This research discusses public policies related to the spatial organization of defense production as a public good with industrial dimensions. Our framework enables to incorporate the spatial factor in modeling such a production. How to integrate geographical space in defense economics? How does space structure the organization of defense production? Conversely, how does defense production structure space? Our research deals with the case of France and more particularly with the Maintenance Repair and Overhaul (MRO) of French defense equipment. In France, according to the Direction Générale de l'Armement, MRO costs represent between 35% and 50% of the whole life cycle cost of defense equipment. In 2012, they accounted for about 15% of total French defense budget. Optimizing MRO costs has become a top priority issue since the beginning of the 1990s. Such costs are still of concern during the 2010-2014 period, since maintenance equipment expenditures are rising about 8.7% on average. A good management of MRO aims at keeping – or improving – the availability of defense equipment while at the same time reducing MRO costs. With this objective and considering the evolution of the sizes of army sections and their equipment, the spatial organization of MRO appears as a structuring dimension from both static and dynamic perspectives. The dissertation is organized in four chapters: Chapter I is a literature review that legitimates the methodological approach adopted in this research. We survey the regional economics literature that has mainly focused on the location of defense activities within their surrounding economic environment. Chapter II examines the contemporary transformations in French defense (doctrine, budget and size of the army) in order to identify the geographic consequences of such changes. Chapter III deals with the evolution of MRO since the end of the Cold War. We study the evolution of the availability of military platforms, the MRO costs evolution and the main reforms that the French State put in place to improve the management of MRO. Chapter IV discusses the optimal spatial organization of defense MRO. Our model suggests that space provides an opportunity to optimize MRO cost. However, it remains a constraint that is hard to cope with, because of transport costs but also due to the military nature of MRO. We model a strategic constraint with an Operational Social Cost.This constraint takes into account the intrinsic specificities of military activities (e.g. availability of military platforms, strategic imposed locations). It allows us to underline and to discuss the balance of forces between agglomeration and dispersion in the production of defense MRO. The main contribution of this research is to incorporate space in modeling defense production. We defend the idea that the organization of defense production cannot be understood without taking space into account. Optimizing the defense effort is based on a spatial dimension inherent to the concept of defense itself and the territory that has to be defended. As a result, economic research about optimality in the spatial organization of defense should fit in a spatial framework. Beyond MRO matters, our methodology can be applied to other dimensions of defense and more particularly in a multinational framework with two countries, several countries or within an alliance. ; Cette thèse questionne les choix de politiques publiques relatifs à l'organisation spatiale de la production de défense en tant que bien public. Notre cadre d'analyse permet d'intégrer le facteur spatial dans la modélisation de cette production.Comment intégrer l'espace en économie de la défense ? Comment l'espace structure-t-il l'organisation de la production de défense ? Et inversement, comment la production de défense structure-t-elle l'espace ? Notre travail s'intéresse plus particulièrement au cas de la France et plus précisément de la maintenance ou Maintien en Condition Opérationnelle (MCO) des matériels de défense. En France, selon la Direction Générale de l'Armement, les coûts de MCO se situent généralement entre 35 % et 50 % du coût global de possession des matériels. En 2012, ils représentaient environ 15 % du budget de la défense. La maîtrise de ces coûts est devenue un enjeu de premier ordre depuis les années 1990. Ils constituent un problème d'actualité : sur la période 2010-2014, ces dépenses vont augmenter de 8,7 % en moyenne. La bonne maîtrise du MCO vise à maintenir – ou améliorer – la disponibilité des matériels de défense tout en réduisant les coûts du MCO. Dans cet objectif, l'organisation spatiale du MCO est une dimension structurante d'un point de vue statique comme dynamique, compte tenu des évolutions à la fois du format des armées et de leurs équipements. La thèse est organisée autour de quatre chapitres : Le premier chapitre fait une revue de la littérature concernant les relations entre les activités de défense et les territoires dans lesquelles elles s'inscrivent. Le deuxième chapitre examine les transformations contemporaines de la défense française en termes de doctrine, de budget et de dimensionnement des armées pour identifier les conséquences géographiques de ces transformations. Le troisième chapitre s'intéresse à l'évolution du MCO des matériels de défense depuis la fin de la guerre froide. Nous étudions plus spécifiquement la disponibilité des matériels, l'évolution des coûts du MCO et les réformes mises en place par le décideur public pour améliorer le MCO. Le quatrième chapitre questionne l'organisation spatiale optimale du MCO. Notre modélisation montre que l'espace peut être un instrument d'optimisation des coûts du MCO des matériels de défense. Cependant, il demeure une contrainte dont il est difficile de s'affranchir en raison de l'existence de coûts de transport, mais aussi et surtout de la nature même des activités de défense. Nous modélisons alors une contrainte stratégique sous la forme d'un coût social opérationnel. Cette contrainte tient compte des spécificités intrinsèques des activités militaires (e.g. disponibilité des matériels, localisations stratégiques imposées). Elle nous permet de souligner et de discuter l'équilibre de forces qui existe entre agglomération et dispersion dans la production de MCO. L'apport de cette thèse est de permettre d'intégrer le facteur spatial dans la modélisation de la production de défense. Nous défendons l'idée que la compréhension de l'organisation de la production de défense ne peut se faire en faisant abstraction de l'espace. L'optimisation de l'effort de défense repose sur une dimension spatiale inhérente au concept même de défense et de territoire à défendre. En conséquence, les recherches sur l'optimalité de l'organisation de la production de défense ne peuvent que s'inscrire dans un cadre d'analyse spatiale. Cette méthodologie peut s'appliquer à d'autres dimensions de la défense que le MCO et dans un cadre multinational entre deux pays, plusieurs pays ou au sein d'une alliance.
This research discusses public policies related to the spatial organization of defense production as a public good with industrial dimensions. Our framework enables to incorporate the spatial factor in modeling such a production. How to integrate geographical space in defense economics? How does space structure the organization of defense production? Conversely, how does defense production structure space? Our research deals with the case of France and more particularly with the Maintenance Repair and Overhaul (MRO) of French defense equipment. In France, according to the Direction Générale de l'Armement, MRO costs represent between 35% and 50% of the whole life cycle cost of defense equipment. In 2012, they accounted for about 15% of total French defense budget. Optimizing MRO costs has become a top priority issue since the beginning of the 1990s. Such costs are still of concern during the 2010-2014 period, since maintenance equipment expenditures are rising about 8.7% on average. A good management of MRO aims at keeping – or improving – the availability of defense equipment while at the same time reducing MRO costs. With this objective and considering the evolution of the sizes of army sections and their equipment, the spatial organization of MRO appears as a structuring dimension from both static and dynamic perspectives. The dissertation is organized in four chapters: Chapter I is a literature review that legitimates the methodological approach adopted in this research. We survey the regional economics literature that has mainly focused on the location of defense activities within their surrounding economic environment. Chapter II examines the contemporary transformations in French defense (doctrine, budget and size of the army) in order to identify the geographic consequences of such changes. Chapter III deals with the evolution of MRO since the end of the Cold War. We study the evolution of the availability of military platforms, the MRO costs evolution and the main reforms that the French State put in place to improve the management of MRO. Chapter IV discusses the optimal spatial organization of defense MRO. Our model suggests that space provides an opportunity to optimize MRO cost. However, it remains a constraint that is hard to cope with, because of transport costs but also due to the military nature of MRO. We model a strategic constraint with an Operational Social Cost.This constraint takes into account the intrinsic specificities of military activities (e.g. availability of military platforms, strategic imposed locations). It allows us to underline and to discuss the balance of forces between agglomeration and dispersion in the production of defense MRO. The main contribution of this research is to incorporate space in modeling defense production. We defend the idea that the organization of defense production cannot be understood without taking space into account. Optimizing the defense effort is based on a spatial dimension inherent to the concept of defense itself and the territory that has to be defended. As a result, economic research about optimality in the spatial organization of defense should fit in a spatial framework. Beyond MRO matters, our methodology can be applied to other dimensions of defense and more particularly in a multinational framework with two countries, several countries or within an alliance. ; Cette thèse questionne les choix de politiques publiques relatifs à l'organisation spatiale de la production de défense en tant que bien public. Notre cadre d'analyse permet d'intégrer le facteur spatial dans la modélisation de cette production.Comment intégrer l'espace en économie de la défense ? Comment l'espace structure-t-il l'organisation de la production de défense ? Et inversement, comment la production de défense structure-t-elle l'espace ? Notre travail s'intéresse plus particulièrement au cas de la France et plus précisément de la maintenance ou Maintien en Condition Opérationnelle (MCO) des matériels de défense. En France, selon la Direction Générale de l'Armement, les coûts de MCO se situent généralement entre 35 % et 50 % du coût global de possession des matériels. En 2012, ils représentaient environ 15 % du budget de la défense. La maîtrise de ces coûts est devenue un enjeu de premier ordre depuis les années 1990. Ils constituent un problème d'actualité : sur la période 2010-2014, ces dépenses vont augmenter de 8,7 % en moyenne. La bonne maîtrise du MCO vise à maintenir – ou améliorer – la disponibilité des matériels de défense tout en réduisant les coûts du MCO. Dans cet objectif, l'organisation spatiale du MCO est une dimension structurante d'un point de vue statique comme dynamique, compte tenu des évolutions à la fois du format des armées et de leurs équipements. La thèse est organisée autour de quatre chapitres : Le premier chapitre fait une revue de la littérature concernant les relations entre les activités de défense et les territoires dans lesquelles elles s'inscrivent. Le deuxième chapitre examine les transformations contemporaines de la défense française en termes de doctrine, de budget et de dimensionnement des armées pour identifier les conséquences géographiques de ces transformations. Le troisième chapitre s'intéresse à l'évolution du MCO des matériels de défense depuis la fin de la guerre froide. Nous étudions plus spécifiquement la disponibilité des matériels, l'évolution des coûts du MCO et les réformes mises en place par le décideur public pour améliorer le MCO. Le quatrième chapitre questionne l'organisation spatiale optimale du MCO. Notre modélisation montre que l'espace peut être un instrument d'optimisation des coûts du MCO des matériels de défense. Cependant, il demeure une contrainte dont il est difficile de s'affranchir en raison de l'existence de coûts de transport, mais aussi et surtout de la nature même des activités de défense. Nous modélisons alors une contrainte stratégique sous la forme d'un coût social opérationnel. Cette contrainte tient compte des spécificités intrinsèques des activités militaires (e.g. disponibilité des matériels, localisations stratégiques imposées). Elle nous permet de souligner et de discuter l'équilibre de forces qui existe entre agglomération et dispersion dans la production de MCO. L'apport de cette thèse est de permettre d'intégrer le facteur spatial dans la modélisation de la production de défense. Nous défendons l'idée que la compréhension de l'organisation de la production de défense ne peut se faire en faisant abstraction de l'espace. L'optimisation de l'effort de défense repose sur une dimension spatiale inhérente au concept même de défense et de territoire à défendre. En conséquence, les recherches sur l'optimalité de l'organisation de la production de défense ne peuvent que s'inscrire dans un cadre d'analyse spatiale. Cette méthodologie peut s'appliquer à d'autres dimensions de la défense que le MCO et dans un cadre multinational entre deux pays, plusieurs pays ou au sein d'une alliance.
ProdInra 436333 ; In Indonesia, rapid economic growth and awareness to consume nutritious food boost animal source foods, consumption, including dairy. As consequence, GDP from livestock sub-sector shows an enhancement to more than 56 percent during five years (2011-2015). Even though, it remains relatively low compared to other South East Asian countries, the demand of dairy products could not be covered by national production. The national production accounted for only around 835.000 tons in 2015 which is produced mostly by smallholder farms.Smallholder farms represent the vast majority of dairy cattle farms in Indonesia. With only 4 cows and less than 1 ha of cultivated land per household on average, dairy activities play an important role in securing the livelihoods of those smallholder farms. However, those farms face several constraints that preclude their sustainability. In that context, we wanted to research "in what condition smallholder dairy farms are more sustainable".Our approach aimed at evaluating the sustainability of smallholder farms and assessing the dynamics and changes in milk production systems, in West Java Province. The first phase of our study (2014) was to identify the role of a local dairy development project and the needs of the dairy farms. We collected data from 61 farms through formal survey and from milk cooperative The second phase (2015-2016) was to evaluate the sustainability of smallholder dairy farms. After an extensive literature review, we carried out in-depth interviews with experts and local stakeholders (researchers, lecturers, government, cooperative, NGO, farmers) in order to propose six main indicators of sustainability scoring from 0 to 100. We then conducted a formal survey of 355 farmers that allowed us to quantify those indicators. The third phase (2016-2017) was to understand the dynamics of dairy farming systems. Based on the results of the formal survey of 355 farmers, we built a farm typology and characterized each type of farm. We then selected 20 farms which represented each type of farm for in-depth interviews to understand their farm trajectories.From our study, we want to underline 3 main results. First, we show the importance of providing trainings and technical support for the development of farmers' livelihoods. Second, we note that the level of capital and the diversification of the activities on farm both play important roles in the sustainability of the farms. Third, if mixed crop-livestock systems remain stable in terms of milk production, specialized farms with higher capital endowment increased their herd size rapidly.To conclude, farmers with diversified activity show better sustainability performances than specialized ones, but their contribution to national production increases more slowly. Specialized farm might play a key role to support national production due to rapid increase of the dairy herd. Nevertheless, in a dairy development policy to supply national market, to focus only on those specialized farms could not be relevant. Due to the high number, small-scale farms are important to reducing poverty, to opening job opportunity, to ensuring nutrition and to providing national market. In the future, dairy policies should give more emphasis to smallholders' trainings and credit programs and to provide relevant strategies considering the farm type, the sustainability pattern, the farm trajectories in order to have sustainable development. ; En Indonésie, la croissance économique rapide et la sensibilisation à la consommation d'aliments nutritifs sont des facteurs importants qui stimulent la consommation d'aliments d'origine animale, y compris laitiers.Le PIB de l'élevage a ainsi augmenté de plus de 56% entre 2011 et 2015. Même si elle reste relativement faible par rapport aux autres pays d'Asie du Sud-Est, la demande de produits laitiers n'est pas couverte par la production nationale. Celle-ci ne représentait qu'environ 835 000 tonnes en 2015, produites principalement par des petites exploitations familiales.Les petites exploitations représentent la grande majorité des fermes laitières en Indonésie. Avec seulement 4 vaches et moins de 1 ha de terres cultivées par ménage en moyenne, les activités laitières jouent un rôle important dans la sécurisation des moyens de subsistance de ces petites exploitations. Cependant, ces fermes font face à plusieurs contraintes qui empêchent leur durabilité. Dans ce contexte, nous souhaitions rechercher «dans quelle mesure les petites exploitations laitières peuvent-elles être plus durables ?».Notre approche visait à évaluer la durabilité des petites exploitations et à apprécier la dynamique et les changements dans les systèmes de production laitière dans la province de Java Ouest. La première phase (2014) consistait à identifier le rôle d'un projet de développement laitier local et les besoins des fermes laitières. Nous avons recueilli des données auprès de 61 fermes à travers une enquête formelle et auprès de la coopérative laitière. La deuxième phase (2015-2016) consistait à évaluer la durabilité des petites exploitations familiales. Après une revue de bibliographie, nous avons mené des entretiens avec des experts et des acteurs locaux (chercheurs, experts, gouvernement, coopérative, ONG, agriculteurs) afin de proposer six indicateurs de durabilité. Nous avons ensuite mené une enquête formelle auprès de 355 agriculteurs, ce qui nous a permis de quantifier ces indicateurs. La troisième phase (2016-2017) consistait à comprendre la dynamique des systèmes de production laitière. Sur la base des résultats de l'enquête formelle de 355 agriculteurs, nous avons construit une typologie agricole et caractérisé chaque type de fermes. Nous avons ensuite sélectionné 20 fermes qui représentaient chaque type de ferme pour des entretiens approfondis afin de comprendre leurs trajectoires.Nous voulons souligner 3 résultats principaux. Nous montrons l'importance de fournir des formations et un soutien technique pour le développement des moyens de subsistance des agriculteurs. Nous notons que le niveau de capital et la diversification des activités à la ferme jouent un rôle important dans la durabilité des exploitations agricoles. Enfin, si les systèmes mixtes agriculture-élevage restent stables en termes de production laitière, les exploitations spécialisées disposant d'une dotation en capital plus importante ont rapidement augmenté leur taille de troupeau.En conclusion, les agriculteurs ayant une activité diversifiée affichent de meilleures performances en matière de durabilité, mais leur contribution à la production nationale augmente plus lentement. Les fermes spécialisées pourraient jouer un rôle clé pour soutenir la production nationale en raison de l'augmentation rapide du cheptel laitier. Néanmoins, dans une politique de développement laitier il ne serait pas pertinent de se concentrer uniquement sur ces exploitations spécialisées. En raison de leur nombre élevé, les petites exploitations jouent un rôle important dans la réduction de la pauvreté, la création d'emploi, l'alimentation et la fourniture d'un marché national. À l'avenir, les politiques laitières devraient mettre davantage l'accent sur les formations et les programmes de crédit des petits exploitants et fournir des stratégies pertinentes tenant compte du type de ferme, du modèle de durabilité, des trajectoires agricoles afin d'assurer un développement durable.
La ciudad estimó su población de 345.769 pobladores para 1934, habitando 38.000 viviendas en 2100 manzanas con tas solo 1640 instalaciones telefónicas. Tuvo una extensión de 15 km. entre Santa Lucía y Rionegro, por 5 km. de ancho en 1935, con muchos y grandes intersticios vacíos y sin desarrollos al sur y al occidente. El Centro de la ciudad tuvo alta congestión vehicular, a pesar de sus buses y 48,59 km. de líneas de tranvía en 1933. Poseía un aeropuerto privado de Scadta, en el Municipio de Bosa. No contó a comienzos de los treintas con las infraestructuras urgentes en acueducto, alcantarillado ni manejo de residuos sólidos. Las formas de crecimiento urbano características en 1932 fueron la "informal" y la "barraca", que aplazaban el proceso de urbanización y privilegiaban la construcción de las edificaciones. En 1933, se creó el Instituto de Acción Social de Bogotá, para resolver el problema de vivienda y obras públicas en los barrios obreros. Los obreros llevaron una existencia sórdida, antihigiénica, hacinada, con 5,2 miembros por familia, bajos ingresos y con niños y niñas trabajadores. Se relacionó pobreza con hambre y por primera vez con la nutrición. Se asociaron la higiene y la moral en las habitaciones paupérrimas. Se relocalizaron los moradores pobres de los cerros de Bogotá, del proyecto del Paseo Bolívar, en el barrio Centenario en 1938. La urbanización posterior a la ciudad existente fue la gran oportunidad para modernizar la ciudad y que fuera digna de denominarse Capital de la República. Se creó del Departamento de urbanismo en 1933, con Karl Brunner como su primer director al inicio de 1934, y se dispusieron en este Departamento las secciones de Urbanizaciones, Plano Futuro y Arquitectura. Se demandó "el proyecto de planeamiento". Brunner adelantó estudios para urbanizar el occidente y sur de la ciudad, pero no se aprobó ni se conoció bajo su dirección, un plano del futuro desarrollo de la ciudad. La ciudad contó con un Plan de Obras para el Cuarto Centenario propuesto y aprobado inicialmente en 1933 y finalmente modificado en 1935, tras el cual se siguieron proponiendo nuevas obras. En 1938 Bogotá contó con un plano actualizado de la ciudad existente. La ciudad adelantó estadísticas y estudios sociales con el "Departamento de Estadística e Investigación Social" y consideró imprescindible la elaboración de un "censo general". Se modernizaron las entidades municipales, se reorganizaron el Laboratorio de Sanidad, los roperos y restaurantes escolares, los Institutos profesionales para varones y para mujeres y, las licencias y policías específicos para el Departamento de Circulación y Tránsito. Ante el atraso de la urbanización, del acueducto, sus obras de captación, embalse, purificación y conducción, la Nación aportó recursos. Ésta también financió la construcción de la Biblioteca Nacional y del Campus de la Universidad Nacional. Sobre predios donados, el Municipio, con algunos recursos de la Gobernación, construyó el Estadio Municipal El Campín. Se construyeron tramos cortos pero importantes del Paseo Bolívar, Av. Jiménez, Av. Liévano, Av. Caracas, carrera Norte (séptima), Santiago de Chile. En alcantarillado se planteó la construcción de colectores y canales de cuerpos de agua. Respecto de la energía, el tema central crítico fue su ensanche, por el aumento de la demanda, que hicieron necesarias las plantas de El Charquito, y la de El Salto. Se continuó extendiendo la red del tranvía hasta 1938. Se construyeron edificios de la Bolsa de Bogotá y del Instituto Federico Lleras Acosta, el teatro al aire libre de la Media Torta y las 500 casas para obreros en el barrio del Centenario. Se construyeron escuelas para niños y para niñas. Se terminaron y dotaron plazas de mercado, nuevo matadero y pabellón par expendio de carnes. Se construyeron hornos crematorios de basuras. Las Juntas de Mejoras públicas de los barrios continuaron gestionando las obras de pavimentos, alcantarillas, escuelas públicas, plazas de mercado y kioscos sanitarios. La ciudad jardín y el movimiento moderno estuvieron presentes durante la discusión del Plan de Obras del IV Centenario. El Registro Municipal refirió congresos, conferencias internacionales y nacionales, artículos y reseñas, con las diferencias conceptuales de Ciudad Jardín y el Movimiento Moderno de la Arquitectura. Se abordaron: el urbanismo, la vivienda popular, los barrios insalubres y su higienización y las 'casas baratas', el crecimiento de las ciudades y de sus centros, su historia y evolución, el patrimonio natural y construido y la arquitectura. Se mencionaron las ciudades satélites, sus "cinturones verdes", los suburbios, la relación ciudad campo, el planeamiento regional, el metropolitalismo, el régimen especial para la ciudad capital, la zonificación, las vías radiales o diagonales versus los trazados ortogonales. Se redujeron las exenciones para aumentar la tributación y financiar las obras del Centenario, imponiendo normas científicas y modernas de cálculo tributario. Se organizó el sorteo de la Lotería del Centenario para costear las obras. Se creó el Fondo Rotatorio de Fomento social y el Banco Central Hipotecario para estimular el ahorro para vivienda. También se aprobó el impuesto de valorización. Nos comparamos con otras naciones con relación a las migraciones a sus ciudades capitales, las ventajas y desventajas de las ciudades modernas, el ensanche de las calles, la sanidad, el estado del bienestar social, la pobreza, los barrios populares, las finanzas municipales, el tráfico y las condiciones habitables de las viviendas. Se recibieron muchos saludos al Centenario de Bogotá, desde otros municipios nacionales y ciudades extranjeras. Se decretó para 1938 levantar el "censo civil de la República" de edificaciones y población. Se realizó la Exposición Nacional del IV Centenario, con el apoyo de la Nación y del Departamento. La modernización fue la tarea central que se propuso Bogotá para considerarse de manera diferenciada La Capital de la República. Se discutía la municipalización o privatización de los servicios municipales, la elección de alcaldes por los Concejos y no por el Gobernador. El nuevo espíritu cívico dejo de ser de los empresarios o asociaciones privadas para estar desarrolladas por las entidades municipales. Algunas élites municipales dieron importancia a las condiciones sociales de la propiedad, su función social, discutiendo privilegiar prioritariamente a las clases bajas sobre las medias. Se pretendió modernizar las costumbres, el aseo, divulgar el deporte y las granjas urbanas. Se mencionó modernizar la demografía con la pasterización de la leche, "las prácticas anticoncepcionales, el aborto y la esterilización". Se impulsó un "sistema de ahorro postal". El Paseo Bolívar se planteó como una franja sanitaria y una bella vía sobre el paisaje de la ciudad, y como un reconocimiento de las clases menos pudientes con derecho a vivienda urbanizada, como el barrio Centenario. Se llevaron a cabo la construcción de Barrios para empleados Muequetá, Las Mercedes, y para obreros, entre otros el Calderón Tejada. Se continuó insistiendo en otorgarle a Bogotá el carácter de Distrito Capital. Se llevaron a cabo las festividades del Centenario entre el 20 de julio y el 7 de agosto de 1938 en muchos lugares distintos de la ciudad. Se reconoció al Fundador y a los indígenas Chibchas. La celebración de los Juegos Bolivarianos en los nuevos estadios de la Universidad Nacional y el Nemesio Camacho, acogieron de forma permanente el foot ball en la cultura Bogotana. Se modernizó el manejo del tránsito en la ciudad con la compra de buses. ; Abstract: The city: In 1934, the city estimated that its population was 345,769 inhabitants, living in 38,000 homes over 2,100 blocks, and with 1,640 telephone lines. In 1935, the city was 15 km long from Santa Lucía to Rionegro, and 5 km wide, with many large vacant areas and no development to the south and west. In 1933, the city center had considerable traffic congestion, despite its buses and 48.59 km of tram lines. Scadta private airport operated in the municipality of Bosa. In the early 1930s, the city lacked urgently needed aqueduct, sewer, and solid waste management infrastructure. In 1932, the main styles of urban growth were "informal" and "slums," which delayed urbanization and favored self-build construction. In 1933, the Institute of Social Action of Bogotá was created to solve housing and public works problems in the working-class neighborhoods. The workers lived in sordid, unhygienic, overcrowded conditions, with 5.2 members per family, low income, and child labor. Poverty gave rise to hunger, and the impact of nutrition was understood for the first time. Poor hygiene and dubious morals were associated with the housing of the very poor. In 1938, the impoverished residents living on the slopes of Bogotá's mountainsides were relocated to the Paseo Bolivar project in the Centenario neighborhood. Urbanization: The city's subsequent urbanization was a great opportunity to modernize and make the city worthy of its denomination Capital of the Republic. The Department of Urban Planning was created in 1933, with Karl Brunner at the helm as the first director in early 1934. The department included divisions for Urbanization, Future Plans, and Architecture. "Project Planning" was in demand. Brunner led studies to urbanize the western and southern parts of the city, but no plan for the future development of the city was approved or distributed under his direction. The city's Quadricentennial Work Plan was initially approved in 1933 and modified in 1935, after which new works continued to be proposed. By 1938, Bogotá had an up-to-date map of the existing city. The Department of Statistics and Social Research gathered statistics and undertook social studies on the city, and decided that it was essential to do a general census. The municipal agencies were modernized, and reorganization was done of the Health Laboratory, school clothing and food programs, professional institutes for men and women, licenses, and the Traffic and Transit Police force was created. Given the shortcomings in the urban aqueduct system, the nation contributed resources for channeling water, reservoirs, purification, and water distribution. It also financed the construction of the National Library and the National University campus. The municipality, with some resources from the departmental government, built the Nemésio Camacho El Campín Stadium on donated land. Short but important sections of the roads Paseo Bolívar, Av. Jiménez, Av. Liévano, Av. Caracas, Carrera Norte (Carrera 7), and Av. Santiago de Chile were built. The construction of water collectors and channels was considered for the sewage system. In terms of electricity, the critical issue was increasing production to meet increasing demand, which made the El Charquito and El Salto plants necessary. The tramway network continued to spread until 1938. The Bogotá Stock Exchange, the Federico Lleras Acosta Institute, and the Media Torta amphitheater were built, as well as 500 houses for workers in the Centenario neighborhood. Schools for boys and girls were built. Markets were built and provisioned, along with a new slaughterhouse and meat dispensary. Garbage incinerators were built. Neighborhood Public Improvement Boards continued to organize paving projects, sewer systems, public schools, markets, and healthcare posts. The Garden City and the Modern Movement were part of the discussion of the Quadricentennial Public Works Plan. Municipal records mention congresses, national and international conferences, articles and reviews, addressing the different concepts of the Garden City and the Modern Architecture Movement. The issues examined included: urbanism, self-build housing, sanitation and unhealthy neighborhoods and "cheap housing," the growth of cities and their centers, their history and evolution, natural and constructed heritage, and architecture. Satellite cities, green belts, suburbs, city-greenspace proportions, regional planning, metropolitanism, a special planning regime for the capital district, zoning, and radial or diagonal roadways versus grid plan roadways were discussed. Modern and scientific tax calculation standards were used to reduce tax exemptions and increase revenues to finance the Quadricentennial works. The Centennial Lottery was created to help finance the works. The Revolving Fund for Social Development and the Central Mortgage Bank were created to encourage savings for housing. The land betterment tax was created. Colombia looked to other countries to compare itself in terms of migration to the capital cities, the advantages and disadvantages of modern cities, the widening of the streets, healthcare, social welfare, poverty, working-class neighborhoods, municipal finances, traffic, and housing conditions. Many municipalities around the country and foreign cities sent greetings to Bogotá for the Quadricentennial. It was decided that a census of buildings and people would be done in 1938. The Quadricentennial National Exhibition was held, with the support of the nation and the department. Modernization was Bogotá's main goal so that the Capital of the Republic would be seen as different. The municipalization or privatization of municipal services was discussed, as was the proposal to have City Council elect the mayor, instead of being appointed by the departmental governor. Municipal agencies set the tone for the new civic spirit, instead of businesses or private associations. Some municipal decision-makers stressed the importance of the social aspects of property, its social function, arguing in favor of prioritizing the lower-income classes over the middle classes. The aim was to modernize practices, cleanliness, encourage sports and urban gardens. The population would be modernized with the pasteurization of milk, "contraceptive practices, abortion and sterilization." A postal savings bank was created. Paseo Bolívar was conceived to be a greenspace and a beautiful lookout over the city, and also as recognition that the less affluent classes have the right to urban development, such as the Centenario neighborhood. Neighborhoods such as Muequetá and Las Mercedes were built for company employees, and others were built for laborers, such as Calderón Tejada, among others. Importance was placed on continuing to transform Bogota into a Capital District. The Quadricentennial festivities were held between July 20 and August 7, 1938 in locations throughout the city. The city's founder and the Chibcha indigenous origins were commemorated. The Bolivarian Games were hosted in the new stadium at the National University and the Nemésio Camacho El Campín stadium, which is the permanent home of "football" in Bogota. Traffic management in the city was modernized with the purchase of buses. Keywords: Bogotá, urban history, modernization, urban planning. ; Maestría
The National Authorities for Culture in the countries have the permanent challenge of renovating and developing economic policies that are in line with the needs of the sector. In Ecuador, the Law on Culture has had a complex relationship with the implementation of consistent public policies that establish a long-term sustainable execution. On the other hand, the high rate of rotation of these authorities makes the institutionalization of culture difficult, and therefore the monitoring and evaluation of policies almost impossible. In view of this situation, this document provides a short-term economic analysis of the public policy proposed by Ecuador's cultural governing body, the Comprehensive Plan of Incentives and Promotion of the Orange Economy, launched during the second half of 2019. The analysis shows that these measures are mainly aimed at providing incentives to certain segments of the cultural sector, and that they need to be complemented by other policies focused on increasing the demand in that market in order to ensure its sustainability in the long term. After a brief presentation on the key lines of public policy for the Ecuadorian culture, we reviewed the nature of the measures by reflecting on their feasibility and scope. Finally, the article proposes a close look and concrete analysis of the impact on a specific cultural activity: cinematography and audiovisual production. ; Las autoridades nacionales de cultura de los países tienen el permanente reto de reformar y desarrollar políticas económicas acordes a las necesidades del sector. En Ecuador, la Ley de Cultura ha tenido una compleja relación con la implementación de políticas públicas consistentes que establezcan una ejecución sostenible a largo plazo. Por otra parte, la alta tasa de rotación de autoridades dificulta la institucionalidad de la cultura, lo que imposibilita el seguimiento y la evaluación de las políticas. Ante este panorama, el presente trabajo realiza un análisis económico coyuntural a la política pública propuesta por parte del ente rector de la cultura en Ecuador, el Plan Integral de Incentivos y Fomento a la Economía Naranja, lanzado en el segundo semestre del 2019. El análisis muestra que estas medidas se orientan, principalmente, a incentivar la oferta de ciertos segmentos del sector cultural, y que es necesario complementarlas con otras políticas enfocadas en el aumento de la demanda de ese mercado a fin de asegurar su sostenibilidad en el largo plazo. Después de una breve presentación sobre los ejes de la política pública de la cultura ecuatoriana, se revisa la naturaleza de las medidas mediante una reflexión alrededor de su viabilidad y alcance. Finalmente, el artículo propone una mirada de cerca y un análisis en concreto del impacto en una actividad cultural específica: la cinematografía y la realización audiovisual. ; Les institutions culturelles équatoriennes doivent constamment réformer et mettre en place des politiques économiques selon les besoins spécifiques du secteur. La loi culturelle équatorienne entretient une relation complexe de mise en œuvre de politiques publiques cohérentes sur de long terme. De plus, le taux de rotation important des personnels administratifs entrave l'institutionnalité du secteur culturel et rend extrémement complexe le suivi et l'évaluation des politiques publiques. C'est dans ce contexte que nous réaliserons une analyse conjoncturelle de la politique publique mise en place au second semestre 2019 : le programme global d'incitation et de promotion de l'économie numérique. Ces mesures visent à encourager l'offre sur certains segments du secteur culturel pour accroître la demande sur ce marché et assurer sa pérennité. Nous présenterons briévement les grands axes de la politique culturelle équatorienne et la nature des mesures prises au travers d'une réflexion sur leur portée et viabilité. Enfin, nous analyserons l'impact concret de ces mesures sur une activité culturelle spécifique: la cinématographie et la production audiovisuelle. ; As autoridades nacionais de cultura dos países têm o desafio permanente de reformar e desenvolver políticas econômicas de acordo com as necessidades do setor. No Equador, a Lei da Cultura tem uma relação complexa com a implementação de políticas públicas consistentes que estabelecem uma execução sustentável de longo prazo. Por outro lado, o alto índice de rotatividade de autoridades dificulta a institucionalidade da cultura, o que impossibilita o monitoramento e avaliação das políticas. Diante disso, este trabalho realiza uma análise econômica conjuntural da política pública proposta pelo órgão gestor da cultura do Equador, o Plano Integral de Incentivo e Promoção da Economia Laranja, lançado no segundo semestre de 2019. A análise mostra que estas medidas têm como principal objetivo incentivar a oferta de determinados segmentos do setor cultural, sendo necessário complementá-las com outras políticas voltadas para o aumento da procura desse mercado, garantindo a sua sustentabilidade a longo prazo. Após uma breve apresentação sobre os eixos da política pública da cultura equatoriana, é feita uma revisão da natureza das medidas, refletindo sobre sua viabilidade e alcance. Finalmente, o artigo propõe um olhar mais próximo e uma análise concreta do impacto na atividade cultural específica: a cinematografia e a produção audiovisual.
Most countries recognize that a coordinated worldwide action to limit greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has to be implemented. However, the countries inability to coordinate their efforts led to the failure of the top-down climate architecture. Today, the international climate governance adopts a different direction, which based on bottom-up approach. This approach promotes polycentric and multi-level governances, that induce several independent policy-makers in different administrative scales (province, state and region). Therefore, the actual implemented Emission Trading Systems (ETS), as well as the emerging ones, grow in a domestic context. This context, in terms of economic development, political commitment and geographical coverage, determine the ETS design. Then, there is no harmonized design among ETS, no universal diffusion of these mechanisms in the world and a lack of integral inclusion of all sectors in these carbon markets. While researchers and policy-makers discuss the optimal features of such systems, this thesis examines different configuration options and coverage areas for the tradable permit schemes.Using a world energy-economy partial equilibrium simulation model (POLES) and drawing on experiences with real-world ETSs (based on empirical literature), we recommend two types of adjustments: the restrictions on trade permits between sectors, in one hand, and the control of international permit exchange between ETS, in the second hand. Indeed, we demonstrate firstly the necessity to separate ETS by sector and adapt them considering the specificities of each sector. This kind of policy will stimulate innovation in each sector. Also, it will limit the impacts on the international competitiveness and it will lead climate policy to other economic policies. Secondly, we develop a model to describe the effects of exchange permits emissions considering international linking among emissions trading systems. We prove that restriction exchange mechanisms are necessary to insure the redistribution of exchange gain compared to full linking. At the same time, these trade restriction mechanisms minimize the total cost and increase GHG emissions reductions compared to a segmented market.Considering the diversity of national political objectives and the bottom-up context of world climate framework, we concluded that the coexistence of several carbon prices is unavoidable and necessary. Encouraging the development of several carbon prices can promote political acceptability, strengthen environmental efficiency and improve economic efficiency. ; La nécessité d'une action mondiale pour limiter les émissions de gaz à effet de serre est reconnue par la majorité des pays, mais l'incapacité du régime climatique international à fournir une régulation globale des rejets de GES dans l'atmosphère a conduit à l'échec de l'approche top-down. Cet impossible consensus a conduit à un point de rupture dans la structure du régime climatique mondial dont témoignent notamment le développement, avant l'Accord de Paris d'une approche bottom-up, fondée sur une gouvernance climatique polycentrique et multiniveaux. C'est dans ce contexte qu'émergent et se développent, à différentes échelles administratives, les dix-neuf systèmes de permis d'émissions négociables aujourd'hui en fonctionnement dans le monde. De fait, aucune homogénéité n'est recherchée dans la conception de ces mécanismes de réglementation. Les choix structurels sont dépendants des caractéristiques et contraintes politiques et économiques de la zone géographique à laquelle ils appartiennent. Les configurations et les effets de l'élargissement des systèmes de permis négociables sont encore débattus et cette thèse apporte des recommandations sur la manière dont ces extensions et connexions pourraient avoir lieu.A partir d'analyses de la littérature empirique et de simulations à l'aide d'un modèle d'équilibre partiel pour le secteur énergétique (modèle POLES), nous préconisons la mise en place de mécanismes de cloisonnement sectoriel et de restrictions aux échanges de permis. En effet, dans un contexte caractérisé par des constructions hétérogènes de systèmes de permis d'émissions négociables, une diffusion non-universelle de ces marchés et une inclusion non-intégrale de tous les secteurs de l'économie, nous concluons que deux types d'ajustements sont essentiels. Premièrement, nous démontrons la nécessité d'une configuration et d'un cloisonnement sectoriel des marchés, cela afin d'impulser une dynamique d'innovations, de limiter les impacts sur la compétitivité internationale et de rendre conforme le système aux exigences des politiques connexes. Deuxièmement, nous justifions l'intérêt des mécanismes de restriction aux échanges internationaux de permis d'émissions négociables ; ils permettent en particulier une meilleure redistribution des gains liés à l'échange, tout en réduisant le coût total de la politique climatique et les quantités de GES émis par rapport à une pure segmentation des marchés.Finalement, l'existence de plusieurs prix du carbone apparaît incontournable dans le contexte actuel d'une gouvernance climatique mondiale hétérogène et d'une multiplicité d'objectifs politiques nationaux. Encourager le développement de prix différents par secteur et par pays permettrait, sous certaines conditions, de favoriser l'acceptabilité politique, de renforcer l'efficacité environnementale et d'améliorer l'efficience économique des systèmes de permis d'émission.
THE USE OF MIND MAPPING TECHNIQUE TO TEACH WRITING OF NARRATIVE TEXT TO THE ELEVENTH GRADE Enty Novilasari English Departement, Languages and Arts Faculty, State University of Surabaya ndtired@gmail.com Himmawan Adi Nugroho, S.Pd., M.Pd English Departement, Languages and Arts Faculty, State University of Surabaya himmawan_95@yahoo.co.id Abstrak Bahasa Inggris adalah salah satu bahasa penting di dunia ini . Ini adalah salah satu dari banyak alasan mengapa kita harus belajar bahasa Inggris dalam kehidupan sehari-hari kita adalah untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan yang baik karena banyak perusahaan raksasa berasal dari negara-negara asing . Ini berarti salah satu persyaratan untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan yang baik adalah menguasai bahasa Inggris yang dianggap sebagai bahasa internasional . Ada empat dasar-dasar keterampilan bagi kita untuk menguasai bahasa Inggris. Salah satu keterampilan penting adalah menulis. Menulis dianggap sebagai keterampilan yang sulit , terutama bagi siswa yang belajar bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua. Hal ini didukung oleh Richard dan Renandya ( 2002) yang menyatakan bahwa menulis adalah keterampilan yang paling sulit bagi pembelajar bahasa kedua. Oleh karena itu guru harus memberikan teknik alternatif untuk membantu siswa dalam menulis. Karena kasus itu, teknik pemetaan pikiran dapat menjadi alat untuk membantu siswa mengatur ide-ide sebelum mereka melakukan proses penulisan mereka. Mind Mapping adalah sebuah organizer yang merupakan representasi visual dengan tema sentral dikelilingi oleh cabang , tema , gambar , gambar , pikiran , pola , dan ide-ide yang diambil dari informasi yang diberikan selama kuliah kelas ( Trevino , 2005). Dalam penulisan mengajar ada empat langkah yang digunakan dalam pelaksanaan pemetaan pikiran : penjelasan guru , memberikan topik ; membuat pemetaan pikiran ; dan proses menulis . Dan langkah-langkah yang diterapkan dalam kegiatan siswa selama proses belajar-mengajar . Penelitian ini dilakukan di MAN 2 Gresik . Subyek penelitian ini adalah 25 siswa kelas XI - A1 . Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif kualitatif yang menggambarkan pelaksanaan pemetaan pikiran untuk mengajar menulis teks narasi Berdasarkan hasil penelitian ini , penggunaan teknik pemetaan pikiran adalah sebagai bantuan untuk mengatur ide-ide siswa sebelum melakukan proses penulisan . Guru menjelaskan bagaimana menggunakan pemetaan pikiran sebelum kegiatan . Para siswa menggunakannya dalam kelompok dan secara individu sebelum proses penulisan mereka . Guru telah mengingatkan siswa struktur generik dan fitur bahasa teks narasi tetapi tampak beberapa siswa lupa itu . Kemudian , ia mencoba menjelaskan lagi . Selama proses belajar-mengajar , para siswa tampak aktif dan antusias . Berdasarkan karya siswa , setelah peneliti menganalisis menggunakan Jacob Profil komposisi ESL . Hal ini diketahui bahwa sebagian besar siswa dalam kriteria baik . Ini berarti bahwa mereka dapat membuat se narasi dengan baik . Dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa pemetaan pikiran adalah efektif sebagai teknik untuk membantu siswa mengatur dan menghasilkan ide-ide mereka . Para guru masih harus memperhatikan kemampuan menulis siswa selama proses belajar-mengajar . Kata kunci : Menulis , Mind Mapping dan teks Narrative Abstract English is one of the important languages in this world. It is one of many reasons why we must learn English in our daily life is to get a good job because many giant companies come from foreign countries. It means one of requirements to get a good job is mastering English which is considered as an international language. There is four basics skills for us to master an English. One of the important skills is writing. Writing is considered as a difficult skill, especially for students who learn English as a second language. It is supported by Richard and Renandya (2002) who stated that writing is the most difficult skill for second language learners. Therefore the teacher should give an alternative technique to help students in their writing. Due to that case, mind mapping technique can be a tool to help students organize the ideas before they do their writing process. Mind Mapping is an organizer that is a visual representation with a central theme surrounded by branches, themes, images, pictures, thoughts, patterns, and ideas taken from information given during a class lecture (Trevino, 2005). In teaching writing there are four steps those are used in the implementation of mind mapping: teachers' explanation, giving the topic; making a mind mapping; and writing process. And those steps are implemented in the students' activities during the teaching-learning process. This research was conducted in MAN 2 Gresik. The subjects of this research were 25 students of class XI-A1. It was a descriptive qualitative research which described the implementation of mind mapping to teach writing of narrative text Based on the result of this research, the use of mind mapping technique is as a help to organize the students' ideas before doing the writing process. The teacher explained how to use mind mapping before the activity. The students using it in group and individually before their writing process. The teacher had reminded the students the generic structures and language feature of narrative text but seemed some of the students forgot it. Then, he tried to explain it again. During the teaching-learning process, the students looked active and enthusiastic. Based on the students' work, after the researcher analyzes using Jacob composition ESL Profile. It is known that most of students are in good criteria. It means that they can compose se narrative well. It can be concluded that a mind mapping was effective as a technique to help students organize and generate their ideas. The teachers still have to pay attention in students' writing ability during teaching-learning process. Keywords: Writing, Mind Mapping and Narrative text INTRODUCTION As we all know, in globalization era today, English is one of the important languages in this world. It can be seen from the great enthusiasm of Indonesian in learning English as a second language. One of the reasons why we must learn English in our daily life is to get a good job. Many giant companies come from foreign countries. It means one of requirements to get a good job is mastering English which is considered as an international language. Based on the explanation above, Indonesian government through the national education has determined that English must be taught from the elementary schools until senior high schools. By mastering English, it is easier for us to make a good relationship with other countries. In education context, English has function as a means to communicate in the daily communication, to get knowledge, to make interpersonal communication, to share information and to enjoy language lesson in English culture (Depdikbud, 2006). In Indonesia, English is taught in junior high school and senior high school, even in elementary school that is why studying English is not a new thing for the students of senior high school before. Although English is not the new thing for Senior high school students, in fact they still have many difficulties in studying English. In mastering a language, we have to pay attention to the important elements of the language. One of them is language skills including listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These four skills are really important. It can be concluded that in mastering English as a second language, we need these four skills in order to communicate by using this language. Based on the 2006 English standard competence, the purpose of English in literacy education is developing discourse competence. By improving four language skills (listening speaking, reading, and writing), students will be able to develop their discourse competence (Depdiknas, 2006). From the explanation above, writing is considered as one of language skills that has important role to help students develop their productive skill in English. Writing is a means of recording something, information, knowledge and history and express them in the form of written text. Writing is a personal act which writer draws on background knowledge and complex mental process in developing new insights (O' Malley, 1996:136). Writing is categorized as a productive skill because there is a process of creating something (Abbott et al, 1981: 143). From the explanation above we know that from this skill we get the product in the form of sentence, paragraph, and text. Productive skill consists of speaking and writing. Johnson (2001: 290), stated that writing and speaking are different. Everyone learns to speak but not everyone learns how to write. Writing is more organized and the reader cannot rely on repetition to clarify. Writing has an important role in human's activity. It creates ideas, information or something which can not be produced by spoken way. Writing also helps students to use language and to express what he wishes or needs to communicate. Furthermore, through writing ability, a student is guided to be an imaginative, creative and motivated person. In fact, writing is considered as the most difficult skill for students. It is supported by (Kroll, 1990) that writing in a second language is more complex, the act of writing in one's first language is not the same as the act of writing in one's second language. The difficulties come from the transformation of native language to foreign language. Bell and Burnabi (in Nunan,1991:6) stated that writing is an extremely complex cognitive activity that requires the writer to demonstrate control of several variables at once. At the sentences level, they include control of contents, format, sentence structure, the vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling, and letter formation. Beyond the sentence, the writer must be able to structure and integrate information into cohesive and coherent paragraphs and texts. From the explanation above, students have to think about many things in order to produce a good writing. They have to decide the ideas, vocabulary, and perhaps they worry about grammar and spelling. Those are problems that are faced by students in writing class. According to (Agustien, 2004) when the teachers teach English, their aim is to enable the students to create English sentence grammatically. It means that students who can arrangge sentence grammatically they will can create text in the english. As we know that there are many types of genres text. Agustien also added that every genre is characterized by orientation, complication and resolution. Therefore, when the teachers teach English, it is very important that they expose the learners to authentic English texts in the sense that the text contains grammatical sentences, acceptable expressions, and at the same time properly structured to serve the communicative purpose. The teachers also develop the learners' ability to write English texts in the way that is culturally acceptable in English culture. In spoken, there are also conversational moves that are common in English conversations. Those are reasons why the teachers need to address some English genres especially those that are often used in school contexts. Wells (1991) cited in Agustien (2004) explained that in teaching Senior High School students, the literacy target which is used is called informational level. It means that Senior High School graduates are expected to be able to access the accumulated knowledge because they are expected to communicate for academic purposes too. The learners are expected to be able to listen to short lectures, talk about serious matters, read popular and scientific texts, and write for different purposes. The kind of genre they learn should include those they are likely to encounter in their academic lives. According to NAEP (1987), the genre defines the style the writer will use and suggest choices about the language and structure of the composition. The text types (genre) which are taught to the Senior High School students are: recount, narrative, procedure, descriptive, news item, report, analytical exposition, hortatory exposition, spoof, explanation, discussion and review. Those texts are differentiated based on their communicative purposes, generic structures and linguistic features. In writing a purposive text or an essay, students will search their memory and recall their knowledge and experience. The knowledge divided into four types; knowledge of generating idea, knowledge of organizing the content, knowledge of discourse structures, and knowledge for integrating all other types of knowledge (O'Malley, 1996: 136- 137). Those areas of knowledge lead problems to the students especially in generating ideas and constructing the generic structure of a purposive text. According to them, getting started to write is the most difficult task in writing activity. They often do not know how to write and what to write about when faced with a topic and a blank piece of paper. This facts show that student dislike writing. According to (Farrugia, 2008) one major factor that shall be tackled to contribute to good writing skills is planning. When attempting any writing task, some people tend to start directly without planning their thoughts. The repercussions when adopting such a hapzard approach is that some ideas are left out and clarity is not achieved. Sorenson (2010) explained that usually, the pre writing activities help us to find a good topic, narrow topics that are too broad, and look at purpose. Listing, free writing, brainstorming, using graphic organizer or mapping and questioning are kinds of technique that used for pre writing activity (Gatz, 2004). Graphic organizers sometimes are also called as concept-maps, entity relationship charts, or mind maps. As Chan (2004) stated mind mapping as a pre writing technique or strategy goes by a variety of names : "mind-mapping", "clustering", "bubbling", "clumping" or "webbing". They refer to the same concept. Here the researcher uses the term mind mapping. Mind mapping will be implemented in teaching writing to the eleventh grade students. Because in the eleventh grade, the students are learned by many kinds of genre. This study will take narrative text to be applied to mind mapping. By using mind mapping, the students will easier to organize and generate their ideas for four english skills, especially writing. There were studies which conducted by (Umi nadifah, 2007) which analysed mind mapping as a technique to teach speaking and (Vibriyanida Musdalifah,2008) which use mind mapping to read report text. Mind mapping not only to help them well organized and generate their ideas, but also to help their brain more concentrate to structure and arrange the ideas into cohesive and coherent paragraph. Another reason why the researcher chooses narrative text is due to its subjective and objective details to tell or retell a story, while mind mapping is a technique of arranging and exploring ideas. By using mind mapping to narrative writing, the students are directed to tell or retell story in details systematically. From all of those reason above, the researcher is interested in conducting a study entitled "The use of mind mapping as a technique to teach writing of narrative text to the eleventh grade". The purpose of this study to know the implementation of mind mapping in teaching and learning process and analyze students' work after the application of mind mapping. The subject of this reaserch are the the teacher and eleventh Graders of Senior High School students especially Eleventh science 1. METHODOLOGY The research design that used in this study is descriptive qualitative. The data would be presented and analyzed qualitatively without using any statistical instruments because there was no control and treatment group as it is found in the experimental research. The data also be presented in the form of sentences. Thirsterson (2004:359) stated that the descriptive qualitative study is a research relying on the collection of qualitative data and non numerical data such as words and pictures. It means that collecting the information by using descriptive qualitative study were observing, recognizing and understanding what was happened in the classroom. Moreover, Huda (1999) explained that qualitative research is frequently associated with the technique of analyzing data and writing research report. Thus, this research was qualitative because this study focused on describing the implementation of the technique and analyzing the students' writing composition. The researcher acted as an observer during the teaching-learning process. She only observed, described, and then reported, everything she heared and saw during the class. She evaluated the teaching-learning process and took students' writing work when the test has held. The subject of the study were the teacher who involve in the teaching and learning process and the eleventh grader students of MAN 2 Gresik. which consist of four science classes and four social. The data of this study is in form of information through observation checklist. Observation checklist described the implementation of mind mapping as a technique in teaching writing narratve texts. Then, the source of data is teacher and students' activities which happened during the teaching and learning process in the classroom which reported by the researcher using observation checklist. The data of this study also is in form of students' writing work. They was collected to know the students' writing ability after they taught using Mind mapping. And The source of the data is the students' narrative text writing work which the teacher had given in the classroom to the students in the third meeting. Then, the resarcher will analyze the composition of students' narrative writing work which consist of content, organization, vocabulary, language use and mechanic using ESL Jacob Composition Profile. The instruments which were used in doing this study were observation checklist and students' work. Observation Checklist is used to describe the implementation of the media and what kind of activities which happened during the teaching learning process in the classroom. In this case, to support the data from the observation, the researcher also used observation checklist as a guidance to know all aspect in the use of mind mapping in teaching narrative text. The students' work was used by the researcher to conduct this study was the work that given to the students to write a narrative text after the implementation of mind mapping. It was considered as an essential instrument because by giving work to the students, the researcher would know the students narrative writing ability and how mind mapping motivate the students to produce a good narrative text. To collect the data in qualitative research, there are some commonly methods which are used. Wiersman (1991) explained the methods which are used to collect the data in qualitative research are interview, observation, and document collection. In this study, the researcher got the data from the observation by using observation checklist and collected students' work. After the researcher collected all the data through observation and students' work then the writer analyzed these data in descriptive way. The way to analyze the data, the data will be collected from the observation checklist which will be described and explained based on the data noted in indicator column with "yes/no" answer. Then, the researcher will analyze the data of the students' composition from the students' work. The writer will use Holly Jacobs' Composition Profile (1981: 91) to analyze the students' writing work. According to Holly Jacobs' Composition Profile, there are five aspects which will be analyzed by the researcher to answer the research questions of the study. They are content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanic. The last, All of the data will be combined to make a conclusion and suggestion. The data which come from classroom observation will be analyzed by using descriptive analysis. Then, the researcher will analyze the students' writing work based on the rubric of ESL composition profile scoring by Jacob (1981). Finally, the researcher will describe the data by classifying them into parts based on the research questions. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS Based on the findings, the implementation of mind mapping was done in three meetings by the teacher. The use of mind mapping technique is as a help to organize the students' ideas before doing the writing process. The teacher explained how to use mind mapping before the activity. The students using it in group and individually before their writing process. The teacher had reminded the students the generic structures and language feature of narrative text but seemed some of the students forgot it. Then, he tried to explain it again During the teaching and learning process, the teacher used mind mapping as a technique to teach narrative text. The technique was given clear enough for students. In the first meeting, the teacher introduced mindmapping technique to the students. In the second and third meeting, the teacher asked students to compose narrative text using mind mapping in pre writing activity. There were three topics that were given by the teacher. They were Sangkuriang, Snow White and The 7 Dwarfs and Cinderella. In the process of writing, the teacher did not apply all the process, they are pre-writing, drafting, revising and editing. He just focused in pre writing which the implementation use mind mapping technique, Although all the process of writing were not applied, the students can compose narrative text well. Before the teacher asked students to compose narrative text, he asked them to complete mind mapping on the board which was given by the teacher, they were very active. Most of them very enthusiastic to participate complete it. It means the students understand how to use and apply mind mapping. Then, when they asked to compose narrative, they can compose well. It could be seen that by using mind mapping, it can help students to organize and generate their ideas and make them compose narrative well. This is in line with Davis (2003). He stated that mind mapping can be implemented during class to help students, individually or in groups, explore a concept or issue. Then, after the researcher analyzed the students' work. Most of students can organize and generate their ideas, so they can compose an narrative text well. But, although they could organize and generate their ideas into a narrative text, some of them still had some problems in writing activities. The researcher found the problems related the use of grammar, they had difficulties in constructing sentences to make their writing understandable. The grammar mistakes were in using simple past tense, articles, preposition and pronoun. Beside the grammar mistakes, the teacher also found the problem in choosing and using the words. Some of the students still confused to use appropriate words, so they used inappropriate words that sometimes made the reader difficult to understand the content of the story and there was content that had lack information. Some of them also could not developed well the conflict of the story, some of them also made errors of spelling and capitalization in their writing. However, after the teacher analysed the students' writing composition, most of students are good criteria in term of content (tells the idea that the writer want to share), organization (deals with the generic structure of the text), vocabulary (describes the students' knowledge in vocabulary mastery), language use (describes tenses,number, word order or function, articles and prepositions which are in supporting good writing) and mechanics (describes on spelling punctuation and capitalization of writing). It can be said that the mind mapping technique was an effective technique to teach writing narrative. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS Conclusion In conclusion, there were two things that were focused in this study. They were implementation of mind mapping to write a narrative text and the students' writing ability after being taught by using mind mapping. The implementation of mind mapping of narrative text has several steps; explanation of the technique, grouping and individual works. In each step, the students' are taught how to use mind mapping in pre-activity to help them organizing their ideas. After making mind mapping, there were students' works. The process of writing was not apllied completely by the teacher. He just focused in pre-writing activity. During the teaching-learning process, the students were very enthusiastic in making mind mapping. They also very active when the teacher asked them to complete the mind mapping on the board. It could be seen from their direct responses during the teaching-learning process. After analyzed the students' work, it is known that student's writing ability is good. Most of students are good in term of content, organization, vocabulary, language use and mechanics. It can be said that the mind mapping technique was an effective technique to teach writing narrative. It can help the students in organizing and generating their ideas in writing. So, they can compose a narrative text well Suggestions Here the researcher would like to propose some suggestions. In the process of teaching English, the teacher should be more creative and selective in choosing the technique which can help them to develop their English skills, especially writing. Mind mapping is one of the the technique. It is implemented in the pre writing activity to help the students to organize and explore their ideas also when they are lacking the ideas. On the other words, it can be said that the teacher should make variations and choose the appropriate and effective technique to teach English, such as by using Mind Mapping. By using this technique, it should encourage the students to be more active and creative and reflect students' interest, so that they can understand the lesson and get pleasure. Beside that, the teacher should understand the students's characteristic in order to make the situations of the teaching learning process more enjoyable and make them easier to understand. The teacher should asked the students to practice more using this technique in writing. It can develop their writing skill. For the further reading, the reasearcher believes that there are still many technique that can be used to teach writing narrative text which can make the students more understand the subject. Mind mapping technique is just one of the techniques that can be used to help the students to develop and explore their writing. However it also can be used to teach other skills, such as: speaking and reading. REFERENCES Abbot, et.al. 1981. The Teaching of English as an International Language; A Practical Guide. Great Britain: William Collins Sons and Co.Ltd. Buzan, Tony. (2001). Mind Map untuk meningkatkan kreativitas. Jakarta. PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Buzan, Tony. (2006). How to mind map. Jakarta: PT.Gramedia Pustaka Utama Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. 2006. Standart isi dan Standart Kompetensi Lulusan: Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris. Jakarta: Depdiknas. Gebhard, Jerry Greer. 1996. Teaching English as a Foreign or Second Language. USA: The University of Michigan Press. Harmer, Jeremy. 1992. The Practice of English Language Teaching. England: Pearson Education Limited. Harmer, Jeremy. 2002. The Practice of English Language Teaching. New York: Longman Johnshon, Keith. 2001. An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching. English: Pearson Education Limited. Kroll, Barbara. 1990. Consideration for Teaching an ESL/EFL Writing Course; Teaching English as A Second or Foreign Language. USA. Heinle and Heinle. Lado, Robert. 1977. Language Testing: The Construction and Use of Foreign Language Test. London: Longman Group, LTD. Langan, John. 2005. College Writing Skills, 6th Ed. New York: The McGraw-Hill,Inc. Lewin, L. 2003. Paving the way in reading and writing: Strategy to Support Struggling Students in Grade 6-12. San Frasisco. United of America Nunan, David.1991. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers. Great Britain: Prentice Hall International Ltd. O'Malley, J. Michael. 1996. Authentic Assessment for English Language Learners. USA: Addison- Wesley Publishing Company. Richards, J.C and W.A Renandya. 2002. Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Issue 10.1 of the Review for Religious, 1951. ; JANUARY 15, 1951 o Schools of Spiri÷ualify .o . ° . oG. Augustine Ellard 0BenedictineS. prifid a li÷y ' Bernard A. Sause '~ . .; 2 °,Behol~l This Heart ° ' ' C.-,A. Herbs÷ Quinqubnnial Repor÷ .~.° ." . . . . . . . AdamC. Ellis Minis÷er of ~'he Sacramen÷s . ClarenCe McAullffe How Are Your Eyes? . M. Raymond C!,~sic on HigherPraye~ . ~,. JeromeBreunlcj Destiny" o{ ReligioUS Women . william B. Faher~ Questions and Answers Book Reviews R Vli::::W FOR Ri::LI IO.US VOLUME X JANUARY, 1951 NUMBER CONTENTS SCHOOLS OF SPIRITUALITY~G. Augustine Ellard, S.J .3 ON ACTUAL GRACE . 6 BENEDICTINE SPIRITUALITYmBernard A. Sause, O.S.B . 7 BEHOLD THIS HEART---C. A. Herbst, S.,I .1.6. OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 19 QUINQUENNIAL REPORT, 1951--Adam C Ellis, S.J .2.0. UNWORTHY MINISTERS OF THE SACRAMENTSm Clarence McAuliffe, S.J .25 NEW APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTION . 32 HOW ARE YOUR EYES?--M. Raymond, O.C.S.O .3.3. HOME FOR TUBERCULOUS SISTERS . ' 38 CLASSIC ON HIGHER PRAYER--Jerome Breunig, 8.J .3.9. REPRINT SERIES . " . , ¯ 46 THE DESTINY OF RELIGIOUS WOMEN~WilIiam B Faherty, S.J.47 BOOK REVIEWS-- Meaning of Fatima; Vocation to Love; Graces of Interior Prayer 51 BOOK NOTICES . 52 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 54 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 1. Voting in Local Chapter . 54 2. Pastor as Confessor for Religious . 55 3. Admittance of Ex-Novice . 55 4 Proper.ty Acquired after Profession . . .55 5. Meaning of "Religious" . . 56 6. Adding to Holy Father's Blessing . 56 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. January, 1951, Vol. X, No. 1. Published bi-monthly : January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Marys College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: Jerome Breunig, S.J. Copyright, 1951, By Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U. S. A. Before writing to us, please consult notice on Inside back cover. Review ~or Religious Volume X January--December, 1951 Published at THE COLLEGE PRESS Topeka, Kansas Edited by THE JESUIT FATHERS SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE St. Marys, Kansas REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is indexed in the CATHOLIC PERIODICAL INDEX Schools ot: Spiri!:u li :y G. Augustine Ellard,'S.J. IT IS A SIGN of the richness of the Church's spiritual life" that in it there should be "schoolsof spiritu.ality.'" Not even a gre~t saint could well represent that life in all it phases; to illustrate its we~ilth and depth and variety all the saints together would have to be called forth. No individual person nor indeed, any association of them, no matter" how holy and perfect they might be, could ade-quately e:~emplify all the different aspects and facets of the interior life. On the one hand thefecundity of Catholic doctrine is inex-haustible, and on the other the variations among men and women; their needs, providenti~al destinies, potentialities, and sb on, are innumerable. Given these two sources, namely, the fertility of what the "Church offers and the endless dissimilarities among men, it is inevitable that there should be within the Church groups having somewhat diverse conceptions of what pertains. to the spiritual life and then actually carrying them out in corresl~ondingly various ways. As in nature, so aiso in the supernatural order of grace the gifts of God are.most highly variegated. ~'There are ,~arieties of gifts, but the same Spirit. And there are varieties of ministrations, and the same Lord. And there are varieties of workings, but the same God,. who worketh all things in all. But to each is given the manifesta-tion of the Spirit for the general profit." (I Cor. 12:4-7--West-minster Version.) To make up the whole Mystical Body of Christ and keep it functioning in accordance with the divine design.it is necessary th'at there should be different systems of members occupying different places in that great mysterious organism and discharging different forms of activity, even in the cultivation of the interior life and of the love of God. "For as the body is one.and hath many~members~ and all the members of the body, many as they are, form. one bogy; so also it is with Christ. Now ye are the .body of Christ, and.sey-erally his members: - And God bath appointed sundry inthe Church, first apostles, secondly.prophets, thirdly teachers.': (I C0.r. 12: 12, 27-.28-:-'Westminster Version.) As the various.organs Of the body, the heart for instance and the brain, posses~ at the sa~me.time a certain unity and a certain diversity of life, so also the .Mystical.Body of. G. AUGUS~FINE ELLARD Reoieto for Religious Christ must have among its numerous members, all sharing in one life, some who specialize, say, in contemplation and others in action, some who emphasize this virtue and others who excel in that. The revelation vouchsafed to us by God in the New Testament is a complete whole, made up of parts, however, which taken by themselves are unmistakably different. Nobody could fail to dis-tinguish the phases of it presented by the Synoptic Evangelists, by St. John, and by St. Paul. Abstractly, a school of spirituality is a distinctive system of doc-trines, theoretical and practical (principles and practices), pertaining ¯ to the pursuit of Christian perfection. Concretely, it is the group of persons who propose or use that system. These schools differ from one another in much the same way, and for much the same reasons, as the saints who typify them differ from one another. The limits of these schools are somewhat indefinite, and not everybody would enumerate them in just the same way. Tanquerey, in The Spirit'uat Life, distinguishes these eight schools in the modern Church: Benedictine, Dominican, Franciscan, Jesuit, Carmelite, the School of St. Francis de Sales, the French School of the Seventeenth Century, and the School of St. Alphonsus Liguori (xxxii-xlvi). Influence of Religious Orders From this enumeration one might feel tempted to conclude that the schools of spirituality are about the same as the great religious orders after which most of them are named. 'As a matter of fact the respective orders do occupy a leading position in them. However, the schools themselves are much more extensive and less closely bound together. Thus, for example, presumably most people who are in Franciscan.or Dominican parishes would follow their pastors in their spiritual systems. But also sometimes one who belongs, say to a Redemptorlst parish would be a member of the Third Order of Mt. Carmel, and then very probably his sanctification would for the most part follow the Carmelite pattern. Moreover, all those who read Franciscan or Dominican authors and mold their interior devel-opment predominantljr in accordance with the ideals which they find therein would pertain to these same schools. Being Catholic and orthodox, all schools of spirituality have very much in common. Their essential cores are identical. They all have the same dogmatic basis, the same moral principles, the same general ideal of perfection, namely, total love of God, the same prin-cipal means to realize friar objective, and in general whatever is char- danuarg, 1951 SCHOOLS OF SPIRITUALITY acteristic of the Catholic spirit. Over and above these common and fundamental elements each school has its own distinctive notes. One prefers to seek light and inspiration from certain dogmas and another from others. Thus the French School of the Seventeenth Century shows a very special pre-occupation with the doctrine of the Incarnation. There may be different conceptions of God in the sense that different divine attri-butes or aspects are emphasized: think of .Dominican spirituality and God as Prime Mover in contrast .to the Carmelite and God as the All. The various virtues get various treatments: of all the schools the Franciican gives most attention to poverty. With regard to action and contemplation there are conspicuously different orienta-tions; this divergence is well exemplified by the Carmelites and the Jesuits. In Benedictine asceticism the liturgy plays a most prom-inent role; in that of St. Alphonsus and his sons its place is at least less. Somewhat contrastive attitudes are cultivated toward the sacred humanity of Christ: notice the Franciscan tender devotion to the crib and cross as opposed to Jesuit energetic imitation of Christ in His apostolic activity. In some spiritual groups and their doctrines there has been much of the speculative, element; in others, a mini-mum. A historical example of this opposition in tendency is the Rhenish School of the fourteenth century (Eckhart, Tauler, Suso, Ruysbroeck) and the reaction it provoked in such writers as Thomas ~ Kempis. Tendencies to be Avoided With respect to the divergence between schools of spirituality there are two exaggerated and contrary tendencies that are bad and ought to be avoided. One is to minimize or slur over the differences that really do exist and divide them. A narrow and unintelligent 'zeal for the un, ity of Catholicism leads some people more or less to overlook or deny the variations of form and doctrine that are dis-cernible in the rich interior life of the whole Church.~ There is indeed unity in essentials, but the accidentals are far from uniform-ity. One would as reasonably attempt to cover over the differences that exist between the religious orders and their diversified spirits. Real divergences between systems of spiritual doctrine and practice ought to be acknowledged. Oftentimes they offer new light and stimulation to one's personal religious life. In any case they are part of the yariety and beauty that pertain to the Church as the spouse of Christ. 5 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD The opposite fault is to magnify or overemphasize the distinc-tions and diversities between schools. After a11, these differences, though they are important in certain ways, belong to the accidentals, and leave the essentials unchanged throughout the whole Catholic body. Various phases of dogma are accentuated, but the general dog-matic background is identical. The ideals pursued by all are sub-stantially the same, that is, total love of find collaboration with God, with minor variations to suit special purposes or characters. Some stress this virtue and some that, or they blend them together in differ-ent proportions, but ultimately the great Christian virtues are the same for all. In each of the schools one may recognize the essential family likeness that demonstrates their Catholic origin and nature. Finally, it would be fallacious and unjust to rate one school above another. Human insight is not keen enough to gauge pre-cisely the merits and deficiencies of the various schools as they exist objectively and in the sight of God. But relatively, and as far as we can judge, each one of these schools is best suited and adapted to cer-tain groups of persons within the Church. In most cases Divine Providence gently and naturally and imperceptibly makes us pupils in this or that school. That there may be unity, harmgny, and organic development in one's interior life, it is as a rule advisable to keep fairly well within the limits of some one system. This prin-ciple will not prevent those who are more or less mature in their spiritual growth from availing themselves of whatever is best in all of them. Thus the supernatural life and beauty of the Church will ever become richer and richer. ON ACTUAL GRACE The excellent book, With the Help of Thy Grace, by John V. Matthews, S.J. (REVIEW, Vol. IV, pp. 66-67), is now being published in a revised and enlarged edition under the title, Actual Grace and the Spiritual Life. We are willing to underwrite the comment on the inside jacket: "The lucid appealing style of the author has turned what could be a difficult treatise into a simple, attractive and very helpful exposition of a mighty su.bject." The book is being published in the "Recall to the Spiritual Life Series" by the Mercier Press, Cork and Liverpool, 7/6. 6 Benedic!:ine Spirit:uali!:y Bernard A. Sause, O.S.B. MOST persons likely to be consulted about vocation to monas-ticism would probably consider it wise and discreet to emphasize its gratifying features: the beauty of the monastic home, the traditional love of the liturgy, the dignity and consolation of the work usually assigned to the monks, and especially the guar-antee of peace, security, and tranquility. Although he is often commended for his breadth of vision and prudence in governing,. St. Bene~lict does not belong to this school of,thought. It would be difficult to imagine a more forbidding and chal-lenging reception of an aspirant to the religious life than that which he prescribes in his Rule. "The newcomer is not to be granted easy admittance to the enclosure; he must be tested for four or five days to see whether he bears patiently the harsh treatment offered him and the difficulties of admission; he is placed in the novitiate under a mas-ter skilled in the art of winning souls, but who is made to sound most unpleasantly so;'the poor novice is tried repeatedly in all patience--a phrase that is quite meaningless unless one has lived its interpretation at the hands of an experienced master; the year of trial is devoted to showing him all the hard and rugged things through which we pass on to God; the Rule is read and explain.ed to him under the harsh term of "the law." (See Holy Rule of St. Benedict, Ch. 58.) There is more in the same vein. As one reads this chapter of the. Rule, this thought courses throughthe mind: St. Benedict begins with the assumption that a vocation is the consecration of a life to God's service; and while he willed it to be viewed with all the calmness and imperturbability of a life-long perspective, and was willing to make reasonable allowances, he knew that not a moment was to be wasted. Mortification, sup-pression of sinful man's inclination to evil, and the supreme impor-tance of the sacred obedience which with a distinctive forc.e dominates all monastic effort, are all integral parts of fashioning a character according to "his Rule. In harmony with that plan, which has stood the test of more than fourteen centuries, they can be begun, and con-tinued, only in high seriousness. A Spiritual Famit~l St. Benedict did not found an order in the legal, sense of the word. ¯ He wrote his Rule for an ideal monastery, for one moderately-sized BERNARD A. SAUSE Review for Religious family, governed by an Abbot who is believed to hold the place of Christ. (Ch. 2) Even to this day there is among all the followers of Benedict no more deeply cherished religious principle than the autonomy of the individual abbey. Those who lack more extensive acquaintance with the history of Benedictine effort may think of a number of isolated, relatively small and independent houses as an anachronism in today's widespread tendency toward centralization, but Benedictines know the Rule's provision as the spiritual force that has enabled them to make their worthiest contributions to the spir-itual life of the Church. As a youth the Patriarch of Western Monasticism.had lived for three years in the cave above Subiaco. In the op.ening paragraph of Chapter 1 of the Rule, which was written years Iater, he makes it clear that every trace of the eremitical life has been abandoned: his monastery is a group of sons under the intimate leadership of a father who in all matters pertaining to this distinctive way of life is' believed to hold the place of Christ. Together with the eremitical form of religion, St. Benedict discarded numerous monastic observ-ances and traditions that had been generally kept in the Church until his day (he died March 21, 547). A study of the elements that Benedict rejected is interesting for establishing the positive concept of his way of life. For the excessive bodily severity of the Orientals was substituted a round of carefully regulated practices and ideals that could be adopted by all who were admitted to the monastic family. The individualis~tic and subjective piety that so often had prompted excesses and rigorism was simply prohibited: works of supererogation and mortifications which were not made known to the Abbot and which were undergone without his approval and blessing were imputed to presumption an~d vai~glory. (Ch. 49) Prolonged psalmody and arbitrary additions to the Divine Office were excluded. Prayer was regulated'~ the effort of the entire com-m'unity united under the spiritual leadership of the Abbot. It was thought of as the sanctification of the day's work, and the consecra-tion of the night. The meticulous selection of the Psalms for the different hours, which no one has dared to change in the intervening fourteen centuries, despite numerous changes in the arrangement of the Psalter for all other groups in the Church; the comparatively long night Office; the relatively short day Hours, .emphasize this idea. The centralized organization in the Church, especially in the Pachomian monasteries, was done away with, and the individual danuar~t, 1951 BENEDICTINE SPIRITUALITY monastic family became the self-sustaining, self-governing unit of monasticism. These instances are not to be thought of as exhaustive but are merely of a general pattern that bore the stamp of guidance by the Holy Spirit? and, humanly speaking, the experience of almost a half century of actual observance, most of it*with~the responsibility of guiding others as their Abbot. They result in a balance and har~ mony that is of the essence of the monastic character, and invariably one of its most discernible notes. All this is made to fit into the setting of the ~mall monastic fam-ily. Under the leadership-6f their father, in Christ, the brethren pray together all the hours of the Church's official worship. Together they offer as a body the Sacrifice of the Mass. The consideration of private prayer, recognized by all serious religious as most Valuable, nay indispensable, is limited to one sentence: "If another desireth to pray alone in private, l~t him enter [the oratory of the monastery] with simplicity and pray, not with a loud voice, but with tears and fervor of heart." (Ch. 52) One must be careful not to draw false conclusions from so brief a statement. The importance of private. prayer is in no way .minimized. Quite the contrary is "true, as is exemlSlified in the whole history of monastic endeavor. But it was not the concern of St. Benedict's legislation, which was the life of the monastic family. The bretl, lren work together; they eat in a common refectory. They sleep under one roof. Their whole life centers about the or,a-tory. Ideally the sphere of the activity in which "the Lord's work-man," as Benedict calls the monk in the Prologue to his Rule, is to fulfil the promises he makes to God on profession morning, is small. Before the altar for several hours each day he devotes his efforts to the sacred liturgy, that all-important work of God's glorification and the soul's sanctification to which, in Benedict's plan, nothing is ever to be preferred. The refectory, where he reminds the brethren they are to serve one another in charity, the recreation hall, the infirmary, and, generally speaking, the whole enclosure of the monastery, become the scene of the works of charity, brotherly love, co-opera-tion, and good zeal.2 aSee Pope Pius XI. Apostolic Letter, Unigenitus Dei Filius, March 19, 1924. Acta Apostolicae 8edis, 16 : 133. 2The nature of mofiastic autonomy is dealt with expertly and at length by Butler, Benedictine Monachism. London, Longmans, Green, 1919. Especially p. 200 f. BERNARD A, SAUSE Reoie~ for Religious The Opus Dei ' The constitution of the monastic family has its definite purpose and method of operation. The Master of Montecas~ino calls it a School of the Lord's Service. His followers read into the phrase an objectivity that distinguishes it from other schools of asceticism and striving for personal perfection. Fraternally united in common desires, intentions, efforts directed by; the Abbot, whose outstanding qualification for his office must be a knowledge and love of God's law and zeal and ability in imparting it, the brethren devote themselves to the service of the Lord, Creator and Heavenly Father.The visible expression of their objective is in their social prayer and offering of the Sacrifice, which is the official worship of the Church itself, com-monly designated by St. Benedict with the attractive term, Opus Dei, the Work of God. In this matter the Rule mirrors the Golden Age of the Fathers in their love of the praises ceaselessly offered to the Father in spirit and truth by the Spouse of Christ, the Church. Although this praising of God constitutes neither the purpose of the monk's existence,3 nor his exclusive task, it is certainly his most important, holiest, and noblest of works, as well as the most efficacious in serving the Church and drawing Heaven's blessings upon the faithful. Whatever the pressure of activity, all other efforts remain secondary to this conse-cration to God's glorification; nothing is to be preferred to the Work of God. (Ch. 43) Many factors enter into tl~e complexity of monastic liturgical life, but in all its detail there is no confusion: it is all to be reduced to the simplicity of seeking God's glory in all things.4 It is based on the intelligent creature's conscious dwelling in the divine presence which strives to pour itself out in the humblest praises of the Eternal Goodness. It realizes that whatever perfection is achieved in the ascetical order is the work of God in the human soul. True monks eagerly praise the Lord working in them.~ It is a lifelong giving of aThis question is treated most attractively by one of the Order's outstanding asceti-cal leaders, Dom Germain Morin. Morin, The Ideal of the Monastic Life Found in the Apostolic Age. London, R. ~ T. Washbourne, 1914. Ch. 7, "Liturgical Praqer." 4The Benedictine motto, Ur in omnibus gloriIicetur Deus (usually abbreviated U.I.O.G.D.), That in all things God may be glorified, was early chosen by the saint's followers. While it occurs in the Rule (Ch. 57) in an isolated question dealing with material goods and their disposal, it perfectly expresses the general purpose of the monastic vocation. ~This phrase, taken from the Prologue to the Rule, is a favorite of all the classic commentators, and is accepted as a workable definition of grace. 10 danuar~/, 1951 BENEDICTINE SPIRITUALITY thanks to the Father of Mercies, an unceasing acknowledgment and atonement of imperfection and fault, an ever-renewed plea to be worthy to perform those works which are pleasing in God's sight. The whole effort is carefully regulated, for the liturgy is the solemn, official, public worship of the Church. Whoever would participate in the glorification of God by a monastic choir, or even study its execution of the sacred liturgy, must set aside all concepts of prayer that admit of mediocrity and external-ism. Here the goal is perfection, the absolute best of which men are capable through correspondence with the grace of vocation. Natu-rally, many allowances must be made. All the days of his life the monk will be humiliated in his attempt to offer a worthy praise of God, or, in St. Benedict's favorite phrase, to perform God's work. Although he knows that his effort is unfailingly acceptable .before the Divine Majesty, and that scrupulosity must be avoided at all costs, the religious realizes full well that he will never attain the goal of his desires: as a special gift, importing a most privileged union with God, prayerful love far exceeds all of man~s other abilities. More realistically, the monk knows that he can never wholly set aside the dread of praying unworthily, an offense that would pro-voke the Divine anger. "Cursed be he that doth the work of the Lord deceitfully." (Jeremias, 48:10) By his calling the monk is a professional in the worship of the Church: all his distinctive duties must be thorougMy colored, and even, to an extent, absorbed, by prayer's domination of his life. He devotes several carefully chosen hours each day and night to the chanting of the sacred psalmody--ideally, hours around which all other occupations are made to center, not hours inserted into a crowded schedule after other duties have been granted first considera-tion. He dwells in the monastery (repeatedly St. Benedict calls it the house of God), whose site is carefully chosen to help keep him at a distance from the world's distractions. He is freed from secular concerns in order to be intent solely on giving glory to God and achieving his own spiritual welfare. All the necessities of life are provided for him, so that care for material things may present no problem: in harmony with the whole plan, the virtue of detachment (St. Benedict does not use the word poverty in the sense now uni-versally adopted by religious) is interpreted as implying not so much self-denial as the consecration to God's glory of all they possess by a family of property owners. The works of obedience assigned to 11 BERNARD A. SAUSE Revleu~ [or Religious him are a studied part of the program, not vice versa. The Individual's Progress Understandably, the Rule, composed in the second quarter of the sixth century reflects and interprets the worthiest thought of the Golden Age that had preceded it. Its concept of the Universal Church and of the individual autonomous unit of Christ's Mystical Body, under the headship of him who is firmly believed to hold the place of Christ, is singularly free from the influences of individualism and subjectivism that have so often plagued the Church in subsequent eras. In its unpretentious way--for it deals always with the family, a small unit~it accentuates man's social nature to a degree that may not readily be appreciated today. The choir's prayerfulness; the good zeal exercised within the monastic family (Ch. 72), and by the family in its external works; the spirit of obedience as the pres-ence of Christ in the midst of the brethren rather than a legalistic treatment of the superior's rank and authority; corporateness of vir-tue; love of local tradition--a family trait, certainly; concentration on being rather than the more modern exhortation to action, are trends, attitudes, and ideals which will want long and careful study from today's novice before he can successfully translate them into action. But however helpful attention to his social nature may be in aiding him to be a worthy religious and man of the Church, and however deeply he may have drunk of the doctrine that all good comes to him through his monastic family, whereas all evil befalls him only through separation from the sa.me,6 the monk is soon brought to the realization that he remains an individual. He must also care intensely for this phase of his spiritual formation. The force of the good example of those about him, the spiritual assistance of his companions in religion, the,brotherly word of encouragement, the exhortations, private and public correction of faults, the infinite variety that "the aid of many brethren" (Ch. 1) may assume, are perceived by the individual, primarily. They wield a great force in his moral life. Humilitg St. Benedict has been called, with excellent right, the Church's 6This question is proposed at length in the meditations on stability, the vow of attachment to one's monastic family in: Sause, Bernard A., O.S.B., The School of the Ldrd's 8ert~ice. St. Meinrad, Indiana, Grail Press, 1948. vol. 2, p. 57 f. 12 January, 1951 BENEDICTINE SPIRITUALITY Doctor of Humility. St. Bernard, St. Thomas, and other ascetical masters, quote his exposition of the virtue at length and without modification. Chapter 7 of St. Benedict's Rule is a spiritual master-piece and commands the attention of any person who would learn humility profoundly. It applies the virtue to every phase of relig!ous striving to serve God--from fearful, conscious dwelling in the Divine presence, to control of laughter and the manner of walking. Obedience The distinctive feature of Benedictine asceticism has always been recognized as the spirit of obedience--which in most of its mani-festations is scarcely distinguishable from Benedict's presentation of humility. Obedience harmonizes and makes powerful the spiritual forces in the life of every follower of Christ. Created to be balanced and mutually helpful in man's nature, in a limited likeness to the per-fect harmony in Jesus Christ, the, mutual aid between intellect and will was destroyed by sin. Even in the new order, under the Second Adam, with the light of faith and the sacramental aids for the will, the struggle continues all the days of man's life on earth. Obedience restores the harmony, and in a vivid sense makes the monk like his Divine Model. In the opening sentence of the Prologue to his Rule, Benedict" calls monasticism "a return to God through the labor of obedience." In a broad sense one may say t.hat every chapter that follows is an unfolding of that statement. Commentators on the Rule delight in referring to St. Bernard's emphasis on the love motive necessary for ideal obedience: "Perfect obedience knows no law. It is bound by no restrictions. It is not content with the limitations of profession, but is drawn by the most powerful impulse of the will, under the influence of grace, into the realms of love. It submits unhesitatingly to all thai is enjoined, with the vigor of a generous and cheerful spirit , . , and heedless of ways and means, is infinite in its liberty. It is willing to embrace even impossible things, and confident of God's help, obeys from love even in such extremes.''7 Ideal Approach St. Benedict's treatment of obedience may serve to focus the attention on a point that may not sufficiently be appreciated in reading any one of the four accepted Rules by the great founders of religious bodies. The Rule stresses ideal obedience. For Benedict Bernard, Liber de pcaeeepto et dispensationeo c. 6. P.L. 182:868. 13 BERNARD A. SAUSE Review for Religious there is no such thing as mediocrity, or mere extern'alsubmission. For him an act of obedience must be "acceptable to God and agree-able to men." (Ch. 5) The virtue permits of "no delay in execu-tion, as if the matter had been commanded by God Himself." (Ibid) The same zealous imitation of Christ out of love of God (Ch. 7, third degree of humility) expresses itself in phrases denoting the quality of the monk's submission, like: "the ready step of obedience," "without hesitation, delay, lukewarmness, murmuring, or com-plaint." (Ch. 5) It is to be performed cheerfully. Benedict never descends from his ideal. In his P~ule he treats only of perfect obedience; other than that he mentions only the punish-ments for disobedience. With him the emphasis is not on what must ' be done to fulfil the law: he takes that for granted. On that assumption he builds. Positive human law is generally concerned with the minimum necessary to preserve an ideal. St. Benedict is intent on the maximum that man can offer his Creator. The thought may be viewed from another angle: the more uni-versal a society, the broader the concessions and the more numerous the provisions of tolerance that must be made for the weaknesses of human nature, the more general and sweeping, and easy-of-acceptance the norms which must be shared by everyone. By contrast, the smaller and more unified the group, the more sharply defined and intensified its ideal. The monastic family for which th~ t~ule is designed is large enough to embody and give expression to the social principles of religious life in common. It is compact and unified enough to preserve the most distinctive features that mark a group of men devotedly seeking God. Tile Lectio Divina An ideal of this kind must constantly be fostered by every means possible: in this case obviously by study, instruction, exhortation, good example. St. Benedict, who drew no distinctions among those who gave acceptable proof of sincerely seeking God, realized the importance of what is today commonly called spiritual reading for monastic formation. He demands several hours a day of this pious exercise which was more a leisurely study and mastering of revealed doctrine than the fretful flitting from page to page that moderns call reading, more an approach to God than an-ostentatious acquaintance with titles, authors' li~¢es and styl~s of writing, rather for spiritual upbuilding (aedi[icatio) than faithfulness in fulfilling a half-hour of the day's horarium. 14 Januarg, 195, I BENEDICTINE SPIRITUALITY Nothing Is to Be Preferred to the Love of Christ If the spirituality of the sons of St. Benedict has a distinguishing mark, it is that it is eminently Christocentric. The Master of Monte-cassinb employs an identical expression three times: Nothing is to be preferred to the love of Christ. Every line o~ the Rule seeks to induce the monks to translate that love into action. In the fourteen and a half centuries of their existence, the reli-gious who have borne the name of the Patriarch of Western Monks have contributed only two insertions into the Roman Ritual: the Sign of St. Maur, imparted ycith a relic of the True Cross and desig-nated with the name of St. Benedict's first disciple only because he first imparted it, and because his name is invoked in the ceremony; ¯ and the blessing of the medal-cross of St. Benedict, which is likewise a manifestation of complete confidence in the Sign of Salvation. Love of Christ underlies Benedict's every appeal. The perfection of obedience is that "for the love of God a man subject himself to a superior in all obedience, imitating the Lord, of whom the Apostle saith, 'He became obedient unto death.' " The love motive for other works, which presupposes the ascent of all the degrees of humility, guarantees the perfect fulfilment of every virtue. As nothing else ever can do, love of Christ leads to the worthiest prayer, the most acceptable offering of the Sacrifice, to intimacy of union with God. Contemplative Nature or: Monasticism As the monk continues to live under the grace-filled inspirations of his professed way of life, and is careful to hold himself ever free from distracting attachments (however good they may be), he dis-covers something of the powerful attraction of recollectedness (he has outgrown insistence on rules of silence--Benedict speaks much more often of judicious and charitable speech than of £ilence), the way of humility, the filial fear, the spirit of compunction that leads to inti-mate union with God. His whole carefully-regulated life, the daily liturgy's richness of thought, the environment of the enclosure, his private prayer, separation from the world, the humble works of obe-dience, the consecration of his whole being to God at the altar, will not allow him to remain silent. Now he must speak to God--no longer only in the prescribed and official prayers, but freely, gener-ously, in his own words unhesitatingly addressed to his FatheL pouring out the protestations of his love. Correspondence with the graces of monasticism bege'ts a love so intense that it informs one's every action: it seeks every possible means to prove itself. When the 15 C. A. HERBST Review for Religfous professed person begins to live on this plane, he realizes that the Father of Mercies, who is never outdone in generosity, has fulfilled all the hopes of profession morning. He has learned the spirituality of Benedict.of Montecassino, Patriarch of the Monks of the West. That, in fact, is the promise of the Master to his every follower. In the concluding paragraph of the Prologue to his Rule, he states: "As we advance in the religious life and faith, we shall run the way of God's commandments with expanded hearts [that is, with an ever increasing generosity] and unspeakable sweetness of love; so that never departing from His guidance, and persevering in the monastery in His doctrine until death, we may by patience share in the sufferings of Christ, and be. found worthy to be coheirs with Him of His kingdom." "Behold This Head:. ." C. A. Herbst, S.J. THERE is a copybook seven by nine inches containing sixty-four pages treasured at Paray-le-Monial in France. It is the life of St. Margaret Mary written in her own hand, an account of her spiritual life and of the dealings of the Sacred Heart with her. Under obedience, with great pain, she wrote this Autobiographg. (Auto-biography: Life of Saint Margaret Marg Alacoque Written bg Her-self, Visitation Library, Roselands, Walmer, Kent, 1930.) From that little book, it seems to me, one can best learn to know, under-stand, and practice devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. We learn there from her whose heart Christ found ready and so like His own, and from Our Lord Himself, the nature and practice of this world devotion which is everybody's devotion. One finds there a statement, a complaint, a request, and a promise. "Behold this Heart, Which has loved men so much, that It has spared nothing, even to exhausting and consuming Itself, in order to testify to them Its love" (.Autobiograpbg, No. 92). This is the " statement. "So much." How much? Love is proved by deeds rather than by words. "He loved me and delivered himself for me" (Gal. 2:20). "He humbled himself, becoming obedient unto death, even to the death of the cross" (Phil. 2:8). Our Lord, our Creator, 16 Januar~/, 1951 BEHOLD TH~S HEART came from eternal life to temporal death for love of us. "Who for us men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven; and was in-carnate by the Holy Ghost, of the Virgin Mary; and was made man. He was crucified also for us, suffered under Pontius Pilate, and was buried." All these wonderful feats of love our beloved Champion has done for us to win our love. And yet, in the very same breath with this statement of His love for us must come The complaint. ". and in return I receive from the greater number nothing but ingratitude by reason of their irreverence and sacrileges, and by the coldness and contempt which they show Me in this Sacrament of Love. But what I feel the most keenly is that it is hearts which are consecrated to Me that treat Me thus." (Ibid.) Iwonder who could count the insults and outrages committed against Our Lord in the Holy Eucharist these nineteen hundred years! I wonder who could calculate the amount of ingratitude and irreverence and sacrilege and coldness and contempt shown the Sacred Heart of Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament by religious, for these are the "hearts which are consecrated to Me." The deepest wounds and the ones slowest to heal are inflicted by rejected love. Men and women are driven to desperation and to self-destruction by this. Sins against Jesus Christ in the sacrament of His love wound His Sacred Heart very deeply. Sins committed by religious against the Sacred Heart whom they have chosen as their B~loved for life are especially hateft~l to Him. ~ Our Lord's Requests The request Our Lord made is manifold. "In the first place thou shalt receive Me in Holy Communion as often as obedience will per-mit thee, whatever mortification or humiliation it may cause thee, which thou must take as pledges of My love" (ibid.). Love longs for union with the beloved. Our Lord wants us to take His sacred Body and precious Blood in Holy Communion as food because food is most intimately united with us. He wants us to be united with ~he soul as frequently and continuously as possible, too. The mortifi-cation or humiliation frequent Communion might bring St. Mar-garet Mary in 1675, when it could easily be considered the mark of a presumptuous or proud soul is, of course, absent n6w. "Thou shalt, moreover, communicate on the First Friday of each month" (ibid.). The fact gives the clear, strong response to this request. One has but to enter a church on the First Friday and see a whole congregation rise as one man and go to Holy Commun- 17 C. A. HERBST Review [or Religious ion in Order to realize what.a revolution this desire of Our Lord has wrought. One readily notices that this request is more general than the nine consecutive First Fridays in reward fo~ which Christ made the "Great Promise." "Every night between Thursday and Friday I will make thee share in the mortal sadness which I was pleased to feel in the Garden of Olives, and this sadness, without thy being able to understand it, shall reduce thee to a kind of agony harder to endure than death it-self. And in order to bear Me company in the humble prayer that I then offered to My Father, in the midst of My anguish, thou shalt rise between eleven o'clock and midnight, and remain prostrate with Me for an hour, not only to appease the divine anger by begging mercy for sinners, but also which I felt at that time apostles~ which obliged me watch one hour with Me. shall teach thee." (Ibid.) to mitigate in some way thebitterness on finding Myself abandoned by My to repr.oach them for not being able to During that hour thou shalt do what I Each Thursday night Christ invites us to share in the sadness and agony of death He underwent during His Passion. He asks comp'hssion with Him, companionship, prayer for sinners, rep.aration for desertion by His apostles.These things are very consoling to the. Sacred Heart. Feast of the Sacred Heart "Therefore, I ask of thee that the Friday after the Octave of Corpus Christi be set apart for a special Feast to honour My Heart, by communicating on that day and making reparation to It by a solemn act, in order to make amends, for the indignities which It has received during the time it has been exposed on the altars" (ibid., No. 92). This was the climax of the desires of the Sacred . Heart. St. Margaret Mary celebrated this feast in a little way with her novices on St. Margaret's day, July 20, 1685. "This drew upon me, 'and also upon them, many humiliations and mqrtific.ations, for I was accused of wishing to introduce a. new devotion" (ibid., No. 95). It is a long and painful task to bring.into the liturgy the Church a feast founded on a private revelation, and its advocates also trod the way of humiliations and mortifications. But in 1765 the Holy Father Clement XIII approved the Mass and Office of the Sacred Heart. Plus IX extended it to th~ universal Church in 1856. It was raised to the rank of a feast .of the fir.st class with an octave by Plus XI in 1929. The same Sovereign Pontiff ordered that every year on the feast a solemn and specially formuiated act of reparation 18 danuar~, 1951 BEHOLD THIS HEART to the Sacred Heart of ,Jesus be made in all the churches of the world. And since, as the twentieth century dawned; Pope Leo XIII had con-secrated the whole human race to the Sacred Heart, this request of Our Lord was solemnly fulfilled by His spouse, the Church. The promise, too, is manifoldand, as is the way with Christ, the reward far outweighs in richness the required work. "I prom!se thee that My Heart shall expand Itself to shed in abundance the ih-fluence of Its divine love upon tfiose who shall thus honour It, and cause.It to be honoured" (ibid., No. 92). We have to go to St. Mar-garet Mary's letters for more details." "He promises that all those devoted to this Sacred Heart shall never perish and that, as It is the source of all blessings, He will shower them in abundance upon every place where a picture of this Sacred Heart is exposed to be loved and honored. By this means He will restore broken homes. He will help and protect those who are in any necessity. He will spread the sweet unction of His ardent charity upon all religious communities in which a picture of. this Sacred Heart shall be honored. He will turn aside the just anger of God. He will restore souls to His grace when they shall have, fallen from it by sin." (Letter to Mother de Saumaise, August 24, 1685.) . With regard to the,"Great Promise" that the Sacred Heart "will grant to all those who communicate on the first Friday in nine consecutive months, the grace of final perseyerance" let Father Bainvel's remark suffice: "If I am not mistaken, the con-clusion will always be that the 'Great Promise' is something unique." Our Lord told "the beloved disciple .of His Sacred Heart" that He would fulfill these promises in return for the love and repar.at.ion shown Him in the practices He recommended. The ,substance of devotion to the Sacred Heart is love and reparation. His manifold request and .repeated statements and complaints show this clearly. OUR CONTRIBUTORS BERNARD A. SAUSE, the author of The School of the Lord's Service, a three volume set of meditations on the Rule of St. Benedict, is dean df St. Benedict's theological seminary at Atchison, Kansas. CLARENCE MCAULIFFE and C. A. HERBST are members of the' faculty of St. Mary's College, St~ 'Marys, Kansas. M. RAYMOND is a monk at the Abbey of Gethsemani, Trappist, Kentucky. ADAM C. ELLIS, G. AUGUSTINE.ELLARD, and ,JEROME BREUNIG are members'of, the editorial board of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. 19. Quinquennial Report:, 1951 Adam C. Ellis, S.3. THE Sacred Co,n, gregation of Religious issued a new decree on 2uly 9, 1947 regarding the quinquennial report to be made by religious orders and congregations, by societies living in com-fiaon, and by kecular institutes." In this decree the obligation was extended to all superiors general ofthe three groups mentioned; and a new questionnaire to be followed in making the report was announced as in preparation. Finally, a new annual report was made obligatory on all the superiors mentioned above. The text of this new decree was printed in the REVIEW for September, 1949, pp. 234- 240, with introduction and comment. When the forms for the new annual report were ready for distri-bution and the.new questionnai.re was available, the late Cardinal Lavitrano (d. August 2, 1950), then Cardinal Prefect of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, addressed a circular letter to all superiors general in which he gave some practical instructions for making out both the quinquennial and annual reports. The official English ver-sion of the new questionnaire for the quinquennial report was pub-lished in the REVIEW, 2anuary to September inclusive, 1950. And in the November number, pp. 309-316, under the title "First An-nual Repoort," some practical suggestions for making out this report contained in Cardinal Lavitrano's letter were given, together with some others, in order to help our readers fill out these forms for the annual report for the first lime. The purpose of this final article is to offer helpful directives for drawing up the quinquennial report, and to indicate some practical conclusions to be drawn from the questionnaire itself. General Directives 1) Who must make this report in 19517 (a) All lay congre-gations ofreligious men (Brothers). (b) Likewise'the superiors general of all religious institutes of women in all the countries of America (North, Central, and South America). 2) In what language should the report be whiten? Clerical in-stitutes must answer the questions in Latin; lay institutes, Brothers and Sisters, may use the vernacular, that is, either English or French, 20 QUINQUENN!AL REPORT German, Italian, Portuguese, or Spanish.1 3) May the quinquennial report be t~/ped? It not only may, but should be typed if this can be done. Otherwise, if written by hand, the handwriting must be clear and good ink .used. The report should be typed or written on good bond paper, not too heavy, and not translucent. ' " 4) Must the question be stated before each answer? No, it is not necessary to include the question with the answer, but it suffices to put the number of the question before the answer. 5) What method should be followed in answering the questions? Always answer the question with a complete sentence, never with a mere "yes" or "no." Give briefly and clearly all the information pertinent to the subject. An example or two may help. Question 24 a) reads: "Is the general council at present up to its full member-ship?" The answer might be: "Yes, the generaI council is up to fulI membership at present. One of the councilors died during the year 1950, but another councilor was elected in conformity with the pre-scriptions of our constitutions." Again, question. 190 states: "Was the delivery of the dowry made according to law?" The answer might be simply: "We have no dowry." 6) When must the report be handed in? Any time durin.g the year 1951. But it should cover the five-year period from 1946-1950 inclusive. 7) Must all the councilors sign the report? Yes, all the coun-cilors and the superior general must sign the report. Hence the report, when completed, should be given for a private reading to each of the persons who are obliged to sign it; after they have done so, it should be discussed in a common meeting and corrected or improved, according to circumstances, if that be considered necessary by the majority, before it is signed by all. ~-There are three official Latin texts of the new questionnaire or Elenchus Quaes-tionum: (1) 342 questions for pontifical institutes; (2) 322 questions for diocesan institutes; (3) 171 questions for independent monasteries and houses. However, bnly the first, that for pontifical institutes, has been translated into Eng-lish. Furthermore, in the questionnaire for diocesan religious, there are three ques-tions which do not appear in that for p6ntifical institutes, and in the questionnaire for independent monasteries and religious houses there are fifteen such questions. ThoSe using text two or three, for diocesan institutes and independent monasteries respectively, will have to find their questions in the larger text for pontifical insti-tutes. To facilitate this task, a chart has been drawn up giving the correlation of numbers for the three texts, and on the back of this chart have been printed the additional questions just referred to. A copy of this chart may be had free of charge by" sending a self-addressed, stamped (three cents) envelope, to the author of this article at St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. 21 ADAM C. ELLIS Reoieto for Religious 8) What should a councilor do after he has voiced his objections to the superior and to the o[her coimcilors in cbunc[l meeting, but to n6 avail? First of all, he must sign the report along with the others. Then he may, if he wishes to do so, submit his owh judgment to that of the unanimous contrary opinion, and rest satisfied. Finally, if he feels bound in conscience to report the matter to the. Holy See, he may do so in a private letter, being careful to state only objective facts in his minority report. 9) To whom is the report to be sent? Orders, congregations with simple vows, societies living, in common, and secular institutes approved by the Hotel See must send their reports directly to the Sacred Congregation of Religious; address to. Very Rev. Secretary, Congregation of Religious, Pallazzo delle Congregazioni, Piazza S. Callisto, Rome, Italy. All diocesan institutes, independent mon-asteries ~nd houses are to send their report to the local ordinary of their mother house. When he has read it, he will add his comments to the report and then send it on to the Sacre~l Congregation of Reli-gious. If the diocesan congregation, society, or secular institute has houses in other dioceses, the local ordinary of the mother house must send copies of the report to all those local ordinaries as well, and'after receiving their comments, add them to his own before sending the report to the Holy See. 10) In the case of a ponti£cal institute of religious women, who sends the report to the Hol~ See? Is it the local ordinary of the mother house, or the superior general? The decree of the Sacred Congregation of Religious (No. VII) states explicitly that the supe- .riot general is tO send in the report after she has obtained the signa-ture of the local ordinary in conformity with canon 510. 1 1) What is the import of the signature of the local ordinary? Must he read the report?' The local ordinary has no obligation to read the quinquennial report of a pontifical institute. He merely signs it in order to authenticate (subsignare) the signatures of the superior general and her council members. Practical Hints from the New Questionnaire 1) From question 4 for diocesan institutes one draws the con- ¯ clusion that it is the mind of the Holy See that diocesan congrega-tions should apply to the Holy See for the status of a pontifical con-gregation (iuris pontitfcii) when they have developed sufficiently to meet the requirements. 2) Similarly, from question 9 for diocesan congregations it may 22 danttarv, 1951 QUINQUENNIAL REPORT be inferred that they are not to be divided iiato provinces. 3) Religious are not to undertake new works, whether spiritual or temporal, which are beyond the scope of the special end of their. constitutions. Question 5 asks whether this has been done, and by what authority. 4) For the establishment of a new religious house, a written contract should be drawn up in accordance with canon law and with due regard to civil law (question 21). 5) The superior general has the obligation of promulgating decrees and decisions of the general chapter, and of enforcing them (questions 35- 37). 6) The councilors of religious superiors~--gener.al, provincial and local--are to be given due freedom of speech: and the common law as well as the particular law must always be observed in the decisions, appointments, and voting of whatever kind (question 53). 7) Matters in which the common or particular law grants to councilors a deliberative or a consultive vote must be submitted to them for their consideration in common; hence meetings of superiors and their councilors must be held regularly (questions 49-51). 8) Superiors are expected to observe the provisions of .canon law and of the constitutions regarding both the comm6n obligations of religious, and the special obligations of their own office (question 62). 9) It is the desire of the Sacred Congregation of Religious that, where it can be done conveniently, a confessor should be available in the chapel before the reception of Holy Communion (question 85). 10) Superiors are to see to it that religious are allowed a suitable time for preparation for and thanksgiving after Holy Communion (question 85). 11) The administration of the property of a religious institute must be carried on not arbitrarily, but according to the common law and to the constitutions (question 109). 12) When for just reasons the permission of the Holy See is obtained tO engage in business, every semblance bf fraud as well as of avarice is to be diligently avoided, and care must be taken to see that the religious occupied in these business dealings may not suffer spir, itual harm (question 130). '13) The Sacred C~?ngregation of Religious considers it a grave abuse to delay the profession of a novice because the expenses of the postulancy or. novitiate had not been paid (question 164). 23 January, 1951 QUINQUENNIAL REPORT 14) No religious once professed of temporary vows should ever be without vows because of a failure to renew them at the proper time (question 200). 15) The Sacred Congregation of Religious wishes that the use of the telephone and of the radio be regulated by superiors and chap-ters, and that radio programs be censored (questions 214, 215). 16) Religious superiors are to watch over and assist those of their subjects who are pastors (canon 631, §§1-2) and, in case of need, admonish and correct them (question 292). 17) Superiors (a) are strictly obliged to give their subjects ade-quate preparation for their work, whether it be teaching, nursing, or other corporal or spiritual ministry, and (b) they should see to it that their subjects get suitable food and sleep; and (c) that in the exercise of external works the religious life be'fostered, and all moral dangers avoided (questions 301-311). Conclusion We have given a considerable amount of space in the REVIEW to Reports to Rome, both to the new questionnaire for the quinquennial report as well as to the new annual report. At first sight one might conclude that these reports are of interest only to the superiors who have the obligation of making them. But if we examine the ques-tionnaire we shall find "that it contains a very practical and fairly complete statement of the law of the Church regarding religious, with continual references to the canons of the Code of Canon Law which are generally cited,' and with frequent allusions to the decrees, instructions, and jurisprudence of the Holy See. Hence all religious can read the questionnaire with profit. The questionnaire likewise affords a safe norm of action for superiors, consultors, treasurers, and masters of novices since it provides them with a valuable reminder of their duties. Hi~her superiors can find in it direction for govern-ment, and a stimulus to action, since it provides for them matter for the study and examination of their duties and obligations. Finally it provides a safe guide for the visitation of houses inasmuch as it gives the principal points upon which action is to be taken during the visitation. May all religious derive profit from it, and find in it the ideals and standards of the Holy See in their regard, as well as a norm for the solution of many poi.nts which may appear to be obscure or controverted. 24 Unworl:hy h inist:ers ot: !:he Sacramen!:s Clarence McAuliffe, S.3. THE attitude of Catholics towards their priests differs radically from that of Protestants towards their clergymen. The Protestant pastor is expected to possess the social graces. He must keep in good contact with his flock. He should be a good story teller, a hearty hand-shaker, a sinceie sympathizer. He should have a pleasing voice since one of his principal functions is to lead congregational prayers and songs. He must have some preaching ability, but he must be careful on what subjects he exercises it. He is not likely to" be criticized i£ he speaks on government planning or child welfare or home economics even though he forges no link between such subjects and man's salvation. If he deals with reli-gious topics, he must confine himself to a limited number of moral questions or to a few hazy dogmatic generalities. He ought to be an adept organizer, and the more dances, bazaars, dubs, social gatherings he organizes, the more satisfied will his people be. If he is found wanting in too many of these endowments, he is likely to find him-self a pastor with a much diminished congregation, or on pastor besieged by an indignant congregation which will have him ousted from his post. This may not be true of all Protestant denomination~ and parishes, but it certainly holds for many of them. Catholics, too, would like to see their priests gifted with many of the aptitudes demanded of the Protestant clergyman, but they con-sider them as secondary. They expect their priests to be men of God (Protestants also expect good example and a certain righteousness in their spiritual leaders), but even moral deviations do not make the priest unbearable. Catholics realize that the priest, whatever his lack of talent or his delinquen.cies, holds a sacred office. He has been con-secrated eternally to God to do, not his own, but God's work. He may be morose, anti-social. His sermons may have the effect of a mother's lullaby. His singing may be a series of auditory shocks. But the principal work he has to do does not depend on his personal capabilities. He says Mass. He confers the sacraments. 'These are his prime duties. Everything else is secondary. And it is a marvel of God's operation in the faithful that most of them realize that their 25 CLARENCE MCAULIFFE Review for Reiigious prie.sts., can administer-beneficial sacraments and celebrate effiicacious Masses even though they are '.'bad priests." Our people are aware that the !~/Iass and the sacraments have a God-given eff~cacy that can-not be frustrated by unworthy ministers. The subjective spiritual condition of the priest cannot impede the divine effects of those reli-gious rites which were instituted by Christ Himself, because they operate automatically. What Are the Reasons? It might be profitable, however, for us to examine the reasons for this. Why is it that a callous sinner can confer a sacrament which will bestow its spiritual effects on a recipient who is properly dis-posed? Why is is that sacramental ministers who do not have even the Catholic faith, such as apostates, rationalists, heretics, schismatics, Jews, pagans, can nevertheless, confer a sacrament or sacraments without interfering with their power to sanctify those who receive them? The facts are certain. Unl~oly ministers and faithless min-isters can do so. But how do we know that Christ Himself wanted His sacraments to operate independently of the holiness and faith of their ministers? Before answering this question, it might be well to insist that in all cases the minister must place the external rite of the sacrament correctly. He must properly unite what we call the "matter" and the "form" of the sacrament. Take the example of Baptism. The minister must always use true natural water. He must so apply this water to the recipient that it touches the skin and flows. He must at the same time pronounce the prescribed formula of words with his lips. Since baptism can be validly administered by any sane adult whatever, no special power deriving from orders is required in its minister. Essentials for Validity/ In all the sacraments except baptism and matrimony, however, the extraordinary spiritual power bestowed by ordination is essential for validity. No matter how holy a minister may be, therefore, his efforts to produce sacramental graces are in vain unless he administers conectly the basic external elements of a sacrament. Even should this be done, no sacramental graces are communicated unless the min-ister is endowed with the unique spiritual power conferred by ordi-nation. Once so much is assumed, we now ask why 'it is that a def~tive spiritual condition of the minister, such as the state of mot- 26 Januarg, 1951 UNWORTHY MINISTERS tal sin or lack of faith, cannot prevent a sacrament from imparting its graces automatically to a person who is sufficiently disposed to receive it fruitfully. It should be observed that reason alone, independent of God's revelation, could not have decided the correct answer to this ques-tion. God surely could have, had He so willed, made the validity of all th~ sacraments contingent on the faith and holiness of their minister. Had He done so, ministers would have had an additional incentix;e to foster their faith and to preserve the state of grace. Fur-thermore, reason left to itself might argue that a ministbr bereft of faith and holiness could not be an active agent in the administration of sacramentsl since these.by their very nature infuse grace and aug-ment the v.irtue of faith. How can one who does not possess the Holy Spirit confer the" Holy Spirit on another? These and other rational considerations cotild be advanced to prove that ministers of sacraments must have faith and at least the state of grace. But although our faith is always reasonable, we hever learn it by having recourse to reason as its main conduit. The object of faith is God's revelation which is proposed to us proximately by the Church. Hence faced by the present problem, we seek the Church's teaching and tra-ditions. But we shall show later on that, even from the rational side, we can advance excellent reason why God made His sacraments independent of the faith and holiness of their ministers. No Rebaptisms It had been the custom in the Church from her earliest days, just as it is a.t p[esent, not to rebaptize heretics when they were converted to the Catholic church. Such heretics had already 'been baptized in their own sects and so by heretical ministers. But if the rite had been properly administered, the Church simply took for granted that such baptisms were valid even though conferred by ministers who rejected, either culpably or inculpably, part of the true faith. Such converts from heresey were obliged merely t6 make a profession of faith and to go to the sacrament of penance. About 220 A.D., Agrippinus, Bishop of Carthage in Africa, began to inveigh against this custom. He declared that such converts should also be rebaptized because their previous baptism was invalid by the very fact that its minister had not possessed the full Catholic faith. The illustrious St. Cyprian, successor to Agrippinus in the See of Carthage, sanctioned the same opinion and insisted on its observance in the dioceses of Africa. When, however, he consulted 27 CLARENCE MCAULIFFE Review [or Religious (about 254 A.D.) Pope St. Stephen about the ma~ter, he receipted the following reply: "If, therefore, heretics of any sect whatever come to you, add nothing to the traditional practice of granting them absolution." This decision of St. Stephen's, based as it was on the ancient custom, came to prevail despite temporary opposit'ion in Africa and Asia Mi.nor. Thus we find St. Augustine, looking back on the dis-pute a hundred and some odd years later, declaring: "According to o Blessed Cyprian, his predecessor Agrippinus had been the first to "amend" this most wholesome custom (of not rebaptizing heretics) ; rather should we believe that Agrippinus was the first to corrupt, not to correct it." So, too, St. Vincent of Lerins some years later pro-nounces this judgment .on the dispute: "The antiquity (the custom of not rebaptizing heretics) was retained, the novelty was exploded.'~ Finally the Council of Trent expressly defined the matter as an article of faith against the Protestant innovators of the sixteenth century: "If anyone says that baptism which is conferred in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, with the ifitention of doing what the Church does, is not a true baptism, let him be anathema." It should be noted that this definition is concerned directly with baptism alone. Nevertheless .it is certain that heretical ministers, provided they possess the power and place the matter and form cor-rectly with the intention of doing what the Church does, can ~¢alidly confer any sacrament whatever. All the sacraments are la~ien with. the merits of Christ. That is why they confer grace automatically. If, then, heresy in the minister cannot prevent the spontaneous infu-sion of grace by baptism, neither can it prevent this infusion of grace by the other sacraments. So, a true bishop, even a heretic, can val-idly confirm or ordain. Heretical priests, if validly ordained, can say Mass and administer Extreme Unction. The only ex~ception is the sacrament of penance. For this sacrament not only priestly power. but also ecclesiastical jurisdiction is necessary .for validity. If this jurisdiction is wanting, absolution becomes invalid, but it does not become invalid because the minister is a heretic or an apostate. The invalidity proceeds solely from lack of jurisdiction. It is, therefore, universally true that heresy in the minister does not make any sacra-ment invalid. Moreover, although the controversy of the third century was concerned v~ith heretical ministers only, we know for certain from 28 danuary, 1951 UNWORTHY MINISTERS other sources.that ministers who possess no trace whatever of divine faith, such as rationalists, apostates, pagans, can validly administer baptism. Hence the practice of urging even pagan doctors or nurses to baptize infants, when they are in danger of death and no one else is available should be retained and even spread. The Council of Florence declares, though it does not define as of faith, the following: "In case of necessity not only a priest or deacon, but even a layman or laywoman, yes, even a pagan and a heretic is able to baptize, pro-vided he observes the rites of the Church and intends to do what the Church does." Can Sinners Act Validly? But these arguments do not answer the question whether a sinner also can confer a sacrament validly: Lack of faith is often incul-pable. ¯ A sincere Protestant, for example, even though he does not have the true faith in its fullness, may be in the state of grace. No sin attaches to his incorrect belief because he honestly believes it is correct. Hence a minister deprived of the true faith may be free from sin. On the other hand, a minister may retain the Catholic faith and yet be in the state of mortal sin. Thus a priest might be a sinner because he deliberately violated a grave precept and yet the faith of the priest remains intact. Hence it does not follow as a logical con-clusion that since an unbeliever can validly confer a sacrament, there-fore a sinner can do the same. Nevertheless, if we revert to the third century dispute previously outlined, we shall find that from it we can deduce that sinful min-isters cannot impede the efficacy of baptism. Some, at least, of the heretical ministers who had baptized converts who later were admitted into the Church without a second baptismal ceremony, were not only heretical, but were also formally heretical. They knew they were in error and yet they obstinately persisted in their error. To do this is to sin very seriously. Hence some of these ministers were at the same time heretics and sinners. Yet the validity of their baptisms was never questioned on this second score. St. Cyprian was worried about their unbelief, not about the culpability of that unbelief. Therefore the ability of a sinner to administer baptism validly was not even challenged. It is clear, then, that everybody admitted implicitly that sinners could validly baptize. " Should there be some doubt whether any of these heretical min-isters were culpable of their heresy, we should have to prove our point from a slightly different angle. Even though their heresy may 29 CLARENCE MCAULIFFE Reoiew for Religious not have been sinful, this much at least is morally certain: some of those heretical ministers who had performed the baptism of later converts, were guilty of mortal sin of some kind. It would have been a .miracle if none of them during a period of two centuries had been in the state of sin when baptism was administered. Yet the fact remains that when their converts joined the Church, no one even dreamed of investigating the moral state of the heretical ministers who had baptized, them. Everybody, even St. Cyprian and his fol-lowers, realized that the results of such an investigation would have been irrelevant and could have had nothing to do with the validity of the baptisms conferred. Thus even those who denied the validity of baptism when performed by a heretic, implicitly conceded along with the whole Church that the sinfulness of the minister could not affect the sacrament's value. The Council of Trent When heretics such as the Donatists and later on the Waldensians and Albigensians (13th century) and still later the followers of Wycliffe and Huss (15th century)asserted that sinful ministers could not validly confer the sacraments, they were condemned by the Church officially. Finally in the sixteenth century when the leaders of the Protestant Revolt repeated the same falsehood, the Council of Trent proscribed the error as heretical when it declared: "If anyone says tl~at a minister in the state of mortal sin, provided he observes all the essentials which belong to the effecting or conferring of a sac-rament, neither effects or confers the sacrament, let him be anathema." Thus confirmation, extreme unction, confession and the other four sacraments lose none of their power to produce grace in their recipi-ents just because their miniiter happens to be a sinner Sacraments, therefore, truly produce their grace "'ex opere operato,'" not only independently of the merits of the subject, but also independently of the merits of the minister. The latter's deficiency in faith or his moral degradation cannot destroy or even weaken their efficacy. Fittingness of Doctrine Once we know that God has revealed this doctrine, we can find good reasons for His making the essential rites of His Church superior to the weakness of their ministers. In the first place, the minister of a sacrament is in the strictest sense, only a minister. He is not acting in his own name, but in that of Christ. He places rites that were instituted by Christ, not by himself. He places rites that bear within 30 d'anuary, 1951 UNWORTHY MINISTERS themselves the me~its oF Chris't, not his own merits. He is merely an official. Now we all know that officials can act just as efficaciously in performing their official functions regardless of their personal beliefs or delinquencies. A judge may not beIieve in the law he officially upholds, he may be a disgrace to his fellow citizens in his moral conduct, but his decisions do not lose any of their binding force because of them. He acts in the name of the State in rendering judgments, his verdicts are just as binding as those of a judge who believes in the laws and whose private life is blameless. Similarly, the.subjective beliefs and moral vagaries of the minister of sacraments cannot obstruct their grace-producing power as long as the rites are properly placed and conferred. Again, if the sanctifying activity of the sacraments were depend-ent on the faith or holiness of their ministers, the faithful would be beset by endless mental anxiety about their own spiritual welfare. They would wonder if the priest who says Mass is in the state of graceand a true believer. If not, they would get no grace from Holy Communion when he would distribute the Sacrament. Again, a dying sinner wants to confess his sins. His salvation depends on a good confession. But suppose the priest who hears his confession is himself a great sinner and, as a result, his absolution would be invalid? The penit.ent would lose his soul because he did not make an act of perfect .contrition. Anxietq Removed Moreover, the anxiety would be increased by the fact that we cannot know whether a 19erson has faith and is in the state of grace. Faith and holiness are primarily internal qualities. We cannot be certain that the minister of a sacrament has them. Our judgments about the holiness of others are necessarily superficial, since we can-not glimpse the inner workings,of any human soul. As a result of this principIe, we would never know for sure whether any sacrament was fruitful for us, and the entire Church, both clerical and lay, would be in a continual ferment. Such a spiritual condition would hardly be compatible with the reiterated promise of Christ that His followers would enjoy peace of soul. Finally, if the efficacy of the sacraments were contingent on the faith and sanctity of their ministers, certain lines of conduct incom-patible with the teaching of Christ would be almost necessarily engendered. The laity would be suspicious of their priests. They would pry into their private lives. They would be on the watch for 31 danuar~, 1951 UNWORTHY MINISTERS scandalous reports about them. They would misinterpret many of the actions of their priests. They would falsely conclude that a priest was a sinner when he was not. Priests would be reported some-times rightly, oftentimes wrongly, to their bishops. Bitterness, detraction, calumny, suspicion, rash judgments would tear apart the Mystical Body of Christ which on the Word of God Himself should be permeated with that harmony that flourishes between the different organs of a healthy human body. The doctrine, therefore, that the value of the sacraments does not depend on the faith or holiness of their ministers, a doctrine so for-eign to the Protestant mind, is part of our Catholic faith. It is a most consoling doctrine. Ou~ sanctity depends upon ourselves. This is true not only of our meritorious works, but even of that sanctity which results from reception of the sacrameni:s. Sacraments work ex opere operato. They produce their grace independently of the spiritual condition of their ministers. These ministers are expected to keep in the state of grace. They are obliged under pain of mortal sin not to administer a sacrament unless they are in this stale. But if they fail to observe this precept, they harm only themselves. They cannot harm thos~ who receive the sacraments from their hands. The recipient need worry only about himself and his own preparation. If .this preparation is substantially suff~dent, he himself will receive grace ex oiotre optrato and no human being cart prevent this Qod-given' effect. NEW APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTION Pope Plus XII has recefitly issued a new Apostolic Constitution Sponsa Christi. This document regulates the cloister or enclosure of nuns in such a way as to make it 15ossible for the nuns in postwar Europe and elsewhere tosupport themselves since r~any contemplative monasteries have lost all their endowments and are receiving relatively few vocations. The strictly papal cloister of canons 600-604 is limited to that part of the house in which the nuns habitually dwell (cells, dor-mitories, refectory, community room, private garden, and the like) under the title of major papal ~loister, while the rest of tl~e house and grounds within the monas-tic compound where the labors for the support of the community are carried on are called minor papal enclosure. The Apostolic Constitution also treats of Federations of Independent Monasteries and recommends them by pointing out their advantages without, however, making them of obligation. We hope to give our readers more information on this Apostolic Indult and on the subsequent Instruction of the Sacred Congregation ,of Religious. 32 I-low Are Your I::yes? M. Raymond, O.C.S.O. CARYLL HOUSELANDER claims that are like clouds of wind-blown seed," that within them lies the mysterious secret power that seeds have to brit~g forth life.'" I turned from her article to my mail. Three letters, so brief they are more fittingly called "notes," showed me that Caryll had been most conservative. She could have claimed more than seminal pow-ers for words. She could have said that there are occasions when they have all the might we now know lies in certain atoms. I was living one of those occasions. Let me tell you about it. The first letter I lifted told how an Archbishop, in a public address, had infqrmed his audience that the Trappistines in Wrent-ham, Massachusetts, had received more than four hundred applica-tions this past year. "Half of them," he added, "were from dissatis-fied religious.'" That word "dissatisfied" set me thinking. After a little while I wanted to write to the Archbishop and tell him the longer we live in religion, the more dissatisfied we grow. Not with our vocations. No! Not with our rules and constitutions. Indeed no! Not with our work or our fellow-workers. Daily our love for these grows. But we know a gnawing dissatisfaction which is nothing but a loneliness for heaven and a longing for the face of God. I could have given His Excellency example after example not only of middle-aged religious, but of diocesan priests, who have come to me thi~ past year with eyes turned avidly toward Gethsemani. Why? Because of that divin.e restlessness so aptly described by Augustine when he exclaimed: "Our hearts were made for Thee, O God, and they shall never know rest until . . ." Yes, the longer we live, the lonelier we grow for the sight of God and the sharper becomes our dissatisfaction with life on earth. I did not write that letter. For the longer I pondered the matter, the clearer I saw that there is another kind of dissatisfaction in the lives of some religious and I feared the Archbishop might have been referring to that. I know it should never be there. Occasionally I am puzzled beyond the telling to find it deeply ingrainedin indi-viduals, who have greyed in religion. I meditated and mused on this matter for days, not only because of what' the Archbishop had said, 33 M.~RAYMOND Reoieto ~:or Religions but because of two other letters in the same mail. A mother general had written: "The appointments were placed in the mail last evening, and I am glad to know they are accompanied by your prayers." A sister superior had written: "The Annual Thin Letters just came in, so pray . . ." You can see how those two sentences kept me thinking along the lines in which the Archbishop's remark had set my mind. I believe they will have the same effect on all who entered religion before we begin to ~peak and spell the way they print the Ordo, that is, before any woman was known as a ~4"AC, any girl as a ~VAVE, or any boy as just another GI 3oe. For the most part the thoughts conjured up are pleasant. For it is always refreshing to find real religion in religious, .Christ in Christians, and self-forgetfulness in selfish human beings. But as we go on thinking, it will be clear to all that both Mother General and Sister Superior had only one prayer in mind. They wanted me to pray: "'ut videant--that they might see.'" For while anyone who has celebrated a silver jubilee in reli-gion can tell tale after tale of actual heroism brought forth by.the few words these "annual thin letters~" or their equivalents Carr~ , they will also have memories of a few human tragedies brought on-- not by the "letters" mind you, but by the eyes that read them. There's the point: it is the eyes that read them. This fact that not only our happiness here on earth, the proper development of our characters and personalities as religious, and our genuine progress in the spiritual life, but in very truth our ultimate sanctity and consequently our eternity in heaven or hell depends entirely on our vision has been so deeply impressed on me by a series of happenings which began with what I have already narrated, that I feel I would be untrue to God and His grace did I not ask you: "How are youc eyes?" First, there was the nun who had just received her "thin letter" and was starry-eyed. I had to think that I was looking on one who was radiating the same wonder, awe, and joy that must have rippled out from Bernardette after a vision of "the Lady" and from Mar-garet Mary after a session with the Sacred Heart. Her letter told her she was to spend the next few years, and perhaps the rest of her life, in India. She was tremulous with happiness, for she realized she had been specially chosen for a special task, that a high commission had come from the High Command. And while she was not blind to the trials that lay ahead for her as a human, she was wihe enough 34 ¯ Januar~j, 1951 How ARE YOUR EYES ? to focus her gaze on the trust that had been placed in her by the Divine. Her only request was: "Pray that my family see it as I do." Then there was an older nun whose ~yes held a different light, whose tongue told a different tale. She had not been changed. No "thin letter" or its equivalent had come to liberate her, as she said, from her "misery." I spoke to her as earnestly as I could about Divine Providence and the wisdom of God, insisting that He gives us the one environ-ment in which we can best grow. It did not take. I spoke of supe-riors as representatives of Christ, striving with all my might to stir up faith and have her thrill to the truth that in hearing them, we hear Him. She did not respond. I appealed then to what has always appealed most to me, showing how obedience is the touchstone Of our loyalty to God and the grandest tribute of our love. I made very little impression. She lifted eyes that were lusterless and dull, eyes that seemed to hold in their deeper depths some slowly pulsing pain, and said: "Oh, if I could only see it that way!" The contrast struck me forcibly. All too vividly did it make me realize that there is such a thing as .spiritual myopia and very real astigmatism of the inner eye, the eye of the soul. I tried hard to excogitate some corrective for this faulty vision and some sure cure for an eye-ailment so serious that it can ruin a life. Recently, when I was in the hospital for a check-up of my "wild cells," the supervisor of surgery invited me to a tour of her depart-ment. I went. I had heard exceptionally high praise of the arrange-ments in this particular hospital. I soon saw that there was firm foundation for that praise. Sister showed me through sixteen or eighteen splendidly-equipped operating rooms, opened glass cases that held so many skillfully-shaped instruments that I was open-mouthed in marvel at the ingenuity of man and the thqroughness of the sci-ence of surgery. Then she had a nurse show me what a specialist would use in a lobotomy and explain the entire technique. I was speechless in admiration of the daring of these modern doctors. But it was not until Sister had led me into the smallest room on the whole floor that I saw why God had planned this particular visit at this particular time. "This is where they do the eyes," she said, as she opened a case and dazzled me with a display of shining steel scalpels more delicate than any I could have dreamed existed. Then she told me of the "eye-bank," revealing one of the greatest marvels of modern surgery. .35 M. RAYMOND Review for Religious It seems that specialists can take the cornea from the eye of a dead man, stretch it over the blind eye of one who is alive, and have him see. You can readily understand ,why my meditations and musings for the next few days were on the possibilities of some similar sur-gery for the eyes of the soul. If we priests, I thought, who so often have to use what we may well call spiritual scalpels, could only take the cornea from the eye of Calvary's dead Christ and stretch it across the blinded eyes of. Then it burst on me! What I had been dreaming of as a possi-bility, what I had been turning in my mind as a bit of fond fancy and a fetching analogy, I suddenly realized was actual fact. Baptism has done for the eyes of our spirits what these master surgeons are now doing for the bodily eye~ of the blind. Has it not, by subtlest sacramental surgery, inserted us into the Mystical Body of Christ? Has it not made us His members? Of course. But where are the eyes in any body? Are they not in the head? Does it not follow then, that so long as we act as His members, we will see things through His eyes? The musings and meditations of these few days had led me where meditations and musings of the past ten or twelve years have almost invariably led me--to the doctrine of the Mystical Body of, Christ. Think along with me now and see whether this doctrine, properly understood and rightly applied, does not allow us to diag-nose the diseases we have mentioned, isolate the very germs that cause them, ~nd proffer the infallible cure. That sounds hopeful, doesn't it? Almost too hopeful. But let us see. At baptism we were made Christ, but we did not cease to be ourselves. Hence, while the sacrament effected much ex opere opecato, it left almost as much to be accomplished ex opere operantis. For while those waters and words, plus the proper intention on the part of the minister, sufficed to incorporate us into the God-Man; to transform us into Him not only our own 'intention will be required, but along with it what may. well be water--our sweat and tears-- and what most certainly will be works. Limiting ourselves to this matter of vision, can it not be said in all sincerity that in baptism we received a sort of supernatural trans-plant, giving us a second lens, so that now we can look on all things either through the lenses that are human, or the stronger ones that are divine? Is it not true that we Christians, and especially we reli- 36 ~anuaql, 1951 How ARE You~ EYES gious, have double-vision ? that we are able to view things either with the eyes of man or with the eyes of the God-Man? that on every-thing which impinges in any way on our consciousness we can foolishly limit our sight at secondary causes or have it pierce through to see Him who is the First and" the only Uncause'd Cause? Is there, anything in our days or nights, .anything in the entire sweep of our lives, that cannot be looked upon in practically the same way we look upon a consecrated Host? The "species" are there. The "thin letters" of which I spoke came from a definite address, passed through the ordinary channels of the mails, bore the signature of a human being. But to the Christian conscious of his or her Christhood, to the religious fully aware of his or her dignity as His member, to the soul sensitive to reality, these things are but "species," mere accidents: the substance lies beneath. Why is it, then, that we do not always see things this way? Simply because we do not look through the divine lens. The trouble is not in our minds; it is in our wills. Our eyes must be directed. If we set them looking through the cornea we received from the First Adam, we shail see as human beings. That is what happened to Felicit~ Lamennais, once his writings had been condemned by Rome. His friend and fellow-worker, Lacordaire, was wiser. He looked through the cornea given by the Second .Adam, and saw truth. The deathbeds of these two men might well haunt all of us, for they con-- tain the greatest lesson for anyone's life. One used the eyes given him at birth and died a reprobate. The other employed the vision given at rebirth and died as we all want to live and die--in the arms of Mother Church, which are also the arms of Him who is our Head. But I don't have to go to that extreme to show you the practi-cality of looking at things as members of His Body. I can limit my-self to the question of temporal happiness, that quiet of mind and peace of soul we all crage, and prove that this doctrine is the panacea. Oculists will tell you that many a headache comes from using improper lenses. I will tell you that in the spiritual order many a heartache comes from the same cause. If we want happiness every hour of the day, if we want an easy pillow at night, if we want a conscience that will approve us and.our actions at every examen, one thing alone is necessary, to direct the gaze of our minds through the . lenses given us by the God-Man and see always and in everything exactly what He saw, the Will of the Father. Simple, isn't it? But let me tell you it will make life sublime. 37 M. RAYMOND Review for Religious L~t me say that I can safely paraphrase St. Alphonstis Liguori and claim that "what distinguishes perfect from imperfect religious is the' use of the divine lens." Or I can borrow from St. Teresa of Avila and say that you can be assured that the devil has no better device to keep us from the heights than to have us look through the cornea we had when we came from our mother's womb, neglecting the one, gained by being born again of water and the Holy Ghost. What an example Peter Claver gives us of all this. He had de-voted himself to the slaves at Cartagena. Alr'eady he had baptized more than a quarter of a million when word came from his superior: "Stop baptizing." I think most of us would have answered that command the way Peter answered the command of the high priest: "We must obey God rather than man." But Peter Claver stopped baptizing. The saint had been holding public devotions to the pal-pable spiritual profit of the poor benighted slaves. His rector told him to put an end to them. Claver could have looked, as many of us would have looked, and seen the hand of the calumnious and the enviou~ in this mandate. He didn't. He put an, end to the devo-tions immediately. But the campaign of hostility went on. Small-souled criticism won from superiors the injunction that Claver change his whole manner of instructing. Now remember this man had been as effective in his milieu as Xavier had been in the Indies. What would you have done in the circumstances? What would I have done? Claver changed his entire manner of instructing. But still: the opposition was not satisfied. It did not rest until it had obtained from higher authority the complete removal of this man from this glorious work. Claver went to his new assignment with all the cheer with which a newly ordained priest goes to the altar. How could he do it? By using the divine lens, acting as a member of the Mystical Body of Cl~rist and seeing superiors through the eyes of the Head°of that Body and hearing in their voice the voice of God the Father. Now who w~uldn't thrill to hear His voice? Who would not leap to obey His command with a happiness--but I had better stop there, lest what,seems lyrical prove a humiliating expos~ of our own short-sightedness. HOME FOR TUBERCULOUS SISTERS An entire wing of private rooms (twenty-eight) in Sa~,ta Teresita Sanatoriuin is being reserved for tuberculous Sisters. The Sanatorium is cared for by Carmelite Sisters of the Third Order. Address Santa Teresita Sanatorium, 819 S. Buena Vista Road, Duarte, California. 38 Classic on I-ligh'er Prayer Jerome Breunig, S.J. [The book reviewed in this article was not controversial in purpose though the theoretical position of Poulain is now controverted. Thus he holds that mysticism in his' special sense is outside the normal development of the Christian life. The book is reviewed independently of its controversial stand because of its unique value for spiritual direction and for its descriptions of mystical experiences.--ED.] AUGUSTIN POULAIN'S The Graces of Interior Prau. er1 is a ¯ great book. It is unquestionably one of the most important and influential books ever written on the science of prayer. It is not new, but it has been out-of-print for so long that it may be new to many of our readers. Because of this and of its importance for many religious as well as of its special timeliness today, it seems necessary to review at greater length this reprint of the classic work. Poulain's book was first published fifty years ago. Ten years later the first English edition appeared. The present volume from Herder is all the more valuable because it includes an introduction by J. V. Bainvel. This introduction gives a thorough, competent review of the book, adds an occasional needed qualification and clarification, and presents a brief picture of the impact .the book ha~t on mystical studies. As far as the present reviewer knows, Bainvel's introduc-tion, a book in itself, is here appearing for the first time in English. Written primarily for spiritual directors and then for mystics and budding mystics, Poulain's book will also be helpful for anyone interested in God's extraordinary communing with souls." The secondary title of the book is "A Treatise on Mystical The-ology." It is necessary to note from the beginning and to remember that Poulain, unlike most spiritual writers of the present day, uses the term mystical in a very restricted sense. Today there is much evidence of interest in mystical theology and in the supernatural phenomena which are its object bf study. Numerous Manresa and otl~er study clubs are investigating ascetical and mystical problems. .N~ew periodicals devoted to spiritual sub-jedts have appeared in recen~t years. Thomas Merton's books have found a wide reading public~. The number of vocations to the con-templative life has increasedI Another example of and a contribution to the g~owing interest is E. Allison Peers' standard edition of the 1See the "Book Review" section, ~. 52 for details on publisher, price, etc. 39 JEROME BREUNIG Religious works of St. Teresa of.Avila and St. John of the Cross. In fact, books on 'the theory, of mysticism, biographies of mystics, anthologies of such writings,' books of private revelations have multiplied in the past few years. But interest and concern is by no means limited to the academic realm of books. The press has given extensive pub-licity to some of the stigmatics of the present day. Keports of appari-tions have become well known throughout the world. While remaining deeply respectful before God's special dealing with chosen souls and deriving spiritual benefit from them, there is always need for caution and guidance in order not to espouse every claim of super-natural "intervention. Helpfulness of Book In this milieu Poulain's work has a special timeliness. For people who would like to evaluate private revelations, cases of visions, stigmata, etc., this is the book. The book is helpful on the level of practical judgment of publicized supernatural phenomena and on the level of theoretical study of mystical theology. In Graces of Interior Prager the interested priest, religious, or lay Catholic, as well as the non-Catholic, the scientist and the non-scientist can find a rather complete, systematic, and factual study of extraordinary supernatural phenomena. The book should help clarify an outlook, perhaps modify misguided enthusiasm. At any rate, it will foster a more reserved and prudent, point of view. For instance, Poulain showsA that even among the saints there were false visions and even in true visions false human alloy sometimes became mingled with the divine. Those interested in the problems of mystical theology should welcome this volume because it is a good counterbalance to the the-oretical ~pproach that is now being emphasized. Poulain follc;ws the descriptive rather than the speculative school which endeavors, as he described in his pre.face, "to systematize' all facts theologically by connecting them with the study of grace, of man's faculties, of the gifts of the Holy Spirit, etc." R. Garrigou-Lagrange's The Three Ages of the Spiritual Life is a good example of the speculative school. From the Author's Preface Poulain clarifies his purpose at the outset. "I wishec~ as far as possible to give very clear and accurate descriptions as well as v~ry plain rules of conduct." His purpose, then, is descriptive and pre-scriptive. He continues: "If I do not associate myself with the specu-lative school it is not from contempt. It deals .with many high and interesting questions. But the readers I have in view do not desire 4O January, 19~ 1 CLASSIC ON these things.(I am writing especially for those souls who are beginning to receive the mystic gr.aces and who do not know how to find their way in this new world. And I address myself to those also who are drawing near and who have entered into the adjacent states. Now such persons requir.e,something really practical. They wish for exact pictures--I was about to say photographs--in which they can recognize themselves immediately. They also require rules of conduct reduced to a few striking formulae, easy to ~emember and to apply.i~ He fbresees an objection. "Certain theologians would require more than this. They will perhaps see in this little book a mere manual, resembling those treatises on practical medicine which do not lose themselves in high biological theory~ but merely teach us how to make a rapid diagnosis of each disease and lay down the proper treatment. But I confess that I should think myself very happy to have attained such a difficult end." ~. The author's precautions which seem applicable to most works by mystics or on mysticism are the following. They are also in his preface. "The mystic" graces do not h"f t t:he soul out of the or"dmary.~b~¢~t~ conditions of,Christian life, or free it from the necessity of aiming perfection." ~,~Mystical graces are not sanctity but merely powerful~ means of sanctification; they mu,~st be received with humility and co~. responded-to with generosity."~ To pass our time in dreaming of the mystic ways is a dangero~uus error." Finally, "for all spiritualc~a~.~ ~ questions it is necessary to have a director. The more extraordinary)~I/~e~ the ways by which the soul is led the greater, as a rule is the Unlike most writers on the subject of prayer, Poulain's purpose is not primarily inspirational but rather Scientifically descriptive and prescriptive. The object of .the study, of course, of its very nature . has inspirational value. Nor does Poulain exclude this for he ends his preface: "I pray God that this book may accomplish the only end that I bad in view: the good of souls. (May" it awaken within them-~ {an attraction for prayeO'and the need f'o unite themselves with the divine Maste~.). ~May the souls raised to the fruitful joys of the mystic life become more and more numerous in the Church, especially amongst those who have been consecrated to God.:~ Send forth spirit., and Thou shalt renew the face of the earth.'~ Teacher and Scientist Poulain was a teacher and a scientist. As a good teacher he took 4i JEROME BREUNIG Review for Religious pains to be clear. He had been a p~ofessor of mathematics for many years, and the reader suspects that he was adept at the use of the bl_ackboard. In hi.s early years be wrote a book which he playfully called the"Poor Man's Ge,ometry." In this book he used all his inven-tive genius to simplify the theorems for the slowest boy in the class. In Graces ot: Interior Prancer, "with its short phrases, its explana-tions simple sometimes almost to the point of na~vet~, its clear divl-siofis, its many paragraphs, its clever typographical devices" (Bain-vel's description of Poulain's style, page xxxvi), we find the same gracious teacher eager to bring the difficult subject matter within his pupil's wave length. As a scientist in the best modern traditions Poulaln endeavors to support his statements by factual data. He has so arranged the book that after each chapter he gives evidence to support the previous dex~el-opment. The basis for his treatment of interior experience is the writing of the mystics. In many instances he has also drawn from his own experience with mystics of his own time. Poulain himself said: "In thirty years I have come to know thirty-three persons who seem to have real supernatural graces, and nine who have false visions" (p. xxxv). The scientific treatment should commend the book to all. Incidentally, the book should help non-Catholic doc-tors, psychiatrists, and others who wish an introduction to mystical phenomena but would find a purely speculative treatment based on the unseen realities held by faith alone relatively unintelligible. The Table ot: Contents Poulain has divided his treatise into six parts: (1) Preliminary questions which give principal definitions and explain ordinary prayer; (2) General ideas about the mystic unlon;(3) A study of the degrees'separately; (4) Revelations and visions; (5) Trials of contemplatives; and (6) Supplementary questions. Herder's present volume adds to the appendices of' the original work an appendix on the question of acquired and infused contemplation and another on the discernment of spirits. The latter includes the Rules of St. Igna-tius, Counsels of St. Teresa on Temptations, ~ind Illusions and Marks to Discern the Si3irit of God, according to St. Margaret Mary. The author begins his work by making a clear-cut distinction between ordinary prayer and extraordinary or mystical prayer. To clear the ground for the distinction he first points out four degrees of ordinary prayer, namely, vocal, meditative, affective, and simplified prayer; next he notes the progression and describes at some length 42 January, 1951 CLASSIC ON PRAYER affective praye.r and especially the prayer of simplicity. According'to Poulain, the prayer of simplicity, though close to mystical prayer, does not" contain a,ny mystical element. The prayer of simplicity is still the result of human~efforts. All kinds of prayer, of course, require grace. He confines the hse of the word mystic to "supernatural acts or states which our own industry is powerless to produce, even in a low degree, even momentarily" (p. 1). The author then points out four degrees of the mystical union: 1) incomplete union (prayer of quiet) ; 2) full union (prayer of union) ; 3) ecstatic union (ecstasy) : 4) transforming union (spiritual marriage). Always the teacher and scientist, he distinguishes each successive degree by a new discernible fact. In the prayer of quiet the union between God and the soul is incomplete, for the imagination is free and distractions are possible. In the prayer of union the imagination is no longer free, but the action of the senses is not suspended, com-munication with others and withdrawal from prayer are possible. In ecstasy all sensation and voluntary movement are suspended. In turn, spiritual marriage is distinguished as a stable and constant state. "'To explain mysticism in an hour's time" After this general division of the higher supernatural states, the author attempts to describe what constitutes this higher state. He realizes the ground is holy and the task is difficult, but hear the ear-nest. sympathetic teacher: "The ordinary man prefers speed to every-thing else. Details do not usually interest him, but only the main lines . . . He seems to say: Try in an hour to make me understand exactly what mysticism is. This can be done" (p. 64). The fun-damental nature of the mystic union Poulain describes as God's presence felt. He states this in two propositions which he calls theses, The first thesis affirms the fact, the second uses the analogue of sensa-tions to enlarge on the experiential presence. After this he gives ten secondary characteristics of the mystic, union. Because of the special importance, the two theses describing the fundamental nature of the higher state will be given in the author's own words. The first thesis: "The mystic states which have God for their object attract attention at the outset by the impression of recollection and union which they cause us to experience. Hence the name of mystic union. Their real point of difference from the recollection of 43 JEROME BREUNIG Rew'e~v [or Religious ordinary prayer is this: that in the mystic state, God is not satisfied merely to help us to think of Him and to remind us of His presence: He gives us an experimental, intellectual knowledge of this presence. In a word, He makes us feel that we really enter into communication with Him. In the lower degrees, however (prayer of quiet), God only does this in a somewhat obscure manner. The manifestation increases in distinctness as the union becomes of a higher order" (pp. '64-65). In the explan'ation that follows immediately Poulain says: "There is a profound difference between thinking of a person and feeling him near us. And so when we feel that someone is near us, we say that we have an experimental knowledge of his presence. In ordinary prayer we have only an abstract knowledge of God's presence" (Ibid.). This %xperience of God" is obtained through quasi-se.nses in the spiritual order. His second thesis brings this out. "In ~he states inferior to ecstasy we cannot say that God is seen save in exceptional cases. We are not instinctively led to translate our experiences by the word sight. On the other hand, that which constitutes the com-q~ X.mon basis of all the various degrees of the mystic union is that~he. spiritual impression by which God makes known His presence, mam-fests Him in the manner, as it were, of something interior which penetrates the soul; it is a sensation of saturation, of fusion, of im-mersion. For the sake of greater clearness, we can depict what is felt by describing the sensation by the name Of interior touch" (pp.90- 91).) Poulain that mark 2) 3) 4) 6) 7) The Secondarg Characteristics of Mgstic Union gives (p. 114) the following ten secondary characteristics the mystic union: The mystic union does not depend upon our own will; The knowledge of God accompanying it is obscure and confhsed; The mode of communication is partially incomprehensible; The union is produced neither by reasonings, nor by the consideration of creatures, nor by sensible images; It varies incessantly in intensity; It demands less effort than meditation; It is accompanied ~by sentiments of love,' of repose, of .pleasure, and often of suffering; 44 danuar~], 1951 CLASSIC ON PRAYER /) "~_ 8) It inclines the soul o,f, itself and very eflicach3usly, to the~ " 9) It acts upon the body and is a" cted ~ I0) " " It ~mpedes to a greater or less extent the production of cer-tain interior acts; this is what is called the l,igature. In the third part of I~is book, Poulain studies each of the degrees of the mystic union s~parately. His explanation of the Two Nights of the Soul pointed out by St. John of the Cross is enlightening. TheNight of the Senses is a preliminary state, "the borderland of the mystic state," while the Night of the Soul, which precedes the trans-forming union, comprises the three lower states of mystic union u~ader their fiegative aspect. In his treatment of revelations and visions Poulain continues .the descriptive-prescriptive method, especially noting the possibility of false visions and of the false mingling with the true. He also gives rules-of-thumb for directors and for recipients of the heavenly favors. The section on trials.to contemplatives is brief, but brings out ¯ that contemplatives must be cut in the heroic mold of the Crucified. In his final section on supplementary questions of mysticism, the author treats in the same.scientific manner of topics such as the desire for mystic union, quietism, and frequency of the mystic states. Concluding Tribute What Cardinal Steinhuber wrote of the first edition forty-five years ago still stands. "It is with real satisfaction that I have read your Reverence's book on The Graces of Interior Prager. I cannot resist the desire to congratulate you with all my heart upon this fine and useful work. Directors of souls and the masters of the spiritual life will draw from it abundant supplies of enlightenment and the counsels necessary to enable them to solve the many complicated questions that they will encounter. What pleases me is the sim-plicity, the clearness, and the precision of your exposition, and still more, the solidity of the teaching. I can say the same for the care that you have taken to rely upon the old and approved masters who have written on the subject of mysticism. You dispel their obscuri-ties, you reconcile their apparent contradictions, and you .give their language the turn that the spirit of modern times demand." 45 Reprint Series The following groups of articles are now available in 50-page booklets, with paper cover: NUMBER 1: Father Eltard "On Difficulties in Meditation--I"--Vol. VI, p. 5. "On Difficulties in Meditation--II"--Vol. VI, p. 98. "Affective Prayer"--Vol. VII, p. 113. "Contemplation, the Terminus of Mental Prayer"--Vol. p. 225. VII, NUMBER 2: Father Ellis The "Gifts to Religious" series: "The Simple Vow of Poverty,"-~Vol. VI, p. 65. "Common Life and Peculium"~Vol. VII, p. 33. "Personal Versus Community Property"~Vol. VII, p. 79. "Some Practical Cases"~Vol. VII, p. 195. NUMBER 3: Father Kelly "The Particular Friendship"--Vol. V, p. 93. "Remedies for the Particular Friendship"~Vol. V, p. 179. "Emotional Maturity"--Vol. VII, p. 3. "More About Maturity"--Vol. VII, p. 63. "Vocational Counseling"--Vol. VII, p. 145. Prices Please note that we cannot accept orders for less than ten copies of any of these booklets. The following scale of prices applies to each of the booklets: 10 to 49 copies . 30 cents each. 50 or more copies . 25 cents each. Instructions for Orderlncj 1. Order according to the Number printed above: e.g., 10 copies of Number 1 ; 10 copies of Number 2; and so forth. 2. Send payment with order; calculating the price for each order according to the scale of prices printed ,above. 3. Make checks or money orders payable to Review for Religious. 4. Address your order to: The I:dltors, Review for Religious, St. Mary's College, SL Marys, Kansas. 46 The Des :iny of Religious Women William B. Faherty, S.J.1 ACURSORY PERUSAL of Our HolyFather Pius XII's speeches on woman's role in modern life might well lead one to the hasty conclusion that they contained little direction for reli-gious women. He spoke of motherhood as "the sphere of woman." He set down a great challenge for women today--to rebuild family life,--and as the first means towards this objective he wanted them to restore the aura of honor and dignity that should surround a mother's place there. The Religious Sisters, on the other hand, have renounced the pos-sibilities of motherhood in the home to consecrate their lives to Christ's service. Are they therefore on the periphery of the great so-cial reform work to which Pope Plus XII called modern women? The only answer that can justly be given after a careful study of the papal teaching is a round "No." Some readers have drawn too many hasty and unfounded conclusions from the Pope's words. They have not read all his speeches on the general subject. (He has addressed groups of women nine distinct times on various aspects of their lives and work.) They have accorded too much attention to the Pope's more novel and sensational statements, such as his pro-claiming the unmarried lay state a "vocation," and his urging women to vote and seek public office. When the full picture of the Holy Father's teaching is seen, the important place of religious women comes sharply into focus. In his most publicized speech of October 21, 1945, Pope Plus XII did state: "The sphere of woman, her manner of life, her native bent is motherhood. Every woman is made to be a mother . . . For this purpose the Creator organized the whole characteristic makeup of woman." Immediately, however, he clarified the issue that he was speaking of motherhood "not only in the physical sense," but also in the "spiritual and more exalted, but no less real" sense. This was consistent with the general tenor of his teaching. In a speech2 g!ven four years previously, entitled, "Guiding Christ's Little 1Father Faherty of Regis College, Denver, is the author of The Desting of Modern Woman in the Light of Papal Teaching, which is reviewed in this issue. (See page 52). The present article is based on a section of the book. ~Copies of this inspiring address can be obtained at a very low cost from the Nat. Council of Catholic Women, 1312 Massachusetts Ave., N. W., Washington 5,D.C. 47 WILLIAM B. FAHERTY Review for Religious Ones," the Pope had spoken more explicitly on this two-fold motherhood. Addressing the mothers in his audience, the Holy Father remarked: "Our words have been addressed principally to you, Christian mothers. But with you we see around us today a .gathering of nuns, teachers and others engaged in the work of Chris-tian education. They are mothers, too, not by nature or by blood but by the love they bear the young." Then turning directly to this latter group, he continued: "Yes, you too are mothers; you work side by side with Christian mothers in the work of education; for you have a mother's heart, burning with charity . . . You are truly a sisterhood of spiritual mothers whose offspring is the pure flower of youth." Such were the Holy Father's beautiful words on "spiritual motherhood." Praise of the Religious Life Pope Pius XII's remarks on religious life came not as a separate statement but as part of the full teaching on woman's role in the modern world. In his address of October 21, 1945, he discussed all three "vocations" open to young women today: marriage, the un-married lay state, and the life of the' consecrated religious. About the religious life, he stated: "For nigh onto twenty cen-turies, in every generation, thousands and thousands of men and women from among the best in order to follow the counsels of Christ" have left the "world" to devote their lives to His service. "Look at these men and women," he continued, "See them dedicated to prayer and penance, intent on the iiastruction and education of the young and ignorant, leaning over the pillow of the sick and dying, ope~l-hearted for all their miseries and all their weakness, in order to relieve them, ease theml lighten them and sanctify thm." "When one thinks of young girls and women," he concluded, "who willingly renounce matrimony in order to consecrate them-selves to a higher life of contemplation, sacrifice, and charity, there comes at once to the lips the word that explains it: vocation. It is the only word that describe so lofty a sentiment." The Pope finished this passage with ~he explanation that the call of God may come either as an overpowering summons or as a gentle impulse, sd diverse are the modulations of His voice. Addressing the representatives of Italian Youth Organizations in 1943, he spoke at length on the great need 0f vocations in these times, especially in the fields of education, organized charity, and danuar~, 1951 DESTINY OF RELIGIOUS WOMEN foreign missions. After extolling the value of religious life in fos-tering the Church's mission and mentioning the great solicitude of the Church today for the life of consecrated service--a solicitude rarely equalled, he insisted, in the long annals of Christian history-- the Holy Father concluded, "Let her accept it who can, taking Christ's words in "the sense of an invitation and encouragement." As a fitting crown to this speech, he made the memorable statement, "Christian virginity is the triumph of civilization." The Challenge to Modern Woman When the Pope challenged modern woman to work for the restoration of family llfe, he realized that many would very justly wonder why the Church continued to encourage the call to the reli-gious Sisterhoods. Why not lay less emphasis on this vocation for a decade or so? After all, where Catholic family life is strong, reli-gious vocations abound. Anticipating this reasonable objection, the Pope forestalled it by an immediate and thorough answer. "Is the common good of the people and the Church perhaps jeopardized by this (the encourage-ment of the religious vocation) ?" he asked. "On the contrary, these generous souls recognize the union of the two sexes in matrimony as a good of high order. But if they abandon the ordinary way and leave the beaten track, they do not desert it, but rather consecrate themselves to the service of mankind with a complete disregard for themselves and thei~ own interests by an act incomparably broader in its scope, more all-embracing and universal." They have given up the possibility of children of their own, yet they" teach the children of others the way to Christ. They help mothers in the care of their youngsters by establishing day nurseries. They substitute for the mother in conducting orphanages. They care for the sick members of all families. They protect the unity and sanctity of the family, furthermore, in a hidden but very influential way. While those intent on de.stroying the foundations of Christian civilization advise infidelity within the marriage bond and "free love" outside, the Church points with paternal pride to thousands upon thousands who have gone beyond the command of God and have accepted His free call to do something even greater. Because of this sacrifice, hundreds and hun-dreds of married people can ask themselves in the midst of ditficulties: "Can I not live up to the high requirements of my state of life, when 49 WILLIAM B. F!KI~ERTY so many of my fellow human beings live up to the more exacting demands of a higher state?" Renewal of Familg When the Pope suggests means to effect the renewal of the mod-ern family, the great part religious Sisters can play becomes even more evident. The foundation of all work for the restoration of the fam-ily, the Holy Father remarked, is a solid personal spiritual life. The first goal is to be the restoration of the honor and dignity that should be the Mother's in the home. Who are in a more strategic position to build a solid spirituality and proper attitudes toward home life in the mothers of tomorrow than the Religious Sisters who teach them in the schools and colleges today? Nor are Sisters engaged in other apostolic activities on the periphery of this great work. Those who conduct hospitals, retreat houses, and the like, have a part that is perhaps less obvious but equally important in thi~ work of family restoration to which their Holy Father challenges them. Conclusions Certain profitable conclusions for the individual lives of the Sis-ters suggest themselves from the words of Pius XII which have been briefly considered here. If religious Sisters are to look on their'life as a spiritual motherhood, the qualities that mark a true. Christian mother's relationship with her children--the qualities that marked Our Lady's relationship with her Divine Son--will be the aim of the religious Sister. This will counteract any influences which in these days of standardizing agencies and statistical social service might lead an occasional individual toward a depersonalized goal of expertness in nursing, teaching, or other profession. Secondly, the v6cation of most young women to be the mother of a family in the home could receive much more stress in high school and college instruction, equal in quantity even to the attention most Sisters very justly bestow on their own high type of vocation. Above all, the Holy Father's words should be an encouragement and an inspiration in these apocalyptic times which he himself has called "perhaps the greatest religious crisis humanity has gone through since the origin of Christianity." 50 Book Reviews THE MEANING OF FATIMA. By C. C. Marfindale, S.J. Pp. 183. P. J. Kened¥ and Sons, New York, 1950. This is not just another book about Fatima. It gives a brief, dear description of the Blessed Virgin's appearances; but tO that it adds a frank appraisal of the difficulties and inconsistencies in the account of the Fatima happenings, and a sensible, penetrating expla-nation of these problems. Fr. Martindale's treatment is marked by a fine balance. He is objective, almost scientific in his approach; yet sympathetic and sensi-tive to the human dements involved. He is very, discerning in his evaluations of the testimony given by the witnesses, parti.cularly the three children; yet there is never a ting~of debunking. Add to this reverent, straightforward attitude the fact that the author is inti-mately acquainted with Fatima and with the previous writings about the subject, and it is hard not to accept his judgment on the appari-tions. Special attention should be drawn tothe introduction, which is the key to Ft. Martindale's treatment of the Fatima narrative. In a few pages, the author gives a brief but dear explanation of the Cath-olic Church's attitude towards private revelations. His analysis of the psychology of the "visionary" is particularly valuable. This in-troductory section alone would be enough to make the book worth reading, and the remainder of the book fulfills the promise of the troduction.--BERNARD COOKE, S.J. VOCATION TO LOVE. By Dorfhy Dohen. Pp. ;x-k 169. Sheed and Ward, New York, 19S0. $2.50. Aiming at high ideals, the lay apostle is often handicapped by all-too reaIistic obstacIes. Writing from a layman's viewpoint, Miss Doben gives the reader a deep insight into some practical ways of ~etaining spiritual idealism. Religious will find in Vocation to Lo~e a refreshing newness clothing old principles, and may blush at the evident bigb aspirations of "people in the world." After a comparatively long and somewhat disconnected intro-ductory chapter, the author develops ten unified chapters on pene-trating studies of important consequences of tooe. The reader ad-vances through increasingly more interesting and satisfying topics. Outstanding for their simplicity and depth are four chapters on 51 BOOK ANNOUCEMENTS Reoietu for Religious detachment, prayer, loneliness, and f~ustration. The clear and descr.iigtive style throughout is captivating. Religious and laity alike, who ambition great deeds for Christ, should profit from these fifteen-minute excursions into refreshingly modern answers to the old problems f.acing the zealous apostle in making reality approach the ideal.---ROBERT P. NEENAN, S.J. THE GRACES OF INTERIOR PRAYER (Les Graces D'Oralson): A Treatise on Mystical Theology. By A. Poulain, S.J. Translated from the sixth edition by Leonora L. Yorke Smith and corrected to accord with the tenth French edition with an introduction by J. V. Balnvel and an appendix on the discernment of spirits. Pp. cxli q- 665. B. Herder Book Co., St. Louis, Mo., 1950. $6.50. For the review of this book see Father Breunig's article, "Classic on Higher Prayer;" pp. 39-45. BOOK NOTICES Another tribute to. the present Age of Mary is F. J. Sheed's THE MARY BOOK which gives a biography-anthology of the best Marian. literature published by Sheed and Ward during the past quarter- ~ century. The reader will find a vast variety of subject matter plus diversity of presentation by great-name authors--Chesterton, House-lander, Claudel, Von Hildebrand, Martindale, Lund, to name only a few. Those eager to read more exhaustively on the subjects will find the sources of the selections listed in the back of the book. Besides the prose, beautiful poems on Mary, these not limited to the last twenty-five years, enrich the collection. Thirteen illustrations, four of them in color, of famous statues and paintings, contribute the final artistic touch to this little library on things Marian. (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1950. Pp. xii -f- 411. $4.00.) THE DESTINY OF MODE
Die Trauben-Eiche (Quercus petraea [MATT.] LIEBL.) ist ökologisch wie ökonomisch eine prägende Baumart im nordostdeutschen Tiefland. Seit längerer Zeit haben jedoch lokal bis regional drastische Vitalitätseinbußen zu Diskussionen um ihre Verwendbarkeit für den Wald der Zukunft geführt. Vor dem Hintergrund fortschreitender Veränderungen des Klimas stellen sich Fragen nach der Anpassungsfähigkeit der Baumart im Sinne der Überlebensfähigkeit, nach den Beziehungen zwischen Vitalitätszustand und Wuchsverhalten sowie nach möglichen Entwicklungstendenzen dieser Parameter. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die Zusammenhänge zwischen Vitalität und Zuwachs sowie die Effekte der Witterung auf die Jahrringbreite als wesentlichem Vitalitätsindikator. Die retrospektive Analyse dieser Beziehungen dient dazu, das mögliche Verhalten des Witterungs-Zuwachs-Komplexes in der Zukunft abzuschätzen und damit die Risiken einer forstlichen Schwerpunktsetzung auf die Trauben-Eiche in Nordostdeutschland genauer zu fassen. Die Untersuchungen fußen auf zwei Versuchsflächen-Sets. Die Kernflächen K1-K5 umfassen fünf Mischbestände aus Trauben-Eichen und Kiefern (Pinus sylvestris L.) entlang eines Gradienten von Sachsen-Anhalt bis Ostpolen im Altern von etwa 110-150 Jahren auf Standorten mittlerer Nährkraft und durchschnittlicher Wasserversorgung. Dieses Set wird erweitert durch 20 Zusatzflächen im Osten bis Süden des Landes Brandenburg, ebenfalls zum größten Teil in Mischbeständen mit Kiefer. Neben den ertragskundlichen Basisaufnahmen wurden auf den Versuchsflächen Bohrkerne an Stichproben des herrschenden Bestandes entnommen. Zu allen Flächen liegen die Angaben der forstlichen Standortkartierung über die Nährkraftstufe und die Wasserversorgung sowie Zeitreihen von Tagesmitteltemperaturen und Niederschlagstagessummen vor. Als Szenariodaten werden die Medianläufe des 2-Kelvin-Szenarios mit dem Regionalisierungsmodell STAR 2 auf Grundlage des SRES-A1B-Szenarios verwendet. Zur Einschätzung der Vitalität der Trauben-Eichen in den Untersuchungsbeständen wurde 2006-2011 der prozentuale Laubverlust im Sommerzustand nach dem Standard der Waldzustandserhebungen erfasst (EICHHORN et al. 2006). Parallel wurde der Kronenzustand im Winter nach dem Schema von KÖRVER et al. (1999) beurteilt. Als Indikatoren für die Vitalität der Trauben-Eichen standen die Jahrringbreite und die Zuwachsrate ("Jahrringindex") im Mittelpunkt der Untersuchungen. Für die Zeitreihen der Jahrringbreite wurden die Parameter Autokorrelation und Sensitivität für die gesamte Zeitreihe sowie als gleitende Mittel hergeleitet und interpretiert. Im Programmpaket "CLIMTREG" (BECK et al. 2013) erfolgten anschließend die Trendeliminierung und die AR(1)-Modellierung zur Entfernung autokorrelativer Effekte aus den baumspezifischen Jahrringindex-Zeitreihen. Die Identifikation von Weiserjahren stützte sich auf die Verteilungsparameter Mittelwert und Standardabweichung der Einzelbaum-Jahrringindizes pro Jahr. Aus den individuellen Zeitreihen des Jahrringindexes wurde die mittlere bestandesbezogene Index-Zeitreihe (= Chronologie) errechnet. Zur Quantifizierung der Witterungs-Zuwachs-Beziehungen wurden die Analyse-Tools CLIMTREG (mit tagesgenauer Auflösung) sowie "bootRes" für R (monatliche Auflösung; ZANG & BIONDI 2012) verwendet, in die Daten der jeweils nächstliegenden Wetterstationen sowie Zeitreihen des mittleren Jahrringindexes eingesteuert wurden. Die Auswertungen zeigten, dass sich im Untersuchungszeitraum 2006-2011 Belaubungsgrad und Kronenstruktur für die Mehrzahl der untersuchten Bäume deutlich verbessert haben. Mit dem relativen Kreisflächenzuwachs ist die Kronenstruktur (hochsignifikant) über alle Kernflächen hinweg straffer positiv korreliert als der Laubverlust (nicht signifikant). Bei gleichem BHD sind größere Kronenflächen sowohl mit besseren Kronenstrukturwerten als auch mit einem geringeren Laubverlust gekoppelt. Der jährliche Radialzuwachs nimmt im Mittel der Kernflächen seit mehreren Jahrzehnten zu. Auf den Zusatzflächen liegen die mittleren Jahrringbreiten etwa auf Ertragstafelniveau (ERTELD 1963). Die absolut und relativ höchsten Zuwächse 2006-2011 zeigten die polnischen Kernflächen. Die Korrelationen der Jahrringindizes (JRI) mit dem Niederschlag sind etwas straffer als mit der Temperatur, aber nur selten signifikant. Die für die Vegetationsperiode berechneten Korrelationskoeffizienten sind in keinem Fall höher als die für das Gesamtjahr ermittelten. Bei der Prüfung dendroklimatologischer Zusammenhänge auf Monatsebene mit bootRes zeigen die Flächen K1 und K3 ein ähnliches Bild: Höhere Jahrringindizes sind mit überdurchschnittlichen Niederschlägen vor allem in den Wintermonaten sowie im Spätsommer bis Frühherbst des Wuchsjahres gekoppelt. Auf den übrigen Kernflächen sind die Zusammenhänge im Vergleich weniger straff. Zwischen herrschendem und beherrschtem Bestand gibt es kaum Unterschiede in der Reaktion des Jahrringindex auf die Witterung. Die Beziehungen zu den Mitteltemperaturen sind etwas schwächer ausgeprägt. Auf allen Flächen sind vorrangig kühle Spätfrühlings- und Frühsommermonate mit überdurchschnittlichen Jahrringindizes verbunden. Analysen durch moving windows zeigen für einige Flächen im Lauf der Zeit zunehmende Korrelationen zwischen Witterung und Jahrringindex. In Zusammenfassung aller Flächen ergeben sich für die zweite Hälfte der Untersuchungsperiode deutlich mehr signifikante Zusammenhänge als in der ersten. Nach den Auswertungen mit CLIMTREG führen fast überall hohe Niederschläge bei niedrigen Temperaturen im Hochsommer des Vorjahres zu überdurchschnittlichen Zuwachsraten. Außerdem fördern erhöhte Niederschlagsmengen von Ende November bis in den Februar, zum Teil auch höhere Temperaturen, die Jahrringbildung. Das dritte auffällige Intervall ist die Zeit von Anfang April bis Mitte Juli mit höheren Zuwachsraten bei niedrigen Temperaturen und überdurchschnittlichen Niederschlägen. Die Modellierung von Jahrringindex-Zeitreihen für den Szenariozeitraum 2001-2055 auf Basis unterschiedlicher Kalibrierungszeiträume ergibt in den meisten Fällen die höchsten mittleren Jahrringindizes (JRI) für das mit der zweiten Hälfte des Gesamtuntersuchungsintervalls 1951-2006 parametrisierte Modell. Im Vergleich unterschiedlicher Kalibrierungszeiträume verändern die von CLIMTREG identifizierten zuwachswirksamen Zeiträume in der Regel weder ihre Lage noch ihre Länge in wesentlichem Ausmaß. Auffällig ist jedoch, dass die Richtung der Zusammenhänge in der jüngeren Vergangenheit uneinheitlicher wird. Auf Basis der Untersuchungsergebnisse leitet die Studie Chancen und Risiken ab, die für die Trauben-Eiche unter dem Einfluss des genutzten Witterungsszenarios im Untersuchungsgebiet maßgeblich sind. Die Handlungsoptionen zum Stärken der Anpassungsfähigkeit umfassen im Wesentlichen die Steuerung der negativen und positiven Einflüsse, die dem menschlichen Einfluss zugänglich sind. Dazu gehört die Förderung der individuellen Vitalität und Elastizität durch optimal entwickelte Kronen und Wurzelsysteme. Die Mischung mit anderen Baumarten steigert die Bestandesstabilität, wobei die relative Konkurrenzschwäche der Eiche zu berücksichtigen ist. Verjüngungsmaßnahmen sollten auf die Erhaltung und Steigerung der genetischen Vielfalt ausgerichtet sein und Individuen mit überdurchschnittlicher Vitalität besonders fördern. Die Konkurrenz um Wasser kann – unter Beachtung des Risikos zusätzlicher Verdunstung –durch geringere Bestandesdichten reduziert werden. Die größten Erfolgsaussichten für diese Aktivitäten bestehen auf Standorten höherer Wasserspeicherkapazität und Nährkraft. Ein angepasstes Monitoring sollte Bedrohungen zum Beispiel durch Insektenmassenvermehrungen rechtzeitig erkennen, gegen die alle Bekämpfungsmöglichkeiten auszuschöpfen sind. Auf gesellschaftlicher Ebene ist eine umfassende Diskussion zu den Zielen und Methoden der Waldbewirtschaftung zu führen, um eine höhere Wertschätzung und Langfristigkeit gezielter Eichenförderung zu erreichen. ; Sessile oak (Quercus petraea [MATT.] LIEBL.) is an important tree species in the northeastern lowlands of Germany. The widespread introduction of the species into mature Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands as a means of ecological forest conversion has further enhanced its relevance in forest science and management. For a few decades, however, increasing numbers of trees and stands showing a severe decline in vitality have led to critical discussions on the possible role of oaks in today's forest development strategies. The adaptive capacity of Sessile oak will be further challenged by climate change in the future. In this context, more information is needed on the relations between the vitality status and growth, including the development of these relations in the next decades. Thus, the study investigates the dependencies between annual radial increment in Quercus petraea (measured as tree-ring width, TRW) and individual-tree vitality as well as the effects of climatic variables on TRW on different temporal scales. Investigations were carried out using two sets of trial plots. The core plot sequence K1-K5 comprises five mature mixed stands of Sessile oak with Scots pine along a gradient from Saxony-Anhalt to eastern Poland. Trees are 110-150 years old and grow on sandy and partly podsolic cambisols with average water supply. A set of 20 additional plots was established in mixed oak-pine stands in Brandenburg. In addition to growth and yield data for the whole plot, increment cores were extracted from a representative sample of 20 trees per plot. Time series data of local daily mean temperatures and daily precipitation sum were provided by the Potsdam-Institute for Climate Impact Research. Data for 2007-2060 come from the median scenario of the regional climate model "STAR 2" based on the SRES-scenario A1B and assumes an increase in temperature of two Kelvin until 2060. Individual vitality was recorded from 2006 to 2011on the core plots (i) according to the European standard method for the assessment of crown condition based on defoliation percentages in summer (EICHHORN et al. 2006) and (ii) following the approach by KÖRVER et al. (1999) for crown structure classification in winter. Both methods were applied to all dominant and co-dominant oaks in the five subsequent years. Trees on the additional plots were assessed only once. Because they are regarded a reliable indicator of tree vitality, annual radial increment as expressed in tree-ring width (TRW) and the resulting growth rate (tree-ring index) are at the center of the analyses. For TRW time series the parameters autocorrelation and sensitivity were calculated both for the whole investigation period and as floating means ("moving windows"). The program "CLIMTREG" (BECK et al. 2013) was applied to eliminate long-term trends in individual TRW series by means of cubic spline functions and to minimize auto-correlation within the resulting TRI time series. Pointer years were identified on the basis of the mean and standard deviation of annual TRI distributions. Plot-specific "chronologies" were calculated as arithmetic means of all "typical" tree-specific TRI series per plot. To analyze the relations between climate and growth, the programs CLIMTREG (for daily climate data resolution) and "bootRes" for R (monthly resolution; ZANG & BIONDI 2012) were applied to local climate data and the TRI chronologies. The repeated assessments show that during the interval 2006-2011 crown condition as expressed in summer foliage as well as in crown structure has improved considerably. Crown structure values are correlated more closely to individual basal area increment than defoliation percentages. At the same DBH, trees with larger crowns exhibit a significantly better crown structure and less defoliation. Annual radial increment has been increasing on the core plots over the past decades, thus the increment level of the dominant trees is on average slightly higher than that of the first yield class in the table by ERTELD (1963). On the additional plots, mean TRW is parallel to yield table values but shows a slowly decreasing trend in a number of stands. The two core plots in Poland exhibited the highest radial increments 2006-2011, both absolutely and relatively. On the annual level, TRI time series are correlated more closely to precipitation sums than to annual mean temperatures. Except for one of the additional plots, the respective correlation coefficients are statistically insignificant. Correlations did not increase when climate parameters were calculated exclusively for the vegetation period instead of the whole year. According to dendroclimatological analyses on the monthly scale with bootRes, trees on core plots K1 and K3 respond almost similarly to climatic influences: High TRI values are related to above-average precipitation mainly during the winter months, as well as in late summer and early fall of the year of growth. On the other core plots, dependencies are less clear. The relations of TRI to monthly temperature are weaker than those to precipitation with the same ranking of plots regarding their sensitivity. The most favorable influence on TRI is exerted by cool spring to early summer months in the year of growth. Correlation patterns are very similar for both dominant and suppressed trees. Separate analyses of the first and the last half of the investigated interval show that the strength of correlations between TRI and climatic variables has been increasing over the past decades. When summarized over all plots, there were distinctly more significant correlation coefficients in the period from 1984-2006 than from 1951-1983. The analyses using CLIMTREG showed that high summer precipitation in the preceding year clearly promotes above-average TRI values. Another conspicuous climate-influenced time period ranges from late November to February with positive correlations both to precipitation and to temperature (at least partly). The third important period for TRI in most trees on the core plots starts in early April and lasts until Mid-July. During this time, high TRI values are correlated with low temperatures and high precipitation. For most of the plots, the average modeled TRI is higher if the second half of the data interval 1951-2006 is used for calibration rather than the entire interval or its first half. The results of the models based on different calibration periods do not differ very much in terms of the identified variables (i.e. length of influential period and type of climatic parameter). However, the direction of correlations becomes more variable in the more recent past. The results of this study are summarized in a number of risks and opportunities regarding future vitality and growth of Sessile oak under regional conditions. Finally, several options of silvicultural management to support vitality and growth of the species are recommended. These consist basically in promoting favorable conditions and limiting negative influences. A large crown with dense foliage and a well-developed root system are crucial conditions for individual vitality which should be strengthened for instance by reducing stand densities at an early age. Mixed stands have a higher stability towards disturbances and provide more diverse habitats for natural antagonists against defoliators. The relatively weak competitiveness of oaks should be taken into account when advocating mixed stands. Regeneration activities should enhance genetic diversity, promote phenotypes with above-average vitality, and accelerate the adaptation of the species by "assisted migration" of drought-tolerant provenances. Competition for water may be eased by lower stand densities. However, the canopy should be kept sufficiently closed to prevent excessive growth of ground vegetation or increased evapotranspiration. An adapted system to monitor forest growth and vitality should be used to technically assist the species in counteracting major insect outbreaks and other severe biotic risks as early as possible. On a more general level, productive discussions are needed between all stakeholders, interest groups, and the public on the social and political role of forests and the required level of management. This should lead to a stable social and political appreciation of forestry and provide the resources and staff necessary to cope with an uncertain future.
V uvodnem delu doktorske disertacije smo opredelili raziskovalni problem doktorske disertacije, in sicer proučevanje vpliva davčne kompleksnosti na davčno skladnost. Zapisali smo cilj, to je proučitev področja davčne skladnosti s posebnim poudarkom na stroških davčne skladnosti ter empirična preveritev lastnega modela merjenja makroekonomskih učinkov stroškov davčne skladnosti. Zastavili smo osnovno tezo doktorske disertacije, in sicer, ali zmanjšanje stroškov davčne skladnosti povzroča makroekonomske učinke ; v povezavi s tem smo zastavili deset hipotez. Uvodoma so predstavljeni še pričakovani izvirni znanstveni prispevki, uporabljene predpostavke in omejitve ter metode raziskovanja, uporabljene tako v teoretičnem kot empiričnem delu doktorske disertacije. V drugem poglavju smo zapisali teoretična izhodišča s področja davčne kompleksnosti v povezavi z davčno agresivnostjo in podali lastno opredelitev davčne kompleksnosti in davčne agresivnosti, pri čemer smo se oprli na znanstveno literaturo s tega področja. Predstavili smo vzroke in kazalnike davčne kompleksnosti ter podali izčrpen kvalitativni pregled dosedanjih raziskav o davčni kompleksnosti in davčni agresivnosti. V drugo poglavje doktorske disertacije smo vključili dve lastni empirični raziskavi, in sicer: raziskavo o spreminjanju davčnih predpisov primerjalno za Slovenijo, Avstrijo, Veliko Britanijo, Hrvaško, Bolgarijo, Madžarsko, Češko, Romunijo in Poljsko ; raziskavo cen revizijskih storitev za Slovenijo. Pomembna nova znanstvenoraziskovalna dognanja predstavljajo tudi nove spremenljivke davčne kompleksnosti, ki smo jih prepoznali za subjekte javnega interesa, katerih delnice kotirajo na organiziranem trgu. Tretje poglavje predstavljajo teoretična izhodišča s področja davčne skladnosti, kjer smo z uporabo znanstvene literature predstavili dosedanje teorije davčne skladnosti in vrste stroškov davčne skladnosti. Dodali smo lastno opredelitev davčne skladnosti. Podali smo izčrpen kvalitativen pregled raziskav davčne skladnosti ter raziskav o merjenju stroškov davčne skladnosti, ki so osnova za izvedbo naše glavne empirične raziskave. Pregled dosedanjih znanstvenih raziskav smo razdelili v tri skupine: raziskave o merjenju stroškov davčne skladnosti ; raziskave psiholoških stroškov, ki so posledica stresa in drugih dejavnikov pri doseganju davčne skladnosti ; raziskave stresa v računovodstvu. V tretje poglavje doktorske disertacije smo vključili lastno empirično raziskavo o organizacijskih in osebnostnih dejavnikih stresa ter zdravstvenih težavah v povezavi s stresom, ki jih imajo davčni zavezanci pri doseganju davčne skladnosti. V okviru istega poglavja smo predstavili makroekonomske učinke davčne (ne)skladnosti. V četrtem poglavju smo predstavili obstoječe modele merjenja stroškov davčne skladnosti in njihovo uporabno vrednost ter predstavili lasten predlog merjenja makroekonomskih učinkov stroškov davčne skladnosti. Peto poglavje predstavlja predstavitev inštrumentov za povečanje davčne skladnosti, kjer navajamo: predpise in orodja Evropske komisije za povečanje davčne skladnosti ; druge mednarodne predpise in orodja za povečanje davčne skladnosti ; sistem ocenjevanja davčnega sistema, kaznovanje davčnih prekrškov kot inštrument za povečanje davčne skladnosti, upravljanje s tveganji davčne skladnosti in ostale inštrumente za povečanje davčne skladnosti. V peto poglavje doktorske disertacije smo vključili lastno empirično raziskavo o vrednotenju zakonodaje. V okviru istega poglavja smo predstavili še značilnosti Indeksa spoštovanja pravne države, ki se v Svetu že uporablja, ter lasten koeficient spreminjanja davčnih predpisov kot novo znanstvenoraziskovalno dognanje. Teoretičnemu delu sledi v šestem poglavju empirični del, v katerem smo predstavili raziskovalno delo. Uvodoma smo v šestem poglavju predstavili cilje raziskave, hipoteze doktorske disertacije, potek raziskave in uporabljene raziskovalne metode ter opredelili temeljne konstrukte znanstvene raziskave. ; In the introductory part we defined the research problem of the doctoral dissertation, namely, the study of the impact of Tax Complexity on Tax Compliance. We have recorded the objective, namely, the study of the field of Tax Compliance, with a special emphasis on the Costs of Tax Compliance and empirical verification of our own Model For Measuring The Macroeconomic Effects Of Tax Compliance Costs. We have established the basic thesis of the doctoral dissertation, namely, whether the reduction of the Costs of Tax Compliance causes macroeconomic effects ; In this connection, we have raised ten hypotheses. The introduction of the original scientific contributions, the assumptions and limitations were used, and the methods of research are presented used in both the theoretical and the empirical parts of the doctoral dissertation. In the second Chapter, we wrote the theoretical background in the field of Tax Complexity in relation to Tax Aggression, and presented our own definition of Tax Complexity and Tax Aggressiveness, based on scientific literature in this field. We presented the causes and indicators of Tax Complexity, and provided an exhaustive qualitative overview of the previous studies on Tax Complexity and Tax Aggression. In the second chapter of the doctoral dissertation, we included two of our own empirical researches, namely: A study on changing tax regulations, comparable for Slovenia, Austria, Great Britain, Croatia, Bulgaria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Romania and Poland ; a survey of the prices of audit services for Slovenia. Significant new scientific research findings also present new variables of Tax Complexity, which we have identified for Public Interest Entities whose shares are listed on the organized market. The third Chapter presents the theoretical background in the area of Tax Compliance, where, using scientific literature, we presented the current Tax Compliance Theory and the types of Tax Compliance Costs. We have added our own definition of Tax Compliance. We have provided a comprehensive qualitative overview of research on Tax Compliance and research on the measurement of Tax Compliance Costs, which are the basis for conducting our main empirical research. An overview of the current scientific research has been divided into three groups: Surveys on measuring the Costs of Tax Compliance ; investigation of Psychological Costs arising from Stress and other factors in achieving Tax Compliance ; stress research in accounting. In the third chapter of the doctoral dissertation, we included our own empirical research on organizational and personality factors of stress, and health problems related to the stress that taxpayers have in achieving Tax Compliance. Within the same chapter, we presented the macroeconomic effects of Tax (non)compliance. In the fourth Chapter, we presented the existing models for measuring the Costs of Tax Compliance and their useful value, and presented our own proposal for measuring the Macroeconomic Effects of Tax Compliance Costs. Chapter 5 presents a presentation of Instruments to increase Tax Compliance, stating: European Commission Regulations and Tools to increase Tax Compliance ; other international rules and tools to increase Tax Compliance ; the system of assessing the tax system, penalizing tax offenses as an instrument for increasing Tax Compliance, managing the risks of Tax Compliance and other instruments for increasing Tax Compliance. In the fifth chapter of the doctoral dissertation, we included our own empirical research on the evaluation of legislation. In the same chapter, we also presented the characteristics of the Rule of Law Index already in use in the Council, as well as our own coefficient of changing tax regulations as a new scientific and research knowledge. The theoretical part of the trace in the sixth Chapter is the empirical part, in which we presented the research work.
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Global Affairs Canada announced this week that a Canadian had died in Ukraine. Later reporting revealed that his name was Jean-Francois Ratelle and that he was a commander of the Norman Brigade, which, according to CTV News, is "a fighting force of volunteers from several different countries commanded by a CAF veteran who goes by 'Hrulf.'" Hrulf was Ratell's call sign. But the news raises an important, and hard to answer question: How many Canadians, and indeed citizens of other Western countries, are there fighting the Russians in Ukraine?The Canadian government says it does not track this figure, but in January 2023, the Ukrainian Foreign Legion said that Canadians were "one of the most numerous nationalities" fighting in Ukraine. CTV News says it was able to track "at least 18 Canadians who are, or were, in Ukraine as fighters or as part of humanitarian efforts."On May 1, 2023, two Canadians serving with Ukraine's International Legion, which was attached to the 92nd Mechanised Brigade, were killed in Bakhmut. Both had served in the Canadian Armed Forces, but had left before going to Ukraine. At the time, CBC News reported that they were the fourth and fifth Canadians to be killed fighting in Ukraine. By November, the Globe and Mail was reporting that nine Canadians had been killed. Like other countries in the West, the Canadian government did not send those fighters. One of the Canadians who perished was "fighting alongside two U.S. citizens who also died while fighting in the Donbas region of eastern Ukraine."A March 14 update on the number of foreign mercenaries provided by the Russian Defense Ministry, which has an interest in muddying the waters on these figures, claims that 1,005 Canadian mercenaries have gone to Ukraine to fight. It claims that at least 491 of them — nearly half — have been killed. And Canada is not number one on that list. According to the Russian update, 2,960 mercenaries have come from Poland with 1,497 of them reportedly killed. Number two is the U.S. with at least 491 of its 1,113 mercenaries killed. The update says that mercenary fighters have come from NATO members Romania and the U.K., while France has been the source of fewer: 147 French nationals have died out of 356 who have gone, according to Russia. While the credibility of these figures is unclear, in total, Russia — which also has non-Russians fighting on its behalf in Ukraine — claims 13,000 foreigners have fought for Kyiv and around 6,000 have died. The Ukrainians say their international legion is made up of around 20,000 fighters from 50 countries. But they too have their own interest in inflating the numbers. Daniel Davis, a military analyst and Senior Fellow for Defense Priorities, told RS that he has seen no independent confirmation of these figures. Alexander Hill, professor of military history at the University of Calgary, said he hadn't come across any reliable numbers, either, and told RS that real information on foreign fighters appears to be a closely guarded secret, on both sides.But perhaps the more dangerous issue is the presence, not of mercenaries, but of Western troops on the ground in Ukraine. That number, by the way, is no easier to fix.According to Defense Department documents leaked in March 2023, there were at that time at least 97 NATO special forces in Ukraine: 50 British, 17 Latvian, 15 French, 14 American and 1 Dutch. At the time, National Security Council spokesperson John Kirby refused to confirm the number but confirmed "a small U.S. military presence" there.But there are not only American troops in Ukraine, but CIA officials too. A recent New York Times report based on interviews with more than 200 current and former officials revealed that there were "scores" — so at least more than 40 — of CIA officers in Ukraine. In a transcript of an intercepted February 19 conversation between senior German air force officials, one official says, "It's known that there are numerous people there in civilian attire who speak with an American accent."That transcript also revealed that there are UK personnel on the ground, too. Discussing how German Taurus long-range missiles could be operated in Ukraine, one official says that the Germans "know how the English do it. . .. They have several people on-site." The British prime minister's office has confirmed that the UK has boots on the ground: "Beyond the small number of personnel we do have in the country supporting the armed forces of Ukraine, we haven't got any plans for large-scale deployment."Then add to the tally the French forces revealed by German Chancellor Olaf Scholz. On February 26, defending his decision not to send Taurus missiles to Ukraine, Scholz said that it would require the presence of Germans in Ukraine to match their British and French counterparts. He explained, "What is being done in the way of target control and accompanying target control on the part of the British and the French can't be done in Germany."On March 8, Polish Foreign Minister Radoslaw Sikorski confirmed that "NATO soldiers are already present in Ukraine," but he refused to "list those countries."So, though it is impossible to add up the numbers on the list, it is possible, at least, to confirm the existence of a list. And it is a risky list. As Russia appears to — possibly irreversibly — take the advantage on the battlefield, the U.S. and NATO face the long feared dilemma: accept the reality and encourage Ukraine to negotiate a diplomatic end to the war or escalate and consider sending, as French President Emmanuel Macron has recently suggested, NATO troops to fight with the Ukrainian armed forces against Russia. It would be irresponsible to go down the road of the latter without exploring the road of the former. In a March 13 interview, Russian President Vladimir Putin said Russia has "never refused negotiations" and that Russia is "ready for negotiations . . . based on the realities that have developed." The West need not take Putin at his word. But with hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians being wounded and killed with little hope of improvement on the battlefield, it would be irresponsible not to test it. Oleksandr Chalyi —Ukraine's former deputy foreign minister and a member of the negotiating team in Istanbul soon after the Russian invasion — said then that Putin "demonstrated a genuine effort to find a realistic compromise and achieve peace." Oleksiy Arestovych, a former adviser to the Office of the President of Ukraine and also a member of Ukraine's negotiating team, says he thought then that the negotiations were successful and that the Ukrainian delegation "opened the champagne bottle." While we shouldn't trust Russia's willingness to negotiate an end to the war, we should test Russia's willingness to negotiate, especially if the alternative is sending more NATO troops into Ukraine and risking a wider and, perhaps, unthinkable war.
Aim. Currently drugs with actoprotective activity are increasingly applied in sport medicine, military medicine, space medicine, emergence medicine, deep-see medicine rehabilitative medicine during high physical stresses. Purposeful search of actoprotectors is quite urgent considering the fact that mentioned drug type insignificantly present on pharmaceutical market and have numerous side-effects. Considering the mentioned above facts we were aimed to conduct the purposeful search of compounds with actoprotective action among previously unknown condensed quinazoline derivatives, as well as estimate «structure-actoprotective activity» relationships among studied compounds.Material and methods. Aimed to the search of novel compounds with actoprotective activity we studied prospective and previously unknown 6-monosubstituted 3-R-6,7-dihydro-2H-[1,2,4]triazino-[2,3-c]quinazoline-2-ones using «swimming test» at temperature 24-26 Co with additional loads (10% of experimental animal body weight). Experiments were conducted on «Wistar» white rats. «Mildronat» was used as reference-drug. Obtained data allowed to detect the prospective compounds that were used for detailed studies.Results and discussion. It was found, that most of studied compounds increased the swimming duration of experimental animals at normal temperature while intragastric administration in 50 mg/kg dose. It was estimated, that compounds 1.1, 1.3, 2.3, 3.4 and 4.3 reveal the higher actoprotective activity comparing to reference drug «Mildronate». The analysis of «structure-biological activity» relationships showed that actoprotective activity of studied drugs is caused by the presence of hydrogenated [1,2,4]triazino[2,3-c]quinazoline cycle as well as by 2(4)-flourophenyl substituent of 6th position. The reliable relationships between actoprotective, antiradical activity and lipophility among 6-monosubstituted 3-R-6,7-dihydro-2H-[1,2,4]triazino[2,3-c]quinazoline-2-ones on the results of studies were not revealed. «Structure-actoprotective activities» relationships data, that were obtained, allowed to create the strategy of purposeful search of compounds with actoprotective activity among [1,2,4]triazino[2,3-c]quinazolines substituted.Conclusion. The actoprotective activity of novel 6-monosubstituted 3-R-6,7-dihydro-2H-[1,2,4]triazino[2,3-c]quinazoline-2-ones was detected. The reliable relationships between actoprotective, antiradical activity and lipophility among 6-monosubstituted 3-R-6,7-dihydro-2H-[1,2,4]triazino[2,3-c]quinazoline-2-ones on the results of studies were not revealed. ; Лекарственные средства с актопротекторной активностью находят всё более широкое применение в спортивной, военной медицине, медицине катастроф и экстремальных ситуаций, авиационной и космической медицине, морской медицине, медицине подводных и спасательных работ на фоне перегрузок в экстремальных ситуациях. Учитывая, что актопротекторы незначительно представлены на фармацевтическом рынке и имеют ряд побочных эффектов, проведение направленного поиска новых веществ с заданным фармакологическим эффектом является одной из актуальных проблем современности.Цель работы – направленный поиск соединений c актопротекторной активностью среди ранее неизвестных конденсированных производных хиназолина и установить закономерности взаимосвязи «строение-актопротекторное действие» в ряду исследуемых соединений.Материалы и методы. Актопротекторную активность перспективных и неизвестных 6-монозамещённых 3-R-6,7-дигидро-2H-[1,2,4]триазино[2,3-c]хиназолин-2-oнов изучали с помощью теста плавательной пробы при температуре 24–26 ˚C (нормотермия) с дополнительной нагрузкой (10% от массы тела экспериментальных животных). Исследования были проведены на белых крысах линии «Вистар», в качестве референс-препарата был использован «Милдронат». Полученные результаты позволили выявить наиболее активные соединения, которые в дальнейшем были использованы для углублённых исследований.Результаты. Установлено, что большинство протестированных соединений при внутрижелудочном введении в дозе 50 мг/кг увеличивают длительность плавания экспериментальных животных в условиях нормотермии. Обнаружены соединения 1.1, 1.3, 2.3, 3.4 и 4.3, которые по уровню aктопротекторной активности превышают референс-препарат «Mилдронат». Анализ взаимосвязи «структура-биологическое действие» показал, что высокую актопротекторную активность определяет гидрированный [1,2,4]триазино[2,3-c]хиназолиновый цикл и 2(4)-фторофенильный заместитель положения 6. Достоверной зависимости между aктопротекторной, антирадикальной активностью и липофильностью среди 6-монозамещённых 3-R-6,7-дигидро-2H-[1,2,4]триазино[2,3-c]хиназолин-2-oнов по результатам исследования не обнаружено. Полученные результаты взаимосвязи «строение – актопротекторная активность» позволили создать стратегию направленного поиска соединений с актопротекторным действием среди замещённых [1,2,4]триазино[2,3-c]хиназолинов.Выводы. Впервые установлена актопротекторная активность среди неизвестных 6-монозамещённых 3-R-6,7-дигидро-2H-[1,2,4]триазино[2,3-c]хиназолин-2-oнов. Показано отсутствие достоверной зависимости между aктопротекторной, антирадикальной активностью и липофильностью среди 6-монозамещённых 3-R-6,7-дигидро-2H-[1,2,4]триазино[2,3-c]хиназолин-2-oнов. ; Лікарські засоби з актопротекторною активністю дедалі більше знаходять застосування у спортивній, військовій медицині, медицині катастроф та екстремальних станів, авіаційній і космічній медицині, морській медицині, медицині глибоководних робіт та аварійно-рятувальній справі на тлі перевантаження в екстремальних ситуаціях. Враховуючи те, що актопротектори незначно представлені на фармацевтичному ринку, мають низку побічних ефектів, здійснення спрямованого пошук нових речовин із заданим фармакологічним ефектом є однією з актуальних проблем сьогодення.Мета роботи – спрямований пошук сполук з актопротекторною дією серед раніше невідомих конденсованих похідних хіназоліну та встановлення закономірності «будова – актопротекторна дія» в ряду синтезованих сполук.Матеріали та методи. Актопротекторну активність для перспективних і невідомих 6-монозаміщених 3-R-6,7-дигідро-2H-[1,2,4]триазино-[2,3-c]хіназолін-2-oнів вивчили за тестом плавальної проби при температурі 24–26 ˚C (нормотермія) з додатковим навантаженням (10% від маси тіла експериментальних тварин). Дослідження здійснені на білих щурах лінії Вістар, як референс-препарат використали «Мілдронат». Результати дали змогу виявити перспективні сполуки, котрі використали надалі для поглиблених досліджень.Результати. Встановили, що більшість протестованих сполук при внутрішньошлунковому введенні у дозі 50 мг/кг збільшують тривалість плавання експериментальних тварин в умовах нормотермії. Виявлено сполуки 1.1, 1.3, 2.3, 3.4 та 4.3, котрі за рівнем актопротекторної активності перевищують референс-препарат «Мілдронат». Аналіз взаємозв'язку «структура-біологічна дія» показав, що високу актопротекторну активність визначає гідрований [1,2,4]триазино[2,3-c]хіназолінoвий цикл і 2(4)-флуорофенільний замісник положення 6. Одержані результати взаємозв'язку «будова – актопротекторна дія» дали можливість створити стратегію спрямованого пошуку сполук з актопротекторною активністю серед заміщених -[1,2,4]триазино[2,3-c]хіназолінів.Висновки. Уперше виявлена актопротекторна активність серед невідомих 6-монозаміщених 3-R-6,7-дигідро-2H-[1,2,4]триазино[2,3-c]хіназолін-2-oнів. Показано, що вірогідної залежності між актопротекторною, антирадикальною активністю та ліпофільністю серед 6-монозаміщених 3-R-6,7-дигідро-2H-[1,2,4]триазино[2,3-c]хіназолін-2-oнів за результатами дослідження не виявлено.
Issue 4.2 of the Review for Religious, 1945. ; ,~Befora wrlt[~9 to ~s~° pl:~'se'co~sult noilce ~a Inside. back ~ove,. VOLUME IV / MARCH"i'5. 1945 ¯ ,, + " " l~ItJMbl~l~,2 , CONTENTS, +, ., , SECOND YEAR OF NOVI:FIA'~E" Adam~C: Ellis, +g.J -. .-. 73,, BOiDKLETS . ? . ° . . .,\. HOLY COMMUNIO~ AND SPIRITUAL .~ROGRES~-- " ~- , Clarence McAuliffe; S.2 . ~. . . .- ,-'OUR CO~qT~IBUTORS + ' ' ' " ILL-HEALTH AND THE APOSTOLIC VOCATION~A Missionary" ~THREE PREVENTI'#ES OF, "EXHAUSTION"~ ' ' BOO~S,~i~CEIVED . . ~. ,, .' ' " ' ' . . ,10, THE FAST BEFORE COMMUNION--Gerald Kelly,~ S.J. .~. . .j :l o# L~+'DECISIONS OF ,THE HOLY SEE o. . 122 BOOKREVIEWS (Edited by Clement DeMnth, S.J.)-- '-+- TJ~e Man NeareSt to ChriSt: ~A Herolne~of the Mission Field:,~niroductio . : ~ in Codicerfi: A Prefad'e to Ne,wman's Theology; War'is My Parish; Secrets , . ' ." 124~"~ of ghe Saints: Our Lad, y of Fauma '. , ,.~,, . COMMUNICATIONS ;' . . ' ; . -+. ; . .'+I~0 QUESTIONS AND' ANSWERS-- " '" Absences froXm the Novitiate: ,General+Pei'missions to Spend Small Sfims:' . +Soliciting Votes at General Chapter: Meaning 6f the Perio,dic "General r +Abso ut on":~ Use'+of Old Albs ahd ~eligious Habits: Plenary 'Indu"lge~ce . ~n articulo morris and thd_He~oic Acf; Plenary Indulgence~for.~Communion of Reparation: Nbvitia~e.+at Ordinary House and NoviCes at Community Recreation: Power to Ex't~ndoTime °of Novitiate;'Per'mission for Reli-gious to Donate Blood: Renewal,of Altar Breads: Banner b~fore Blessed, ~5" S,acrament, during Office: Oinission of Sign 'of Cross during the PassiOn; Right"to Admit Can, didate.s . " . ¯ " . ' " " i~ . ~ 136 SUMMER S~HOOL 'DIRECTORY O" --" " " " ~,~'-- ' '~; " " "" EX'PLANA:FI.ON OF THE MASS . " 14'4 ~'MARYKNOLL MISSION LETTERS . ' .- A 144 REVIEW FOR°REI~IGIOUS, Mar~h. 1945". Vol.°IV, No. 2. Publis~'ed +.+~n°ntb] y ; .~January'o March,. , May, July,. Sel~tember;and November, at"~he College.,,, +press,, '606 H;~rnson Street, T, opeka, Kansas,. by St. Mary s College, St. Marys, Kansas; with ecclesmsttcal, approba~t ¯i o- n , E n t ,e- r e d a s s e c o n d c ,lass matter ,January 15 1942o+ at thePost Of~ce~ Topeka,~Kansasi under'the act of March 3, 1879. ¯ '- ~ 'Editofialfl3oard: Adam C. Ellis, S~. G. Augustine Ellard. S.3. Gel:~ld¢K~ll~,, S.3. Editorial Secretary: Alfred F. SchnetderJ S.J. . C6pyright. 1'945. by Adam C. ,Elli,s. Permission' is hereby granted fo~ quotati~nS '~of reasonable~ length, provided due~ credit be giyen this rewew and .tile ,au'thdr. Subscriptioii pric~: 2 dollars a year. ,~, ' Prifited in'U.- Second- Year of Novi :iat:e Adam C. Ellis, S.J: ,7T H| "EE mFRpEirNe,C aHnd R oet~hoelru p'toil0inti,c 3aol sthepehoir~iems iinni mthiec Aalu tsot rtihaen Church had all but ~estroyed the .religious life in: ~ Europe by the end of the eightdenth century. V.ery many,, monasteries and convents had either been Suppresse'd or were, f6rbidd~n to take novices. As a restilt ¯many" b~n~fi~ent labors~of the religious, in behalf Of the social needs 6f the:J "Church ~ere brought to a standstill. BU~ it was imperative that these spiritual and corporal.~works of mercy should hot'be abandoned altogether. Divine Providence inspired dd~'oted laymen and women to step into the-breach~ ~ to.take.up the task of teaching Christia_n Do~.r.rine ~to chil- ~dren, and of caril~g for the sick, .th~ aged, and the orphans. - Eventual.ly th~se zealousla~borers ,bhnded tbgether into .~,~smallgrout~s in order to work together more efficiently.; then-they began to live toge'ther in community,'and with ¯ the-permission of their local Ordinary they took simple, private vows and wore a common garb. Recognized offi-cially neither by Church nor State, the.y carried on their work valiantly. Eventually the Church rewarded thei~o °o zealous efforts. At first approval was given only 'to" their "constitutionsi but, especially during the second half~ of the nir;eteenth century,,, the Holy See .appro.ved the institutes .themselves as congregations with simple vows. Many of the founders of these modern congregations o realize'd that men.~and women whose vocation it was to-strive for perfection, in the active life needed a longer period " of' ptobation than the single year of novitiate commgnly ~-,,prescribed for cloistered religious. Hence these founders.~ ordained that all c.andidates undergo a second year of novi-. , 73~ ADAM C. ELLIS -.tiate~before the "firs~ Reoieto for R~ligiou.s profession+ of vows.° Furthermore, - some provided in their constitutions that the noviCesshould b~ employed in the external works of the congregatiffn during their second year. "This was done to determine whether they were fitted for this kind of work, and to give them opportunity to adjust their spiritua! life to the dis-tractions and trials+of the actiye apostolate. The Sacred Congregation of Religious consistently-refused to permit novices to be so employed during,the first year of nov.itiate.~ This practice of the S. Congregatt0n passed into the legislation of the NOrrnae of /901. 'After . stating in Art. 73 tfiat novices were n~t to be engaged in the ¯ study of the arts and sciences nor in theeexternal work of the institute, Art. 7"4 continued as follows: "Where there are tyro years of novitiate,the first is to follow all the i~r~- scriptio, ns laid down above for the one (canonical) year. During the second year, howe('er, the novices may engage moderately in studies or in other works of the institute ¯ always under the direction and vigilance of the master; this is to be done in the novitiate house itself, but" not outside of it, unless-grave, reasons advi~e otherwise." - The Code of-Canon Law was promulgated on.Pente-- cost.Sunday, May 27, 1917,, and.began t6 bind on Pen-tecost Sunday,. May 19, 1918. ~ Since the l~gi_slation of the Code sut~'erseded .the old Noi'rnae, upon which most of the cons~titutions of modern congregations were based, it became necessary for all religious institutes ~o revise their constitutions .in order (o bring ~hem into con-" ?;forniity with the Code. Superiors, therefore, were inter-i~ sti~d to find out what theCode had to say in regard t6 the second year of novitiate. They fo'ufid very little. 'Canon 5.55,"§ 2 allo~ed a second year df nowt~ate tf the+constitu-tions prescribed it,- but stated that this second year was not required for the validity of the subseqUent profi~ssi6n of 74 - w.hich were eventually-.sent tothe :Congregation of Reli-,. giou~ fora solution.Since canon 565, § 3-forbade n6vices _to engage in studies or in the. external' Works'of the institut~ "::during the year of novitia'te," did the s~im~ prohibition apply also'to the second year? Again, some congregatidns that employed, novices in external work, as was permitted' .![ b}'~ their, constitutions, preferre,d t6 do this during "the firs.t "~°~' year (as a means-dr trying out th,e:no~rices), and then~ to- ~ devote the Second ~ear exclusively to their spiritual f0rma/ ~ ., tion. Was this permitted under the new Cod~? -Such ";questi0ns,land others similar to-them, ~ind the fact that ~, various .provisions .concerning this rhatter.were found in many constitutions which had been revised according to the Code and submifted to the Itoly See for approval ~ill induced }he Congregation of Rdigious to make a careful 0 study of the subjgct. This study resulted in the "Instruc- [ion on the Second Year of Novitiate'" in .which all~ such 0_. questio~s~ gre. ~nswered and the fundamental :prinCiples-- which governed the pr.acticeof the Church during the.past ninety years are brought to the attention of all superiors of ~instit'utes having, two years of novitiate, . " There are fdur cardinfil points.in the instruction,~ ¯ Let us~consider each one in turn, I,. SpiritaalTormation of the Nboice is thO Principal ~ Purpose of the Second" Year. " -, "It is qui'te right that a i~ovitiate of more than one yearo~ be prescribed in. some institutes, especiz[lly, among those. '~Whose members ~are emp~loyed in external works, since they, distracted by various cares and more exposed ~o the dangers ~For thcr. tegt of "this Instruction see pp. 122-1.23 of this- issue. ~ Mar~b, 1945 " SECOND YEXR OF NOQI'rlAT[~ - ~ 'thereby serve You-in serving them for the mission. I was "~ " d~sconsolate at the thought that I'had"lost my work in the. mission and~had been given none in the province: ai~d al~l, the~while Your loving mercy was gig, ing me a-~hr~e~f01~t work, TO. YOU, IN MY FELLOW RELIGIOUS,. FOR° .~ December 1,Sth. It ~toesn't matter what I do if-I~-do .~ ~. God's will, if I: obey,-if [ love. God w~nts not my:~vork, ~ but. my love. ~o - . December 20.th. There is NO VACATION for ~a.'., " religic~us. Is no work ass{gned'or°allowed? Then must ,~' ¯ ~l.eisure be used to work the ~arder at becoming a saint, oat ~ ~. .- loving God more, at intercedifig and atoning more for souls~ ~ December 29th. -A ciborium full of hosts was conse- -, ~ated at Mass and then ,pushed ,back to the co~ner 6f the :~. /. corporal so 'that.it would not interfere with the l~Ias~s beingsaid. I waiat to be like that ciborium. Even though ; :'~ I am not a~llowed to return to the mission or am not givdn- " " ~" "~ ' work elsewhere, I wa~t to~do God's holy .will quietly and. entirely a'nd unostentatiously like that.citmfium-~-not hin~- derin~g .the great work of lorethat others'are carrying.on, ~- - and yet keeping Jesus all the while in my heait, read,r to ~.7" impart Him~without losing Him~to the souls, whoeve~ and wherever they be,to which "the servants of our Lord, .my'superi°rs, may. take me. . . \ Three Preventives" "' ot: "l xhausfioh" -. G. Augustine Ellard, S:J. ~, ~ ECENTLY it was announced that l~sychiat/isti i~n th~ United. States-ArmY have discovered threeLfactors, which tend to prevent "exhaustion" or "combat: :fatigue,".,that is,~a~bndition of certain soldiers who with~" Out being wounde~lbr, diseased.bave become more: or lels, iinfit to continue fi~hting, They may have fought long and ourageously: :but now, though apparently physicall_y well, they feel incapable of doing more; they are "exhaustedT'. too grdatly_ fat.igued to go on. The three preventives are: ~-edprit de corps, gooffleadership, and~reasons for fighting2 ,, ~Ivappears not unlikely that among- religious there may sometimes be an amilogous condition of "exhaustion," "and that it may be avoided by. the same three means. The first pre~;entive is esprit de corp.s. Amon~ Ameri-can~ service units its character and efficacy, are best illustrated _~.perhaps by the Marines. A Marine ~is taught f~om the beginning to feel that he is in thd greatest fighting group in all the world. ~Hence the~re is every reason why he should have the ti'tmost confidence in all his t~eilow Marines,' and why. he in turn must measure up to their exp,ectations. The ~Mdrines' records ar~ most glorious:, they must not be allowed to be'stained with ~nything that would dim their ~ luster.0 Everybody, atleast everybody in the American ~world, expectsofily what is most excellent~and heroic"from the Marines: he mu~f not disappoint.them. The'importance ~ of esprit.de co.rps is recognized by the Aimy and Nawy to be _so gregt that they are careful to f~reserve the distinctive "ide~nti~y and"historical ;ontinuit.y, with all their ~raditions ~> " - '- G,~ "AuG~-STINE EELAR~ ~ ¯ ; " Reoied) fo~ Relioious," aitd glories, of each s~parat'e u.n.i~ or division.--.The "~ight- -ingoSixty-hinth'' would be another ~xample of a. gtou_p in the American/~rmy that is.noted for its esprit de dorps. - ,.Religious orders and cbngregations also have their own esprif db corps., ' Sometimes it leads 'them intb faults,, for example, corporate pride or envy. But that is n6reason why it should not be cultivated f0r the good th~it is in it." A teligious:naturally and rightly tikes a cett~iin pride "in belonging to his 6rder-=-otherwise why did he-join it?-- an-d if h~ shoul~l 'feel~ deeply' and tritimatelywith regard to it: What is. meant by .noblesse oblige; that ~sense could be powerful aidto, livin_g up.t.o tile ideals andtoattaining t,ile ::purpose~ of the o~der'. 'The.laistok~r.'andtraditions of the institiate can be'a perennial f6untainhead of .inspiration arid courage: Its professed aims are a standing.challenge a~nd stirhulation to renewed or greater,.exertion. The examples of the founder arid of distinguished member~ are a~ constant _ invit~tioh to.emulate them, and'a clear prbof of what mem-bers o{ the organization, can achieve-.:' One feels that it" Would be a sil~me not to give a good account oYoneself in Suchcompany or t9 disappoint their hopes. The laurels
Introduction. In the XIX century the processes of agrarization of the Jews were a characteristichistorical phenomenon only for the countries of Eastern Europe, in particular for the Russian Empire, which isa certain phenomenon in the history of the Jewish people of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova, the policyof autocracy in general. The modern historiography of the problem, which is presented in the researches of M.M. Shytiuk, V. V. Shchukin, D. Z. Feldman, D. A. Panov, O. Pachkovskaya, Yu. M. Goncharov, L. V. Kalmina, Ya.O. Pasyk and D. Meshkov, is analyzed. Despite the general study of the processes of agrarization of the Jewishpopulation in the Russian Empire, in modern, in particular Ukrainian, historiography, the political aspects ofthese processes require further study.Purpose. To cover the policy of agrarization of the Jews of the Russian Empire; to identify the factors thatinfl uenced the Russian government's attempts to convert a certain part of the country's Jewish population intofarmers and analyze their consequences in case of Novorossia, Siberia and the western Russian provinces.Results. The policy of agrarization of the Jewish population in the Russian Empire, carried out by theautocracy with some breaks during 1804-1866, aimed to encourage the Jews to engage in agricultural activities,to turn them into farmers ("free grain farmers") in a way of colonizing the virgin state and landlord lands of theRussian Empire. If in the fi rst stage (1804-1835) the policy of agrarization of the Jews was characterized by itsuncertainty and some contradictions in solving the problems of the Jewish colonists, in the second one (1835–1866)the Russian offi cials' position was pragmatic and partly cynical. The local offi cials were skeptical of the policyof agrarization of the Jews, did not believe in its success, but due to the efforts of the Minister of State PropertyCount P. D. Kiselyov and Novorossiysk Governor-General Count M. V. Vorontsov, the processes of the Jewishcolonization covered a large part of Southwestern Russia until the mid-XIX century. However, after the defeatin the Crimean War, the public policy priorities changed. There was taken a course to modernize the country.The processes of agrarization of the Jewish population against the background of the aggravation of the Jewishquestion, especially during the reign of Alexander III, became irrelevant. However, even after the offi cial cessationof the above policy on May 30, 1866, the government made some attempts to resume its long-standing projectand even found understanding among the educated Russian Jews, who believed that a successful experiment toturn Jews into farmers would contribute to the emancipation of the entire Jewish people in the Russian empire.In general, in the late XIX century, in the Russian Empire there were no more than 150,000 Jewish colonists whowere directly engaged in various spheres of the agricultural activity. Although more than 160 thousand Jews wereformally recognized as farmers in the Russian Empire.Conclusion. The policy of agrarization of the Russian Jews proved to be generally successful, although itwas not deprived of certain contradictions, which, for example, were refl ected in the failed project of the Jewishcolonization of Siberia. However, the Russian government's strategy was clear: to resolve the Jewish question ina way that would gradually assimilate the Jews, which was associated with long-standing religious prejudicesand perceptions of the Jews as a self-isolated ethnocultural group within the state. The Jews did not show aspecial desire to become farmers, even with the persistence of such well-known Russian reformers as Count P.D. Kiselyov. A lack of experience in agricultural activities, uncertainty of conditions, and most importantly, theprospects of living in a non-Jewish environment of the colonies deterred many Jews from participating in thisgovernmental experiment. However, at the time of the cessation of the agrarian policy in 1866 about one hundredthousand Jewish colonists (3% of the total Jewish population of the Russian Empire) became farmers, mastered anunusual practice of the socio-economic life, which can certainly be considered a successful government policy. Itis obvious that this result did not satisfy all the ambitions of the Russian reformers. The Jewish colonists preservedtheir national and cultural identity. However, in the general context, the policy of agrarization of the Jewishpopulation of the Russian Empire, and especially its results, proved that the autocracy tried to integrate Jews intothe socio-cultural space of the empire in its domestic policy. And it succeeded, because despite the fact that inthe second half of the XIX century the Russian government pursued a course of modernization that acceleratedthe country's industrialization, the Jewish agricultural colonies in Novorossiysk fl ourished, and the notion of theJewish agrarianism became a political argument in the Jewish people's struggle for their national rights. ; Мета. На прикладах південноукраїнських, сибірських і західноросійських губерній висвітлитиполітику аграризації євреїв Російської імперії; визначити чинники, які впливали на спроби російського урядуперетворити певну частину єврейського населення країни на землеробів та проаналізувати їх наслідки. Висновки.Політика аграризації російських євреїв виявилася загалом успішною, хоча і не була позбавлена певних суперечностей,які, наприклад, знайшли своє відображення у невдалому проєкті єврейської колонізації Сибіру. Проте стратегіяросійського уряду була очевидною: у спосіб поступової асиміляції євреїв вирішити єврейське питання, що пов'язувалосяіз давніми релігійними забобонами та уявленнями про євреїв як про самоізольовану етнокультурну групу всерединідержави. Особливого бажання ставати землеробами, навіть за умови наполегливості таких відомих російськихреформаторів, яким був граф П. Кисельов, євреї не виявили. Відсутність досвіду сільськогосподарської діяльності,невизначеність умов, а головне, перспективи життя у неєврейському оточенні колоній стримували багатьох євреїввід того, аби стати учасниками цього урядового експерименту. Однак близько ста тисяч єврейських колоністів (3% від загальної кількості єврейського населення Російської імперії) на момент припинення політики аграризації у1866 р., стали землеробами, опанували незвичну для себе практику соціально-економічного життя, що, безумовно,можна вважати успішним результатом політики уряду. Звісно, що такий результат не задовольнив усіх амбіційросійських реформаторів. Єврейські колоністи зберегли свою національно-культурну ідентичність. Проте узагальному контексті політика аграризації єврейського населення Російської імперії, а особливо її результати, довели,що самодержавство у своїй внутрішній політиці намагалося інтегрувати євреїв у соціокультурний простір імперії. Іце йому вдалося, адже незважаючи на те, що у другій половині ХIХ ст. російський уряд провадив курс на модернізацію,яка передбачала прискорену індустріалізацію країни, єврейські сільськогосподарські колонії на Півдні України успішнорозвивалися, а поняття єврейського аграризму стало політичним аргументом у боротьбі єврейського народу за своїнаціональні права.