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The aim is to analyze the educational policy of the state in the national districts of Katerinoslav province, later - on the territory of Dnipropetrovsk region with the biggest concentration of the national formations in the republic. Research methods: historical-genetic, historical-comparative and historical-systemic. The main results. It was detected that after the ending of the civil war, representatives of national minorities, perceived the ideology Bolshevik government without enthusiasm. To strengthen their influence in this environment, was taken the course to the creation of the human resources that were loyal to the party from local population. In the complex of measures that were directed to the decision of this problem, the most important place was taken away to the educational policy, on the base on the influence of consciousness of the society and in the first place to its growing generation. It was shown it was started to do by the way of creation the chain of the national general and secondary special educational institutions. It was opened the specific formation of this policy in the region. Quantitative indicators testified that on the territory of Katerinoslav (Dnipropetrovs'k) till the end of the 20th, in the sphere of creation the educational education, noticeable positive results were taken place. It testified that its leadership of different levels was followed in the way of soviet party- state leadership. But, despite the proclamation of priority in the development of national education, the state allocated not much money for this sphere. There were serious problems with the providing of educational literature on the mother tongue. Circulations and nomenclature of planned educational manuals didn't meet the needs. That's why teachers of schools and teachers of secondary special educational institutions needed to conduct the educational process due to pre-revolionary or Russian-speaking textbooks, or even due to fiction literature. There was a shortage of school facilities. However, it's noted that to the end of 20-s among national minorities, the percentage of primary education coverage ranged from 80 to almost 100 percent. It's emphasized that a network of various and secondary special educational institutions has been created. The training down specialists was under a significant ideological influence. It's noticed that since the early 30's began to curtail the policy of indigenization, liquidation of educational institutions and repressions against their pedagogical staff under the slogans of accusations of espionage and counter-revolutionary activities. In the middle of 1938 educational institutions of all national minorities ceased to exist. Concise conclusions Educational policy among national minorities in the Ekaterinoslav region was conducted in accordance with the proclamation, which consisted in the introduction of party ideology through the formation in the system of institutions of national education of personnel trained in the spirit of Bolshevik ideology. In the 1920s it was properly implemented. From the beginning of 1930s education begins to change and teaching in national languages begins to unfold accompanying repression against educators. The process ended in the middle of 1938 year by the liquidation of educational institutions of all types and translation into Russian of the Ukrainian language of insruction. In this way, the authorities initiated the process of assimilation and Russification of national minorities in the region. Originality: based on research materials and collections of archival documents. Scientific novelty: for the first time the educational policy of the Soviet power on the territory of Dnipropetrovs'k region in the ethno-national dimension is presented, through the prism of its realization in various national formations of the region. Article type: empirical ; Мета статті – дослідити освітню політику держави в національних районах у Катеринославській губернії, пізніше – Дніпропетровській області, регіоні, з найбільшою в республіці концентрацією національних утворень. Методи дослідження: історико-генетичний, історико-порівняльний та історико-системний. Основні результати. Проаналізовано освітню політику Радянської влади у всіх національних районах регіону. Виявлено, що після закінчення громадянської війни представники національних меншин без ентузіазму сприймали ідеологію більшовицької влади. Щоб зміцнити свій вплив в цьому середовищі, було взято курс на створення відданого партії кадрового потенціалу з місцевого населення. Показано, що це почало робитися шляхом створення мережі загальноосвітніх та середніх спеціальних навчальних закладів. Розкрито особливості здійснення цієї політики у регіоні. Попри проголошення пріоритету в розвитку освіти держава на цю сферу виділяла недостатньо коштів. Були серйозні проблеми з забезпеченістю навчальною літературою на рідній мові. Проте, зазначається, на кінець 20-х рр. у національних меншинах процент охоплення початковою освітою становив від 80 до майже 100%. У регіону з заможними національними громадами були кращі умови для забезпечення функціонування своїх шкіл. Підкреслюється, що була створена мережа різнопрофільних середніх спеціальних навчальних закладів. Підготовка в них спеціалістів знаходилася під відчутним ідеологічним впливом. З початку 1930-х рр. розпочалося згортання політики коренізації, ліквідація освітніх закладів і репресії відносно їх педколективів під гаслами звинувачення у «шпигунстві» та «контрреволюційній діяльності». У середині 1938 р. було припинено існування освітніх закладів усіх національних меншин. Стислі висновки Освітня політика у середовищі національних меншин на Катеринославщині проводилася у відповідності до проголошеної більшовицькою партією політики, яка полягала у впровадженні партійної ідеології через формування у системі закладів національної освіти кадрів, підготовлених у дусі більшовицької ідеології. У 1920-х рр., вона належним чином реалізовувалася. З початку 1930-х рр. освітянська політика починає змінюватися і навчання національними мовами починає згортатися, супроводжуючись репресіями щодо освітян. Процес завершується у середині 1938 р. ліквідацією навчальних закладів усіх типів та переведенням на російську або українську мови навчання. У такий спосіб владою було покладено початок процесу асиміляції та зросійщення національних меншин області. Практичне значення: для застосування дослідниками історії національних меншин 1920-х‒1930-х рр. Оригінальність: на основі матеріалів досліджень та збірників архівних документів. Наукова новизна: вперше подано освітню політику радянської влади на теренах Дніпропетровщини крізь призму реалізації її у різних національних утвореннях регіону. Тип статті: емпірична. ; Мета статті – дослідити освітню політику держави в національних районах у Катеринославській губернії, пізніше – Дніпропетровській області, регіоні, з найбільшою в республіці концентрацією національних утворень. Методи дослідження: історико-генетичний, історико-порівняльний та історико-системний. Основні результати. Проаналізовано освітню політику Радянської влади у всіх національних районах регіону. Виявлено, що після закінчення громадянської війни представники національних меншин без ентузіазму сприймали ідеологію більшовицької влади. Щоб зміцнити свій вплив в цьому середовищі, було взято курс на створення відданого партії кадрового потенціалу з місцевого населення. Показано, що це почало робитися шляхом створення мережі загальноосвітніх та середніх спеціальних навчальних закладів. Розкрито особливості здійснення цієї політики у регіоні. Попри проголошення пріоритету в розвитку освіти держава на цю сферу виділяла недостатньо коштів. Були серйозні проблеми з забезпеченістю навчальною літературою на рідній мові. Проте, зазначається, на кінець 20-х рр. у національних меншинах процент охоплення початковою освітою становив від 80 до майже 100%. У регіону з заможними національними громадами були кращі умови для забезпечення функціонування своїх шкіл. Підкреслюється, що була створена мережа різнопрофільних середніх спеціальних навчальних закладів. Підготовка в них спеціалістів знаходилася під відчутним ідеологічним впливом. З початку 1930-х рр. розпочалося згортання політики коренізації, ліквідація освітніх закладів і репресії відносно їх педколективів під гаслами звинувачення у «шпигунстві» та «контрреволюційній діяльності». У середині 1938 р. було припинено існування освітніх закладів усіх національних меншин. Стислі висновки Освітня політика у середовищі національних меншин на Катеринославщині проводилася у відповідності до проголошеної більшовицькою партією політики, яка полягала у впровадженні партійної ідеології через формування у системі закладів національної освіти кадрів, підготовлених у дусі більшовицької ідеології. У 1920-х рр., вона належним чином реалізовувалася. З початку 1930-х рр. освітянська політика починає змінюватися і навчання національними мовами починає згортатися, супроводжуючись репресіями щодо освітян. Процес завершується у середині 1938 р. ліквідацією навчальних закладів усіх типів та переведенням на російську або українську мови навчання. У такий спосіб владою було покладено початок процесу асиміляції та зросійщення національних меншин області. Практичне значення: для застосування дослідниками історії національних меншин 1920-х‒1930-х рр. Оригінальність: на основі матеріалів досліджень та збірників архівних документів. Наукова новизна: вперше подано освітню політику радянської влади на теренах Дніпропетровщини крізь призму реалізації її у різних національних утвореннях регіону. Тип статті: емпірична.

Obama's governing style puzzles many people inside and outside the Beltway.In order to understand the 44th President's distinct, indeed, at times puzzling behavior, it is useful to go back to his biography. A Constitutional lawyer and professor who spend only one term in the Senate, and whose political experience came mainly from community organizing. The son of a white globe-trotting sociologist and a Kenyan professor, who spent his early years in Indonesia, and was later raised by his white grandparents in Hawaii. An introspective young man trying to find his way in the turbulent 1960s and ending up in Harvard law school, where he became president of the prestigious Harvard Law Review. This minimalist biographical sketch contains many hints to help us analyze the way he governs. First and foremost, the president is an intellectual, a Constitutional scholar and a student of US history. He is also an admirer of Abraham Lincoln, arguably the most important yet problematic of US presidents. The first Black president in a country where racism has left an eternal imprint, he is deeply and constantly aware of his own historic role in American politics. Second, because of his particular heritage, he learned to move easily in different social settings but never quite felt he belonged in any of them. Paradoxically, even now, after five years in the highest office, he still seems uncomfortable with the daily give and take of inside-the-Beltway politics and avoids direct talks with the Republican leaders in House and Senate.This has played out for better or worse in his relations with Congress, his own staff and the public at large. Obama was elected by a broad coalition of white intellectuals, college students, women and ethnic minorities. He mesmerized them with his epic speeches and soaring rhetoric. He promised to undo much of the damage inherited from the Bush administration and was relatively successful, as proved by the fact of his re-election. However, his approach to policy making constantly raises eyebrows in the public as well as in Congress.The Left wonders why he hasn't closed the Guantanamo prison, why he allows the seemingly unlimited use of drones in war scenarios, and why he gives a free hand to the National Security Agency's spying on Americans. The Right accuses him of sins of commission and omission, from abuse of executive power (example: alleged cover-ups in Benghazi and AP scandals, or over-use of prosecutorial discretion and executive orders) to leading from behind in Libya and doing nothing in Syria. And Congress is surprised at his indifference and detachment: he introduces big ideas but does not get involved in the details; he lets legislators fight his battles and find their own way. He is not interested in developing personal ties or working relationships with them (something he also failed to do while he was a Senator).In his relation with the legislative branch, Obama is neither a salesman like Harry Truman nor an arm twister, like Lyndon B. Johnson. In sum, he does not play the Washington game. His two main venues for policy discussions are with his own expert staff and with large public audiences. The former he uses for in-depth study of the issue and lengthy debate on options; the latter, to get grassroots support for major policies (immigration, health care) and also to rail against Congress, to publicly blame it for its dysfunction and inaction. A case in point is the fundamental issue of gun-control. Obama, together with 90% of the public supported background checks after the Sandyhook and Aurora massacres, but the NRA stronghold on Congress killed the bill, with the President not being able to persuade even some Democrats to vote for it. Frustrated with what he sees as a dysfunctional Congress, his call for bipartisanship is enunciated as a royal wish, not something he is ready to roll up his sleeves and work for.His use of executive power is hard to predict and is often criticized for its incoherence, but a closer look reveals an inner logic. Always the Constitutional law professor, he abides by checks and balances, which explains his cool distance from legislators once a bill is being deliberated. However, he is ready to use executive orders to bypass Congress on core priorities which he has long decided will be part of his legacy, for example, on his decision this week to reduce greenhouse gases by 37% in a period of 7 years. He thinks strategically and on a case by case basis: in this case, the carbon reduction rules were announced together with a conditional approval to the building of the Keystone XL oil pipeline from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, a project strongly supported by Republicans and the public. But, he added, "only subject to review of its effects on carbon pollution". The announcement raised protests from both Right and Left, but seems measured to satisfy the center.On foreign and security policy, however, he defers to the establishment. One interpretation of this detachment is that once he became aware by secret daily briefings, of the intricacies of National Security and the immense power of the military-intelligence complex that naturally accompanies it, he decided leave it to the experts, his main focus being on "keeping the country safe" as he articulates it daily to his audiences. This is true on all defense issues except those that are personal to him, part of his envisioned legacy, such as disarmament. But his approach is clearly perceived as weakness by foreign leaders, as demonstrated by the reaction to self-admitted leaker Edward Snowden: the US indicted him for espionage, revoked his passport and asked for his extradition but both Hong Kong (pressed by Beijing) and Russia ignored the request.Obama's domestic policy legacy is quite in line with what he was elected to do both in his first and second term. Through his early action of getting Congress to pass a stimulus package, he saved the banking system and the automobile industry. Health reform was his next success. Today Immigration Reform has passed the Senate and is bound for the House. Failing to get Congress to pass his plan for environmental regulation, he has now done it through the EPA using a broad interpretation of the old Clean Air Act. At every step his actions were challenged and sent to the highest court which has for the most part ruled in his direction. Last week the Defense of Marriage Act was deemed unconstitutional, another triumph for the President and his base. Right now it is mainly his actions or inactions in foreign and defense policy that are being challenged by parts of the electorate, including a sizable part of his base.If Obama believes, as many devotees of Executive Power do, that presidents possess a vast reservoir of power that can be invoked at their discretion, then he preserves it carefully and uses it strategically, in pursuit of the "safety and well-being of the American people". His personal interpretation of American constitutional democracy seems to be: never forget the three first words of the Preamble, We the People, but use executive power to the full in order to save the Republic, even in contradiction to the written law, under the authority of what Thomas Jefferson called, the "laws of necessity, of self-preservation." These have to be redefined by every generation. For Lincoln, it was the inevitable suspension of certain rights during the civil war. History will judge whether Obama is governing according to the spirit of his time. Sobre el autorMaria Fornella-Oehninger - Old Dominion University

Introduction : Why South Africa and Russia? . - Three Centuries : Russia and South Africa Before the Soviet Era . - Enter the Bolsheviks . - New Politics and New Business Contacts . - In the Communist International . - Indoctrination or Scholarship? : Teaching and Studying South Africa at the Communist University of Eastern Toilers . - The 'New Jerusalem' : The USSR's Friends and Fellow Travellers . - Together against Hitler . - The Red Peril : the USSR in South Africa's Cold War Ideology and Policy . - Against Colonialism and Apartheid : South Africa in Soviet Theory and Policy in the Cold War Era . - The Secret War . - The Regular War . - The ANC, the SACP and the USSR . - Comrades in Arms : Soviet Military Aid to the ANC . - 'Moscow Gold', Soviet Universities and Much Else . - The Promised Land . - Perestroika : Winds of Change in the North . - Pretoriastroika : Winds of Change in the South . - Volte Face : Establishing Diplomatic Relations . - Just Another Country? . - Postscript : The USSR and the 'South African Miracle'

Die Möglichkeiten einer systematischen quantitativen Analyse der politischen Strafgefangenen in der Sowjetischen Besatzungszone (SBZ) und der DDR des Zeitraum 1945-1989 werden ausgelotet. In Form zahlreicher Tabellen wird eine erste wissenschaftliche Quellenbasis geliefert. Der Begriff des 'politischen Gefangenen' in den alten Bundesländern und der DDR wird definiert und operationalisiert. Die 'politischen Straftaten', 'politischen Täter' und 'politischen Strafgefangenen' werden statistisch beschrieben. Als historische Höhepunkte in der politischen Strafverfolgung werden der Volksaufstand 1953, der Mauerbau 1961 und der Einmarsch in die CSSR 1968 genannt. Weitere Aspekte sind die politischen Gefangenen nach dem Wirtschaftsstrafrecht, im Militärbereich, die Amnestien, die Verurteilungen nach den Strafparagraphen 213 (ungesetzlicher Grenzübertritt) und 249 (asoziales Verhalten), die Ermittlungsergebnisse des ehemaligen Ministeriums für Staatssicherheit und die psychiatrische Behandlung im Strafvollzug der DDR. Insgesamt wird die Zahl der potentiellen Strafgefangenen mit politischem Einschlag auf 170.000 bis 280.000 geschätzt. Darin sind die Internierten und die Verurteilten der Sowjetischem Militärtribunale nicht enthalten. (prf)

AMÉRICA LATINA Una nueva ola de protestas inquieta a Brasil a las puertas del Mundial. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/09/world/americas/brazil-crack-cocaine-world-cup/index.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/temor-en-brasil-por-protestas-en-el-mundial-/13999464 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1692120-rousseff-minimiza-las-protestas-contra-la-copa http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-04/23/content_17458106.htm http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2014/05/18/bresil-plus-de-120-otages-lors-d-une-mutinerie-dans-une-prison_4420778_3222.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/05/17/actualidad/1400283075_042256.html Venezuela en busca del diálogo entre la oposición y el gobierno. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/05/15/actualidad/1400179146_078252.html http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-04/23/content_17458106.htm http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1692592-venezuela-la-oposicion-pone-condiciones-para-retomar-el-dialogo http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/10/world/americas/mexico-earthquake/index.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/dialogo-en-venezuela-sigue-estancado/14013598 El narcotráfico acorrala a los argentinos. Para más información:http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/argentina-entrou-na-rota-do-narcotrafico-dizem-autoridades-12526131#ixzz32J6FeHJs http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/el-narcotrafico-esta-acorralando-a-los-argentinos/14002522 Sismo de 5,3 grados sacude norte de Perú. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/sismo-de-53-grados-sacude-norte-de-peru/13994856 31 niños mueren tras incendio en ómnibus. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/18/world/americas/colombia-bus-fire/index.htmlhttp://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/bus-crash-kills-least-32-people-colombia-n108956Arrestan en México a importante líder del narcotráfico. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/breve/2014/05/18/mexique-arrestation-d-un-baron-de-la-drogue_4420765_3222.html Avanzan las negociaciones entre las FARC y el gobierno. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1692329-avanzan-las-negociaciones-entre-las-farc-y-el-gobierno-de-santoshttp://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/17/world/americas/colombia-rebels-deal/index.html Aprobación al presidente peruano Humala cae a su nivel más bajo. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/aprobacion-al-presidente-peruano-humala-cae-a-su-nivel-mas-bajo/14007816 Panamá y Venezuela reanudarán relaciones consulares. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/panama-y-venezuela-reanudaran-relaciones-consulares/14009538 ESTADOS UNIDOS /CANADÁ Incendios obligan a evacuar miles de viviendas en California. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2014/05/16/le-sud-de-la-californie-en-proie-aux-incendies_4419677_3244.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1691991-incendios-en-eeuu-registran-un-tornado-de-fuego-en-californiahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/incendios-obligan-a-evacuar-miles-de-viviendas-en-california-/13991095 Ciberespionaje abre nuevo conflicto entre Estados Unidos y China. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1692834-el-ciberespionaje-abre-un-nuevo-frente-de-conflicto-entre-eeuu-y-china La Casa Blanca hace públicas las finanzas de Obama y Biden. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/la-casa-blanca-hace-publicas-las-finanzas-de-obama-y-biden/13994644 Inaugura el Museo del 11 de Septiembre. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/05/15/actualidad/1400170810_474913.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1690819-barack-obama-inaugura-el-museo-del-11-de-septiembrehttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/terrorismo-no-puede-igualar-fuerza-de-eu-obama-1010596.HTML "The Economist" analiza lineamientos de la Reserva Federal estadounidense. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21602271-central-banks-swollen-balance-sheets-have-their-uses-supersize-me Las divisiones entre Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea debilitan a Occidente frente a Rusia. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1690637-las-divisiones-entre-eeuu-y-la-ue-debilitan-a-occidente-frente-a-rusia EUROPA Continúa la tensión política y militar en Ucrania. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/18/world/europe/in-taking-crimea-putin-gains-a-sea-of-fuel-reserves.html?ref=world&_r=0 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/05/16/actualidad/1400250315_294678.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1692813-putin-anuncia-la-retirada-de-la-frontera-con-ucrania-pero-la-otan-desconfia http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/ordena-putin-retiro-de-tropas-rusas-en-frontera-con-ucrania-1011343.HTML http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/07/world/europe/ukraine-crisis/index.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/putin-ordena-retiro-de-tropas-rusas-de-frontera-ucraniana/14006975 Los Balcanes bajo agua, más de un millón de bosnios son afectados por las inundaciones. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/turkey-mine-collapse/were-high-toxic-gas-levels-ignored-turkish-mine-disaster-n108896 http://amanpour.blogs.cnn.com/2014/05/19/bosnian-president-calls-floods-the-worst-thing-country-has-faced-since-war/?hpt=ieu_c2 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/mas-de-un-millon-de-bosnios-afectados-por-inundaciones-ministro/14005996http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/absuelven-a-169-partidarios-de-mursi-acusados-de-disturbios/14007116 http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/ex-bosnian-serb-army-chief-denies-targeting-sarajevo-civilians-n109011http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/balkans-submerged-historic-floods-threatening-thousands-n108441 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/niega-vaticano-investigacion-a-bertone-por-desfalco-1011643.HTMLhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1692530-los-balcanes-bajo-agua Turquía vivió por la peor tragedia minera de su historia. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-05/17/content_17515274.htm http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/turquia-anuncia-indiciamento-de-presidente-de-mina-onde-morreram-301-pessoas-12538609#ixzz32J9D6RTg http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/17/world/europe/turkey-mine-accident/index.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1690617-furia-en-turquia-por-la-peor-tragedia-minera-de-su-historia http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/05/17/actualidad/1400347535_895548.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/rusia-no-ha-retirado-tropas-ucrania-1011680.HTML Elecciones europeas. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/05/15/actualidad/1400189758_513256.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/05/17/actualidad/1400353597_379870.html http://www.lemonde.fr/europeennes-2014/discussion/2014/05/05/euro-ivg-frontieres-qu-attendez-vous-de-l-europe_4411838_4350146.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/coalizao-de-direita-amplia-lideranca-na-corrida-pelo-parlamento-europeu-12546977#ixzz32J93canWLos suizos rechazan el salario mínimo más alto del mundo. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/switzerland-votes-worlds-highest-minimum-wage-n108306 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1692529-los-suizos-rechazan-el-salario-minimo-mas-alto-del-mundo http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/suizos-rechazan-instaurar-el-salario-minimo-mas-alto-del-mundo/14005401 http://money.cnn.com/2014/05/19/news/companies/credit-suisse/index.html?hpt=ieu_c2http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/05/18/actualidad/1400415444_158201.html España comienza a plantearse lo impensable: su "segunda transición". Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1692326-espana-comienza-a-plantearse-lo-impensable-su-segunda-transiciónhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-12/12/content_17171067.htm Descarrilamiento y choque de trenes en Rusia. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/choque-de-trenes-cerca-de-moscu-deja-5-muertos-1011603.HTMLhttp://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/20/world/europe/russia-train-crash/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 Inmigración ilegal desborda a Europa. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/12/world/europe/italy-migrants-ship-sinking/index.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/inmigracion-irregular-desborda-a-europa/13994536 Francia pone un candado a sectores clave con el "patriotismo económico". Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1692124-francia-pone-un-candado-a-sectores-clave-con-el-patriotismo-economico ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE Narendra Modi será primer ministro de India tras histórica elección. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1692122-historica-victoria-de-un-lider-nacionalista-en-la-indiahttp://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2014/05/17/narendra-modi-doit-preserver-une-inde-tolerante_4420607_3232.html http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2014/05/17/en-inde-les-references-ideologiques-tres-codees-de-narendra-modi_4420502_3216.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/narendra-modi-sera-primer-ministro-de-india-tras-gigantesca-eleccion/13995955http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/05/16/actualidad/1400266394_787375.html http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-05/08/content_17492165.htmhttp://www.economist.com/blogs/banyan/2014/05/indias-next-prime-minister-0 El ejército tailandés impuso la ley marcial y tomó el control de la seguridad y los poderes judiciales. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/picture-perfect-thai-martial-law-leads-snapshots-soldiers-n110276 http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/19/world/asia/thailand-martial-law/index.html?hpt=wo_c1 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/que-pasa-en-tailandia/14011736 http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/thailand-army-declares-martial-law-after-violent-unrest-n109571http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/premier-pede-que-exercito-respeite-constituicao-apos-decretar-lei-marcial-na-tailandia-12538803#ixzz32J9smxMz Continúa la violencia en Siria. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21602254-what-can-america-do-now-bashar-assad-looks-set-stay-power-business http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/19/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html?hpt=imi_c1 http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/12/world/meast/homs-syria-return/index.html http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/18/world/middleeast/un-seeking-more-ways-to-distribute-aid-in-syria.html?ref=world http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/20/world/asia/india-modi/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/photo/2014-05/16/content_17511300_2.htm Cuarta ronda nuclear sobre Irán termina sin resultados ni nueva fecha. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/cuarta-ronda-nuclear-sobre-iran-termina-sin-resultados-ni-nueva-fecha/13996455 Naufraga ferry en Bangladesh con más de 200 personas. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/naufraga-ferry-bangladesh--1010556.HTMLhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/descartan-encontrar-mas-sobrevivientes-de-ferry-con-200-pasajeros/13991495http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/18/world/asia/54-bodies-are-recovered-after-river-ferry-sinks-during-a-storm-in-bangladesh.html?ref=world&assetType=nyt_now&gwh=C5A9E4BAC6959463D94851610346D4B3&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_now Gobierno japonés acelera el plan para ampliar su capacidad militar. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/05/15/actualidad/1400174629_887614.html Disturbios y protestas contra China dejan más de 20 muertos en Vietnam. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/18/world/asia/vietnamese-officials-intolerant-of-violence-as-standoff-with-china-continues.html?ref=worldhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-05/18/content_17515925.htm China acusa a Estados Unidos de hipocresía en lucha contra ciberespionaje. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-summons-envoy-suspends-security-deal-cyberspying-spat-n109646 http://www.nbcnews.com/nightly-news/espionage-us-accuses-china-cybertheft-n109526http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/ciberespionaje-china-eu-1011596.HTML Abdullah y Ghani irán a la segunda vuelta el 14 de junio en las elecciones afganas. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/05/15/actualidad/1400167065_826140.html Continúa incierto el destino del vuelo de Malaysia Airlines MH370. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/20/world/asia/malaysia-missing-plane/index.html?hpt=ias_c2 http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/missing-jet/malaysia-release-satellite-data-missing-jet-mh370-n109641http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1692645-un-libro-asegura-que-el-avion-de-malaysia-airlines-fue-derribado-por-error Ataque suicida deja cuatro soldados iraquíes muertos. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/16/world/meast/iraq-violence/index.html?hpt=imi_c2 Lanzan advertencia a Corea del Norte. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/advertencia-a-corea-del-norte-tras-tercera-prueba-nuclear-/14010298 ÁFRICA Grupo islamista nigeriano ha secuestrado decenas de menores. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/missing-nigeria-schoolgirls/boko-haram-leader-abubakar-shekau-man-who-would-be-africas-n108121 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/05/17/actualidad/1400343233_222267.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/presidentes-africanos-reunidos-en-paris-declaran-guerra-a-boko-haram/14001875 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1692327-pacto-para-declarar-la-guerra-a-boko-haramhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/18/world/africa/west-african-nations-set-aside-their-old-suspicions-to-combat-boko-haram.html?ref=world Al menos 118 muertos tras explosión de dos coches bomba en Nigeria. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/118-muertos-por-explosion-de-dos-carros-bomba-en-nigeria/14013456 http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/20/world/africa/nigeria-blasts/index.html?hpt=iaf_c1http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/explosoes-em-mercado-na-nigeria-deixam-mais-de-cem-mortos-12542986#ixzz32JA46sNGhttp://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/18/world/africa/nigeria-violence/index.html?hpt=iaf_c2 Embarazada sudanesa condenada a la horca por casarse con un cristiano. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/16/opinion/sudan-marrying-for-love/index.html?hpt=iaf_t5http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1691091-la-embarazada-sudanesa-condenada-a-la-horca-por-casarse-con-un-cristiano Un tercio de Sudán del Sur afronta hambruna: ONU. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/crisis-en-libia-un-grupo-armado-ataca-el-parlamento-/14006798http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/un-tercio-de-sudan-del-sur-afronta-hambruna-al-agravarse-el-conflicto-onu/14013680OTRAS NOTICIAS "The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week". Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21601303-business-week

AMÉRICA LATINA Capturan al líder del cartel mexicano Los Zetas. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/15/19490871-leader-of-mexicos-b rutal-zetas-drug-cartel-captured?litehttp://www.cnn.com/2013/07/15/world/americas/mexico-zetas-leader-captured/ind ex.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1601512-quien-es-el-z-40-el-temible-lider-de-los-zet as-que-fue-capturadohttp://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-zetas-drug-cartel-leader- captured-20130716,0,2302668.storyhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/capturan-a-alias-z-40-lder-del-cart el-de-los-zetas_12931324-4 Sudamérica se planta ante el espionaje de Estados Unidos. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/11/world/americas/latin-america-snowden-asylum/index.html?hpt=wo_t4http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/13/actualidad/1373743188_1 78003.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/07/04/world/americas/bolivia-morales-snowden/inde x.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/12/actualidad/1373651762_34 0294.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1600671-fuerte-ofensiva-del-mercosur-contra-washing ton-lo-denunciara-ante-la-onuhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/07/05/world/americas/venezuela-snowden/index.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/brasil-considera-insuficientes-explicaciones-de-eeuu-por-espionaje-126788http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/grupos-processam-governo-dos-eua-por-espionagem- 9059667 Brasil obligará a empresas de Internet a almacenar datos en el país. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/reglamentacin-de-internet-en-brasil_12928783-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1601019-nuevo-avance-de-brasil-contra-el-espionaje Argentina deja de exportar trigo para que no suba el pan. Para más información:http://economia.elpais.com/economia/2013/07/14/actualidad/1373829465_6820 42.html Panamá intercepta buque norcoreano procedente de Cuba con armas. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/panam-intercepta-barco-norcore ano-con-material-blico_12931903-4http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/07/16/3502822/n-korean-ship-mystery-pan ama-says.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/16/19497159-north-korean-ship- carrying-hidden-missile-equipment-detained-after-leaving-cubahttp://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-panama-north-korean- missiles-20130716,0,4337876.storyhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/16/19497159-north-korean-ship- carrying-hidden-missile-equipment-detained-after-leaving-cuba?litehttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-07/17/content_16786034.htm Surinam y Guyana son nuevos Estados asociados al Mercosur. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1600229-surinam-y-guyana-son-nuevos-estados-aso ciados-al-mercosur Mercosur levanta suspensión a Paraguay pero Cartes rechaza reintegro. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/presidente-electo-de-parag uay-rechaza-reintegrar-su-pais-al-mercosur-126496http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/paraguay-rechaza-reintegro-al-mercosur_12926631-4 Río preocupada por la seguridad del papa Francisco. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1601400-avanzan-los-preparativos-en-riohttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/15/actualidad/1373840255_ 540593.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/seguridad-del-papa-francisco-en-brasil_12928289-4 Paro en Brasil: sin trasporte público y con rutas bloqueadas. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1600057-sin-trasporte-publico-y-con-rutas-bloque adas-comenzo-un-nuevo-paro-en-brasil Sismo 4,2 grados Ritcher estremece región noroeste de Nicaragua. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/sismo-42-grados-ritcher -estremece-region-noroeste-de-nicaragua-126745 "The Economist" analiza labor de la ONU en la lucha contra el cólera en Haití. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/blogs/americasview/2013/07/cholera-haiti A tres meses de su triunfo Nicolás Maduro realiza su primera expropiación. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1601181-la-primera-expropiacion-de-nicolas-maduro -a-tres-meses-de-su-triunfo Henrique Capriles visita Chile y pide reuniones con Piñera y Bachelet. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/gira-de-capriles-a-chile_12928702-4 ESTADOS UNIDOS /CANADÁ Conmoción en Estados Unidos por fallo sobre asesinato de joven negro. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/absolucin-de-george-zimmerman_ 12928825-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1601506-revelan-detalles-de-la-polemica-absolucion -al-vigilante-zimmerman-en-eeuuhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/15/actualidad/1373878163_ 173204.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/anuncian-protestas-por-c aso-trayvon-martin-en-100-ciudades-de-estados-unidos Diversas reformas políticas centran la atención del panorama político estadounidense. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21581726-two-lawmakers-are-d etermined-overhaul-americas-woeful-tax-code-will-their-parties-lethttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-immigration-house-20130711,0,7717223.storyhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/12/actualidad/1373653458 _500610.html Acusado de atentado de Boston no aceptó cargos. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/atentados-de-boston-djokh ar-tsarnaev-busca-reforzar-su-equipo-de-abogados-12http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/dzhokhar-tsarnaev-acusado-de- atentado-de-boston-se-declara-inocente_12923759-4 Descontento y huelgas en cárceles de Estados Unidos. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/12/actualidad/1373655888 _089545.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/15/us/more-guantanamo-detainees-quit-hunger-strike.html?ref=world&gwh=6753844C1661A88280A4E2ECEAA732BFhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/protestos-terminam-em-confronto-com-23-presos-na-califorina-9055618 Kerry retorna a Medio Oriente con esperanza de reanudar conversaciones de paz. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/kerry-retorna-medio- oriente-con-esperanza-de-reanudar-conversaciones-de-paz- Accidente ferroviario causa conmoción en Canadá. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/08/world/americas/canada-runaway-train/ind ex.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/10/19396092-death-toll-at-5 0-as-30-missing-now-presumed-dead-in-quebec-train-crash-engineer-suspen ded?litehttp://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-canada-rail-disast er-engineer-20130716,0,3929664.story EUROPA Edward Snowden solicitó asilo temporal en Rusia. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-07/16/content_16784860.htmhttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-russia-snowden-20130717,0,1251090.storyhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/16/19502733-stranded-fugiti ve-snowden-formally-requests-temporary-asylum-in-russia?litehttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/espinonaje-eu-alemania-936 401.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1601514-aseguran-que-edward-snowden-pidio-fo rmalmente-el-asilo-en-rusiahttp://www.cnn.com/2013/07/09/world/americas/nsa-snowden-venezuela/i ndex.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/snowden-es-un-regalo -incomodo-dice-putin-126771 Escándalo de corrupción del PP español salpica a Rajoy. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-spain-corruption-20130715,0,1047593.storyhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/escndalo-de-corrupcin-del-pp-espao l-salpica-a-rajoy_12923419-4http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/oposicao-ameaca-apresentar-mocao-de-censur a-contra-chefe-do-governo-espanhol-9051469http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1600891-en-la-cuerda-floja-un-escandalo-amena za-el-futuro-de-rajoyhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/13/world/europe/spains-real-crisis-is-a-le adership-void-analysts-say.html?ref=world&gwh=8143E451F2A535F1917BA0 BCC6C7F152 Falla en rieles, posible causa de catástrofe ferroviaria en Francia. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/13/world/europe/france-train-derailment/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1600896-en-la-tragedia-francia-encuentra-con suelo-en-sus-servicios-de-emergenciahttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/13/actualidad/137371 5431_558757.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-france-train-accident-20130714,0,2471969.story Disturbios y protestas en Belfast. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/13/world/europe/northern-ireland-unrest/index.html?hpt=ieu_c2 Srebrenica: la herida que no cicatriza: más de 2.000 víctimas de la masacre aún no han sido identificadas 18 años después. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/12/actualidad/1373644685_3 97319.html Merkel apuesta a pacto de protección de datos en Europa. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/14/business/merkel-eu-data-protection/index .html?hpt=ieu_c2http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/16/19503302-spy-spotting -stroll-sparks-security-alert-in-germany?lite Parlamento británico aprueba casamiento gay. Para más información:http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/parlamento-britanico-aprova-casamento-gay-em-inglaterra-gales-9059274http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-07/17/content_16785873.htmhttp://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-britain-gay-marriage, 0,7549767.story Algunos alcaldes franceses avivan el fuego del racismo contra gitanos y nómadas. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/13/actualidad/137373620 2_298273.html Grecia: el gobierno ordena realizar pruebas obligatorias del VIH a prostitutas, toxicómanos, indigentes y sin papeles. Para más información:http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/caca-as-bruxas-comeca-na-grecia-9047327http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/13/actualidad/137372867 9_168553.html ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE Mueren 27 personas en una cadena de atentados con autos bomba en Irak. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/12/world/meast/iraq-suicide-bomber/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/atentados-en-irak_12928817-4http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/14/world/meast/iraq-violence/index.html?hpt =imi_c2http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/09/world/meast/lebanon-blast/index.html?h pt=wo_bn11 Homenaje a Malala, la 'niña más valiente del mundo Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/malala-en-la-onu_12927002-4http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/12/world/united-nations-malala/index.html?h pt=wo_t2http://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/joven-paquistani-ma lala-prefiere-el-papel-de-luchadora-al-de-victima-126599 En Pakistán tres bombas matan a más de 36 individuos. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-pakistan-bombings-20130701,0,3205657.story Al menos 12 muertos en Japón por ola de calor. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/12-muertos-en-japn-por-ola-de-calor_12 925883-4 Unos 100 reclusos escaparon tras incendiar su prisión en Indonesia. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/reclusos-escapan-tras-incendiar-su-pris in-en-indonesia_12925483-4http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/12/world/indonesia-mass-prison-break/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7 17 personas quedaron enterradas por deslizamiento de terreno en China. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/17-personas-quedaron-enterradas-por-d eslizamiento-de-terreno-en-china_12923891-4http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/13/world/asia/china-typhoon/index.html?hp t=ias_c2 Más de 5.700 desaparecidos por las inundaciones en el norte de India. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/15/actualidad/13738821 52_653770.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/india-da-por-muert as-6000-personas-desaparecidas-en-las-inundaciones-126741 Señales de desaceleramiento y reformas en la economía china. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-china-gdp-20130715 ,0,6178822.storyhttp://behindthewall.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/15/19488221-as-chinas-e conomy-slows-economists-look-for-signs-of-reform?lite Continúa la violencia extrema en Siria. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/15/world/middleeast/no-quick-impact-in-u s-arms-plan-for-syria-rebels.html?ref=world&_r=0&gwh=F9FC376F91BEB974133FCC2AE95E178Fhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/15/19484796-syrian-oppositio n-assads-forces-advance-into-rebel-held-district-of-damascus?litehttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/14/actualidad/137381863 9_979411.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/15/19486654-pakistani-taliban -we-sent-hundreds-of-fighters-to-syria?lite China se pliega ante las protestas medioambientales. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/14/actualidad/13738045 00_601287.html Asesinatos extrajudiciales debilitan democracia en India. Para más información:http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/07/15/extrajudicial-killings-corrode-dem ocracy-in-india/?ref=world Falta de apoyo público hecha atrás un proyecto de reforma constitucional. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-07/16/content_16782120.htm "The Economist" analiza: "¿El fracaso de la primavera árabe?" Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21581734-despite-chaos-blood-a nd-democratic-setbacks-long-process-do-not-give-up ÁFRICA Gobierno egipcio toma posesión de sus cargos y continúa la violencia. Para más información:http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/07/09/3491289/mass-shootings-of-islamist-protesters.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-egypt-envoy-20130716,0,7851709.storyhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1601381-respaldo-al-nuevo-gobierno-egipciohttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/14/actualidad/13738 05601_071298.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/15/world/middleeast/egypts-leaders-ra ising-pressure-freeze-assets-of-morsi-backers.html?ref=world&gwh=9F8BEA9B66CF18F36726A1092E5B0424http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/14/world/meast/egypt-morsy-investigation/index.html?hpt=imi_c2http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21581763-week-a fter-military-coup-overthrew-egypts-elected-islamist-presidenthttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-07/17/content_16785753.htmhttp://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/07/02/world/middleeast/03egy pt-timeline-morsi.html?ref=world&gwh=F37E4DDA05B6B3AF5EDC75EE2FD 7A073 Presidente de Argelia reaparece tras derrame cerebral. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/936434.html Siete cascos azules son asesinados en Darfur. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-darfur-un-peacekeep ers-killed-20130713,0,733351.storyhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-07/14/content_16772433.htmhttp://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/ban-ki-moon-indigna do-por-la-muerte-de-siete-cascos-azules-en-sudan-126577http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/13/world/africa/sudan-violence/index.html?h pt=iaf_c2http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/13/19456391-seven-un-peace keepers-killed-in-darfur?lite OTRAS NOTICIAS Fin de pobreza extrema debe ser nuevo objetivo mundial para 2030: ONU. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/la-onu-dice-que-el-fin-de-l a-pobreza-extrema-debe-ser-nuevo-objetivo-mundial-para-2030_12845943-4 "Los Angeles Times" presenta portal sobre el crecimiento de la población mundial. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/population/ "The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week". Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21580206-business-week

Correspondence between Rodolfo Elías Calles Chacón and his father Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles who lived in exile in San Diego, CA in 1939. Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles informs his son about the wheat sowing in the Yaqui Valley and the convenience to delay the purchase of a pump until they make sure that private property is respected. Rodolfo Elías Calles asks him to tell him as soon as possible if he wants to get the lots at the Valle Imperial, so he can make plans. He informs him of the manifesto that Gen. Joaquín Amaro published and that can be used to attack him. Moreover, he informs that some people have been arrested without reason, among them Zárraga and Amézcua. They are employees of Fernando Torreblanca and are accused of receiving suspicious correspondence. Balance of the Hacienda Santa Bárbara from March 5 to March 31. Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles informs his son that the owner of the lots in the Valle Imperial has put some barriers for the sale. He learned from the press about the manifesto of Amaro and the reactions by the government. Concerning the attacks against him, he expresses that they only show that he is still a significant figure. He analyzes the actions of the government and says they show ignorance, disloyalty, corruption and lack of values from those who claim to be revolutionary but only pursue personal interests. He expresses it is a shame that there is only hate and arrogance and not serenity. Rodolfo Elías Calles complains to his father for the espionage that friends and family are subjected for being in contact with him. He informs that during the anniversary of the oil expropriation there were attacks against the "callismo" defending the expropriation of the Hacienda El Mante. He informs that he was present at the funeral of Mrs. Llorente. He asks to inform Fernando that he sent a gift. The situation of Anzures is bad. He will inform later about private affairs through means that are not censored. Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles thanks his son for representing him and the children at the funeral of Mrs. Llorente. He asks to tell Alfonso Llorente that the money from the lease of the house in Parras will be deposited in a bank account for the children, so they have savings. Rodolfo Elías Calles informs his father about the liquidation of his business. The Hacienda Santa Bárbara is working at its minimum capacity. They had to get an "amparo" (legal protection) because the state government continues collecting taxes from the expropriated land and since they did not pay, the state seized the hacienda. Concerning the El Mante, as soon as the sugar harvest is done, a general assembly will be carried out to liquidate the business. He states no one wants the land because of the government's participation. He informs that Alfredo Elías Calles faces the same issue and since the El Mante Sugar Company is cancelling its credits it has not been possible to sow. He informs that the attack of Gen. Lázaro Cárdenas against Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles continue. Some farmers have saved their lands from expropriation by giving money. For instance, Lamberto Hernández and Primitivo González. The Anzures Cooperative is doing well. He makes suggestions for the management of the house in Anzures. He adds reports of income and expenses, budget and balances of the Hacienda Santa Bárbara. Reply of Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles to his son Rodolfo informing of the issues he is having for the business in the Valle Imperial and that he approves the way his business are being liquidated. He informs that the court gave a verdict for the case of Alfredo and that he will only have to pay a minimum amount of what it was originally claimed by the people from New York. Rodolfo Elías informs his father that he had to take an anti-rabies treatment because a dog bit him. Regarding El Mante, he is waiting for the sugar harvest to deliver the mill that was expropriated. He informs about a trip to Cajeme. He advises to be careful with his expenses and informs that the matter of the house in Parras will be soon solved. Rodolfo adds a report of money orders and states the debt of Carlos will be soon settled. He presents a detailed report of the situation of El Mante after the decree of expropriation, which will cause a drop in sugar production. The situation in Santa Bárbara is quiet. They have reduced expenses for the house in Cuernavaca. Family life at the house in Anzures is sometimes difficult but they have been able to solve the issues and that defraying costs jointly proved to work. He gives news of Amanda, Alfonso, Gustavo and Carlos Herrera. He confirms his trip to Cajeme and expresses his hope to find an activity that allows him to live in his home state. Rodolfo Elías Calles informs his father of his finances and of the errands he has done. He adds a report of money orders and expenses of the Hacienda Santa Bárbara. Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles replies of acknowledgment and says he is satisfied with the progress of the matter that his son Rodolfo is handling. Rodolfo informs his father that he is in Sonora, the wheat harvest went well and possibilities to stay there. He informs that he will call a general shareholders' assembly to liquidate the hacienda with the bank. He requests a power of attorney and stocks to represent him. Reply of acknowledgment by Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles sending the stocks of the bank and asking to inform Romo that he did not received any reply for the letter he sent to Nogales. He is afraid he did not received it. Copy of the draft for the power of attorney that Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles gives to his son Rodolfo so he can represent him at the General Assembly of Shareholders of the Commercial and Agricultural Bank Ltd. in Hermosillo, Sonora. Rodolfo Elías Calles informs his father that he received the power of attorney and the stocks to represent him at the assembly that will take place as soon as Sobarzo and Rome determine a date. Regarding the wheat harvest, he informs of issues to commercialize since the government has not establish a price and that the contract they have for goods was extended for one more year. He is analyzing the possibilities of living in Sonora and having his own business because it is very difficult to share business with Terminel, despite the good relationship between the two of them … (it continues in the next record) / Correspondencia entre Rodolfo Elías Calles Chacón y su padre, el Gral. PEC, quien vive en el exilio en San Diego, Cal., E.U.A. en 1939. El Gral. PEC comenta a su hijo Rodolfo acerca de las siembras de trigo en el valle el Yaqui y de la conveniencia de postergar compra de bomba hasta estar seguros que hay respeto por la pequeña propiedad. Rodolfo Elías Calles solicita a su padre resuelva cuanto antes si adquiere los terrenos en Valle Imperial, para poder hacer sus planes y le comenta del manifiesto que publicó el Gral. Joaquín Amaro en la prensa y que sirve de pretexto para atacarlo; asimismo, le informa que diversas personas sin motivo han sido detenidas, entre ellas Zárraga y Amézcua, empleados de Fernando Torreblanca, acusados de recibir correspondencia sospechosa. Corte de Caja de la Hacienda Santa Bárbara del 5 al 31 de marzo. El Gral. PEC informa a su hijo Rodolfo que el dueño de los terrenos del Valle Imperial ha puesto dificultades para su venta; que por la prensa se enteró del manifiesto de Amaro y de las reacciones viscerales del gobierno, con lo que la figura de Amaro se enaltece; respecto a los ataques en su contra sólo demuestran que todavía es importante y analiza las acciones del gobierno que son prueba de la intolerancia, deslealtad, corrupción y falta de valores de quienes se dicen revolucionarios y sólo actúan por intereses personales y mezquinos; lamenta que en ese mar de odios y torpes vanidades no se escuche una voz serena. Rodolfo Elías Calles se queja con su padre, por el espionaje a que son sometidos amigos y familiares por la sola sospecha de estar en contacto con él; que en el festejo del aniversario de la expropiación petrolera no faltaron los ataques al callismo defendiendo la expropiación de la Hacienda El Mante. Le comenta que asistió a los funerales de la Sra. Llorente; pide que le avise a Fernando que le envió un obsequio; que la situación económica de Anzures es mala; que posteriormente le informará de sus asuntos particulares por algún medio que evite la censura. El Gral. PEC agradece a su hijo Rodolfo el haberlo representado a él y a los niños en los funerales de la Sra. Llorente y que le avise a Alfonso [Llorente] que en lo sucesivo la renta de la casa de Parras se depositará en una cuenta a nombre de los niños para irles haciendo una ahorro. Rodolfo Elías Calles informa a su padre de la situación en que se encuentran las liquidaciones de todos sus negocios: la Hacienda de Santa Bárbara que trabaja a su mínima capacidad y que ha tenido que ampararse porque el gobierno del estado sigue cobrando las contribuciones de las tierras expropiadas y como no pagaron los embargó; en relación a El Mante en cuanto se coseche la zafra se convocará a una Asamblea General para liquidar el negocio, y que el lugar está tan destruido por el hostigamiento del gobierno y que nadie quiere las tierras; le informa que Alfredo Elías Calles tiene el mismo problema con su negocio, y que como la Compañía Azucarera del Mante está cancelando créditos no se ha podido sembrar; informa que continúan los ataques del Gral. Lázaro Cárdenas al Gral. PEC, que mediante gratificaciones se han salvado de la afectación agraria algunos colonos de la región como Lamberto Hernández y Primitivo González; la Cooperativa Anzures marcha bien; hace algunas sugerencias para el manejo y destino dde la casa de Anzures; anexa informe de ingresos y egresos de la Hacienda Santa Bárbara, presupuestos y cortes de caja. Respuesta del Gral. PEC a su hijo Rodolfo, informando de dificultades para realizar el negocio del Valle Imperial y de su conformidad a la forma en que se están liquidando sus empresas; le informa que ya se falló en el caso de Alfredo y que tiene que pagar sólo una mínima cantidad de lo reclamado, no el total que cobraban los pícaros judíos de Nueva York. Rodolfo Elías Calles informa a su padre que tuvo que aplicarse el tratamiento antirrábico más agresivo porque lo mordió un perro; en el asunto de El Mante sólo se espera la cosecha de la zafra para entregar el ingenio que fue expropiado totalmente; anuncia un viaje a Cajeme, le aconseja ser cauto en sus gastos y que pronto quedará resuelto el asunto de la casa de Parras. Rodolfo informa a su padre, estar anexando relación de giros enviados; asegura que el saldo del adeudo de Carlos (?) será pagado. Asimismo, hace un relato detallado de la situación de El Mante después del anárquico decreto de expropiación, lo que provocará una caída en la producción de azúcar; en Santa Bárbara las cosas están tranquilas; en la casa de Cuernavaca se ha procurado reducir los gastos; en Anzures la convivencia es difícil pero han podido irse sorteando los problemas y que el sufragar los gastos en cooperativa sí funciona; da noticias de Amanda y Alfonso, Gustavo y Carlos Herrera; confirma su viaje a Cajeme y se muestra esperanzado en encontrar alguna actividad que le permita radicar en su estado. Rodolfo Elías Calles informa a su padre de la marcha de sus asuntos financieros y de los encargos que le ha hecho; anexa relación de giros y corte de caja de gastos de la Hacienda Santa Bárbara. El Gral. PEC responde dándose por enterado y conforme con la marcha de los asuntos que le maneja su hijo Rodolfo. Rodolfo informa a su padre que ya está en Sonora, que la cosecha de trigo es muy buena y que tiene posibilidades de quedarse ahí; le comunica que de acuerdo con Romo convocará a una Asamblea General de Accionistas para liquidar el Banco; le pide un poder y las acciones para que él lo represente. Respuesta del Gral. PEC dándose por enterado, anexando las acciones del Banco y pidiéndole le diga a Romo que no ha recibido contestación de la carta que le mandó a Nogales, que teme no la haya recibido. Copia borrador del poder que el Gral. PEC otorga a su hijo Rodolfo para que lo represente en la Asamblea General de Accionistas del Banco Mercantil y Agrícola, S.A. de Hermosillo, Son. Rodolfo Elías Calles informa a su padre haber recibido acciones y carta poder para asistir a la Asamblea que se llevará a cabo en cuanto Sobarzo y Romo fijen la fecha; respecto a la cosecha de trigo informa de los rendimientos y dificultades para comercializar el grano porque el gobierno no ha fijado el precio y que ya les prorrogaron el contrato de los bienes por un año más; que está estudiando con todo detenimiento las posibilidades de radicar en Sonora pero con una actividad propia porque ve muy difícil compartir negocios con Terminel a pesar de las buenas relaciones entre ellos. (Continúa en el siguiente registro)

AMÉRICA LATINA Desastres naturales dejan cientos de muertos en México. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/photo/2013-09/23/content_16987950.htmhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/09/15/world/americas/tropical-weather/index.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24203404http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/47-muertos-en-desastre-por-lluvias-http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/09/18/20554314-looting-hits-acapulco-as-mexico-storm-death-toll-reaches-80?litecausadas-por-ciclones-ingrid-y-manuel-en-mxico_13069068-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1621210-crece-la-desesperacion-en-acapulco-por-un-ciclonhttp://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2013/09/22/mexique-apres-les-tempetes-le-defi-de-la-reconstruction_3482394_3244.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/19/actualidad/1379621833_362444.html Fuertes lluvias y tornado afectan a miles de personas en Brasil. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1622524-un-tornado-deja-dos-muertos-64-heridos-y-cien-casas-destruidas-en-brasilhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2013/09/130923_ultnot_brazil_lluvias_ng.shtml Al menos 16 muertos deja motín en cárcel de Venezuela. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24135414http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/motn-en-crcel-de-en-crcel-de-sabaneta-estado-zulia-venezuela_13067995-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1620826-16-muertos-en-un-nuevo-motin-en-una-carcel-de-venezuelahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/venezuela-en-el-centro-de-la-polemica-por-las-narcomaletas_13079895-4 Vuelo de Air France transportó cocaína valuada en $270 millones de dólares. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1622606-narcovalijas-otro-extrano-caso-que-asombra-a-venezuelahttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/21/actualidad/1379720594_991194.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/09/22/world/europe/air-france-cocaine-found/index.html?hpt=wo_t3http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/09/21/20627626-270-million-worth-of-cocaine-seized-from-air-france-flight?litehttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-09/23/content_16986361.htm Dilma realiza polémico discurso en sede de la ONU. Para más información:http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/autoridades-se-dividem-sobre-discurso-de-dilma-na-onu-contra-espionagem-americana-10127164#ixzz2frl2tyP1 http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/09/23/3646392/for-brazilians-president-rousseff.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1622822-dilma-rousseff-dijo-en-la-onu-que-eeuu-quebro-el-derecho-internacional-con-su-programa-de-eshttp://www.cnn.com/2013/09/17/world/americas/brazil-us/index.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/portuguese/noticias/2013/09/130923_dilma_onu_pu_dg.shtml Turbulencias políticas en la coalición de gobierno del PT en Brasil. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/20/actualidad/1379638800_371434.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1621229-turbulencias-politicas-en-la-coalicion-de-gobierno-del-pt Venezuela: el papel higiénico bajo control militar. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/21/world/americas/venezuela-toilet-paper/index.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/venezuela-dice-que-ee-uu-prohibi-vuelo-de-maduro-sobre-puerto-rico_13071990-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1622118-el-papel-higienico-bajo-control-militarhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/21/actualidad/1379731784_337540.html Estados Unidos niega a Maduro el uso de su espacio aéreo. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24173124http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/20/world/americas/venezuela-us-presidential-plane/index.html Cristina Fernández en la ONU: "No se puede vivir en un mundo donde todo dependa de lo que resuelvan una o dos personas". Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2013/09/130924_ultnot_cristina_fernandez_mr.shtml Maduro viaja a China para buscar préstamo por 390 millones de dólares. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-09/23/content_16985752.htm http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/viaje-de-nicols-maduro-a-china_13074455-4 Andrés Oppenheimer analiza: "Venezuela sigue alentando dictador sirio". Para más información:http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/09/18/3635418/andres-oppenheimer-venezuela-keeps.html ESTADOS UNIDOS /CANADÁ Dos tiroteos horrorizan a Estados Unidos. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2013/09/23/obama-plaide-pour-une-modification-de-la-legislation-des-armes-a-feu_3482532_3222.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/aaron-alexis-el-atacante-en-instalacin-naval-de-washington_13067238-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1620538-otro-tiroteo-horroriza-a-eeuu-13-muertos-en-pleno-washingtonhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/tiroteo-en-chicago_13072703-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1621649-otro-tiroteo-en-estados-unidos-varias-personas-baleadas-en-un-parque-de-chicago Obama urge a retomar ley de control de armas de fuego. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/obama-ley-armas-952747.html Obama busca un éxito para salir de su mal momento: quedó debilitado por la crisis siria, el escándalo Snowden y traspiés en el Congreso Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1622100-obama-busca-un-exito-para-salir-de-su-mal-momento La Cámara de Representantes aprueba dejar sin fondos el sistema sanitario. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/20/actualidad/1379690784_897214.html Impactantes imágenes de las inundaciones en Colorado. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1620424-impactantes-imagenes-de-las-inundaciones-en-colorado Obama 'No creo que acción militar lleve a la paz duradera en Siria'. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/obama-dice-que-una-accin-militar-no-llevar-paz-en-siria_13079460-4 Piden a Estados Unidos arrestar al presidente de Sudán. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/piden-a-eu-arrestar-al-presidente-de-sudan-951913.html Sorpresa y alivio en los mercados: la Fed mantiene sus estímulos. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/portuguese/noticias/2013/09/130923_banco_central_ru.shtmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1621206-sorpresa-y-alivio-en-los-mercados-la-fed-mantiene-sus-estimulos Fatal accidente entre un tren y un ómnibus en Canadá. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/09/18/20560490-six-killed-after-train-collides-with-bus-in-canadas-capital?litehttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1621041-fatal-accidente-entre-un-tren-y-un-colectivo-en-canadahttp://www.cnn.com/2013/09/18/world/americas/canada-bus-train-colllision/index.html?hpt=wo_bn5 El secretario general Ban Ki-Moon abrió la 68° sesión de debate con un mensaje sobre la crisis en Siria. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1622801-en-vivo-comenzo-la-reunion-de-la-asamblea-general-de-la-onu EUROPA Ángela Merkel obtiene victoria histórica en elecciones en Alemania. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-germany-election-20130923,0,1525699.storyhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24203909http://www.economist.com/blogs/charlemagne/2013/09/german-election-diary-6http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/22/world/europe/germany-elections/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/09/23/20656028-germanys-angela-merkel-celebrates-super-result-after-securing-third-term?litehttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1622594-merkel-con-dificultades-para-formar-una-coalicionhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/apos-selecao-multicultural-de-futebol-alemanha-tem-primeiros-negros-no-parlamento-10104002#ixzz2frq3kPmV http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/22/actualidad/1379834875_690573.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/23/world/europe/germany-elections.html?ref=world&gwh=85DE080B13C14B847AF7298B3279080F Barco de Greenpeace contra intereses rusos. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24222392http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24194726http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/20/world/europe/russia-greenpeace/index.html?hpt=ieu_c2 Pussy Riot en huelga de hambre por malas condiciones carcelarias en Rusia. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-pussy-riot-hunger-strike-prison-20130923,0,553029.story Ataque a edificio de policía en Ankara. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24184381 Snowden revela que Reino Unido usó un virus para espiar en Bélgica. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/20/actualidad/1379676659_653447.html Holanda pone fin al Estado de Bienestar. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1620849-holanda-pone-fin-al-estado-de-bienestarhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/21/actualidad/1379759516_595505.html Putin no descarta presentarse a la reelección. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/rusia-putin-reeleccion-952002.html Los suizos rechazan en las urnas la abolición del servicio militar obligatorio. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/23/world/europe/swiss-vote-to-keep-mandatory-army-service.html?ref=world&gwh=E7F8DD8A869141BB79F7E688A1911531http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/22/actualidad/1379845725_584652.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/21/actualidad/1379761520_791558.html ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE Continúa la sangrienta guerra civil en Siria. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2013/09/20/l-offensive-mediatique-de-bachar-al-assad_3481937_3218.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-syria-weapons-20130924,0,4157401.storyhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-24217703http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/23/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/14/actualidad/1379158714_684648.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1622604-el-conflicto-sirio-y-el-acercamiento-entre-iran-y-eeuu-los-ejes-de-la-asamblea-de-la-onu#comentarhttp://elcomercio.pe/actualidad/1635129/noticia-bashar-al-assad-siria-enemigo-imaginario-potencias-occidente?ft=gridhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/09/16/world/meast/syria-whats-next/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8http://www.latimes.com/local/columnone/la-fg-c1-syria-rebuild-20130924-dto,0,6358208.htmlstory Más de 4.000 niños han abandonado Siria sin sus padres según Unicef. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ms-de-4000-nios-han-abandonado-siria-solos-segn-unicef_13072878-4 Ataque suicida en una iglesia cristiana en Pakistán deja 78 muertos. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24201243http://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-pakistan-church-20130923,0,6344281.storyhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/09/23/20655580-angry-christians-protest-pakistan-church-bombing-death-toll-rises-to-81?litehttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/nio-paquistan-fue-violado-por-el-director-de-un-jardn-y-otros-cuatro-hombres_13072884-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1622318-ataque-suicida-en-una-iglesia-cristiana-en-paquistanhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/22/actualidad/1379846926_053319.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2013/09/22/25-morts-dans-un-attentat-suicide-devant-une-eglise-au-pakistan_3482419_3216.html Pakistán pone en libertad al ex número dos de los talibanes. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-afghanistan-pakistan-taliban-20130922,0,3915020.story Cadena perpetua para ex líder chino Bo Xilai. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2013/09/22/la-condamnation-de-bo-xilai-a-la-perpetuite-passionne-la-blogosphere-chinoise_3482507_3216.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/09/23/world/asia/china-bo-xilai/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1622319-dura-condena-contra-un-ex-lider-chinohttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/cadena-perpetua-para-exlder-chino-bo-xilai_13077445-4http://behindthewall.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/09/19/20582910-ousted-chinese-politician-bo-xilai-found-guilty-sentenced-to-life-in-prison?litehttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24203461 Corea del Norte y constantes pruebas de desarrollo bélico. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-north-korea-cancels-family-reunions-20130921,0,3720420.storyhttp://www.economist.com/news/asia/21586593-north-korea-appears-be-firing-up-its-old-nuclear-reactor-picking-up-steam Los crueles abusos en Corea del Norte preocupan a la ONU. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/investigacin-de-la-onu-condena-abusos-generalizados-en-corea-del-norte_13066998-4http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/21/world/asia/korea-family-reunions-cancel/index.html?hpt=wo_t2http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/21/actualidad/1379749345_852336.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2013/09/21/la-coree-du-nord-reporte-les-rencontres-de-familles-separees-par-la-guerre_3482131_3216.html Mas de 60 muertos en atentado en funeral en Irak. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2013/09/21/irak-l-explosion-de-voitures-piegees-fait-au-moins-huit-morts_3482358_3218.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/09/20/world/meast/iraq-violence/index.html?hpt=imi_c2http://www.economist.com/blogs/analects/2013/09/boxilai-sentencehttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24190728http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/23/world/middleeast/bomber-hits-sunni-funeral-as-attacks-mount-in-iraq.html?ref=world&gwh=7C5D659AC487AAC0D98E436F0B226EB0 Diversos medios cubrieron desastres naturales que afectaron a China, Tailandia y Filipinas. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24193201http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/15/world/meast/yemen-child-bride/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/22/world/asia/typhoon-usagi/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/09/22/20638844-twenty-dead-after-powerful-typhoon-lashes-hong-kong?litehttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/23/world/middleeast/netanyahu-is-said-to-view-iran-deal-as-a-possible-http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/chuvas-causam-mortes-deixam-11-mil-desabrigados-nas-filipinas-10132622#ixzz2frr34vRwhttp://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2013/09/22/apres-les-philippines-et-taiwan-un-super-typhon-menace-hong-kong_3482399_3244.htmlhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-09/18/content_16980115.htm Al menos 56 uniformados muertos en ataques de Al Qaeda en Yemen. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/56-uniformados-muertos-en-ataques-de-al-qaida-en-yemen_13072837-4 Desafortunados sucesos denotan pesimismo sobre negociaciones de paz en Medio Oriente. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24200443http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-poll-israel-palestinian-peace-negotiations-20130923,0,1612663.storyhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-09/23/content_16986672.htm Diplomacia iraní intenta tener rol fundamental en Asamblea de la ONU. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2013/09/22/rohani-veut-la-reconnaissance-du-droit-de-l-iran-a-enrichir-l-uranium_3482409_3218.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24210066http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21586598-irans-new-president-launches-unprecedented-charm-offensive-his-biggest-smilehttp://www.cnn.com/2013/09/23/world/asia/un-general-assembly/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 Un fuerte terremoto de 7,7 grados dejó al menos 80 muertos en Pakistán. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1622893-un-fuerte-terremoto-de-77-grados-dejo-al-menos-80-muertos-en-pakistan Elecciones en Sri Lanka. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/blogs/banyan/2013/09/elections-sri-lanka El 'boom' asiático destrona el popular 'made in China'. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/el-boom-asitico-destrona-el-popular-made-in-china_13073899-4 ÁFRICA Ataque a centro comercial en Kenia. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/23/world/africa/nairobi-mall-shooting.html?ref=world&_r=0&gwh=1BE77FB8E179607237AC38DB7471AE95http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2013/09/23/le-kenya-theatre-de-nombreuses-attaques-terroristes_3482543_3212.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/aumenta-a-68-cifra-de-muertos-en-nairobi-952782.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/presidente-do-quenia-afirma-ter-derrotado-terroristas-em-shopping-10114658#ixzz2frsOPhXmhttp://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-kenya-mall-attack-gunmen-alive-20130924,0,7047934.storyhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24179992http://www.economist.com/blogs/baobab/2013/09/attack-kenya-0http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/23/world/africa/kenya-mall-attack/index.html?hpt=wo_c1http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/09/24/20669256-kenya-mall-attack-survivor-we-were-let-down-by-the-police?litehttp://www.miamiherald.com/2013/09/22/3643048/attackers-remain-in-kenya-mall.htmlhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-09/23/content_16985804.htm Cierran el metro de El Cairo tras encontrar dos bombas sin explotar. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/cierran-el-metro-de-el-cairo-tras-encontrar-dos-bombas_13071296-4 La violencia persigue a los refugiados sirios hasta Egipto. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/21/actualidad/1379781812_737789.html Egipto prohíbe actividades de los Hermanos Musulmanes. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/23/world/africa/egypt-muslim-brotherhood/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/09/23/20659049-egypt-court-bans-all-muslim-brotherhood-activities?lite OTRAS NOTICIAS En el mundo existen 168 millones de niños que se ven obligados a trabajar. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/informe-de-la-oit-progresos-contra-el-trabajo-infantil_13077838-4 "Los Angeles Times" presenta portal sobre el crecimiento de la población mundial. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/population/ "The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week". Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21583302-business-week

AMÉRICA LATINA Brasil admite haber espiado dependencias de la embajada de Estados Unidos. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/world/americas/brazil-acknowledges-spying-on-diplomats-from-us.html?ref=worldhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24828668http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/americas/brazil-spying/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/04/actualidad/1383574787_015627.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/impreso/brasil-tambien-ha-espiado-revela-diario-84751.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2013/11/131105_ultnot_brasil_espionaje_ministro_wbm.shtml Según sondeos Bachelet ganaría en primera vuelta. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1633786-bachelet-ganaria-en-primera-vuelta Incendio presuntamente intencional daña sede de Bachelet en Chile. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/incendio-presuntamente-intencional-dana-sede-de-michelle-bachelet-en-chile_13160872-4 Los Zelaya buscan volver al poder en Honduras. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1635144-los-zelaya-buscan-volver-al-poder-en-honduras Elecciones en Argentina: Kirchner derrotada en las legislativas. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/elecciones-en-argentina_13145902-4http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/perfil-del-poltico-argentino-sergio-massa_13153376-4 Gobierno argentino encuentra documentos secretos de la dictadura militar. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/americas/argentina-dictatorship-files/index.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383624001_706481.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/governo-argentino-encontra-documentos-secretos-da-ditadura-militar-10686218#ixzz2joShCyyF Sismo de 6,5 grados sacude centro de Chile. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/sismo-de-65-grados-en-chile_13153716-4 Diversos medios analizan las nuevas rutas de la cocaína de America Latina. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2013/11/05/en-amerique-latine-les-nouvelles-routes-de-la-cocaine_3508494_3222.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24800089 Accidente de avión en Bolivia deja ocho muertos y 10 heridos. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/accidente-de-avin-en-bolivia-deja-ocho-muertos-y-10-heridos_13159103-4 Ocho países realizan el mayor ejercicio militar aéreo conjunto en Latinoamérica. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383609280_789526.html Ley de medios, un golpe a grupo argentino Clarín. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/ley-de-medios-un-golpe-a-grupo-clarn_13149960-4 Ex presidente de Perú reta a Ollanta a debate. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/reta-ex-presidente-de-peru-a-ollanta-a-debate-963273.html Cuba prohíbe cines privados y venta de artículos importados. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24790569http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/cuba-prohbe-cines-3d-privados-y-venta-de-artculos-importados_13157084-4 Guatemala pierde interés en integrarse a Petrocaribe. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2013/11/131105_ultnot_guatemala_retira_petrocaribe_jgc.shtml México: miles de personas celebraron el Día de los Muertos. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1635005-dia-de-los-muertos Maduro decreta el "Día de la Lealtad y el Amor al Comandante Supremo". Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/venezuela-celebrara-el-dia-de-la-lealtad-y-el-amor-al-comandante-hugo-chavez_13160847-4 Venezuela introducirá nuevo tipo de cambio para turistas. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634235-venezuela-introducira-nuevo-tipo-de-cambio-para-turistas Nicolás Maduro y la militarización de la sociedad venezolana. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/nicols-maduro-y-la-militarizacin-de-la-sociedad-venezolana_13156470-4 Diversos miedos crecen respecto a capacidad de Brasil de hospedar el próximo Mundial de Fútbol. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24828804 16 personas han muerto por dengue en Nicaragua en este año. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/16-muertos-por-dengue-en-nicaragua_13157378-4 13 muertos deja enfrentamiento en Matamoros- México. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24803143 Guerrilla colombiana libera rehén estadounidense Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/27/world/americas/colombia-farc-american-hostage-released/index.html Andrés Oppenheimer analiza crecimeinto latinoamericano. Para más información:http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/11/02/3725607/andres-oppenheimer-world-ranking.html ESTADOS UNIDOS /CANADÁ Las elecciones parciales en EE UU señalan el camino a la Casa Blanca. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2013/11/05/a-new-york-une-revanche-sur-les-riches-avec-bill-de-blasio_3508302_3222.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1635688-nueva-york-elige-nuevo-alcalde-tras-la-era-giuliani-bloomberghttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/los-neoyorquinos-acuden-a-las-urnas-para-elegir-un-nuevo-alcalde_13160877-4http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-24813179http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/eleicoes-de-nova-york-poem-fim-era-bloomberg-10687146#ixzz2joSYWLJm http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383677774_704970.htmlhttp://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21588913-young-recall-clinton-boom-not-scandals-clinton-effect El espionaje de Estados Unidos y la agencia NSA sigue generando tensión internacional. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634977-la-espia-del-siglo-la-nsa-la-agencia-que-todo-lo-puede-y-todo-lo-vehttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/espionaje-en-estados-unidos-john-kerry-dice-que-el-pas-se-sobrepas_13154238-4 Obama continúa luchando para implementar una reforma en el sistema de salud. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-24824653 Obama impulsa reforma migratoria ante empresarios. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/obama-impulsa-reforma-migratoria-ante-empresarios-963220.html Caos y muerte en el aeropuerto de Los Ángeles por atacante solitario. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634906-detalles-siniestros-del-tiroteo-en-el-aeropuerto-de-los-angeleshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/evacuan-el-aeropuerto-de-los-ngeles-tras-un-tiroteo_13154760-4 Hallan muerto al autor de disparos en centro comercial de Nueva Jersey. Para más información:http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/atirador-achado-morto-apos-disparar-em-shopping-de-nova-jersey-10687415#ixzz2joSdm0KI http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1635543-encontraron-muerto-al-tirador-de-nueva-jersey-detras-del-shopping-donde-actuohttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/atacante-se-suicida-tras-abrir-fuego-en-centro-comercial-de-nueva-jersey-eeuu_13160298-4 Guantánamo le cuesta a Estados Unidos 200 millones de dólares al año. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383672584_280295.html EUROPA El nacionalismo, la xenofobia y cuestiones migratorias siguen siendo el centro de discusiones en Europa. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/04/21303956-thousands-of-russian-nationalist-marchers-raise-specter-of-anti-immigrant-violence?litehttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/03/actualidad/1383507169_514239.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/world/europe/russia-nationalists-press-anti-immigrant-agenda.html?ref=world&gwh=A1E63C4610173C0114D1DC8933FD4D60http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/25/world/europe/europe-migration-lampedusa/index.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/jovens-voltam-as-ruas-da-franca-para-protestar-contra-deportacoes-10691363#ixzz2joUI5dwO Berlín convoca al embajador británico por espionaje. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/technologies/article/2013/11/05/les-grandes-oreilles-britanniques-en-plein-c-ur-de-berli_3508112_651865.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/embaixada-britanica-em-berlim-teria-sido-usada-para-espionagem-diz-independent-10689217#ixzz2joUDLPDN http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383665180_886243.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/europe/germany-uk-spy-report/index.html?hpt=ieu_c1 Un fuerte temporal azotó el norte de Europa y dejó por lo menos diez muertos Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1633430-un-fuerte-temporal-azoto-el-norte-de-europa-y-dejo-por-lo-menos-diez-muertoshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/temporal-al-norte-de-europa_13146984-4}http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/29/world/europe/europe-severe-weather/index.html Asesinadas a cuchilladas tres personas en el secuestro de un autobús en Noruega. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/04/21308934-three-killed-in-norway-bus-attack?litehttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/tres-pessoas-morrem-em-sequestro-de-onibus-na-noruega-10682646#ixzz2joUKrwMp http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24824069http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383606597_727668.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/world/europe/norway.html?ref=world&gwh=C4E420C2A5F8E1A70185F1DDB4DDD8AB La violencia en la zona serbia aplasta el proceso de pacificación de Kosovo. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/04/actualidad/1383558828_534421.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/world/europe/violence-mars-election-in-kosovo.html?ref=world&gwh=4F5028F6061EA83EFAA63CC3341D932F La Unión Europea retoma el diálogo de adhesión con Turquía tras años de bloqueo. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383672260_160362.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24825002 Diversos medios analizan perspectivas económicas de la Unión Europea. Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/05/content_17083716.htmhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/business/eu-predicts-anemic-growth-and-high-unemployment-in-2014.html?ref=world&gwh=EEBF2AAAE54EA8AEEB44B2816F9BC94Chttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634353-el-desempleo-en-la-eurozona-bate-un-nuevo-recordhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24817818 En Ginebra diplomáticos trabajan, sin resultados alentadores, para lograr un acuerdo de paz en Siria. Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/06/content_17083814.htmhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/world/middleeast/syria.html?ref=world Miles de cuerpos son encontrados en fosa común en Bosnia. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/01/world/europe/bosnia-mass-grave/index.html Policía alemana recupera 1.500 obras de arte robadas por los nazis. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/05/21318847-nazi-art-trove-in-german-apartment-includes-previously-unknown-matisse?litehttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24818541http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1635322-hallan-arte-saqueado-por-los-nazis-valuado-en-us-1350-milloneshttp://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-germany-nazi-art-20131105,0,4039020.story#axzz2joJTEsVh Integrante de Pussy Riot es transferida a cárcel en Siberia. Para más información:http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/integrante-do-pussy-riot-transferida-para-siberia-10693915#ixzz2joU9cuSt Francia recibe cuerpos de los periodistas franceses asesinados en Mali. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/africa/france-mali-journalists-killed/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24815614 "CNN" analiza nueva regulación del accionar de la prensa en Reino Unido. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/31/world/europe/uk-press-regulation-reaction/index.html Masiva protesta en Madrid por el fallo que liberó a dos etarras Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1633062-masiva-protesta-en-madrid-por-el-fallo-que-libero-a-dos-etarras Snowden trabajará en una de las principales páginas web de Rusia. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/snowden-trabajar-en-una-web-de-rusia_13152559-4 ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE "El Tiempo" de Colombia publica desgarrador articulo que cuenta el drama de las niñas novias de Pakistán. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/nias-de-cinco-aos-en-pakistn-que-estan-casadas_13144836-4 Según la ONU el 40% de la población siria necesita ayuda humanitaria. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-syria-humanitarian-crisis-20131105,0,3474610.story#axzz2joJTEsVhhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383645001_000170.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/10/31/world/meast/syria-chemical-weapons-opcw/index.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/onu-40-da-populacao-siria-precisam-de-ajuda-humanitaria-10683911#ixzz2joVz9Zqc http://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-iran-us-20131105,0,2110637.story#axzz2joJTEsVhhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/05/21315471-nine-million-syrians-need-humanitarian-aid-due-to-war-un?lite Al menos 40 muertos, incluidos siete niños, deja coche bomba en Siria- Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/atentado-en-mezquita-de-damasco-en-sirira_13144675-4 El hambre como arma: la nueva táctica del régimen sirio para ganar la guerra. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634045-el-hambre-como-arma-la-nueva-tactica-del-regimen-sirio-para-ganar-la-guerra Diplomáticos no logran poner fecha para realizar una nueva conferencia de paz para Siria. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24827718http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/siria-sin-acuerdo-de-paz-este-anio-onu-963251.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/conferencia-de-paz-sobre-siria-adiada-10692998#ixzz2joVspJ98 http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/world/middleeast/while-few-seem-eager-to-talk-peace-in-syria-un-mediator-wont-stop.html?ref=world Siria destruye instalaciones de producción de armas químicas. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/armas-qumicas-en-siria_13152535-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634347-siria-destruyo-sus-instalaciones-de-produccion-de-armas-quimicas Muerte del jefe de talibanes dicen que no afectará el proceso de paz en Pakistán. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/01/world/asia/pakistan-violence/index.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/muerte-de-talibn-afecto-proceso-de-paz-en-pakistn_13156855-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634761-en-una-ofensiva-con-un-drone-muere-el-lider-taliban-en-paquistanhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/04/world/asia/afghanistan-karzai-pakistan-taliban/index.html?hpt=ias_c2 Condenados a muerte 152 acusados por los motines en Bangladesh en 2009. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/world/asia/152-soldiers-given-death-penalty-over-revolt-in-bangladesh.html?ref=worldhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383650531_119779.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/asia/bangladesh-soldiers-death-sentence/index.html?hpt=ias_c1http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24817887 India lanza su primera nave exploratoria a Marte. Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/06/content_17083798.htmhttp://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2013/11/05/world/asia/ap-as-india-mars-mission.html?ref=worldhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/04/world/asia/india-mars-orbiter/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24729073http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-india-launch-mars-mission-20131104,0,3566545.story#axzz2joJTEsVh No hay signos de un proceso de pacificación en Irak. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/04/world/meast/iraq-violence/index.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/10/28/21139521-war-weary-iraqis-scared-to-leave-homes-as-violence-reaches-levels-not-seen-since-2008?lite Riad arresta a miles de inmigrantes irregulares tras el fin de la amnistía. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24810033http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383663779_618475.html Kerry visita Arabia Saudita. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-us-saudi-rift-kerry-visit-20131104,0,6904287.story#axzz2joJTEsVh Gobierno chino detiene a cinco individuos por ataque en la plaza Tiananmen. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/30/world/asia/china---tiananmen---arrests/index.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/10/30/21246103-five-arrested-over-tiananmen-square-terrorist-attack-chinese-authorities-say?litehttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1633422-un-raro-incidente-en-la-plaza-tiananmen-dejo-5-muertos Kerry intenta promover diálogo de paz entre palestinos e israelíes. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/world/middleeast/kerry-in-mideast-tries-to-prod-israeli-palestinian-talks.html?ref=world Terremoto de magnitud 5.0 sacude a Tokio. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/03/world/asia/japan-earthquake/index.html Inundaciones dejan decenas de muertos al este de India. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/26/world/asia/india-floods/index.html Irán ahorca a 16 presuntos rebeldes tras la muerte de 17 policías. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/irn-ahorca-a-presuntos-rebeldes-tras-la-muerte-de-policas_13144300-4 Irán y un posible acuerdo sobre su plan nuclear. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/world/middleeast/iran-says-nuclear-deal-is-possible-this-week.html?ref=world ÁFRICA Morsi desafía a los militares en Egipto. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/world/middleeast/egypt.html?ref=worldhttp://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/11/muhammad-morsi-trialhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/04/actualidad/1383532972_935193.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/impreso/mursi-desafia-al-gobierno-egipcio-8220soy-el-presidente-legitimo-8221-dice-84753.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24801882http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/presidente-deposto-do-egito-passa-noite-em-hospital-de-prisao-10691700#ixzz2joWgr6Zu http://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-egypt-morsi-trial-20131105,0,4510471.story#axzz2joJTEsVhhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/02/21288349-two-french-journalists-kidnapped-and-killed-in-northern-mali?chromedomain=worldblog Los rebeldes del M23 anuncian el fin de su lucha armada en el Congo. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/world/africa/m23-rebels-democratic-republic-congo.html?ref=world&_r=0http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383642968_110904.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2013/11/05/en-rdc-le-gouvernement-annonce-une-victoire-totale-sur-le-m23_3508091_3212.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/africa/congo-rebels-disarm/index.html?hpt=iaf_c1http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/derrotado-grupo-rebelde-encerra-insurgencia-no-leste-do-congo-1-10691553#ixzz2joWjLxAmhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/05/21318777-congos-defeated-m23-rebels-announce-disarmament-seek-diplomacy?lite Asesinados a tiros dos periodistas franceses secuestrados en el norte de Mali. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2013/11/05/mali-trois-des-ravisseurs-des-journalistes-de-rfi-identifies_3508659_3212.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/02/actualidad/1383414551_209423.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634953-secuestran-y-asesinan-a-dos-periodistas-franceses-en-mali "China Daily" analiza el rol de Ruanda conectando a África Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/04/content_17077864.htm Túnez extiende su estado de emergencia. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/03/world/africa/tunisia-unrest/index.html?hpt=iaf_c2 28 muertos luego de estampida en Nigeria. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/muertos-en-estampida-en-nigeria_13157615-4 OTRAS NOTICIAS Cada año más de 800.000 personas son víctimas del tráfico humano. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/cada-ao-ms-de-800000-personas-son-vctimas-del-trfico-humano-en-el-mundo_13132278-4 "The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week". Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21588134-business-week

Mención Internacional en el título de doctor ; Ciberespacio: la última frontera. Aquí es donde empieza la nueva misión de los juristas en buscar nuevas formas de ejercicio de los derechos humanos. Afortunadamente, no es una misión de ciencia ficción, sino un desafío real, actual y lleno de oportunidades. Consideramos que es el mejor momento para proponer esta tesis e iniciar un trabajo de investigación sobre la dinámica del derecho en la era de las nuevas tecnologías. La tesis está fundamentada en la investigación de este nuevo espacio donde ha entrado el ser humano, titular de los derechos y libertades fundamentales. Como cualquier entorno nuevo, despierta la curiosidad, la necesidad de explorar, pero también la necesidad de estar seguro. El ser humano está programado genéticamente para proteger su vida, integridad y libertad en cualquier entorno, tanto físico como virtual. La ciberseguridad es un tema nuevo, que empezó a fomentar los debates solo desde 1988. Estados, empresas privadas y especialistas se dieron cuenta rápidamente de la necesidad de regular este campo, incluso adaptando el derecho internacional a las nuevas realidades. Los conflictos, eventos frecuentes en la sociedad humana, han migrado rápidamente del espacio físico al espacio virtual, al igual que las armas. Los virus informáticos, las aplicaciones invasivas y el software de espionaje sustituyen a las armas y herramientas de guerra clásicas. Las medidas de seguridad propuestas e implementadas por las autoridades estatales con responsabilidades en el ámbito de la seguridad nacional, así como por empresas privadas que desarrollan programas para combatir ciberataques, basados en medidas de ciber espionaje o hack-back1, se adaptan a los nuevos desafíos tecnológicos, pero evitan solucionar problemas importantes para el individuo como el respeto a sus derechos fundamentales, cuyo reconocimiento y regulación le han costado años de lucha y fundamentación filosófico-legal. En este contexto, cuando la vida del ciudadano se traslada, cada vez más al espacio virtual con todos sus elementos - banca por internet, telemedicina, información e investigación de fuentes digitales, comercio electrónico, citas virtuales, realidad virtual - se deben proponer medidas para proteger el ciberespacio que pueden ser diseñadas en correlación directa con las medidas de seguridad aplicadas en el entorno offline. Si el entorno offline está claramente determinado, y hay actores con papeles muy claros (estados, territorios administrativos, instituciones con responsabilidades en el campo de la seguridad y protección de los ciudadanos, etc.), el espacio virtual sigue siendo una jungla, sin límites conocidos y con incipientes formas de órganos de control, que deberían proteger a los usuarios vulnerables para no ser víctimas de los manipuladores digitales. En este momento, las Naciones Unidas a través de sus comisiones y grupos de expertos, ha asumido el papel de garante de los derechos humanos en el ciberespacio, interpretando las disposiciones de los tratados internacionales y elaborando recomendaciones, para ciber conflictos y alianzas entre Estados y grandes empresas con control tecnológico sobre Internet, tanto en términos de contenido como de conexiones informáticas. A nivel de la Unión Europea, el papel de las instituciones comunitarias, bien definido en el proceso de desarrollo y aplicación de las normas jurídicas, permite diseñar un marco jurídico coherente para la política de ciberseguridad, asegurando un sistema de protección eficaz basado en la cooperación entre los Estados miembros, al mismo tiempo con una protección efectiva de los derechos individuales en el entorno virtual. La tradición democrática de los estados europeos contribuye a la identificación de soluciones viables con respecto a la libertad del ciberespacio y la importancia del individuo en la sociedad. El surgimiento y el fortalecimiento del papel de ENISA en la política europea de ciberseguridad, ofrece la ventaja de estandarizar, centralizar y explotar de manera coherente los datos comunicados por los Estados miembros con el fin de desarrollar normativas bien fundamentadas. Asimismo, esta tesis estudia algunas categorías de derechos fundamentales para descubrir la forma en que se ven influenciados por la nueva realidad de la vida cotidiana. El entorno en el que se ha estudiado y conceptualizado estos derechos a lo largo de la historia, hasta la confirmación en diversos instrumentos de derecho internacional, ha cambiado profundamente. Las amenazas comienzan a ser diversas, y para los juristas no especializados en informática, es un gran reto identificar las brechas en los mecanismos informáticos que garanticen y protejan los derechos fundamentales cuando el individuo actúa en el entorno online. Es posible que la generación de juristas nativos digitales se haga cargo del trabajo de los juristas adaptados digitalmente y sea capaz de construir un sistema legal aplicable a este nuevo entorno de vida del individuo. Esto será posible solo dentro de 10 años, cuando la nueva generación creada en la era de las nuevas tecnologías, posea la capacidad de analizar y proponer soluciones legales. La investigación se centra en el derecho a la privacidad y los elementos que lo componen, siendo considerado como uno de los derechos fundamentales más vulnerables en el entorno online. Los derechos derivados, como el derecho al nombre, la identidad, el honor, la dignidad y la integridad física se están transformando y adquiriendo nuevos valores en la era de las nuevas tecnologías. Algunos de estos derechos se transforman, se trasladan al ciberespacio, se adhieren al ser virtual y se convierten en derechos digitales, propios del nuevo entorno social. En el contenido de la tesis se desarrolló un capítulo dedicado a esta nueva categoría de derechos en el que se intenta establecer sus contenidos y las formas de manifestación. Con respecto a los mecanismos necesarios para garantizar el ejercicio de los derechos y libertades fundamentales, el trabajo analiza los distintos niveles de protección: desde el nivel supranacional (internacional), hasta el regional y nacional, específico de cada Estado. Los mecanismos institucionales y jurisdiccionales están organizados en gran medida de acuerdo con las mismas reglas, guiándose por las regulaciones internacionales sobre derechos humanos, en particular, continuando con las regulaciones a nivel regional y estatal. En el nuevo contexto tecnológico, es necesario revisar dichos mecanismos para que mantengan la misma eficiencia deseada en el momento de su creación. Un punto importante de la investigación consiste en el análisis de las restricciones aplicadas a los derechos humanos bajo el imperio de la Ley. Sin referirse a las injerencias ilegales, sino analizamos la injerencia permitida por la ley, especialmente en nombre de la seguridad colectiva. Seguidamente, se muestran los debates y análisis destinados a establecer el punto de equilibrio entre la importancia de un derecho fundamental u otro. Tanto el derecho a la vida privada como el derecho a la seguridad se consideran fundamentales, pero no absolutos. Desde esta perspectiva, se deben establecer límites claros para que la protección de uno no afecte la integridad del otro. Los Estados a veces imponen medidas excesivamente restrictivas del derecho a la privacidad en nombre de la seguridad nacional, y el ciberespacio es el entorno adecuado para tales prácticas. Cualquier práctica de este tipo, situada a uno de los dos extremos, ya sea muy invasiva en la esfera personal o ineficaz desde una perspectiva de seguridad, debe ser reevaluada y relacionada con los derechos humanos, tanto desde una perspectiva individual como colectiva. Por ejemplo, el derecho a la vida privada o el derecho a la seguridad del ser humano puede, dentro de límites razonables, restringir el derecho de otra persona a expresarse o manifestar ciertas necesidades mentales en el espacio digital. Teniendo en cuenta los objetivos propuestos al principio, aplicando los métodos de investigación correspondientes y analizando la literatura, el marco normativo vigente y la jurisprudencia en derechos humanos, esta tesis identifica y enfatiza la interacción entre los derechos humanos fundamentales y los efectos sociales de las nuevas tecnologías, incluyendo las consecuencias sobre los derechos conexos. En este contexto particularmente dinámico, el mayor desafío para la nueva generación de juristas será adaptar el marco legal actual, a las nuevas realidades del mundo digital. Dado que las normas de derecho que rigen nuestra vida cotidiana han evolucionado lentamente y durante un largo período de tiempo, la rápida evolución tecnológica y la migración del individuo al espacio virtual requieren una urgente adaptación del marco legal a las nuevas realidades para que la Ley pueda mantener su misión de guardián del bienestar público. Además, esta nueva pandemia, origina y causa inciertos ampliamente cuestionado en el entorno online, ha provocado una restricción en masa de los derechos humanos similar a la última guerra mundial. Se ha restringido el derecho a la: libertad de circulación, manifestación, reunión, expresión, educación, trabajo e incluso el derecho a buscar la felicidad. Por la limitación de estos derechos la gente, por temor al enemigo invisible e incomprendido, aceptó sin oposición la mayor parte todas estas injerencias de las autoridades en su vida privada y en el conjunto de sus libertades fundamentales. Solo pequeños grupos de activistas continúan luchando por defender sus derechos fundamentales. No sabemos si este evento global llamado pandemia COVID 19 reescribirá la historia de los derechos fundamentales, pero es cierto que su impacto en el ámbito de las libertades individuales ha tenido un efecto muy fuerte e inquietante con respecto a otra transformación, incluida la revolución tecnológica. En estas condiciones, nos queda una única opción o desafío: defender al individuo, con todos sus atributos, en una sociedad dinámica, caracterizada por transformaciones atípicas. ; Spațiul cibernetic – ultima frontieră. Aici începe misiunea juriștilor în căutarea noilor forme de exercitare a drepturilor omului. Din fericire, nu este o misiune science- fiction, ci este o provocare reală, actuală și plină de oportunități. Consider că am ales cel mai bun moment pentru a propune această teza și a iniția o muncă de cercetare asupra dinamicii dreptului în era noilor tehnologii. Această eră este abia la început. Lucrarea de față pornește de la cercetarea acestui nou spațiu în care a pătruns ființa umană deținătoare a drepturilor și libertăților fundamentale. Ca orice mediu nou, stârnește curiozitatea, nevoia de a explora dar și nevoia de a fi în siguranță. Ființa umană este programată genetic să își protejeze viața, integritatea și libertatea în orice mediu s-ar afla, atât fizic cât și virtual. Securitatea spațiului cibernetic este o temă nouă, se discută despre acest subiect abia din anul 1988. Statele, companiile private și specialiștii au conștientizat rapid necesitatea reglementării acestui domeniu, inclusiv prin adaptarea dreptului internațional la noile realități. Conflictele, evenimente frecvente în societatea umană, au migrat rapid din spațiul fizic în spațiul virtual, la fel și armele. Virușii informatici, aplicațiile intruzive, softurile de spionaj iau locul clasicelor arme și unelte de război. Măsurile de securitate propuse și implementate de autoritățile statale cu atribuții în domeniul securității naționale, cât și de companiile private care dezvoltă programe de combatere a atacurilor cibernetice, bazate pe spionaj cibernetic sau măsuri de tipul hack-back se adaptează noilor provocări tehnologice, dar ocolesc teme importante pentru individ cum ar fi respectarea drepturilor sale fundamentale, a căror recunoaștere și reglementare au costat ani buni de luptă și fundamentare filosofico-juridică. În contextul în care viața cetățeanului migrează din ce în ce mai mult către spațiul virtual, cu toate elementele ei – internet banking, telemedicină, informare și cercetare din surse digitale, comerț electronic, virtual dating, virtual reality – măsurile de protecție a spațiului cibernetic trebuie gândite în directă corelare cu măsurile de securitate aplicate în mediul off-line. Dacă mediul off-line este clar determinat și există actori cu roluri clare (state, teritorii administrative, instituții cu atribuții în domeniul securității și siguranței cetățeanului etc.), spațiul virtual este încă o junglă, fără limite cunoscute și cu organisme XIV de supraveghere în stadiu incipient de dezvoltare care ar trebui să poată proteja utilizatorii vulnerabili în cazul în care devin victime ale unor manipulatori digitali. La acest moment Organizația Națiunilor Unite, prin comisiile și grupurile de experți, și-a asumat rolul de garant al drepturilor omului în spațiul cibernetic, interpretând prevederile tratatelor internaționale și elaborând recomandări pentru conflictele cibernetice și parteneriatul dintre state și marile companii care dețin controlul tehnologic asupra Internetului, atât din perspectiva conținutului cât și al conexiunilor informatice. La nivelul Uniunii Europene, rolul instituțiilor comunitare, fiind bine definit în ceea ce privește elaborarea și implementarea normelor de drept, permite creionarea unui cadru legal coerent în ceea ce privește politica de securitate cibernetică, asigurarea unui sistem efectiv de protecție bazat pe cooperarea dintre statele membre, dar și protecția efectivă a drepturilor individuale în mediul online. Tradiția democratică a statelor europene contribuie la identificarea unor soluții viabile în ceea ce privește libertatea spațiului cibernetic și importanța individului în societate. Apariția și întărirea rolului ENISA în politica europeană de securitate cibernetică oferă avantajul uniformizării, centralizării și exploatării coerente a datelor raportate de statele membre în vederea elaborării unor reglementări corect fundamentate. Teza studiază și categoriile de drepturi fundamentale din perspectiva modului în care acestea se văd influențate de noua realitate a vieții cotidiene. Mediul în care aceste drepturi au fost studiate și conceptualizate de-a lungul istoriei până la momentul proclamării lor în diverse instrumente de drept internațional, s-a schimbat profund. Amenințările încep să fie altele decât cele cunoscute, iar pentru juriști, eminamente atehnici, este o mare provocare identificarea breșelor din mecanismele de garantare și protecție a drepturilor fundamentale atunci când individul acționează în mediul online. Este posibil ca generația juriștilor nativi digitali să preia munca juriștilor adaptați digitali și să poată construi un sistem legal aplicabil acestui nou mediu de viață al individului, dar acest lucru va fi posibil abia peste 10 ani când noua generație, născută în epoca noilor tehnologii, va avea capacitatea de a analiza și propune soluții juridice. Cercetarea s-a focalizat cu precădere asupra dreptului la viață privată și a elementelor care îl compun, considerat fiind ca unul dintre cele mai vulnerabile drepturi fundamentale în mediul on line. Drepturile derivate, precum dreptul la nume, la identitate, la onoare, la demnitate, la integritate fizică se transformă și capătă noi valențe în era noilor tehnologii. O parte dintre aceste drepturi se transformă, migrează în spațiul cibernetic, se atașează ființei virtuale și devin drepturi digitale, specifice noului mediul de viață socială. În cuprinsul tezei a fost dezvoltat un capitol dedicat acestei noi categorii de drepturi în care se încearcă stabilirea conținutului și a formei de manifestare. În ceea ce privește mecanismele de garantare a exercițiului drepturilor și libertăților fundamentale, lucrarea analizează diversele niveluri de protecție: de la nivelul suprastatal (internațional), la cel regional și cel național, specific fiecărui stat. Mecanismele instituționale și jurisdicționale se organizează în mare parte după aceleași reguli fiind ghidate de reglementările internaționale în materia drepturilor omului, cu precădere, continuând cu reglementările la nivel regional și statal. În noul context tehnologic, inclusiv aceste mecanisme necesită o revizuire astfel încât să își poată păstra eficiența dorită la momentul creării lor. Un punct important al lucrării îl reprezintă analiza restrângerilor aplicate drepturilor omului sub imperiul legii. Așadar nu ne referim la ingerințele aflate în sfera ilegalului, ci la ingerințele permise de lege, în special în numele securității colective. Aici apar dezbaterile și analizele care vizează stabilirea punctului de echilibru între importanța unui drept fundamental sau al altuia. Atât dreptul la viață privată, cât și dreptul la securitate sunt considerate fundamentale, dar nu absolute. Din această perspectivă, trebuie stabilite limite clare astfel încât protejarea unuia să nu afecteze integritatea celuilalt. Uneori statele stabilesc măsuri restrictive exagerate asupra dreptului la viață privată în numele securității naționale, iar spațiul cibernetic este mediul propice pentru acest gen de practici. Orice practică de acest gen, aflată la una dintre cele două extreme, fie intrusivă în sfera personală, fie ineficientă din perspectiva securității, trebuie reevaluată și corelată cu drepturile omului, atât din perspectivă individuală cât și colectivă. De exemplu, dreptul la viață privată sau dreptul la securitate al ființei umane poate restrânge, în limite rezonabile, dreptul altei persoane de a se exprima sau de a-și manifesta anumite nevoi psihice în spațiul digital. Ținând cont de obiectivele propuse, cu aplicarea metodelor de cercetare asumate și analizând literatura de specialitate, cadrul normativ în vigoare și jurisprudența referitoare la drepturile omului, această teză identifică și subliniază interacțiunea dintre drepturile fundamentale ale ființei umane și efectele sociale ale noilor tehnologii, inclusiv consecințele asupra drepturilor conexe. În acest context deosebit de dinamic, cea mai mare provocare pentru noua generație de juriști va fi adaptarea cadrului legal în vigoare la noile realități ale lumii digitale. În condițiile în care normele de drept care ne guvernează viața de zi cu zi au avut o evoluție lentă și extinsă pe o perioadă lungă de timp, evoluția tehnologică rapidă și migrarea individului în spațiul virtual impun o adaptare urgentă a cadrului legal la noile realități astfel încât norma de drept să își poată păstra misiunea de gardian al binelui public. Mai mult, această nouă pandemie, cu origini și cauze incerte, aprig dezbătute în mediul online, a determinat o restrângere în masă a drepturilor omului poate la fel de acerbă cu cea provocată de ultimul război mondial. Ne-au fost restrânse pe rând dreptul la libertatea de mișcare, dreptul la întruniri, dreptul la manifestări, dreptul la exprimare, dreptul la educație, dreptul la muncă și inclusiv dreptul la căutarea fericirii. Iar oamenii, de teama inamicului nevăzut și neînțeles, au acceptat în cea mai mare parte toate aceste ingerințe ale autorităților în viața lor privată și în cercul libertăților lor fundamentale. Grupuri mici de activiști continuă lupta de apărare a drepturilor lor fundamentale. Nu știm dacă acest eveniment global numit pandemie va rescrie istoria drepturilor fundamentale, dar cert este că impactul lui asupra sferei libertăților individuale a avut un efect mult mai abrupt și mai intrusiv decât orice altă transformare, inclusiv cea tehnologică. În aceste condiții, ne rămâne o singură opțiune: aceea de a apăra individul, cu toate atributele sale, într-o societate dinamică, caracterizată de transformări atipice. ; Cyberspace - the last frontier. This is where the mission of the lawyers begins: to search new forms of human rights manifestation. Fortunately, it is not a science-fiction mission, but a real, current and full of opportunities challenge. We consider that this is the best-chosen moment to propose this paper and to initiate a research work on the dynamics of law under the era of new technologies. Because this era has just begun. This thesis aims to explore this new space where the human being, holder of fundamental rights and freedoms, has entered. Like any new environment, the digital world arouses curiosity, engages the human need to explore but also activates the need to be safe. The human being is genetically programmed to protect his life, integrity and freedom in any type of environment, no matter if is real or virtual. Cybersecurity is a new topic; this topic has been brought in public debates only since 1988. States, private companies and specialists have quickly become aware of the need of regulation in this area, including by adapting international law to new realities. Conflicts, as frequent events in human society, have rapidly migrated from physical to the virtual space. The weapons as well. Cyber viruses, spyware, worms, malware took the place of the classic weapons and tools of war. The proposed security measures were implemented by state authorities with responsibilities in the field of national security, as well as by private companies. The efforts made to develop programs to fight against cyber-attacks, based on cyber espionage or hack-back measures, must be adapted to ever new technological challenges, but not forgetting the important issues for the individual human being, such the respect for his fundamental rights, whose recognition and regulation have cost years of legal struggle and philosophical debates. In this context, where the life of the citizen migrates more and more to the virtual space, with all its elements - internet banking, telemedicine, information and research from digital sources, electronic commerce, virtual dating, virtual reality – protective measures for cyberspace must designed in direct correlation with the security measures applied in the offline environment. If the offline environment is clearly determined, populated with actors playing key roles (states, administrative territories, institutions with responsibilities in the field of XVIII security and safety of citizens, etc.), the virtual space is still a jungle, with unknown limits and incipient supervisory bodies struggling to protect vulnerable users against digital criminals. At this moment, the United Nations, through its commissions and expert groups, has taken on the role of human rights protector in cyberspace, interpreting the provisions of international treaties and developing recommendations for cyber conflicts and partnerships between states and large companies with technological control over the Internet, both in terms of digital content and computer connections. In the European Union, the specific role of the public institutions in the legal area allows drafting a coherent legal framework for cybersecurity policy, ensuring an effective system of protection based on cooperation between Member States, also bringing an effective protection of individual rights in the online environment. Also, the democratic tradition of Member States contributes in finding viable solutions regarding the freedom of cyberspace respecting, in the same time, the social importance of the human being. The creation on ENISA, with its determined role in the European cybersecurity policy, offers the advantage of a coherent approach in standardizing, centralizing and exploiting the data reported by Member States in order to develop well-founded regulations. The thesis also studies some categories of fundamental rights observing the new perspective of human liberty and privacy induced by technology and digitalization of reality. It is obvious that the initial environment where these rights have been studied and conceptualized has radically changed and their legal confirmation in the international law must be adapted to the new reality. The new digital threats to human fundamental rights are different from the known ones, and for the lawyers, who are non-technical by nature, it is a great challenge to identify the gaps in the informatics mechanisms of protecting fundamental rights when the person acts in the online environment. Maybe the generation of digital native lawyers will take over the work of digitally adapted lawyers and will be able to build a legal system applicable to this new living environment of the individual, but this success will be possible only after the next 10 years, when the new generation, born in the age of new technologies, will have the ability to analyze and propose legal solutions. The research focused mainly on the right to privacy and its legal components, being considered as one of the most vulnerable fundamental rights in the online environment. Connected human rights, such as the right to a name and to a nationality, identity, honor, dignity, physical integrity, are transforming and gaining new values in the era of technology. Some of these rights are reinvented and relocated into cyberspace, where they attach to the virtual human being and become digital rights, specific to the digital social environment. In the thesis there we dedicated a chapter to this new category of human liberties, aiming to establish the content and the limits of these new digital rights. Regarding the mechanisms for guaranteeing the exercise of fundamental rights and freedoms, the paper analyzes the various levels of protection: from the supranational (international) level, to the regional and national level, specific to each state. The institutional and jurisdictional mechanisms are largely organized according to the same rules, being guided by international human rights framework, at a global level, and particularly regulated by regional or local specific legal regulations. In the new technological context, these mechanisms need to be revised so that they can maintain their desired efficiency as the moment of their creation. Another important point of this paper is the analysis of the restrictions applied to human rights under the rule of law. So, we are not referring to any illegal interference, but we analyze the limitations allowed by law, especially in the name of collective security. This is the point where debates and analyzes converge in finding the perfect balance between the importance of one fundamental right to another. Both right to privacy and right to security are considered fundamental, but not absolute. From this perspective, clear boundaries must be set so that the exercise of one right does not affect the integrity of the other. Sometimes states impose overly restrictive measures on the right to privacy in the name of national security, and cyberspace is the perfect environment for such practices. Any practice situated at one of the two extremes, either intrusive in the personal sphere or inefficient from a security perspective, must be re-evaluated and correlated with the human rights, both from an individual and a collective perspective. For example, the right to privacy or the right to security of one person may interfere, in reasonable limits, with the right of another person to express himself or herself or to manifest certain psychical needs in the digital space. Fallowing the proposed objectives, applying the specific research methods and analyzing the legal literature, the regulatory framework and the jurisprudence on human rights, this thesis identifies and emphasizes the interaction between fundamental human rights and the social effects of the new technologies, including the consequences on related rights. In this particularly dynamic context, the biggest challenge for the new generation of lawyers will be to adapt the current legal framework to the new realities of the digital world. Given that the rules of law governing our daily lives have a long and slow evolution, this rapid technological revolution and the migration of the individual into virtual space urge for a quick adjustment of the legal framework to new realities so that the rule of law to be able to keep its mission of guardian of the public welfare. Moreover, this new pandemic, with uncertain origins and causes, hotly debated in the online environment, has led to a more severe human rights restriction than the last world war. We have been restricted in our right to freedom of movement, right to public meeting, right to manifestation, right to expression, right to education, right to work and even our right to pursue happiness. Under the fear of the unseen and unknown enemy, people accepted the most part all these interferences from the authorities in their private lives and in their circle of fundamental freedoms. Small groups of activists continue the fight to defend their fundamental rights. We do not know whether this global event called the pandemic will rewrite the history of fundamental rights, but it is certain that its impact on the individual freedoms has already determined a huge and more intrusive impact than any other transformation, including technological. Under these conditions, we have only one challenge: to defend the human individual in this dynamic society, with all its attributes, characterized by atypical transformations. ; Programa de Doctorado en Estudios Avanzados en Derechos Humanos por la Universidad Carlos III de Madrid ; Presidente: Carlos Ramón Fernández Liesa.- Secretario: María Pilar Trinidad Núñez.- Vocal: Radu Carp

This paper aims to examine how effective Cuba's national security services were in working with drug traffickers to obtain their national goals, how exactly the Cuban government was involved and when these drug operations began, as well as the level of culpability on the part of the Castro brothers and legal veracity of the drug trials. Given the extreme lack of academic study into Cuban intelligence and their potential involvement in the drug trade, this research (utilizing interviews with persons who have direct involvement and insight, analyzing declassified files and memorandums) is highly instrumental in determining how effective Cuba has been in making effective foreign policy in addition to offering insights into how Cuba's military and intelligence agencies have performed covert action operations. ; Winner of the 2021 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the College of Graduate and Continuing Studies Graduate category. ; CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY "Trafficking for a Cause": Cuban Drug Trafficking Operations as a Foreign Policy Alan Chase Cunningham Norwich University Advisor: Gamze Menali 01 June 2021 CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningham ABSTRACT A capable intelligence service and military force is immensely integral to the national security policy of any nation, regardless of their political ideology or international activity. Cuba's national security apparatuses have proven themselves time and again to be exceptional at accomplishing the Republic's foreign policy goals. From the nation's early beginnings, in the 1960s and 70s, elements of the Cuban government were involved in the drug trade, either on an official or unofficial basis, utilizing drug trafficking as a form of aiding likeminded non-state actors, acquiring small arms and other weaponry, gaining U.S. currency, and making war against the United States. In the 1980s, following increased international outcry, multiple members of Cuba's military and intelligence forces were arrested, tried, and either executed or sentenced to prison for their roles in the drug trade. Many international observers, alongside defectors from Cuba's military and intelligence services and foreign governments, claimed that these trials were for show designed to protect the Castros. This paper aims to examine how effective Cuba's national security services were in working with drug traffickers to obtain their national goals, how exactly the Cuban government was involved and when these drug operations began, as well as the level of culpability on the part of the Castro brothers and legal veracity of the drug trials. Given the extreme lack of academic study into Cuban intelligence and their potential involvement in the drug trade, this research (utilizing interviews with persons who have direct involvement and insight, analyzing declassified files and memorandums) is highly instrumental in determining how effective Cuba has been in making effective foreign policy in addition to offering insights into how Cuba's military and intelligence agencies have performed covert action operations. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningham ACKNOWLEDGMENT I would first like to thank my thesis advisor, Professor Gamze Menali, at Norwich University. She provided exceptional advice and support that was highly integral to the completion of this thesis and my degree. Her comments were always well-received and significantly bolstered my paper's overall effect and allowed my research to take on a professional quality. A better advisor could not have been provided nor found. I additionally must thank those persons who sacrificed their time and allowed themselves to be interviewed for my final project. Bobby Chacon of the FBI, Fulton Armstrong of the Intelligence Community, Harry Sommers of the DEA, Mike Powers of the DEA, Pierre Charette of the DEA, Richard Gregorie of the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida, Mike Waniewski of the DEA, Harry Fullett of the DEA, and Seth Taylor of the U.S. Customs Service. This work is intended to honor them and their years of service and dedication to the U.S. government. I would also like to thank two professors whom were of immense importance in my academic career; Professor Jonathan Brown and Assistant Professor Joshua Frens-String of the University of Texas. Both sparked my interest in Latin American affairs and guided me on how to conduct historical research. They were inspirations and role models for me as a historian. Finally, I would like to offer special thanks to both my mother and father who supported me in more ways than one through my entire educational career. My family, importantly Kaytlynn Lopez, were a source for comfort, relaxation, and support throughout this endeavor. I could not have done this without any of them. I hope this work looks well upon all of those who helped and inspired me and allows a new generation of researchers and scholars to better understand this period in Cuban history. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningham Table of Contents Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….01 A Basic History of Cuba's Military and Intelligence Services……………………………….03 Early Beginnings: Cuba and Drugs in the 1960s…………………………………………….07 A Change in Policy: Cuba and Drugs in the 1970s………………………………………….16 The Cocaine Boom: Cuba and Drugs in 1980s……………………………………………….21 The Question of Culpability on the Part of the Castros…………………………………….52 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………61 CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningham1 Introduction Cuba's intelligence and military services are among the best in the world. They have been described in laudatory terms by intelligence professionals, national security theorists, and academics alike. Brian Latell, a former National Intelligence Officer (NIO) for Latin America and career Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) analyst, agrees and recounts how veteran counterintelligence officers from all areas of the U.S. Intelligence Community (IC) would, "stand in awe of how Cuba, a small island nation, could have built up such exceptional clandestine capabilities and run so many successful operations against American targets".1 The CIA's former Chief of Counterintelligence, James M. Olson, agrees, writing, "no foreign intelligence service rankled me more than [Cuba's]…It was ruthless, it was devious, and worst of all, it was very, very good".2 Analysts from the research and analysis think tank CNA agree with Latell, writing, "[Cuba's] intelligence services are widely regarded as among the best in the world – a significant accomplishment given the country's meager financial and technological resources".3 The longtime lead historian of Cuban affairs, Jorge I. Dominguez, wrote in the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics, "Cuba's Revolutionary Armed Forces (FAR)…have been among the world's most successful military".4 Longtime attorney and the Chief of Narcotics for the U.S. 1 Brian Latell, Castro's Secrets: The CIA and Cuba's Intelligence Machine (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), p. 01, https://norwich.on.worldcat.org/oclc/733231302. 2 James M. Olson, To Catch A Spy: The Art of Counterintelligence (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2019), p. 31, https://norwich.on.worldcat.org/oclc/1055568332. 3 Sean Durns, "Castro's dead, but his spies live on," The Hill, Capitol Hill Publishing, published 05 December 2016, https://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/foreign-policy/308811-castros-dead-but-his-spies-live-on. 4 Jorge I. Dominguez, "Cuban Military and Politics," Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics, Oxford University Press, published 29 May 2020, https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1810. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningham2 Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida (USAO-SDFL) during the early 1980s, Richard Gregorie, has said that Cuba's intelligence services "is better than the CIA in Miami".5 It is apparent that, across multiple fields and specialties, Cuba is a well-regarded foreign power with a highly effective intelligence apparatus and robust military force. Not only that, but Cuba has been able to maintain effective relationships with like-minded state and non-state actors. Throughout the Cold War, Cuba maintained effective relationships with Latin American states by encouraging leftist revolutions amongst foreign populaces and aligning with foreign political parties6, becoming a benefactor to various regimes, political parties, and revolutionary groups in places like Venezuela, Angola, Nicaragua, and El Salvador. These relationships were maintained in a variety of ways from the providing of covert financial and military aid to the physical commitment of Cuban troops to ground warfare. It is well documented that, one of these relationships included the providing of security to drug traffickers and the usage of Cuba as a weigh station for drug traffickers. Through this almost three decade long covert operation, Cuba was heavily entrenched in building up beneficial relationships with non-state actors like the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and legitimate nation states like Manuel Noriega's Panama, finding a steady source of income, and being able to make war against their age old adversary, the United States of America. By efficiently coordinating these operations and working to traffic illicit substances abroad, Cuba was able to improve their standing in Latin America and assist in the making of revolution abroad, essentially using the trafficking of drugs and other narcotics as a form of positive foreign policy. 5 Richard "Dick" Gregorie (former Chief of Narcotics for the USAO-SDFL) in discussion with the author, 08 April 2021. 6 "Castro and the Cold War," American Experience, Public Broadcasting Service, published 2005, republished November 2015, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/comandante-cold-war/. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningham3 Despite the fact that this incident offers a great deal of information as to how Cuba has conducted themselves in a foreign policy sense and has made war against the United States, it has been only minimally studied. In researching this area, one can find only a few academic papers and books written from the late 1990s which covers this issue in depth, with other books on Cuban history or drug trafficking in Latin America failing to cover this area or devoting only a paragraph or two to the entire ordeal. By examining this issue in depth, one can be able to determine just how intricate and involved Cuba's foreign policy endeavors were in addition to better understanding Cuba and the Castro's commitment to the exportation of revolution. This research chronologically catalogs how Cuba engaged in the drug trade, where they expanded and how they altered plans to most effectively suit their own needs. This research also intends to determine the level of knowledge Fidel and Raul Castro, Cuba's most well-known and high ranking officials, had of the operation and show how Cuba's drug trafficking efforts either succeeded or failed in bringing about the results desired by the island nation. A Basic History of Cuba's Military and Intelligence Services To fully and best understand Cuba's involvement in the drug trade, one must first come to understand the nation's intelligence and military infrastructure. The history of the FAR began when Fidel Castro and the military arm of his 26th of July Movement (M26) returned to the nation in December of 1956.7 Though soundly crushed by Fulgencio Batista's forces, Castro's rebellion was able to persevere by launching successful guerilla raids upon important military targets and acquiring a devoted following of students and lower to middle-class Cuban citizens, eventually becoming militarily superior to Batista's forces and claiming the country in January of 1959.8 The rebel army, under the command of Fidel Castro and Ernesto "Che" Guevara, 7 Marc Becker, Twentieth-Century Latin American Revolutions (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017), p. 111. 8 Ibid. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningham4 purged the military corps of Batista's regime, executing, exiling, or simply discharging various officers before officially creating the FAR in October of 1959.9 The FAR was initially under the control of the Ministry of Defense, yet this was renamed to the Ministry of the Revolutionary Armed Forces (MINFAR) and was headed by Raul Castro, Fidel's brother and later Vice President.10 Between 1959 and 1961, Castro populated the FAR with officers and enlisted personnel who would remain loyal to the new government, implemented educational programs which served to expose the military to Communist and Marxist teachings, and established militias which bridged the gap between Cuba's military and societal structures.11 Cuba's intelligence service, the Dirección General de Inteligencia (until 1989, the service went by the acronym DGI, before being changed to DI; the acronym DGI will be used when referring to this service), was created sometime in 1961, the actual date being unclear, as placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Interior (MININT).12 What is clear with the DGI, however, is their connections to the Soviet Union and the Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezposnosti (KGB). Immediately following the Bay of Pigs crisis, the KGB assisted Cuba in infiltrating Cuban exile groups in Florida and New York to determine if the Kennedy administration would try and oust Castro from power again.13 In March of 1962, the KGB set up an "operations base in Havana to export revolution across Latin America,"14 while later beginning an information 9 Damián J. Fernández, "Historical Background: Achievements, Failures, and Prospects," in The Cuban Military Under Castro, ed. Jaime Suchlicki (Miami, FL: University of Miami Graduate School of International Studies, 1989), p. 05. 10 Ibid. 11 Fernández, "Historical Background: Achievements, Failures, and Prospects," in The Cuban Military Under Castro ed. Jaime Suchlicki, p. 07-08. 12 "Cuba, Intelligence and Security," in Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security, ed. K. Lee Lerner & Brenda Wilmoth Lerner (Farmington Hills, MI: The Gale Group, 2004), p. 292, https://norwich.on.worldcat.org/oclc/55960387. 13 Oleg Kalugin, Spymaster: My Thirty-Two Years in Intelligence and Espionage Against the West (United States of America: Basic Books, 2009), p. 51-53. 14 Christopher Andrew & Vasili Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB (United States of America: Basic Books, 2001), p. 184, https://norwich.on.worldcat.org/oclc/727648881. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningham5 sharing operation with the Cubans and even putting in place a KGB liaison officer within the DGI.15 Since the beginning of Cuba's foray into the world of counterintelligence and foreign intelligence collection, the KGB has been heavily invested and taken a special interest in Cuban intelligence operations. Early Beginnings: Cuba and Drugs in the 1960s Stratfor, a private geopolitical intelligence firm based in Austin, Texas, wrote in 2008 that, "While seeking refuge from Batista forces in the hills outside Havana, the future dictator was sheltered by marijuana farmers. Castro promised the growers protection for their hospitality".16 While trying to corroborate this claim about Castro's promise is difficult, it is well-documented that the Sierra Maestra mountain range, where Castro and his 26th of July Movement carried out guerilla attacks against the Batista regime, "had been traditional outlaw country long before Castro – rife with smuggling, marijuana growing…".17 Cuban governmental involvement in the drug trade seemingly sometime shortly after the DGI was founded in 1961. A declassified Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD – the precursor to the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)) document details how, in 1961, a meeting was held between Che Guevara (then the President of Cuba's National Bank and head of the National Institute for Agrarian Reform (INRA)18), Ramiro Valdes (Che's deputy during the revolution and now head of the "[state's] security and intelligence apparatus"19), a Captain from Valdes' outfit, and Salvador Allende, then a Senator from Chile.20 The meeting first revolved 15 Ronald Young, "Cuba," in Encyclopedia of Intelligence and Counterintelligence (New York, NY: Routledge, 2015), p. 186, https://norwich.on.worldcat.org/oclc/436850527. 16 "Organized Crime in Cuba," Stratfor, Rane Corporation, published 16 May 2008, https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/organized-crime-cuba. 17 Gil Carl Alroy, "The Peasantry in the Cuban Revolution," The Review of Politics Vol. 29, No. 01 (1967), p. 97, https://www-jstor-org.library.norwich.edu/stable/1405815?seq=4#metadata_info_tab_contents. 18 Jon Lee Anderson, Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life (New York, NY: Grove Press, 2010), p. 424. 19 Anderson, Che Guevara, p. 368. 20 Rachel Ehrenfeld, Narco-Terrorism (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1990), p. 24. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningham6 around Chilean politics, "but soon Comandante Valdes turned the talk to setting up a cocaine-trafficking network in order to raise money to help finance Allende…Valdes…suggested that Roberto Alvarez, chief of Cuban espionage, head the new organization".21 While attempts were made to gain access to this document via a FOIA request to the DEA, the DEA was unable to provide the document by the time of publication. This is not the only document which alleges Cuban governmental involvement in the drug trade during the early 1960s. Commissioner of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN - the precursor to the BNDD and therefore the DEA) Henry Giordano specified in multiple letters and internal memoranda that the FBN and BNDD had located, "a "pattern of Cuban nationals," who were "suspected Castro sympathizers . . . dominating the traffic" and "operating in Cuba, Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, and Chile to distribute large quantities of cocaine throughout the United States",".22 This mirrors what Giordano's predecessor, Harry J. Anslinger, seemed to believe in early 1961, that "the island nation [was] trying to subvert the United States with drugs".23 The BNDD too apparently, "investigated a purported Cuban government operation to sponsor marijuana and heroin crops in Cuba's Oriente province, using a secret department within the country's National Institute of Agrarian Reform".24 While both these incidences mention drug trafficking/production on the part of INRA and within Chile, seemingly backing up what the defector alleged to the BNDD, Giordano and Special Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury David Acheson both changed their opinions in the mid-1960s. The two officials believed that while individual Cubans were involved in the drug trade, this was not government 21 Ehrenfeld, Narco-Terrorism, p. 24-25. 22 William L. Marcy, The Politics of Cocaine: How U.S. Foreign Policy Has Created a Thriving Drug Industry in Central and South America (Chicago, IL: Chicago Review Press, 2010), p. 92, https://norwich.on.worldcat.org/oclc/592756109. 23 William O. Walker III, Drugs in the Western Hemisphere: An Odyssey of Cultures in Conflict (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc., 1996), 171, https://norwich.on.worldcat.org/oclc/33132446. 24 Marcy, The Politics of Cocaine, p. 91. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningham7 sanctioned and was of such a tiny scale that it would be "too small to have much of an effect on the supply of dollars to that country".25 Naturally, for a government official to change their personal opinion (especially those with the highest access to sensitive documents), they must have been exposed to some form of information which detailed to them that their previously held notion of Cuban involvement was faulty. This being said, evidence collected by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), individual FBN agents, and allegations by Soviet defectors, seem to corroborate the investigations by federal agencies, pointing to drug trafficking endeavors sanctioned by the Cuban government. According to a letter penned by J. Edgar Hoover, the longtime director of the FBI, "several Colombian airplanes taken to Cuba in 1967 were hijacked on behalf of the Cuban government for the purpose of obtaining the cargo—smuggled heroin".26 The Federal Bureau of Narcotics also agreed with the FBI's assessment and even estimated the total worth of the heroin was in the twenty million dollar range.27 Also in 1967, "a Cuban trained Venezuelan intelligence officer established…Cuban link of drugs for guerrilla weapons in the hemisphere," detailing this information before the Organization of American States (OAS), "providing a major connection between Havana, the guerilla movements, and narcotics".28 Acting Federal Narcotics Commissioner and long-time FBN agent Charles Siragusa also claimed in March of 1962 that six Cuban drug traffickers arrested in Miami and New York were transporting cocaine from Cuba to the U.S. for the purposes of "raising money [and] 25 Marcy, The Politics of Cocaine, p. 92. 26 Marcy, The Politics of Cocaine, p. 93. 27 Ibid. 28 Ralph E. Fernandez, "Historical Assessment of Terrorist Activity and Narcotic Trafficking by the Republic of Cuba," The Law Offices of Ralph E. Fernandez and Associates, P.A., Ralph E. Fernandez, P.A., published 22 January 2003, p. 02. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningham8 demoralizing Americans and discrediting Cuban exiles in Miami".29 An FBN agent involved in the investigation and raid also confirmed this.30 A 2003 historical assessment focusing on the Cuban government's involvement in the drug trade and terrorism published by the law offices of Ralph E. Fernandez in Tampa, Florida indicated that Juvenito Pablo Guerra, the Miami group's ringleader, was an intelligence officer.31 Among the evidence that this cell was linked to the Cuban government and that Guerra was an intelligence officer includes "a supply of Communist literature and pictures of Cuban premier Fidel Castro in Guerra's apartment".32 While this piece of information is highly circumstantial in trying to link Castro to the drug ring, it does indicate that this cell was most likely not a grouping of exiled Cubans, ones who fled following Castro's claiming power in 1959, but rather were supporters of the Castro regime. Upon being sentenced in June of 1962 to "fifteen years in prison [for] narcotics conspiracy and assault with intent to kill a Federal officer…an undercover narcotics agent testified that Guerra was closely associated with Premier Castro and has been a member of a ring that had smuggled cocaine into this country from Cuba to obtain arms for Dr. Castro during the revolution".33 Also in the early 1960's, a FBN agent named Salvatore Vizzini was involved in the arrest of, "two Cuban agents…in Miami with large amounts of cocaine in their possession".34 29 "Cuba Plot Is Cited in Narcotics Raids," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 31 March 1962, https://www.nytimes.com/1962/03/31/archives/cuba-plot-is-cited-in-narcotics-raids.html?searchResultPosition=78. 30 "Big Cocaine Seizure Held Cuban in Origin," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 30 March 1962, https://www.nytimes.com/1962/03/30/archives/big-cocaine-seizure-held-cuban-in-origin.html?searchResultPosition=106. 31 Fernandez, "Historical Assessment of Terrorist Activity and Narcotic Trafficking by the Republic of Cuba," The Law Offices of Ralph E. Fernandez and Associates, P.A, p. 02. 32 "Big Cocaine Seizure Held Cuban in Origin," The New York Times. 33 "U.S. Jails 2 in Narcotics Case; One Reported Close to Castro," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 02 June 1962, https://www.nytimes.com/1962/06/02/archives/us-jails-2-in-narcotics-case-one-reported-close-to-castro.html?searchResultPosition=12. 34 Ehrenfeld, Narco-Terrorism, p. 25. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningham9 Recounting the arrest in a 1978 letter to Morley Safer of CBS' 60 Minutes, Vizzini detailed that the subsequent investigation proved conclusively that the arrestees (Ramon Diaz and Jose Barrel) were both working for the Cuban government and were either selling the cocaine for profit or were involved in trading the coke for weapons.35 Throughout Vizzini's law enforcement career, this would not be the only time he would encounter evidence of Cuban governmental involvement in the drug trade. Writing in his 1972 memoirs, Vizzini recounted one undercover operation in which he was sent to San Juan, Puerto Rico and received a teletype by HQ. The teletype contained "a lot of unconfirmed rumor" which included headquarters' suspicion, "that Castro and his boys were secretly involved in the smuggling [of narcotics]," while also including the names of two Cuban expats, Luis Valdez and Caesar Vega.36 Eventually being able to infiltrate the Puerto Rican underworld and meet with Valdez and Vega, Vizzini bought $750.00 USD for an ounce of cocaine. While the eventual arrests of those involved failed to capture both Valdez and Vega, the San Juan Police Department's Narcotics Squad seemed to believe the two had already fled back to Cuba.37 While the FBN seemingly was never able to confirm their suspicions about Valdez and Vega's relationships to the Castro government, it is worth pointing out that, in early Summer 1959, a Cuban Major similarly named Cesar Vega was in charge of a Castro sanctioned operation to overthrow the Panamanian government.38 Vizzini it seems held that, "there was reason to believe the operation was being carried on with the knowledge of Fidel Castro, that his supporters were running it, and that the profits were getting back to shore up the dictator's shaky 35 Sal Vizzini, letter to Morley Safer, 27 February 1978. 36 Sal Vizzini, Vizzini: The Secret Lives of America's Most Successful Undercover Agent (New York, NY: Pinnacle Books, 1972), p. 284. 37 Vizzini, Vizzini, p. 309. 38 Robert L. Scheina, Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Professional Soldier Vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, 2003), p. 56. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha1m0 government".39 In an extension of remarks placed in the Congressional Record in May of 1965, the CIA's view of these allegations and claims comes through. DeWitt S. Copp, a CIA analyst, detailed additional evidence concerning Castro and the Cuban government's culpability in the drug trade in a paper titled, "Castro's Subversion in the United States". Copp writes, "In December 1964, three Castro agents were arrested at Miami Airport – one of them a Cuban, Marlo Carabeo Nerey…On January 15, 1965, Oscar H. Reguera and Elidoro Martinéz were taken into custody in a New York motel with $3 million worth of cocaine in their luggage. Martinéz is believed to be a Cuban agent," while also making the claim that Cuba was engaging in narcotics trafficking in order "to finance an insurrection in Puerto Rico".40 The CIA, while any comment on the arrests of Juvenito Guerra's cell or the other arrests listed was unable to be found, certainly seemed to investigating that Cuba was, on some level, involved in the trafficking of narcotics to better support their own desires and machinations. This would also not be the last time that a group of drug traffickers would be alleged to be aligned with Cuba in the 1960s as well. In September of 1967, it was reported that, following an investigation conducted by the New York City Police Department (NYPD) and Queens District Attorney's Office, six persons were arrested for their involvement in a drug ring which brought in, "$2.88 million [of cocaine]…from Cuba to Montego Bay, Jamaica and then to New Orleans for the flight to New York".41 According to law enforcement officers, Cuban governmental officials knew about this drug trafficking ring yet, "did not interfere in the 39 Vizzini, Vizzini, p. 282. 40 Representative Craig Hosmer, Extension of Remarks, on 25 May 1965, "Castro's Subversion in the United States – Part I," 89th Cong., Congressional Record, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP75-00149R000400100003-7.pdf. 41 "6 Are Seized Here With Cocaine Worth Nearly $3-Million," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 10 September 1967, https://www.nytimes.com/1967/09/10/archives/6-are-seized-here-with-cocaine-worth-nearly-3million-cuban-did-not.html?searchResultPosition=156. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha1m1 narcotics ring's activities and, in return, ring members supplied the Cuban government with information about anti-Castro elements in the United States," with members posing, "as fundraisers for anti-Castro elements," and then transmitting the contributor's information back to Cuba.42 Attempts to access the NYPD's files or interview detectives with relevant knowledge of the case were unsuccessful. In the late 1960s as well, it appears that some measure of involvement by the Cuban military in the drug trade was occurring within South Florida. Around 1969, two agents from the FBN/BNDD's Miami Field Office (FO) went undercover as local drug dealers to meet with a Cuban contact at a dock behind the Playboy Club in Miami at 7701 Biscayne Boulevard. According to former DEA Assistant Special Agent-in-Charge (ASAC) Pierre Charette, "the two agents did meet with a Cuban general and had discussed using Cuba as an entry point [for drugs]".43 Charette, who was not himself involved in the meeting but was close with one of the agents who was present, also confirmed that the Cuban general was an "active-duty [officer] with Castro's forces" and that the conversation was audio recorded by one of the agents.44 What one can see here is Cuba utilizing drug trafficking, not as a way of gaining an upper hand against the United States or to gain a better financial standing, but rather as a form of information gathering and intelligence collection on potential political and national security threats. By aligning themselves with a non-state actor able to work abroad in foreign land without arising suspicion from counterintelligence organizations, the Cuban government was able to better defend from foreign threats by Batista supporters and anti-Castro groups. In the form of gaining the upper hand on adversaries and gathering intelligence, this is an ingenious 42 Ibid. 43 Pierre "Pete" Charette (retired Assistant Special Agent-in-Charge with DEA) in discussion with the author, 16 March 2021. 44 Ibid. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha1m2 tactic. In the late-1960s, a defector alleged that "Raúl Castro and/or his associates within the Cuban Defense Ministry actively discussed the issue of drug trafficking as an ideological weapon to be used against the United States [and that] Czech intelligence operatives trained Cuban agents to produce and distribute drugs and narcotics into the United States".45 This claim was made by Major General Jan Sejna, a military officer in the Czechoslovak People's Army and, "chief of the political wing of the Czech Defense Ministry and…member of the Communist Party's General Staff and the National Assembly, the country's legislative body".46 Sejna defected in 1968 following the "Prague Spring" under allegations of embezzlement by reformist Communists led by Alexander Dubček, a political opponent of Sejna's "patron, Antonin Novotny".47 Following Sejna's defection, both the CIA and the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) kept Sejna on their payroll as a counterintelligence analyst and consultant.48 Throughout the 1960s, it is apparent that Cuba was, at the least, a way station for drug traffickers to resupply before heading on into the United States (as the island nation had served since the mid-1500s)49 or, at the most, was officially sanctioning the trafficking of narcotics into the U.S. for profit. Given the fact that Cuba was a newly created country and was in dire need of economic stability, it makes sense that Castro's regime would engage in some form of drug 45 Emilio T. González, "The Cuban Connection: Drug Trafficking and the Castro Regime," CSA Occasional Paper Series Vol. 02. No. 06 (1997), p. 01-02, https://scholarship.miami.edu/discovery/delivery?vid=01UOML_INST:ResearchRepository&repId=12355424610002976#13355471490002976. 46 Louie Estrada, "Gen. Jan Sejna, Czech Defector, Dies," The Washington Post, The Washington Post Company, published 27 August 1997, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1997/08/27/gen-jan-sejna-czech-defector-dies/0aa7916b-1005-4595-9a2e-5dc51012dbf5/. 47 David Stout, "Jan Sejna, 70, Ex-Czech General and Defector," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 30 August 1997, https://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/30/world/jan-sejna-70-ex-czech-general-and-defector.html. 48 "Gen. Jan Sejna, Czech defector, dead at 70," Associated Press, Associated Press, published 26 August 1997, https://apnews.com/article/395f04eda00526846fb4d3cfff44f726. 49 T.J. English, The Corporation: An Epic Story of the Cuban American Underworld (New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers, 2018), p. 04, https://norwich.on.worldcat.org/oclc/990850150. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha1m3 production and trafficking to provide a certain level of income. Additionally, it also would allow the new nation to craft strong foreign ties to non-state actors and individual governmental officials abroad who could prove valuable in other, more legitimate matters. After the Bay of Pigs fiasco in April of 1961, in which the United States and the Cuban governments became more antagonistic towards one another, one can see (based upon U.S. documents and defector testimony) that Cuba began taking further actions of trafficking narcotics into the U.S. as a method of covert action, "those activities carried out by national governments or other organizations…to secretly influence and manipulate events abroad".50 Sejna's allegations, if true, corroborate a great deal of what the FBN/BNDD and FBI found during the course of their criminal investigations, that the Cuban government was involved in the creating of narcotics and the trafficking of drugs throughout the Latin America region. Given the abundance of evidence surrounding Cuba and the drug trade in the 1960s, it would be logical to believe that some elements of the Cuban government (either individual ministers, agency heads, etc.) or Fidel and Raul Castro themselves, were involved in the trafficking or shipping of narcotics to the United States from Cuba. While the amount of evidence conclusively linking the Castros to the drug trade in the 1960s is minimal (with perhaps the most concrete evidence being the undercover agent's testimony during the Guerra trial), given the fact that Castro exerted a tight grasp upon the daily functions of the government and was heavily involved in minute details of military operations, foreign policy endeavors, and domestic matters, it is hard to envision that Castro was not aware of these operations or was completely oblivious to them. These operations to traffic drugs, throughout the 1960s, do not appear to be a large scale 50 Loch K. Johnson & James J. Wirtz, "Part IV: Covert Action," in Intelligence: The Secret World of Spies: An Anthology, ed. Loch K. Johnson & James J. Wirtz (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2015), p. 237. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha1m4 policy stance. It did not appear to be organized nor a prominent feature of the Cuban government's foreign policy or income. The usage of drug trafficking by governmental entities and the allowing of drug traffickers to ply their trade within the island nation indicates this was done in an effort to garner additional currency, gather intelligence on threatening groups, or temporarily assist foreign allies. These operations do not seem to be large scale or integral to the overall conduct of the Cuban government, but are instead minor and almost done in a tentative way, perhaps out of fear of reprisal from the U.S. or the Soviet Union had their activities been uncovered. A Change in Policy: Cuba and Drugs in the 1970s Throughout the 1970s, the solidifying of the relationship between the Cuban state and non-state actors became more apparent. It was at this time that the Cuban government began making more long-lasting and profitable strides into the global drug trade while also greatly increasing their alignment with non-state actors and strengthening their foreign policy goals. At this time in Cuban history, Cuba was involved in a variety of foreign policy endeavors and military conflicts. Having failed in the 1960s to become self-sufficient economically, the island, "turned to the Soviet Union for support…[increasing] its subsidies for the Cuban economy through running trade deficits with the island and paying above-market prices for its sugar", further cementing the Soviets' presence in the nation-state.51 Given the fact that Cuba was in need of hard currency and did not desire to be too reliant upon the Soviets, Cuba can be seen as somewhat increasing their drug trafficking and security operations significantly in the mid to late-1970s. Evidence of Cuban involvement in the 1970's drug trade came through in the early-mid 51 Becker, Twentieth-Century Latin American Revolutions, p. 127. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha1m5 1980s and onward, with multiple defectors and arrested drug traffickers from Cuban military/intelligence organizations and Latin American cartels respectively offering this information to the U.S. government. Cuban defectors and drug cartel associates arrested in the 1980s indicated "in late 1975, some of Colombia's best-known and biggest cocaine kingpins met secretly in Bogotá…with the Cuban ambassador Fernando Ravelo-Renendo…Havana not only was prepared to ignore drug-laden mother ships operating in its waters but also to provide fueling and repair services to its ports…Havana also offered to escort the narcotics boats upon leaving Cuban ports, as well as provide Cuban flags to disguise their origin all the way to feeder vessels stationed off the Florida Keys," in return for roughly "$800,000 per vessel".52 In her book Narco-Terrorism, Rachel Ehrenfeld, then a research scholar at New York University School of Law, claims that Ravelo-Renendo was a Cuban intelligence operative from the Departamento América53, a "parallel intelligence apparatus"54 headed by Manuel Piñeiro Losada. It does seem that Ravelo-Renendo was a Cuban intelligence operative of sorts as, upon his death in July of 2017, a former Cuban Army officer wrote a detailed obituary documenting Ravelo-Renendo's services to Cuba, mentioning his entry into Cuba's intelligence service and his tenure during the 1970s as Cuba's Ambassador to Colombia.55 According to Dirk Krujit, professor emeritus of development studies at Utrecht University, the Departamento América was a unit which, "conducted Cuba's secret foreign 52 Ehrenfeld, Narco-Terrorism, p. 29-30. 53 Ibid. 54 Nora Gámez Torres, "He now hunts Cuban human-rights abusers in the U.S. Was he one himself?" Miami Herald, The McClatchy Company, published and updated 12 July 2018, https://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/cuba/article214754450.html. 55 Alfredo García, "Cuban internationalist veteran Fernando Ravelo dies," Colarebo, Colarebo, published 04 July 2017, https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=es&u=https://colarebo.wordpress.com/2017/07/04/fallece-veterano-internacionalista-cubano-fernando-ravelo/&prev=search&pto=aue. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha1m6 relations under the direct supervision of, and access to, Fidel Castro"56 with these secret foreign relations techniques coming in the form of "[supplying] arms, money, intelligence, guidance, and a rear base to a variety of leftist guerilla movements in Latin America that wanted to duplicate the Cuban model".57 Manuel Piñeiro Losada too was a close friend of both Fidel and Raul Castro, having solidified his position as a loyal intelligence officer during the revolution.58 An interview with retired Resident Agent-in-Charge (RAC) of the DEA's Tampa office, Mike Powers, also was able to shed some light on how important Cuba was in the Colombian drug trade. He relayed an incident detailed to him by a smuggler arrested sometime in the 1980s who later became an informant. According to the smuggler, in the early 1970s, "he was flying a load of marijuana from Colombia to Florida…As he was almost across [Cuban airspace], a Cuban MiG came up, flew next to him and signaled to follow him and land. At that point, he [the smuggler] held up a bale of marijuana and the pilot laughed and signaled [him to] go ahead [through Cuban airspace]".59 While this incident does not indicate official government sanctioning of the drug trade nor some larger effort by the Cuban government to enter into the drug trade, this piece of information is indicative of how important Cuban airspace was in the drug trade and also how individual Cuban military officers or officials may have begun engaging in the drug trade to attain either larger foreign policy goals or as an extra source of income. This information is all quite interesting as this is the first time there is some form of evidence, albeit tangentially, in which Cuban officials and members of drug cartels met to 56 Dirk Krujit, Cuba and Revolutionary Latin America: An Oral History (London, UK: Zed Books, 2017), p. 05, https://norwich.on.worldcat.org/oclc/964892858. 57 Larry Rohter, "Manuel Pineiro, Spymaster For Cuba, Is Dead at 63," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 13 March 1998, https://www.nytimes.com/1998/03/13/world/manuel-pineiro-spymaster-for-castro-is-dead-at-63.html. 58 Dirk Krujit, "Cuba and the Latin American Left: 1959-Present," Estudios Interdisciplinarios de América Latina Vol. 28, No. 02 (2017), p. 32, http://eial.tau.ac.il/index.php/eial/article/view/1519/1623. 59 Mike Powers (retired Resident Agent-in-Charge with DEA) in discussion with the author, 20 December 2020. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha1m7 discuss a potential relationship revolving around the drug trade. However, this information must be treated with care in that these come from the mouths of defectors who must be listened to warily and have their claims treated with suspicion given the facts they, on occasion, will say anything in order to be given a lesser sentence or protection. Attempts to try and access CIA or other IC members' files were largely unsuccessful. However, declassified files were able to shed some light on the area. According to a declassified November 1983 document from the CIA, the Agency documented a series of claims revolving around Cuba and the drug trade, including one which mentioned how "Cuban officials, including Fidel Castro, has considered a scheme in 1979 to deal with narcotics smugglers in order to obtain hard currency for Cuba and contribute to the deterioration of US society".60 The CIA did mention as well that "not all of [these reports] have been corroborated", though were comfortable enough with the totality of the reports that they did endorse the belief that Cuba was involved, in some measure, with drug traffickers.61 The American non-profit, Foundation for Human Rights in Cuba (FHRC), produced a historical work in 2019 documenting Cuba's involvement in Venezuela, including a section on Cuba's alleged involvement in the international drug trade. They allege that Cuba's official entry into the narcotics trade began in 1978, "with the creation of a department for [MININT] operations inside the Cuban corporation CIMEX [Corporación de Industrias Mixtas de Exportación], for money laundering and marijuana trafficking".62 The FHRC cites Norberto 60 U.S. Intelligence Community, Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, Drug Trafficking: The Role of Insurgents, Terrorists, and Sovereign States (Langley, November 1983), p. 05-06, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP85T00283R000300010008-6.pdf. 61 Ibid. 62 Juan Antonio Blanco, Rolando Cartaya, Luis Domínguez, & Casto Ocando, "Cubazuela: Chronicle of a Cuban Intervention," Foundation for Human Rights in Cuba, Foundation for Human Rights in Cuba, published April 2019, p. 87, https://www.fhrcuba.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/CUBAZUELA-CUBAN-INTERVENTION-English.pdf. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha1m8 Fuentes, an original member of the Cuban Revolution and Castro historian, as the source for the claims. While Fuentes' exact statements were unable to be accessed, it is known that a defector from Cuba's Ministry of the Interior, Major Jose Rodriguez Antonio Menier, too claimed that CIMEX was "linked to the drug trade" while even going a step further and stating that Castro had knowledge of general drug trafficking and CIMEX operations, using the profits to "support and opulent lifestyle [and fund] off-budget projects".63 Maria C. Werlau, an independent scholar and Cuban human rights activist, speaking to other anonymous defectors from the DGI, confirmed that CIMEX had a department entirely under the control of MININT in addition to making the allegation that, "100% of their revenue went into Fidel Castro's accounts".64 In testimony before Congressional subcommittees during the late-1980s, two convicted drug traffickers provided similar statements on Cuban involvement in the drug trade. One of them, Luis Garcia, testified that, in either "late-1979 or early-1980, Cuban officials offered him use of airstrips for refueling drug flights" and though he did not accept, "he was aware of other smugglers who did".65 Another trafficker named George Morales claimed that during a 1979 meeting in Cuba, he was sold planes which were seized by the Cuban government (presumably, Morales either stripped these planes for parts or would use them in his own drug trafficking endeavors) before eventually getting the Cubans to agree "to allow his pilots overflight rights through Cuban airspace".66 Senator John Kerry, Chairman of the Subcommittee on Terrorism, 63 Don Podesta, "Ex-Cuban Officer Says Castro Profited from Drug Trafficking," The Washington Post, The Washington Post Company, published 26 August 1989, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/08/26/ex-cuban-officer-says-castro-profited-from-drug-trafficking/5f7a23ba-b4ad-4bc6-b8ec-fbea4470bac5/. 64 Maria C. Werlau, "Fidel Castro, Inc. A Global Conglomerate," Cuba in Transition Vol. 15 (2005), p. 379, https://ascecuba.org//c/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/v15-werlau.pdf. 65 U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics, and International Operations, Drugs, Law Enforcement, and Foreign Policy: A Report, 100th Cong., 2nd sess., December 1988, p. 64. 66 Ibid. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha1m9 Narcotics, and International Operations, did however call Morales' statements "obviously incomplete", indicating that Morales' assertions required additional substantiation either through federal investigations, informants, or defectors.67 Attempts to find further evidence of Cuban involvement in the Western Hemispheric drug trade during the 1970s was minimal. It does appear that a top-secret, interagency, criminal investigation, initially codenamed "Operation Delta", was being conducted by the FBI, DEA, NYPD, and Chicago Police Department with the stated goal of "[digging] into the burgeoning Cuba-to-Florida narcotics trade and the distribution of drugs out of Miami".68 The details of this operation, however, are incredibly marginal, with attempts to access the records of this operation failing, despite multiple FOIA requests to the relevant agencies. It is possible that Cuba was not as active in the drug trade during this time due to the other foreign policy endeavors the nation-state was undertaking at that time (extensive military operations in Angola, South Africa, and Ethiopia). Due to the immense pressures going on with the nation, it is highly possible and logical even that Cuba toned down any drug trafficking activities that may have been going on. However, with the Soviet Union's death becoming more imminent and Cuba's foreign policy becoming more Latin American focused in the 1980s, Cuba seems to have significantly increased their ability at trafficking and providing security for drugs shipments as the crack epidemic swept into the U.S. during that time. The Cocaine Boom: Cuban and Drugs in the 1980s The 1980s saw a boom of drug trafficking and use throughout the Western Hemisphere. During the late 1970s, cocaine "[surged] in popularity…[being] associated with celebrities, high 67 Joan Mower, "Witness Claims Contra Drug Smuggling, Payoffs To Cuban, Bahamian Officials With," Associated Press, Associated Press, published 15 July 1987, https://apnews.com/article/5f5dd485a6d6825e88496281a2b1711c. 68 "Drugs gangs here, terrorist linked," Chicago Sun-Times, Sun-Times Media Group, published 16 April 1979, http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/drugs/faln-drugs.htm. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha2m0 rollers and glamorous parties" with this continuing into the 1980s before peaking in 1985 and being declared a nationwide epidemic.69 Throughout this time period, cocaine (and the even more popular derivative crack cocaine) was trafficked into the United States predominantly by organized criminal elements utilizing "a distribution system that imported cocaine from South America into the U.S. market using sea and air routes via the Caribbean and the South Florida coast" in addition to trafficking drugs through Mexico.70 While these trafficking routes are now largely managed and controlled by Mexican cartels like the Gulf Cartel or the Los Zetas, in the 1980s, the Colombians were the largest drug traffickers in the Western Hemisphere. The Medellín and Cali Cartels were the two largest players in the drug trade, with the Medellín Cartel being the dominant organized criminal element until 1993 with the death of Pablo Escobar.71 While both the Medellín and Cali Cartels are now extinct, they were incredibly powerful at the time, with the Medellín Cartel raking "up to $60 million daily in drug profits"72 and the Cali Cartel, by 1992, being "responsible for seventy percent of the cocaine sold in the United States, as well as for the extraordinary growth of the cocaine market in Europe".73 Because of the massive influence these organizations had and their wide area of operations throughout Central and North America, these cartels, mainly the Medellín, also joined forces with legitimate state enterprises such as Manuel Noriega's Panama to drastically increase their 69 Jason Ferris, Barbara Wood, & Stephanie Cook, "Weekly Dose: cocaine, the glamour drug of '70s, is making a comeback," The Conversation, The Conversation, published 08 March 2018, updated 12 March 2018, https://theconversation.com/weekly-dose-cocaine-the-glamour-drug-of-the-70s-is-making-a-comeback-88639. 70 Deonna S. Turner, "Crack epidemic," Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., published 08 July 2016, updated 04 September 2017, https://www.britannica.com/topic/crack-epidemic. 71 U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Strategic Intelligence Section, The Cocaine Threat to the United States (Springfield, VA, 19 July 1995), p. 04, https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/154678NCJRS.pdf. 72 Sara Miller Llana, "Medellín, once epicenter of Colombia's drug war, fights to keep peace," The Christian Science Monitor, Christian Science Publishing Society, published 25 October 2010, https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/2010/1025/Medellin-once-epicenter-of-Colombia-s-drug-war-fights-to-keep-the-peace. 73 Juan E. Méndez, Political Murder and Reform in Colombia: The Violence Continues (New York, NY: Human Rights Watch, April 1992), p. 82. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha2m1 drug trafficking abilities.74 During the 1980s, many organized elements utilized the Caribbean to traffic narcotics either into Europe or into North America. It is without question that Cuba was one of these locations in which both air and sea craft landed to refuel and resupply before continuing on their way with payloads of narcotics.75 The first instance of Cuban involvement in the drug trade came in 1982 and 1983, with the apprehension and subsequent investigation of three persons with firsthand knowledge of these operations. These persons were Mario Estebes Gonzalez, an associate of Cuban intelligence, Jaime Guillot Lara, a Colombian weapons and drug smuggler, and Johnny Crump, a Colombian lawyer and drug smuggler. Mario Estebes' story was first reported on in the New York Times in April of 1983. According to Selwyn Raab, Estebes "was arrested by the Coast Guard on Nov. 29, 1981, while he was transporting 2,500 pounds of marijuana in a speedboat off the Florida coast. He was indicted on a charge of possession of marijuana with intent to distribute and faced a maximum prison term of 15 years".76 Facing many years in prison, Estebes decided to turn state's evidence and inform, in returning for immunity from some criminal charges, delivering rather explosive testimony. Estebes' testified that his mission priorities included, "disrupting Cuban exile groups and performing economic espionage, but that his principal mission was the distribution of cocaine, marijuana, and methaqualone[sic] tablets in New York, northern New Jersey, and 74 Mimi Yagoub, "How Panama's Criminal Landscape Has Changed Since the Days of Narco-Dictator Noriega," InSight Crime, InSight Crime, published 30 May 2017, https://insightcrime.org/news/analysis/how-panama-criminal-landscape-changed-since-narco-dictator-noriega/#. 75 Robert Filippone, "The Medellin Cartel: Why We Can't Win the Drug War," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism Vol. 17, Iss. 04 (1994), p. 332, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10576109408435960. 76 Selwyn Raab, "A Defector Tells of Drug Dealing by Cuban Agents," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 04 April 1983, https://www.nytimes.com/1983/04/04/nyregion/a-defector-tells-of-drug-dealing-by-cuba-agents.html. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha2m2 Florida" and returned multiple millions of dollars back to Cuba.77 He also testified that "heroin and other narcotics were shipped to the New York area inside vans with concealed compartments to hide the drugs" in addition to claiming "he saw Vice Admiral [Aldo] Santmaria give orders permitting the unloading of narcotics at Paredon Grande [a small island off the Northern Coast of Cuba] brought in by a reputed international narcotics trafficker, Jaime Guillot Lara".78 In May of that same year, Estebes spoke before the United States Senate Caucus on International Narcotics Control in a joint hearing, testifying that the Cuban government, "used the 1980 Mariel boatlift to send as many as 7,000 spies to the United States, some of whom were ordered to help drug smugglers ''flood'' this country with illegal narcotics [and that] some agents were in this country for propaganda purposes and others were to create ''chaos'' in the event of war".79 Estebes expanded upon his earlier allegations and stated, "one scheme [involved] 23,000 pounds of marijuana and 10 million methaqualone tablets [being] shipped from Cuba to Florida," the profits of which were to be split between Cuban officials and the smugglers themselves.80 Jaime Guillot Lara is perhaps the most important of the three. Guillot Lara was a well-known drug/arms smuggler in Colombia who also happened to be "a close personal friend of the leader of the M-19 guerilla group, Jaime Bateman".81 As far as his smuggling habits, Guillot Lara, according to the DEA who had been keeping tabs on him as far back at 1975, "he was delivering over 400,000 pounds of marijuana, more than 20 million illicit methaqualone pills and 77 Alex Larzelere, Castro's Ploy-America's Dilemma: The 1980 Cuban Boatlift (Fort. Lesley J. McNair: National Defense University, 1988), p. 229-230, https://media.defense.gov/2020/Apr/23/2002287258/-1/-1/0/LARZELERE_MARIEL_BOATLIFT.PDF. 78 Raab, "A Defector Tells of Drug Dealing by Cuban Agents," The New York Times. 79 "Cuban Ties Boatlift To Drug Trade," Associated Press, Associated Press, published 01 May 1983, https://www.nytimes.com/1983/05/01/us/cuban-ties-boatlift-to-drug-trade.html. 80 Ibid. 81 LT. Timothy J. Doorey, "The Cuban Interventionary Forces: The Growing Strategic and Regional Threat to the United States and NATO" (master's thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, December 1986), p. 115, https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a180123.pdf. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha2m3 thousands of pounds of cocaine to U.S. markets each year" while also acquiring an impressive fleet of ships for trafficking purposes.82 Guillot Lara first became introduced to the Cuban ambassador to Colombia, Ravelo-Renendo, through their mutual friend, Johnny Crump, during a meeting (conducted at Gonzalo Bassols' apartment, the number two at the Cuban Embassy in Colombia) which resulted in a profitable relationship between Guillot Lara and the Cubans. While Crump would also corroborate this meeting between the following members, Guillot Lara's girlfriend, who was there when the meetings took place, corroborated many aspects, while also testifying that Bassols "told Mr. Guillot-Lara that the drug scheme had been cleared by a high Cuban official" which Bassols then identified was Fidel Castro.83 Either during or immediately after this introduction, according to Congressional testimony from Francis M. Mullen, Jr., the Administrator of the DEA in the early 1980s, Guillot Lara "began to receive official Cuban protection for the movement of his drug-ladened[sic] vessels to the United States…[in addition to transporting and delivering] arms which were ultimately destined for the Colombian terrorist group, M-19" on Cuban behalf.84 Not only did Guillot Lara traffic weapons to Cuban aligned rebels and allow the Cubans in on his drug trafficking endeavors, it appears he "also transferred funds to the guerillas through an employee of a Panamanian bank" acting as something of a go-between.85 From 1980 to 1981, Guillot Lara 82 Nathan M. Adams, "Havana's Drug-Smuggling Connection, Reader's Digest, Reader's Digest Association, Inc., published July 1982, http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/cuba/drugs.htm. 83 Extensions of Remarks, Cuba's Active Role in Drug Trafficking to the United States, 98th Cong., 1st sess., Congressional Record 130, pt. 24B: 10400, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1984-pt8/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1984-pt8-2-3.pdf. 84 Leslie Maitland Werner, "U.S. Officials Link Castro and Drugs," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 10 November 1983, https://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/10/us/us-officials-link-castro-and-drugs.html. 85 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of Public Communication. Cuban Support for Terrorism and Insurgency in the Western Hemisphere, edited by Colleen Sussman, (Washington, D.C., 12 March 1982), p. 02, https://books.googleusercontent.com/books/content?req=AKW5QafYFT9344IVwbKAk5KG_OJydGlr3Q7oZPpK8WHGSx3JeWsUS431ZZwaW55TaMUk3UvHW4jiCHRb9Utgv1_TsoAFZD6FOi8njL3jjxp8gSVFo2zCTKSLLP0KOTaXLPl9ZdycsUgqn7e8ud91hnk09ZPGbYZ0QYrbwbNypMoakmWoqtvZNPGG0e9cQ33AwwDL7jITmBXQF CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha2m4 and the Cubans entered into a cozy relationship, though one that quickly became fraught with complications. In March of 1981, Colombian authorities found a "cache of M-19 weapons" and, with captured M-19 fighters implicating Cuban involvement, the Colombian government "[broke] off diplomatic relations with Havana and [expelled Ambassador Ravelo] and his staff".86 From midsummer to November of 1981, two Guillot Lara operated boats and one aircraft (the aircraft and one of the boats carried weapons for M-19) were apprehended by both the Colombian Coast Guard and United States Coast Guard; the capture of three M-19 rebels by the Colombian military also resulted in smuggling operations being significantly damaged.87 Guillot Lara fled Colombia, facing criminal charges, before being arrested by Mexican authorities.88 Awaiting extradition by the Mexicans to either the United States or Colombia, Guillot Lara revealed to both Mexican and U.S. investigators that he had "been involved in trafficking operations to Colombia for the M-19 on behalf of the government of Cuba. The latter provided the funds for the purchase of the arms".89 Following his revelations, however, Guillot Lara was released from Mexican custody and disappeared; according to the Colombian daily newspaper El Tiempo, Guillot Lara died in early April 1991 in Cuba of a myocardial infarction having "been detained on the island for twelve years".90 xujwOix6ni7j0-eT0RVti430wKPH9bicd8LdzulTZPXR8JDPGMTsyF2guKz20_HFjQkKlW8r6xpBfdR4TEC5SqWHYuetwHCl4rS7YWkCl0. 86 Adams, "Havana's Drug-Smuggling Connection, Reader's Digest. 87 John Dorschner & Jim McGee, "Did the Castro Regime Run Drugs to Florida?," Tropic Magazine, The Miami Herald, KnightRidder, published 20 November 1983, http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/cuba/crump.htm. 88 Edna Buchanan, "Miami drug smuggler ran drugs for Castro to guerillas, agents say," Miami Herald, Knight Ridder, published 24 January 1982, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90-00552R000303490005-9.pdf. 89 Dorschner & McGee, "Did the Castro Regime Run Drugs to Florida?," Tropic Magazine. 90 "Guillot Died of a Infarction," El Tiempo, Casa Editorial El Tiempo S.A., published 13 April 1991, https://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM-61284. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha2m5 Johnny Crump is where the public first became aware of a Cuban connection to the drug trade, though the last defector to be arrested by U.S. authorities. Crump, according to investigative reporter Ernest Volkman, was a Colombian lawyer of American descent who "went into the narcotics racket, running a large-scale cocaine and marijuana-smuggling operation" following the failing of his family's ranch in the late-1970s.91 Being politically well-connected, he was asked to serve as a guide for the newly appointed Cuban Ambassador to Colombia, the aforementioned Fernando Ravelo-Renendo, in 1975, the two quickly becoming friends.92 The two became so close that Crump even asked Ravelo to be his newborn daughter's godfather.93 At one point in 1979, in both federal testimony and statements made to Miami Herald journalists John Dorschner & Jim McGee, Crump detailed a meeting he had between Ravelo in which the ambassador detailed, "was dealing with some Chileans who needed help…seeking American weapons, not traceable back to Cuba, to use in the fight to overthrow Augusto Pinochet," to which Crump agreed and offered assistance.94 Following this, Crump tried to arrange a deal in which a plane would transport marijuana into the country, however, few pilots were willing to enter Cuba's Camaguey airport where Ravelo had arranged for refueling.95 In a previously mentioned meeting between Ravelo, Crump, 91 Ernest Volkman, "The Odd Couple: Castro and Vesco: The Cocaine Alliance," The Gadsden Times, Edward Marsh, published 29 April 1984, https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1891&dat=19840428&id=jKkfAAAAIBAJ&sjid=etYEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5242,6122535. 92 Dorschner & McGee, "Did the Castro Regime Run Drugs to Florida?," Tropic Magazine. 93 NBC Nightly News, "The Cuban Connection," featuring Roger Mudd, Brian Moss, Johnny Crump, and George H.W. Bush, aired 29 September 1982, transcript, NBC Network, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP88-01070R000100380010-3.pdf. 94 Dorschner & McGee, "Did the Castro Regime Run Drugs to Florida?," Tropic Magazine. 95 PBS Frontline, season 09, episode 10, "Cuba and Cocaine," directed and written by Stephanie Tepper & William Cran, aired 05 February 1991, transcript, Public Broadcasting System, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/drugs/archive/cubaandcocaine.html. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha2m6 and Guillot Lara, the four agreed to transport the drugs via boat to Cuba with protection from Cuban Navy and Coast Guard forces.96 In a 1991 interview with PBS Frontline, Crump detailed the finalization of the first watercraft drug shipment to Cuba, discussing how he disembarked from "the plane to a Cuban government car that was waiting for us in the airport. I mean, there's no way that you can go to any country with no passport, with nothing like that, landing from another country in an international airport and have a car waiting for you right there in the field. It has to be with the OK of that government, that country… Everything was paid by the Cuban government. The hotel, you had to sign, like, you are a guest from the Cuban government because they don't let me pay for the hotel"; while Crump left the country before he personally could see any drugs entering the country, he was reassured by Ravelo that the drugs indeed touched down on Cuban soil.97 From that point onward, Crump became very involved in trafficking narcotics and arms with the Cubans, doing so via air and seacraft and aiding the Cubans larger foreign policy goals in aiding left-wing insurgent groups through Central and South America. In January of 1982, however, Crump was arrested in a joint Customs-DEA operation "at the Omni Hotel in Miami…on drug trafficking charges".98 At the time, Crump was acquiring arms and other weaponry "to be sent to an unspecified group in Bolivia" via his friend Jaime Guillot Lara.99 Much like Estebes, Crump was facing heavy prison time and began cooperating with federal 96 Dorschner & McGee, "Did the Castro Regime Run Drugs to Florida?," Tropic Magazine. 97 PBS Frontline, season 09, episode 10, "Cuba and Cocaine," directed and written by Stephanie Tepper & William Cran, aired 05 February 1991, accessed through vault, Public Broadcasting System, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/film/cuba-and-cocaine/. 98 Buchanan, "Miami drug smuggler ran drugs for Castro to guerillas, agents say," Miami Herald. 99 U.S. Department of State. Cuban Support for Terrorism and Insurgency in the Western Hemisphere, edited by Colleen Sussman, p. 02. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha2m7 authorities, providing them "with details of his meetings and alleged drug dealings with Cuban government officials in Bogota and Havana".100 Much of Estebes, Guillot Lara, and Crump's claims are astounding, however, it must be kept in mind that these persons are convicted drug traffickers and defectors from Colombian drug cartels or are in some way associated with Cuba's military respectively. Despite this, many prosecutors and U.S. government agencies found some, if not a sizeable portion of their claims, credible. In Estebes' case, Richard Gregorie commented at the time on Estebes' validity as a witness describing how his comments were "very credible" and had been "independently corroborated".101 In an interview with Gregorie, the former attorney stressed he "found him credible because of that [outside and additional] corroboration".102 The Senate Chair of one committee also stated that Estebes' credibility was "checked out…with the Justice Department and the Drug Enforcement Administration".103 As far as Guillot Lara's credibility goes, the CIA's opinion of him seems to be rather high. According to a CIA Special National Intelligence Estimate from 1983, "[t]he Guillot Lara case…is proof that Cuba has used Colombian drug smuggling networks move arms to Colombian insurgents. In this case, Cuban officials and Colombian drug traffickers were clearly associated in facilitating narcotics shipments to the United States. Guillot paid the Cubans in hard currency and used his vessels and smuggling networks to move arms to Colombia for the insurgents. On the other hand, Cuba rather routinely searches some drug-smuggling ships found 100 NBC Nightly News, "The Cuban Connection," featuring Roger Mudd, Brian Moss, Johnny Crump, and George H.W. Bush, aired 29 September 1982, transcript. 101 Raab, "A Defector Tells of Drug Dealing by Cuban Agents," The New York Times. 102 Richard "Dick" Gregorie (former Chief of Narcotics for the USAO-SDFL) in discussion with the author, 08 April 2021. 103 Raab, "A Defector Tells of Drug Dealing by Cuban Agents," The New York Times. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha2m8 in Cuban waters, confiscates drugs found and often imprisons the crew".104 Through this excerpt, the CIA seems to endorse the view that the overall claims about drug traffickers smuggling weaponry and drugs in collusion with Cuban figures and through Cuban waters is true and based in fact. While the CIA did seem to treat the accounts and his entire involvement with legitimacy, the agency was careful to note they were unsure of "the extent to which Cuba has continued to facilitate drug trafficking, either for money or arms".105 While the following document is not exactly an intelligence estimate or official analysis, an August 1982 conference report conducted by the CIA and the National Intelligence Council (NIC) stated, "Given the involvement of senior Cuban officials and at least two Cuban embassies, we believe this activity was approved at the highest levels of the Cuban Government. It almost certainly was not a case of corruption by mid- or low-level Cuban officials…Given the level of Guillot's Cuban contacts and the political implications of the arrangements, the operation was almost certainly approved at the highest levels of the Havana government" though the document was clear in stating that the U.S. government was uncertain as to who was behind the operation.106 These three witnesses were able to corroborate a great deal of information that the U.S. federal government, mainly the DEA and U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), had been investigating since the late 1970s. With this testimony from defectors and arrested drug traffickers who were seemingly vetted and verified, the U.S. government finally was able to bring forth official charges against certain members of the Cuban government and military. 104 U.S. Intelligence Community, Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, Implications for the United States of the Colombian Drug Trade Vol. II (Langley, 28 June 1983), p. 02, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP86T00302R000600990002-9.pdf. 105 Ibid. 106 U.S. Intelligence Community, National Intelligence Council and Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Operations, Cuban Involvement in Narcotics and Terrorism (Langley, August 1982), p. iii, 3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP83B00851R000100160008-1.pdf. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha2m9 On 05 November, 1982, an indictment brought by the USAO-SDFL in Miami, Florida charged that certain drug traffickers and members of the Cuban government did "knowingly, willfully and unlawfully combine, conspire, confederate and agree, together with each other, and with diverse other persons who are both known and unknown to the Grand Jury, to commit certain offenses against the United States" in the importation and possession of methaqualone tablets and marijuana and "used and caused to be used facilities in interstate and foreign commerce, including the telephone, and traveled and caused others to travel in interstate and foreign commerce between the Southern District of Florida, Colombia, Cuba and elsewhere, with the intent to promote, manage, establish, carry on and facilitate the promotion, management, establishment and carrying on of an unlawful activity, said unlawful activity being a business enterprise involving controlled substances".107 The persons charged in this indictment brought forth by the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida included Jaime Guillot Lara, Fernando Ravelo-Renendo, Gonzalo Bassols-Suarez, Aldo Santamaria-Cuadrado, Rene Rodriguez-Cruz, and David Lorenzo Perez, Jr. alongside multiple other, predominantly, Miami-based drug traffickers.108 Neither Crump or Estebes were charged as both had testified for the prosecution and received either partial or full immunity in addition to new identities and federal protection. The Cuban Interests Section in Washington, Cuba's foreign policy arm operating as an independent section of the Czechoslovakian Embassy, commented that the charges against Ravelo, Bassols, Santamaria, and Rodriguez-Cruz were "all lies"109; a January 1982 letter from 107 United States v. Jaime Guillot Lara et al., No. 82-643-Cr-JE (S.D. Fla., 05 November 1982), http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/drugs/indictment-82.htm. 108 Ibid. 109 George Volsky, "U.S. Drug Charges Cite 4 Cuban Aides," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 06 November 1982, https://www.nytimes.com/1982/11/06/us/us-drug-charges-cite-4-cuban-aides.html. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha3m0 Cuba's Ministry of Foreign Relations (MINREX) denied Cuba ever utilized drug traffickers to transport arms to rebels in Latin America, never gave arms to guerillas in Colombia, and denied that Guillot Lara had ever set foot in Cuba or received any monies from the Republic of Cuba.110 The denial by Cuba of having never gave arms to Colombian guerillas was roundly criticized, most notably in a 1990 interview with former U.S. Ambassador to Colombia Thomas Boyatt.111 Among those charged were high level Cuban officials, some of whom have already been discussed including the Cuban Ambassador to Colombia Ravelo-Renendo and his "minister-counsel" at the Cuban Embassy in Colombia Bassols-Suarez.112 In addition to these figures, the indictment also charged Vice Admiral (VADM) of the Cuban Navy Aldo Santamaria-Cuadrado and Rene Rodriguez-Cruz a "member of the Cuban Community Party Central Committee and president of the Cuban Institute of Friendship With The Peoples [ICAP]" with the same charges.113 It is worth noting that the ICAP was described by the CIA in a 1984 brief as being an organization which, in addition to bringing in foreign youths interested in Communism, Socialism, or Cuba also "provided Cuban intelligence services with a registry of aliens who might prove useful for intelligence collection efforts and operations in their homelands".114 110 "Foreign Ministry Issues Statement on Drugs," Minister of Foreign Affairs Isidoro Malmierca Peoli (28 January 1982), Translation by the Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Latin America Report, Cuba, JPRS L/10334, 18 February 1982, p. 03-04, heading: Foreign Ministry Issues Statement on Drugs, Republic of Cuba, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) Latin America Report, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP82-00850R000500030043-6.pdf. 111 Ambassador Thomas D. Boyatt (Ret.), interviewed by Charles Stuart Kennedy, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, The Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 08 March 1990, p. 48, https://www.adst.org/OH%20TOCs/Boyatt,%20Thomas%20D.toc.pdf?_ga=2.264396167.981542772.1592939617-1066174783.1588020094&_gac=1.137161348.1589401103.EAIaIQobChMIgqnAwtSx6QIVSx-tBh2tGgsJEAAYASAAEgKALvD_BwE. 112 U.S. Intelligence Community, Central Intelligence Agency, National Foreign Assessment Center, Directory of Officials of the Republic of Cuba (Langley, October 1979), p. 224, https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/AA/00/07/66/14/00003/AA00076614_00003.pdf. 113 Mary Thornton, "Four Cuban Officials Indicted in Drug Smuggling," The Washington Post, The Washington Post Company, published 06 November 1982, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1982/11/06/four-cuban-officials-indicted-in-drug-smuggling/d70ed042-0adc-42d2-971b-23475f7adc83/. 114 U.S. Intelligence Community, Central Intelligence Agency, Cuba: Castro's Propaganda Apparatus and Foreign Policy (Langley, November 1984), p. 13, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000972183.pdf. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha3m1 David Lorenzo Perez, Jr. is an interesting figure within this legal case as he, in December of 1982, pled guilty to the first count of the criminal indictment.115 In his plea, Lorenzo Perez indicated culpability on Guillot Lara's part to "purchase, receive, store, and possess with intent to distribute approximately eight and one-half million methaqualone tablets" while indicating "that Jaime Guillot-Lara would provide ships to transport methaqualone tablets from Columbia[sic] with the knowledge of the Cuban governmental officials".116 Lorenzo Perez admitted he assisted Guillot Lara in all of these actions while also admitting he "traveled by private vessel from the Southern District of Florida to Paredon Grande, Cuba [and] met with Cuban government officials" including Santamaria and Rodriguez-Cruz.117 In Congressional testimony, Lorenzo Perez also testified that that "Cuban government was also to receive one-third of the profit of the marihuana[sic] sale" yet this did not go through as it appears Guillot Lara kept the profits [just under half a million USD] to himself.118 This case was the most significant development in the long standing allegations against Cuba on the area of narcotics trafficking. However, it is incredibly important to note that there was no evidence linking the Castros to the drug trade. The lead attorney who personally handled the case for the DOJ, Richard Gregorie, stated "Was Fidel Castro involved? At this point, no…[I] can't honestly say I saw that open Cuban involvement [and] did not come up with anyone who spoke directly to Fidel in those early cases".119 115 United States v. David Lorenzo Perez, Jr., et al., No. 82-643-Cr-JE (S.D. Fla., 09 December 1982), p. 01, http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/cuba/perez-jr.htm. 116 United States v. David Lorenzo Perez, Jr., et al., No. 82-643-Cr-JE, p. 02, http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/cuba/perez-jr-1.htm. 117 Ibid. 118 U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Security and Terrorism, Foreign Relations Committee, Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere Affairs, The Cuban Government's Involvement in Facilitating International Drug Traffic, 98th Cong., 1st Sess., 30 April 1983, p. 33. 119 Richard "Dick" Gregorie (former Chief of Narcotics for the USAO-SDFL) in discussion with the author, 08 April 2021. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha3m2 Also around this time, many officials from the DOJ and U.S. Department of State (DOS) changed their previously emphasized opinions on the extent of Cuban involvement in the drug trade. In an October 1983 hearing before the Senate Subcommittee on Security and Terrorism, DEA Administrator Mullen stated, "I moved very cautiously at first wanting to have evidence before publicly stating I was convinced that the Cuban Government was involved in drug trafficking. I am now convinced, as I have stated in prior sessions, that there is Cuban Government involvement in drug trafficking", bringing forth the above indictments and other "[classified and confidential] information" to support his reasoning.120 The Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs, James H. Michel, stated before Congress also in May of 1983 "the evidence clearly indicates more than a case of corruption by local or mid-level security officials in Cuba…Narcotics trafficking has apparently been sanctioned by Cuba as a means to finance subversion in Latin America".121 These comments were found by the Washington Post to, "fit in with a Reagan administration campaign to rally public and congressional support for its Central American policies, including more aid for El Salvador's army".122 Michel was not the only State Department official to make this claim either. The Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs Lawrence S. Eagleburger stated in May of 1983 that he "would find it very difficult to believe that the Cuban Government itself is not 120 U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Security and Terrorism, Impact of the South Florida Task Force on Drug Interdiction In The Gulf Coast Area, 98th Cong., 1st Sess., 28 October 1983, p. 16, https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/97516NCJRS.pdf. 121 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of Public Communication, Cuban Involvement in Narcotics Trafficking, edited by Colleen Sussman, (Washington, D.C., 30 April 1983), p. 02, https://www.google.com/books/edition/Cuban_Involvement_in_Narcotics_Trafficki/NItKAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0. 122 Edward Cody, "Castro Ties To Drugs Suggested," The Washington Post, The Washington Post Company, published 01 May 1983, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1983/05/01/castro-ties-to-drugs-suggested/242170fe-a930-4bc4-b30c-18016f794497/. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha3m3 involved… [The evidence is] really quite clear that there is major Cuban involvement in the drug traffic in this country", while also accusing the Castro government of playing a role in this.123 However, this appears to be more Eagleburger's own personal opinion as a more senior State Department official stated later that no agency had been able to prove "personal involvement by Fidel Castro".124 A spokesman for the Cuban Interests Section responded to the comments by Mullen and Michel by stating, "[This is] propaganda against the Cubans…We [the Cuban government] are refusing this accusation. We have consistent fighting against drug traffic. There are many American people who are put in Cuban jails for drug trafficking".125 At this stage, in relation to the Guillot Lara/Crump case, these definitive comments that Castro or the Cuban government officially was involved seemed to an extreme jump and other officials protested against this characterization. Stanley Marcus, the U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Florida and the attorney whose office brought forth the indictments against the four Cuban officials, stated before Congress "I think it is a fair and accurate statement to say some of the major organs and institutions of the Cuban state and some high-ranking officials of those organs and institutions of the state are involved in drug-running to the United States".126 William H. Webster, then Director of the FBI, also spoke about this in a television interview, stating the majority of the evidence currently being used by some officials to make judgements "[came] from one set of 123 Kenneth B. Noble, "Official Ties Cuba to U.S. Drug Traffic," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 02 May 1983, https://www.nytimes.com/1983/05/02/world/official-ties-cuba-to-us-drug-traffic.html. 124 Ibid. 125 Werner, "U.S. Officials Link Castro and Drugs," The New York Times. 126 U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Terrorism and Security, The Cuban Government's Involvement in Facilitating International Drug Traffic, 98th Cong., 1st sess., 30 April 1983, p. 15. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha3m4 sources and should be viewed with care".127 At this juncture, there was a great deal of conflicting views upon the established evidence, some most likely based upon political and individual biases based upon preconceived notions on both the nature of Communism and Latin America in general. While the evidence linking Castro or the Cuban government as a whole is very minimal (mostly relegated to evidence that would be considered hearsay in a U.S. court of law), it is undeniable that sections of the Cuban government, including areas of Cuba's diplomatic and intelligence services, were utilizing drug traffickers to achieve larger foreign policy goals within the Latin American region. As the 1980s progressed, additional evidence of Cuban involvement in the drug trade became even more apparent with defectors from Noriega's Panama, Cuba's DGI, and the arrests of multiple drug traffickers all speaking to U.S. officials. During this time as well, many criminal investigators of the U.S. federal government found or came across evidence of drug trafficking on Cuba's part along with the U.S. IC coming to a more solid conclusion on the matter. Prior to these November 1982 indictments, an FBI investigation into Cuban involvement in the drug trade was underway. In October of 1982, a U.S. Customs plane near Corpus Christi, Texas intercepted a Cessna aircraft that was having a mechanical malfunction and tracked it to Cleburne, Texas. The pilot, an American, "was arrested with 877 pounds of marijuana onboard" with "Chemical analysis [showing the marijuana] almost certainly was grown in Cuba".128 Following the pilot's conviction in April of 1983, federal investigators detailed "the ring operated for two years in violation of government embargoes on trade with Cuba by shipping computers and other equipment. Some of the return flights carried high-grade Cuban 127 Ibid. 128 "Did Cuba get computers in return for marijuana?" The Miami Herald, KnightRidder, published 02 April 1983, http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/cuba/computers.htm. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha3m5 marijuana".129 The evidence necessary to make the claim that this ring was operating with the explicit approval of Cuban government officials or the Castros themselves is very lacking, however, what this does indicate is that there were individual smugglers beyond large metropolitan centers who were found to have ties to Cuba and that Cuba seemingly was involved in producing drugs in some quantity. In December of 1984, the CIA released an interagency intelligence memorandum stating outright, "Cuba is currently supporting drug trafficking…We judge that Fidel Castro is fully cognizant of and condones the drug-related activity that is taking place with the support of Cuban officials…The key Cuban participants are officers of the Interior Ministry or America Department of the Cuban Communist Party's Central Committee…Their participation strongly indicates a sanctioned government policy, rather than an arrangement for personal gain".130 While a good portion of this document is redacted, this is the first time in which an intelligence agency, or the CIA at least, has openly accused the upper echelon of the Cuban government and Castro himself of playing some role or in some way supporting the activities occurring. During this period, many criminal investigations uncovered more information on Cuban involvement in the drug trade, with additional evidence of Castro involvement becoming more apparent. In addition to this, many Congressional hearings and panels were convened with the goal of exploring the Latin American drug trade, during which many witnesses were called. Among these witnesses was Diego Viafara Salinas, an M-19 physician who infiltrated an armed civilian group with ties to members of the Medellín Cartel.131 Salinas held the belief he would be 129 Ibid. 130 U.S. Intelligence Community, Central Intelligence Agency, Cuban Government Involvement in Drug Trafficking (Langley, December 1984), p. 03, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP87T00217R000700140002-5.pdf. 131 U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Structure of International Drug Trafficking Organizations, 101st Cong., 1st Sess., 12-13 September 1989, p. 70, https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/146771NCJRS.pdf. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha3m6 killed due to his past association with M19 and began providing evidence to the Colombian government, which eventually resulted in the deaths of many prominent Medellín Cartel leaders.132 In testimony before the U.S. Congress, Salinas recalled that, "[on November 22, 1988] two pilots flying a Commander 1000 aircraft were planning to stop and refuel in Cuba. They were leaving from an estate [in the Department of Cordoba] …When the seats of the plane were removed to load the cocaine, I saw the navigation charts, which indicated they were flying over the southern coast of Cuba. These pilots commented that they had to be sure to carry some amount of U.S. dollars with them to leave in Cuba as prearranged payment for the stopover".133 While the pilots Salinas spoke with never identified who gave them clearance to fly over Cuba with drugs, Salinas did testify "that it [the drug trafficking operation] was all the way up to Fidel Castro" with this information apparently coming from Fidel's spokesman.134 It is worth noting that this piece of testimony would effectively qualify as hearsay in a U.S. court of law. Many informants also came forward with information that would prove to be incriminatory to many persons with ties to the drug trade, including certain high-ranking Cuban leaders. On such source, a confidential informant for the DEA, who, after being arrested in 1985 on conspiracy charges, provided information on much of the Medellín's drug trafficking activities to the U.S. government.135 In a request for payment from the DEA's Asuncion Country Office, the agency noted the source's decades of service to the United States, describing him as having led "successful 132 U.S. Congress, Senate, Structure of International Drug Trafficking Organizations, p. 73. 133 U.S. Congress, Senate, Structure of International Drug Trafficking Organizations, p. 71-72. 134 Ibid. 135 U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Asuncion Country Office, REQUEST for PAYMENT under 28 U.S.C. 524 (C)(1)(B) for CONFIDENTIAL SOURCE (CS #####) (Asuncion, post-2009), p. 01. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha3m7 negotiations for landing rights and refueling operations in [among other countries] Cuba…[the source] purchased a birthday surprise (an airplane bought in the U.S.) for Fidel CASTRO's[sic] birthday, which he personally handed over to Castro's brother Raúl (then Cuba's Minister of Defense) during lunch".136 This information is quite damning to the Castro regime and, if true, would prove that, at the least, Raúl Castro did have knowledge of Cuban involvement in the drug trade and condoned those operations. While it cannot be emphasized enough that this confidential source pled "nolo contendere to the conspiracy charges in 1986", it does speak volumes that the DEA found him an essential and trustworthy source to continue using well into the 21st century.137 At this same time, another development implicated an American fugitive with close ties to the Castro regime in the drug trade. In April of 1985, appearing "before the Senate subcommittee on children, family, and drugs" (which was investigating Nicaraguan governmental involvement in the drug trade) were two convicted smugglers who provided further information on Cuban involvement in the drug trade.138 One of them was smuggler James A. Herring, Jr. who, while insisting he never transported drugs for the Cubans or Nicaraguans, detailed his smuggling activities with the Cubans in an interview with PBS Frontline, saying, "When I would go into Varadero with boatloads of equipment, we would be received by marked vessels that the Cuban navy, so to speak, utilized, their military gunboats. They would escort us into the gunboat dockage there at Varadero. From there they would offload. We would stay as long as we felt necessary to refuel us, wined and dined us. And when we were ready to return to 136 Ibid. 137 Ibid. 138 "Witnesses Testify on Vesco Link to Drug trafficking in Nicaragua, Cuba," Associated Press, Associated Press, published 19 April 1985, https://apnews.com/article/09e42836a8f58d76da155fa155da7847. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha3m8 the Keys, they would take and escort us out".139 In addition to this, Herring also claimed that the DGI, "would even offer drugs in lieu of the cash. [They] had the availability of enormous amounts of drugs that they had warehoused through seizures that they had made in their country on drug operations that weren't paying protection for their air space or their waterways. So they had a readily available amount of drugs in the form of cocaine, Qualudes[sic] and marijuana".140 Herring also testified that "he worked with Cuban Government officials and [Robert Vesco] to help the Nicaraguan government build a cocaine-processing laboratory near Managua".141 Vesco had been a successful businessman in the United States, creating a hundred-million-dollar manufacturing empire by 1970 before being twice indicted on federal charges for "defrauding thousands of investors [of $224 million USD]" and "for making illegal contributions totaling $250,000" to Richard Nixon's re-election campaign in 1972 and 1976 respectively.142 Following this, Vesco fled to numerous Latin American countries (including Nicaragua) before settling in Cuba around 1984.143 In a March 1996 profile for Vanity Fair, Vesco's immediate family indicates a friendly relationship to Fidel and Raul Castro in addition to a partnership to traffic narcotics with Col. Antonio De La Guardia, a high-ranking figure in the DGI and an important part of Cuba's overall foray into the drug trade.144 Eventually, however, Vesco attracted the eye of U.S. federal law enforcement for his 139 PBS Frontline, season 09, episode 10, "Cuba and Cocaine," directed and written by Stephanie Tepper & William Cran, aired 05 February 1991. 140 Ibid. 141 Joel Brinkley, "Panel Hears Details Linking Managua and Drugs," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 20 April 1985, https://www.nytimes.com/1985/04/20/world/panel- hears-details-linking-managua-and-drugs.html. 142 Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, "Robert L. Vesco," Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., published 20 July 1998, updated 30 November 2020, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-L-Vesco. 143 Ibid. 144 Ann Louise Bardach, "Vesco's Last Gamble," Vanity Fair, Condé Nast, published March 1996, https://archive.vanityfair.com/article/1996/3/vescos-last-gamble. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha3m9 alleged participation in drug trafficking and, though some convicted drug traffickers and Cuban intelligence defectors implicated him in criminal acts, the "FBI and [DEA] denied he had any role" in certain elements of the drug trade, disproving these traffickers and defectors' claims.145 Ultimately, Vesco was arrested and sentenced to prison in Cuba in 1996 "for economic crimes against the government of Fidel Castro".146 Since at least April of 1987, the DEA's Miami Office was actively pursuing an investigation against Cuban government and military officials. Harry Sommers, a newly minted DEA agent to the Miami FO and later Special Agent-in-Charge (SAC) of the Atlanta FO, was the lead investigator on the case and detailed his investigation in an April 1990 academic work for Florida International University. According to Sommers, in April of 1987, "two pilots [an American and Cuban national] flew approximately 480 pounds of cocaine from Colombia to [Varadero Military Base, Cuba]…where the cocaine was transferred to Cuban military officers".147 According to Sommers, the pilots were both questioned by U.S. officials and, in this interview, both pilots claimed they had stopped in Cuba to make "emergency repairs" and "presented documentation from the Cuban government confirming their story".148 The drugs were then placed upon a boat named the "Flerida" and, while attempting to enter Florida waters that April, was intercepted by the DEA. In the ensuing interviews with the boat's operators (all Cubans who were "residing in 145 Jim McGee, Pierre Thomas, Guy Gugliotta, & Jerry Knight "Vesco Held In Cuba," The Washington Post, The Washington Post Company, published 09 June 1995, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/06/09/vesco-held-in-cuba/874c16d3-81a5-4700-84ce- 6a4e8300fdab/. 146 Douglas Farah, "Vesco Gets 13-Year Sentence in Cuba," The Washington Post, The Washington Post Company, published 27 August 1996, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1996/08/27/vesco-gets-13-year-sentence-in-cuba/77271414- 9219-4efe-b68c-5d30b0f9b11b/. 147 Harry Sommers "Untitled Graduate Studies Paper," (graduate paper, Florida International University, 23 April 1990), p. 07. 148 Sommers "Untitled Graduate Studies Paper," p. 08. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha4m0 Miami"), the DEA found the boat was "[initially] met at sea by a Cuban Coast Guard vessel and escorted to the military base in Varadero [where the] crew members were housed and fed until the cocaine was loaded onto the vessel" upon which the boat was escorted out of Cuban waters by a Coast Guard ship.149 Additional evidence showing U.S.-based drug traffickers of Cuban descent docking and landing at Varadero and interacting heavily with Cuban military officers was uncovered through further investigations in May and November of 1987.150 This investigation led to the federal indictments of various figures in late 1988, including Reinaldo and Rueben Ruiz, a Cuban father and son drug trafficking team operating out of the South Florida.151 Reinaldo Ruiz, facing a sentence of life imprisonment, agreed to make a deal with the government in return for a lighter sentence.152 In a television interview with PBS Frontline before his death, Ruiz detailed his involvement in the drug trade and his associations with the Cuban government. According to Ruiz, he would transport a boat from Florida to Varadero where "everything had been arranged in advance [by Colonel Pardo, Chief of Command of Naval Operations in Varadero]" while his son, Rueben, would fly the cocaine from Colombia to Varadero which, upon landing, would be transferred to Ruiz's boat by members of the Cuban military and MININT.153 In this interview, Ruiz also stated "Every time that I went over there, I was completely sure that I was a 100 percent backing[sic], all the way to the top, otherwise I never, ever touch a thing out there". 154 149 Ibid. 150 Sommers "Untitled Graduate Studies Paper," p. 08-10. 151 Buddy Nivens, "Jury Links Cuba To Drug Smuggling," South Florida Sun Sentinel, Tribune Publishing, published 27 February 1988, https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/fl-xpm-1988-02-27-8801120759-story.html. 152 Richard Cole, "Prosecutors: Trafficker Implicated More Top Cuban Officials," Associated Press, Associated Press, published 21 August 1989, https://apnews.com/article/348da22ca41fd9a7e77c7ab9226c504e. 153 PBS Frontline, season 09, episode 10, "Cuba and Cocaine," directed and written by Stephanie Tepper & William Cran, aired 05 February 1991. 154 Ibid. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha4m1 Despite Ruiz's comment, he never once indicated to federal investigators he met Fidel or Raul Castro; the closest Ruiz got to implicating either senior leader was a secret recording made by a DEA informant in which Ruiz claimed "The [payoff] money went in Fidel's drawer".155 Again, Ruiz never identified this person as being Fidel Castro and, if he did, the information would have come from someone who had heard this information from someone else, effectively being inadmissible evidence. What is quite serious about Ruiz's allegations and testimony however are his connections to Cuban intelligence. According to Harry Sommers and confirmed by other federal investigations, Ruiz was a "cousin of Miguel Ruiz-Poo…a Cuban captain in the Ministry of the Interior" who was working in Panama when he met Reinaldo Ruiz.156 While they initially began transporting U.S. goods and products to circumvent the embargo, Reinaldo Ruiz eventually floated the idea of trafficking cocaine through Cuba which resulted in Ruiz-Poo informing his superior Major Amado Padrón Trujillo and Colonel Antonio "Tony" de la Guardia, both members of the Moneda Convertible (MC) Department, a division meant to "circumvent the United States embargo and earn Cuba hard currency".157 This is where Ruiz's involvement in shipping boats and aircraft filled with cocaine and other narcotics to Cuba and then on to Florida began. According to esteemed journalist Andres Oppenheimer, shortly after de la Guardia and Ruiz initially met, Ruiz asked de la Guardia if Fidel Castro was aware of their arrangement to traffic narcotics to which de la Guardia replied in the affirmative. Oppenheimer writes however 155 "Secret Drug Case Tape Talks of 'Fidel' Payoffs" Associated Press, Associated Press, published 09 March 1988, https://apnews.com/article/0800e600293914df73901e1fe452316b. 156 Sommers "Untitled Graduate Studies Paper," p. 11. 157 González, "The Cuban Connection: Drug Trafficking and the Castro Regime," CSA Occasional Paper Series Vol. 02. No. 06 (1997), p. 10. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha4m2 "It is unclear whether Tony de la Guardia had personally discussed his cocaine-trafficking plans with Castro. The Commandante, with his instinctive revulsion for money matters, seldom got involved in dirty business deals. That was Interior Minister Abrantes's job…De La Guardia's statement to Reinaldo Ruiz may have reflected the colonel's assumption that Abrantes never would have okayed something as hot as a drug operation without Fidel's blessing".158 Also around this time was the federal indictment against Manuel Noriega, the dictator of Panama who had become an increasing annoyance to the U.S. government. Despite having initially been friendly to the U.S., providing information to the CIA and DEA159, his involvement in substantial drug trafficking and racketeering efforts (in addition to the significant corruption and general abuses of his regime) had made him a liability.160 Among the witnesses who provided information against Noriega was Jose Blandón Castillo, a former key member of Noriega's intelligence service and a "consul general in New York".161 Blandón provided first-hand knowledge of incidences, confirming some of what was already suspected by American officials and investigators on Noriega's activities, but also claimed Fidel Castro mediated a dispute between Noriega and the Medellín Cartel in the Darién Province of Panama. According to Blandón, he "met with Castro in Havana on June 21 or 22, 1984 [and] Castro recommended that Noriega return the $5 million in protection money and return the plant, personnel, and equipment to the Cartel" and on either June 27th or 28th, "Noriega and Castro met 158 Andres Oppenheimer, Castro's Final Hour: The Secret Story Behind the Coming Downfall of Communist Cuba (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1992), p. 29. 159 Robert L. Jackson, "Noriega Gave DEA Limited Aid for 5 Years, Officials Say," Los Angeles Times, Times Mirror Company, published 16 December 1991, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-12-16-mn-517-story.html. 160 Philip Shenon, "Noriega Indicted by U.S. For Links to Illegal Drugs," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 06 February 1988, https://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/06/world/noriega-indicted-by-us-for-links-to-illegal-drugs.html. 161 Stephen Engelberg with Elaine Sciolino, "A U.S. Frame-Up of Nicaragua Charged," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 04 February 1988, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90M00005R001100160023-3.pdf. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha4m3 directly" and Noriega agreed to go forward with Castro's suggestions, resulting in the release of numerous prisoners.162 While this information was used in indictments against senior Cuban officials and Manuel Noriega, some have found reason to doubt Blandón's claims. John Dinges, a noted investigative journalist and current Professor Emeritus of International Journalism at Columbia University, documented Blandón's claims in his 1991 book Our Man in Panama, stating, "There was no independent corroboration for the story…No other witnesses, including [Floyd Carlton Caceres, Noriega's personal pilot], had any knowledge of the Cuban meeting. If investigators had checked flight records and even press clips in Panama, they might have discovered that Blandón had gotten some basic facts of the Darién incident wrong: the dates for the trip to Cuba were wrong, and the prisoners supposedly released at Castro's urging had been freed more than one month before Blandón and Noriega went to Cuba".163 Richard Gregorie, who met with Blandón, disagrees with Dinges' assertions, saying, "Blandón provided the US government with valid evidence that was corroborated, but Blandón volunteered his cooperation and no one knew his true motivation. He was caught, prior to trial, recording his interviews by agents… The photos and information he provided were valid, but whether this was a lure by some foreign intelligence service or an attempt to sell his story for personal gain made him untrustworthy as a witness".164 Castro was interviewed around this time by Maria Shriver of NBC News and wholeheartedly rejected "José Blandón's charge" while also "[inviting] the Congressional committee [which heard Blandón's claims] to visit Cuba to receive evidence that Blandón was 162 U.S. Congress, Senate, Drugs, Law Enforcement, and Foreign Policy: A Report, p. 66. 163 John Dinges, Our Man in Panama: The Shrewd Rise and Brutal Fall of Manuel Noriega (New York, NY: Random House, 1991), p. 292, https://norwich.on.worldcat.org/oclc/232993288. 164 Richard "Dick" Gregorie (former Chief of Narcotics for the USAO-SDFL) in discussion with the author, 08 April 2021. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha4m4 lying to Congress".165 In this interview, he also "[denied] that the Medellín drug cartel has ever trafficked drugs through Cuba to the United States".166 Despite Castro's invitation to the committee, subcommittee chairman Senator John Kerry approached the Cuban Interests Section in D.C. and requested to visit Cuba on the conditions that "staff [be] permitted to advance the trip and…the Cubans agreed to discuss the drug trafficking problem in general" along with being able to meet Robert Vesco; the trip never materialized as "The Cubans never replied to any of these requests and never made any further arrangements for the visit".167 The concentrated U.S. criminal investigations, Congressional hearings, and federal indictments, the intense media speculation and reporting, along with seeming pressure from the Soviet Union168 forced the Cuban government's hand. On 12 June, 1989, multiple high-ranking members of Cuba's military and intelligence services were arrested. These members included General Arnaldo T. Ochoa Sanchez,169 Brigadier General Patricio de la Guardia, Colonel Antonio "Tony" de la Guardia (twin brother to Patricio), Colonel Antonio Rodriguez Estupinan, Captain Jorge Martinez Valdes, Lieutenant Colonel Alexis Lago Archoa, and Major Amado Padrón Trujillo.170 Also charged were Captain Leonel Estevez-Soto, Captain Antonio Sanchez-Lima, First Lieutenant Jose Luis Pineda-Bermudez, Captain Miguel Ruiz-Poo, Captain Rosa Maria Abierno-Gobin, and Captain Eduardo Diaz-Izquierdo.171 165 Jane Franklin, Cuba and the United States: A Chronological History (New York, NY: Ocean Press, 1992), p. 239, https://norwich.on.worldcat.org/oclc/944186211. 166 Ibid. 167 U.S. Congress, Senate, Drugs, Law Enforcement, and Foreign Policy: A Report, p. 66-67. 168 U.S. Intelligence Community, Central Intelligence Agency, International Narcotics Situation Report (Langley, VA: May 1989), p. 13, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP91M01043R002200150004-9.pdf. 169 Robert Pear, "Cuba Arrests Top General on Corruption Charges," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 16 June 1989, https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/16/world/cuba-arrests-top-general-on-corruption-charges.html?searchResultPosition=8. 170 Robert Pear, "Cuba Seizes 6 More Officers Amid Signs of Big Shakeup," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 17 June 1989, https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/17/world/cuba-seizes-6-more-officers-amid-signs-of-big-shakeup.html. 171 Sommers "Untitled Graduate Studies Paper," p. 14. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha4m5 The majority of these persons were members of Cuba's Ministry of the Interior and intelligence services, though Estupinan and Martinez were both former aides-de-camp to General Ochoa.172 Save for Archoa and Trujillo, who were not charged with any crime, the other persons were charged with a variety of public corruption crimes, including money laundering, drug trafficking, and treason. As well, though all were arrested rather simultaneously, there were two separate cases going on which involved the drug trade in Cuba. The first involved, "[Antonio "Tony"] de la Guardia, Major Padrón, and six other officers who worked at [the MC Department] … The Cuban government charged that de la Guardia's group arranged for six tons of cocaine to be sent from Colombia through Cuba to the United States in the two years after April 1987, and that they were paid $3.4 million for doing so".173 The second case involved primary Ochoa and his aide-de-camp Martinez (in addition to "several others") in which the Cuban government charged that "[Ochoa] enriched himself in black-market trading, using army resources, when he was stationed in Angola in 1988, and to have neglected his military duties…[stole] $161,000 from Nicaragua's Sandinista army through a failed weapons deal…[and] was said to have conceived of a scheme to send major cocaine shipments to the United States, and for that purpose to have sent Martínez secretly to Medellín, Colombia, in 1988 to meet with Pablo Escobar Gaviria, a magnate of the drug cartel".174 The charges against Ochoa did not allege he was involved in de la Guardia's operations nor ever took part in a drug deal, alleging only he engaged in treason and efforts to gain private funds for either independent military operations or for personal use. 172 Ibid. 173 Julia Preston, "The Trial that Shook Cuba," The New York Review of Books, NYREV, Inc., published 07 December 1989, https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1989/12/07/the-trial-that-shook-cuba/. 174 Ibid. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha4m6 The trial (which aired on public television throughout Cuba) began on 25 June, 1989, thirteen days after Ochoa had initially been arrested, with the first hearing beginning on the 26th of June.175 Throughout the course of the trial, numerous witnesses were called who testified in regards to the charges, in some cases admitting culpability and accepting responsibility for individual actions which were illegal while also implicating others such as Ochoa and the de la Guardia brothers in the illegal activities they had been charged with. Both Patricio and Tony de la Guardia and Arnaldo Ochoa admitted their involvements in drug trafficking and treasonous activities, respectively, before the trial had commenced.176 At the trial's conclusion, the prosecutor for the government recommended to the Honor Tribunal, a board of 47 high-ranking Cuban military officers (one of whom was Aldo Santamaria-Cuadrado, who had been charged with drug trafficking by the U.S. in 1982)177, that "Arnaldo Ochoa Sanchez, Antonio de la Guardia Font, Jorge Martinez Valdez, Amado Bruno Padron Trujillo, Antonio Sanchez Lima, Alexis Lago Arocha, and Eduardo Diaz Izquierdo [receive] the death penalty…[for] the most serious crimes in this indictment, which are drug trafficking and treason against the fatherland".178 The prosecutor also recommended "30 years imprisonment for defendants Patricio de la Guardia Font and Rosa Maria Abierno Gobin, 25 years imprisonment for defendants Gabriel Prendes Gomez, Leonel Estevez Soto, Miguel Ruiz 175 "Cuban Government Proceedings Against Arnaldo Ochoa-Sanchez and Other Officials," Government of Cuba (June-July 1989), Translation by the Foreign Broadcast Information Service. FBIS Daily Report, Latin America, JPRS-LAM-89-003, 25 July 1989, p. 03, https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a347578.pdf. 176 "Cuban Government Proceedings Against Arnaldo Ochoa-Sanchez and Other Officials," Government of Cuba (June-July 1989), Translation by the Foreign Broadcast Information Service. FBIS Daily Report, Latin America, JPRS-LAM-89-003, 25 July 1989, p. 07, 154, 164. 177 "Cuban Government Proceedings Against Arnaldo Ochoa-Sanchez and Other Officials," Government of Cuba (June-July 1989), Translation by the Foreign Broadcast Information Service. FBIS Daily Report, Latin America, JPRS-LAM-89-003, 25 July 1989, p. 44. 178 "Cuban Government Proceedings Against Arnaldo Ochoa-Sanchez and Other Officials," Government of Cuba (June-July 1989), Translation by the Foreign Broadcast Information Service. FBIS Daily Report, Latin America, JPRS-LAM-89-003, 25 July 1989, p. 187. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha4m7 Poo, and Luis M. Pineda Bermudez, and 15 years imprisonment for defendant Antonio Rodriguez Estupinan".179 The Honor Tribunal agreed unanimously on 11 July 1989, with the stripping of ranks coming later on 12 July 1989.180 On 13 July 1989, Ochoa, Tony de la Guardia, Valdez, and Trujillo were all executed by way of firing squad.181 During and following the trial, Cuba's Ministry of the Interior and the Cuban government as a whole was revamped; Diocles Torralba Gonzalez, Cuba's Minister of Transportation "was dismissed [on 14 June 1989] for "improper conduct" – suggesting he may have been engaged in corruption"182 while Cuba's Minister of the Interior, Brigadier General Jose Abrantes Fernandez, "was dismissed [on] June 26" and then arrested on 31 July 1989 alongside "Brig. Gen. Roberto Gonzalez Caso, a former head of immigration; Oscar Carreno Gomez, former customs chief; Lt. Col. Rolando Castaneda Izquiero, and Hector Carbonell Mendez, director of a state-owned company that dealt in foreign currency".183 Five more Brigadier Generals of the Cuban military, presumably aligned with the Ministry of the Interior, were also "demoted to colonel and retired".184 Both Abrantes and Torralba would later receive twenty year prison sentences, with Abrantes dying in 1991 of a heart attack.185 Replacing Abrantes in the MININT was "trusted four-star general Abelardo Colomé Ibarra" who quickly revamped much of MININT's capabilities.186 179 Ibid. 180 "Cuban Government Proceedings Against Arnaldo Ochoa-Sanchez and Other Officials," Government of Cuba (June-July 1989), Translation by the Foreign Broadcast Information Service. FBIS Daily Report, Latin America, JPRS-LAM-89-003, 25 July 1989, p. 208-209. 181 Oppenheimer, Castro's Final Hour, p. 01-03. 182 Jim Anderson, "U.S.: High-level shakeup may be under way in Cuba," United Press International, United Press International, published 14 June 1989, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1989/06/14/US-High-level-shakeup-may-be-under-way-in-Cuba/4954613800000/. 183 Isaac A. Levi, "Five Senior Cuban Officers Arrested in Drug Scandal," Associated Press, Associated Press, published 31 July 1989, https://apnews.com/article/0782d185225919535cf3aa518ed550a9. 184 Ibid. 185 Richard Gott, Cuba: A New History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), p. 285. 186 Krujit, Cuba and Revolutionary Latin America, p. 183. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha4m8 During and after the trial, the charges and convictions were heavily criticized. Some cast doubt on the trial's veracity in regards to having a military officer who had allegations of drug trafficking leveled against him187, while others (Cuban human rights activities, American journalists, and international human rights advocacy and monitoring groups) took offense to the lack of questions asked by the defendants' military appointed prosecutors (in addition to the rather loaded way in which some questions were asked).188 Jaqueline Tillman, a member of the National Security Council, was quoted as saying, "The evidence of Cuban involvement in narcotics trafficking was becoming so abundant that the regime moved to protect Fidel Castro by dissociating him from those activities" while Frank Calzon, a member of the human rights group Freedom House stated that either of the Castros, either Fidel or Raul, "had to approve of this activity, or at least [look] the other way".189 Even civilians of the island nation, according to former diplomat Wayne Smith, were "questioning the official explanation and arguing that there has to be a lot more to this than what is contained in the official announcement".190 Following the trials and into the 1990s, however, Cuba seemingly became more committed to halting drug traffic in Cuba. Fulton Armstrong, a former NIO for Latin America and two-time Director for Inter-American Affairs for the NSC, has stated that "Since Ochoa, collaboration has been good" mentioning that, since 1997, a formal relationship between the United States and Cuba exists, with both the U.S. and Cuba "[identifying] this as a matter of 187 Richard Cole, "Admiral's Role Calls Cuba Drug Crackdown Into Question," Associated Press, Associated Press, published 29 June 1989, https://apnews.com/article/9ef279d0c5de07e958d53e9c1a7bea5b. 188 Preston, "The Trial that Shook Cuba," The New York Review of Books. 189 Robert Pear, "Cuba Discloses A Drug Network Of Top Officials," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 24 June 1989, https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/24/world/cuba-discloses-a-drug-network-of-top-officials.html. 190 Larry Rohter, "Castro Is Anxious About His Military," The New York Times, The New York Times Company, published 25 June 1989, https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/25/weekinreview/the-world-castro-is-anxious-about-his-military.html?searchResultPosition=10. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha4m9 national interest".191 Pierre Charette, the ASAC for the DEA's Caribbean division during the late-1980s, identified that into the early-1990s, cooperation with the Cuban government has been "fantastic [with] drug trafficking through go-fast boats dropping significantly" and that this productive relationship remains in place today.192 In 1991, the U.S. Customs Service detailed to Frontline that "[drug, arms, and other illicit] trafficking had declined since the trial, but…not stopped".193 The DEA's Administrator194 and Chief of International Operations195, in 1996 and 1999 respectively, both testified before Congress that, despite large profile cases in the media, the Cuban government itself nor senior officials were not involved in drug trafficking. Also in 1996, the State Department's Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs "recognized cuban[sic] counter-drugs efforts, stating that the cuban[sic] government was giving anti-narcotics policies higher public profile in the face of growing narcotics transshipments and consumption".196 General Barry McCaffrey, who served as Commander of U.S. Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM) and was President Clinton's Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy (ODNCP) from 1994 to 2001, recalled in 2015 "Cuba's a police state, and I don't believe the Cuban government wants to be a hub for drug smugglers. They saw it as a 191 Fulton Armstrong (retired National Intelligence Officer for Latin America with NSC) in discussion with the author, 13 January 2021. 192 Pierre "Pete" Charette (retired Assistant Special Agent-in-Charge with DEA) in discussion with the author, 16 March 2021. 193 PBS Frontline, season 09, episode 10, "Cuba and Cocaine," directed and written by Stephanie Tepper & William Cran, aired 05 February 1991. 194 U.S. Congress, House, Committee on International Relations, Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere, Statement by: Thomas A. Constantine, Administrator, Drug Enforcement Administration, 104th Cong., 06 June 1996, https://fas.org/irp/congress/1996_hr/h960606c.htm. 195 U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Government Reform, Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, Drug Policy, and Human Resources, Statement by: William E. Ledwith, Chief of International Operations, Drug Enforcement Administration, 106th Cong., 17 November 1999, https://fas.org/irp/congress/1999_hr/ct111799.htm. 196 Isabella Bellezza-Smull, "Will Cuba Update its Drug Policy for the Twenty First Century?," Igarapé Institute, Igarapé Institute, published 29 December 2017, https://igarape.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/08-11-2017-NE-29-Cuba-Drog-Policy.pdf. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha5m0 threat to their children, the workforce, their economy, their government" while noting that though cooperation was imperfect, there was constant communication with the Cubans throughout his time in terms of combating drug trafficking.197 The Question of Culpability on the Part of the Castros The involvement on the part of Fidel and Raul Castro in the drug trade is something that has long been debated and speculated. Since the 1960s, individual criminal investigations, U.S. federal government memorandums, Cuban intelligence defectors, convicted criminals, and congressional hearings have included testimony that has tried to implicate Fidel, Raul, or both Castros in the drug trade. With the 1989 trials, these speculations have increased and, in some cases, due to the handling of the trials, been given more credence. At least two U.S. Congressional hearings have been conducted since 1989, both of which focused on continuing drug traffic in Cuba.198 199 Into the 1990s, more evidence of possible involvement by the Castro regime was revealed. First were the allegations of Carlos Ledher, an experienced drug trafficker and pilot and co-founder of the Medellín Cartel.200 Ledher, upon his arrest and extradition in 1987, was "convicted…on charges of conspiracy and running a criminal enterprise as well as other charges related to the importation and sale of cocaine" in May of 1988.201 Due to this, Ledher began 197 Joshua Partlow & Nick Miroff, "In fight against drugs, Cuba and U.S. on same team," The Washington Post, Nash Holdings, LLC., published 05 January 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/in-fight-against-drugs-cuba-and-us-on-same-team/2015/01/05/6416305a-90fc-11e4-a66f-0ca5037a597d_story.html. 198 U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Government Reform, Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, Drug Policy, and Human Resources, Cuba's Link to Drug Trafficking, 106th Cong., 1st Sess., 17 November 1999, https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=2027. 199 U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Government Reform, Drug Trafficking in the Caribbean: Do Traffickers Use Cuba and Puerto Rico As Major Transit Locations For State-Bound Narcotics?, 106th Cong., 2nd Sess., 3-4 January 2000, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-106hhrg69521/pdf/CHRG-106hhrg69521.pdf. 200 Mark Bowden, Killing Pablo: The Hunt for the World's Greatest Outlaw (New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2001), p. 45, https://norwich.on.worldcat.org/oclc/45086854. 201 Patricia Bauer, "Carlos Ledher," Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., published 18 June 2018, updated 03 September 2020, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carlos-Lehder. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha5m1 cooperating with the U.S. government for a lesser sentence. In federal testimony during the Noriega trial, Ledher claimed "that Castro mediated a bitter 1984 dispute between Noriega and Colombia's Medellin cartel that saved Panama's strongman from probable assassination…and bribed Cuban government officials to ship tons of cocaine into the United States".202 Lieutenant Colonel Luis del Cid, a close aide to Manuel Noriega, alleged during Noriega's trial that he "accompanied Noriega on a flight to Cuba and met Castro following the raid [in which Panamanian troops raided a cocaine lab in Darién province Colombia]" though specified he did not attend the meeting in question.203 While both Ledher and del Cid's testimonies seem to corroborate what Blandón had previously testified in regards to Castro's connections to Noriega and the Medellín Cartel, it must be noted that both del Cid and Ledher testified in exchange for reductions in their sentences (which numbered into the hundreds of years for each of them) and also could easily have become aware of Blandón's testimony in any of the three years prior to their providing evidence to the U.S. government. Two former officials who defected from Cuba two years before the trials, Oscar Valdes from the Ministry of Trade and Manuel de Beunza from the Ministry of the Interior, offered their insights on the trial, claiming the trials were for "show" and were more politically motivated as Castro desired to remove opponents whom he saw as a threat to his power.204 This allegation that the drug trials were a show trial meant to snub out political opponents of Castro's hold on Cuba has become a very prominent. 202 Robert L. Jackson, "Cartel Leader Reveals Secrets of Drug World," The Los Angeles Times, Time Mirror Company, published 21 November 1991, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-11-21-mn-404-story.html. 203 Richard Cole, "Former Aide Tells of Drug Cash, Castro, and Prostitutes," Associated Press, Associated Press, published 24 September 1991, https://apnews.com/article/0b7fcac1c0842630af2d1cc758ab1acd. 204 Jim Anderson, "Defectors: Cuba trials about politics, not drugs," United Press International, United Press International, published 27 July 1989, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1989/07/27/Defectors-Cuba-trial-about-politics-not-drugs/2648617515200/?spt=su. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha5m2 Other defectors, including those from the DGI who defected, also voiced their views on the trial. Jorge Masetti, a DGI officer and Tony de la Guardia's son-in-law who defected from Cuba in 1990, claimed in an interview, "If this operation really existed, it could only have existed if Fidel and Raúl Castro knew about it. They made these accusations, which were supposed to make the case against Ochoa. Arnaldo Ochoa was never proven to have smuggled drugs. The direct evidence does not exist, but they accused Ochoa, and why? Because Fidel wanted to send a message to all the officials with high authority".205 Juan Reinaldo Sánchez, a seemingly credible defector206 from Cuba's MININT who was the personal bodyguard to Castro for seventeen years, wrote in his book The Double Life of Fidel Castro that Castro had knowledge of subordinates' involvement in the drug trade and sanctioned it. Sánchez recalls overhearing a conversation in 1988 between Minister of the Interior Jose Abrantes and Castro in "centered on a Cuban [drug trafficker] living in the United States" who wanted to travel to Cuba to visit his parents; Castro approved the trip along with allowing the trafficker to, as a cover, say he was a Cuban intelligence operative while also requesting that Tony de la Guardia handle "the logistics of the trip".207 This conversation, while innocuous, seems to indicate that Castro did maintain a friendly relationship with some drug traffickers, yet reveals no legitimate information of Castro's involvement in the drug trade. Into the 1990s, working off the indictments against the Ruiz Family in 1988 and the 1992 Noriega trial, the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida began investigating senior level members of the Cuban government. In 1993, the USAO-SDFL "drafted a [proposed 205 The Cuba Libre Story, season 1, episode 7, "Secrets and Sacrifices," directed by Emmanuel Amara, Kai Christiansen, & Florian Dedio, aired 11 December 2015, https://www.netflix.com/title/80109535. 206 Edward A. Lynch, "All Socialists Are Equal, but Some Are More Equal Than Others," Military Review (November-December 2019), p. 124, https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/military-review/Archives/English/ND-19/ND-19-Book-B.pdf. 207 Juan Reinaldo Sánchez with Axel Gyldén, The Double Life of Fidel Castro: My 17 Years as Personal Bodyguard to El Líder Máximo (New York, NY: St. Martin's Griffin, 2015), p. 230. CUBAN DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A FOREIGN POLICY Cunningha5m3 indictment that] would have charged Raul Castro and 14 other top Cuban officials [including Manuel Piñeiro, head of the Departamento América] with conspiracy and racketeering for allegedly providing safe passage for Medellin cartel cocaine loads, including permission to fly over Cuba and use its waters".208 Among others allegedly involved in this large enterprise was Abelardo Colomé Ibarra, the Minister of the Interior who replaced Jose