having a more productive life. 1. Haghdoost AA. Complexity of the Socioeconomic Status and its Disparity as a Determinant of Health. Int J Prev 2012; 3(2):75. 2. Behavioral and social sciences research. Measuring Socioeconomic Status. e-Source 2013; Available from:http://www.esourceresearch.org 3. Bradley RH, Corwyn RF. Socioeconomic status and child development. 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Desde hace mucho tiempo, los Estados Unidos y Canadá tienen experiencia con la migración a gran escala, y siguen acogiendo a grandes flujos de inmigrantes legales. Las mujeres representan un porcentaje creciente de estos flujos internacionales. En ambos países, la mayoría de los inmigrantes legales son elegibles para la plena ciudadanía, y pueden acceder rápida o automáticamente a derechos políticos y mercados de trabajo, aunque los derechos estratificados son una realidad para los inmigrantes temporales e irregulares, también en el ámbito de la protección social. En el plano formal, las mujeres y los hombres disfrutan de estos derechos en igualdad de condiciones, pero la desigualdad de género persiste tanto en la política gubernamental como en los mercados de trabajo. Asimismo, el marco político y de política establecido recientemente en ambos países está influido por principios ideológicos neoliberales, lo que contribuye a la introducción de cambios en la política de migración, los mercados de trabajo y las prestaciones sociales que aumentan la vulnerabilidad de las mujeres migrantes ante las desigualdades estructurales. En la primera parte del documento se comparan los regímenes de migración establecidos en ambos países. El número de mujeres inmigrantes está incrementándose tanto en Estados Unidos como en Canadá, aunque la mayoría de ellas sigue dependiendo de los hombres. Los cambios en la política de migración que apoyan cada vez más la admisión de migrantes altamente cualificados han tenido lugar a mayor escala en Canadá; en la actualidad, el número de migrantes en ambos países que pertenecen a categorías "económicas" muy cualificadas supera el número de migrantes que ha llegado a estos países en el marco de categorías humanitarias de reunificación familiar y de asilo a los refugiados. Los requisitos en materia de admisión que ponen de relieve el capital humano perjudican a las mujeres procedentes de países en los que los recursos están principalmente en manos de los hombres. En los Estados Unidos, los migrantes correspondientes a la categoría humanitaria siguen prevaleciendo, aunque la competencia profesional es un medio "encubierto" para que un migrante temporal alcance la categoría de permanente. En el ámbito de las admisiones de refugiados, los cambios introducidos en las normas que rigen la selección de refugiados han fomentado la sensibilidad ante la situación de las mujeres en Canadá, pero el número de personas afectadas sigue siendo poco elevado. En ambos países, el número de migrantes correspondientes a categorías de entrada temporales ha aumentado en el último decenio. Las mujeres están presentes en categorías de entrada temporales que abarcan migrantes tanto muy cualificados como poco cualificados, cuyas perspectivas difieren considerablemente dependiendo de la ubicación del mercado de trabajo. Las iniciativas de política emprendidas en los últimos tiempos en ambos países proponen conceder la categoría temporal a los migrantes irregulares; tales propuestas podrían acercar los regímenes de migración norteamericanos a los modelos europeos del "trabajador invitado", aun cuando estos modelos hayan demostrado ser insostenibles en Europa. A continuación se examinan los entornos de trabajo. En los Estados Unidos y Canadá, la liberalización de los mercados de trabajo ha reforzado las jerarquías profesionales marcadas por la desigualdad de género, en las que las mujeres inmigrantes están con frecuencia en una situación de desventaja. Aunque las mujeres inmigrantes están presentes entre los trabajadores muy cualificados, inclusive en los países en desarrollo, también están desproporcionadamente presentes en las categorías más bajas de los servicios estratificados, en el sector manufacturero, y el comercio al por menor. Pueden observarse claramente patrones similares en lo que respecta al desempleo, el subempleo, las condiciones de trabajo y los ingresos. Derechos sociales reducidos que enfatizan la prestación de cuidados en la esfera privada brindan numerosas pero precarias oportunidades de empleo, a la vez que incrementan la carga de las mujeres en su propio ámbito familiar. El hecho de que los órganos competentes en la concesión de licencias no reconozcan los títulos adquiridos en el extranjero constituye un gran problema en Canadá, y contribuye a las descualificación y el subdesempleo de las mujeres inmigrantes. En ambos países, la acción afirmativa y la legislación relativa a la igualdad en el empleo que tienen por objeto combatir y rectificar la discriminación en el mercado de trabajo por motivos de raza y sexo se han visto perjudicadas por el compromiso político decreciente, la aplicación limitada de la legislación y un alcance restringido. Los derechos sociales se examinan en la última sección del documento. En el ámbito de los servicios de sentamiento, la devolución y descentralización de los servicios han trasladado la responsabilidad de los gobiernos federales a los gobiernos estatales y provinciales, que en muchos casos se asocian con empresas y organizaciones no gubernamentales. A pesar de los cambios que reconocen la creciente necesidad de las mujeres de recibir educación lingüística en Canadá, los fondos destinados a tales fines no han variado desde mediados del decenio de 1990. Una cuestión que afecta particularmente a las mujeres inmigrantes en lo que respecta a la disminución de los derechos de los inmigrantes es la elegibilidad para recibir una pensión de jubilación. A pesar de que se les otorgan pensiones reducidas, universalmente adjudicadas, a las personas mayores en ambos países; los migrantes que trabajan en el hogar, en los sectores informales, o las personas que llegan al país de acogida en una etapa posterior de su vida, muchas veces no son elegibles para los regímenes de pensión gubernamentales relacionados con el trabajo. La estratificación de las prestaciones sociales es más destacada en los Estados Unidos, en gran parte a consecuencia de dos características del régimen estatal de protección social establecido en este país. La primera es la considerable privatización del sistema de atención de salud, por lo que muchas veces los pobres no están asegurados y dependen únicamente de las prestaciones del programa Medicaid concedidas a personas supeditadas a un tope en los ingresos, o tienen que pagar en efectivo una onerosa atención médica. La segunda característica son los cambios en el ámbito de la asistencia social que niegan el acceso a las prestaciones sociales a las mujeres solteras que no trabajan; que limitan el acceso durante toda la vida a dichas prestaciones a un período de cinco años, y que niegan completamente el acceso a tales prestaciones a los residentes permanentes legales que no han alcanzado la categoría de ciudadanos legales. En ambos países, la degradación de la protección social asociada con el énfasis neoliberal en la austeridad fiscal del gobierno y en una dependencia de la prestación de los servicios en el mercado tiene consecuencias desproporcionadamente negativas en los pobres, en particular en los inmigrantes pobres con un déficit educativo o lingüístico. Combinados con la liberalización de los mercados de trabajo, estos cambios pueden menoscabar el compromiso con los principios de la redistribución económica en América del Norte, y amenazar el bienestar de las mujeres que emigran a estos países. ; Abstract. The United States and Canada have long histories of large-scale migration, and they continue to welcome large flows of legal immigrants. Women make up an increasing proportion of these international flows. In both countries, the majority of legal immigrants are eligible for full citizenship rights and entitlements, with rapid or automatic access to both political rights and labour markets, although stratified entitlements are present for temporary and irregular migrants, and in the realm of social provision. Formally, women partake of these rights equally with men, but gender inequality persists both in government policy and in labour markets. In both countries, moreover, recent political and policy environments are influenced by neoliberal ideological principles, contributing to changes in migration policy, labour markets and social provisions that make female migrants increasingly vulnerable to structural inequalities. In the first part of the paper, migration regimes in the two countries are compared. Women are entering both countries in increasing numbers, though still primarily as dependants of men. Changes to migration policy that increasingly favour admissions of highly educated migrants have been enacted more extensively in Canada; entry in high-skill "economic" categories now exceeds entry through the humanitarian categories of family reunification and refugee asylum. Admission requirements that emphasize human capital penalize women who come from countries in which resources are highly concentrated in male hands. In the United States, humanitarian category entries still predominate, although high-skill temporary entry increasingly functions as a "back door" route to permanent status. In the realm of refugee admissions, changes in rules that govern refugee selection have increased gender sensitivity in Canada, but the numbers affected remain low. In both countries, numbers of migrants within temporary categories of entry have increased over the last decade. Women are present in temporary categories that encompass both high and low skill streams, with very different prospects depending on labour market location. Recent policy initiatives in both countries propose the granting of temporary status to irregular migrants; such proposals have the potential to move North American migration regimes closer to European "guest worker" models, even as these models have proved untenable in Europe. Next, gendered work environments are examined. In the United States and Canada, deregulation of labour markets has reinforced gendered occupational hierarchies in which immigrant women often hold disadvantaged places. While immigrant women, including those from the developing world, are present among highly skilled workers, they are also disproportionately visible at the bottom rungs of stratified service, retail and manufacturing sectors. Similar patterns are evident with respect to unemployment, underemployment, working conditions and earnings. Diminished social entitlements that emphasize private provision of care provide abundant, but also precarious, employment opportunities, while increasing women's burdens within their own families. Lack of recognition of credentials acquired abroad by licensing bodies is a serious issue in Canada, contributing to deskilling and underemployment among immigrant women. In both countries, affirmative action and employment equity legislation that seeks to oppose and redress labour market discrimination based on race and sex has been hobbled by waning political commitment, limited enforcement, and restricted reach. Social entitlements are examined in the final section of the paper. In the realm of settlement services, devolution and decentralization of services have relocated responsibility from federal governments to state and provincial governments, which frequently partner with businesses and non-governmental organizations. Despite changes that recognize women's greater need for language instruction in Canada, funding has remained static since the mid-1990s. One area of diminished entitlements for immigrants that particularly affects immigrant women is eligibility for pensions. Although small, universally awarded pensions are given to the elderly in both countries, migrants who work at home, in informal sectors, or who enter the country late in life are frequently ineligible for government pension plans that are work-related. It is in the United States that stratification of social benefits is most marked, largely as a result of two features of US welfare state provision. The first is the largely private health care system, in which the poor are often uninsured and must rely on means-tested Medicaid benefits, or pay cash for expensive medical care. The second is changes to social assistance that deny welfare access to single, non-working mothers, limit lifelong access to welfare to five years, and deny welfare completely to legal permanent residents who have not become legal citizens. In both countries, the erosion of social provision associated with neoliberal emphases on government fiscal austerity and a reliance on market provision of services is disproportionately felt by the poor, and especially poor immigrants with educational or language deficits. Combined with deregulation of labour markets, such changes both undermine commitment to principles of economic redistribution in North America, and threaten the well-being of women who migrate to these countries. ; Résumé. Les Etats-Unis et le Canada ont une longue expérience des migrations à grande échelle et continuent d'accueillir des flux importants d'immigrants réguliers. Les femmes tiennent une place croissante dans ces flux internationaux. Dans les deux pays, la majorité des immigrants réguliers remplissent les conditions requises pour jouir pleinement des droits liés à la nationalité et entrer dans le système de protection sociale. Ils ont un accès rapide ou automatique à la fois aux droits politiques et au marché du travail, bien qu'il existe une stratification des droits pour les immigrés temporaires et clandestins. Officiellement, les femmes jouissent de ces droits au même titre que les hommes, mais l'inégalité entre les sexes persiste, tant dans la politique gouvernementale que sur les marchés du travail. De plus, l'environnement politique et les politiques récentes ont été influencées dans les deux pays par les principes de l'idéologie néolibérale, qui contribuent, par les changements apportés à la politique de l'immigration, aux marchés du travail et aux dispositions sociales, à rendre les femmes immigrées de plus en plus vulnérables aux inégalités structurelles. La première partie du document compare l'immigration dans les deux pays. Les femmes sont de plus en plus nombreuses parmi les immigrants, bien qu'encore principalement en qualité de personnes à charge. Le Canada, plus que les Etats-Unis, a modifié peu à peu sa politique de l'immigration pour favoriser l'entrée de migrants hautement spécialisés; les immigrants "économiques" hautement qualifiés sont maintenant plus nombreux que les demandeurs d'asile et les migrants accueillis pour raison humanitaire au titre de la réunion des familles. Des conditions d'admission qui privilégient le capital humain pénalisent les femmes originaires de pays caractérisés par une forte concentration des ressources aux mains des hommes. Aux Etats-Unis, les entrées relevant de la catégorie humanitaire prédominent encore, bien que l'immigration temporaire soit pour beaucoup de travailleurs hautement qualifiés "l'entrée de service" qui leur permet de s'établir définitivement. Pour ce qui est des réfugiés, les changements apportés aux règles qui régissent leur sélection ont rendu le Canada plus sensible au sort des femmes, mais le nombre des réfugiées accueillies reste bas. Dans les deux pays, le nombre des immigrés qui arrivent en qualité de migrants temporaires a augmenté depuis dix ans. Il y a des femmes dans cette catégorie de migrants temporaires, dans laquelle entrent à la fois des professionnelles hautement qualifiées et des travailleuses peu qualifiées, et leurs perspectives sont très différentes selon leur situation sur le marché du travail. Dans les deux pays, des initiatives politiques récentes proposent d'accorder un permis temporaire aux migrants clandestins; de telles propositions pourraient rapprocher les régimes d'immigration nord-américains des modèles européens, même si ceux-ci se sont révélés intenables en Europe. Les auteurs étudient ensuite l'environnement de travail pour chaque sexe. Aux Etats-Unis et au Canada, la déréglementation des marchés du travail a renforcé la hiérarchie des métiers, dans laquelle les femmes immigrées sont souvent défavorisées. S'il existe des femmes immigrées, notamment de pays en développement, parmi les travailleurs hautement qualifiés, elles sont surtout visibles, et en nombre disproportionné, aux échelons les plus bas des services, du commerce de détail et des industries manufacturières. Le même schéma est patent pour ce qui est du chômage, du sous-emploi, des conditions de travail et des gains. Un système où les droits sociaux sont réduits et dans lequel l'accent est mis sur l'origine privée des soins offre de nombreux emplois précaires tout en alourdissant la charge des femmes dans leur famille. Au Canada, la non-reconnaissance de diplômes et qualifications acquis à l'étranger est un problème grave, qui contribue à la déqualification et au sous-emploi chez les femmes immigrées. Dans les deux pays, une volonté politique affaiblie a réduit l'application et la portée des mesures d'action positive et des lois relatives à l'équité dans l'emploi, adoptées pour combattre et compenser la discrimination fondée sur la race et le sexe sur le marché du travail. La dernière section du document est consacrée aux droits sociaux. S'agissant de l'aide à l'établissement, la décentralisation des services a entraîné un transfert des responsabilités du gouvernement fédéral à celui de l'Etat ou de la province, qui souvent s'allie avec des entreprises et des organisations non gouvernementales. Bien que l'on ait compris au Canada que les femmes avaient plus besoin de cours de langue que les hommes, le financement n'a pas augmenté depuis le milieu de la décennie 90. Si les droits sont parfois réduits pour les immigrants, il est un domaine dans lequel les femmes immigrées sont particulièrement touchées: celui des retraites. Bien que dans les deux pays, de modestes pensions soient versées à toutes les personnes âgées, les immigrés qui travaillent à domicile, dans l'économie informelle ou qui arrivent dans le pays à un âge avancé ne réunissent souvent pas les conditions requises pour bénéficier du régime de retraite public, qui dépend des années de travail. C'est aux Etats-Unis que la stratification des avantages sociaux est la plus marquée, en grande partie à cause de deux caractéristiques du système de prévoyance de ce pays. D'une part, le système des soins de santé est en grande partie privé, ce qui fait que les pauvres sont souvent sans assurance et dépendent des prestations de Medicaid, soumises à des conditions de ressources ou ils doivent payer comptant des soins médicaux coûteux. D'autre part, des modifications ont été apportées à l'assistance sociale, qui ont pour effet d'en refuser l'accès aux mères célibataires qui ne travaillent pas, de limiter à cinq ans la durée totale pendant laquelle on peut en bénéficier pendant sa vie et de la refuser totalement aux résidents établis régulièrement mais n'ayant pas acquis la nationalité du pays. Dans les deux pays, l'érosion de la prévoyance sociale, alliée à l'importance que prend l'austérité budgétaire dans un contexte néolibéral et à la confiance faite au marché pour fournir les services voulus, a des effets disproportionnés sur les pauvres, et plus particulièrement sur les immigrés pauvres peu instruits et handicapés par la méconnaissance de la langue. Avec la déréglementation des marchés du travail, ces changements à la fois ébranlent l'attachement aux príncipes de la redistribution économique en Amérique du Nord et menacent le bien-être des femmes qui y immigrent.