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Article about Brooks Hays along with personal interview in (We the people of) North Carolina magazine ; "It's been said time and again-and it's 100 per cent true-that the white man cannot hold back the black man without holding himself back at the same time. I hope all North Carolina employers will listen with total sensitivity to what legitimate spokesmen of the minority groups are saying. And I hope our businessmen will take more time to learn about the unconscious discrimination which unfortunately is still practiced." Hays: I'm a moderate - that's a rather worn out word but it's what I am and I'm proud to say so. One of my books is entitled, "A Southern Moderate Speaks." The Bible, you know, counsels moderation in all things. Once I expressed my concern to a Negro friend over the drift of blacks away from moderate thought and action. He countered by asking me why I didn't get more of my white friends to become moderates. I told him that's what I've been trying to do much of my life. N.C.: What is your view of the causes of the decline of moderation by black groups and their drift toward militancy or extremism? Hays: I think a minority group that encounters continued frustration tends to move to more extreme positions - I can understand it even while not approving of it. We have to understand that the black community is restless, will demand more and more a full participation in our economic life. N.C.: Isn't it true that many blacks nowadays regard the moderate viewpoint as one which gets nothing accomplished? Hays: Yes, but that isn't my kind of moderation. I don't believe in temporizing about urgent matters, such as holding back economic opportunity and racial justice. N.C.: Has the black community really moved so far beyond moderation that it listens to its own extremists rather than its moderates? Hays: I think the black community still holds a considerable reservoir of good will toward whites, toward the economic, political and legal system. In fact, I think the responsible black leaders have pretty well repudiated the Rap Browns. N.C.: Well, is progress being made in better economic, educational and other opportunities for Negroes? Hays: Of course it is. And more will be made. N.C.: As Chairman of the North Carolina Good Neighbor Council, how do you assess the state of race relations here? Hays: I could hardly be called an expert on the situation in this state, and you should remember that Fred Cooper, not I, is the full-time staff official for the Council. I used to think that North Carolina was the unquestioned leader in social and race relations. Now I'm afraid we've slowed down in this regard. There's still time for us to pick up the pace again. North Carolina has the potential to be a real model in racial progress. We were spared much of the pathology of Reconstruction times because this was largely a state of freeholders - there were relatively frew [sic] owners of slaves. Consequently the residual bitterness and racial prejudice didn't run as deep in North Carolina as in some of the other southern states. N.C.: What advice would you have for the state's business leaders on how they might further better race relations? Hays: They should recognize - and many of them do - that the future economic development of North Carolina and other southern states is going to depend on utilizing Negro manpower. Our economic future hinges upon developing and training and hiring our black population for better and more responsible jobs. Certainly I believe all employers should pay equal wages for equal responsibility without any racial discrimination. That doesn't always happen. It's been said time and again - and it's 100 per cent true - that the white man cannot hold back the black man without holding himself back at the same time. I hope all North Carolina employers will listen with total sensitivity to what legitimate spokesmen of the minority groups are saying. And I hope our businessmen will take more time to learn about the unconscious discrimination which unfortunately is still practiced. N.C.: What do you mean by unconscious discrimination? Hays: I'll give you an example I know about personally. A Negro foreman in a certain industrial plant had been there for years. He trained white boys coming to work there and soon they were making more money than he was. When this was called to the attention of the executives they corrected it. He was a valuable employee who was being held down, not because of any real intent, but because the situation just didn't come to the attention of the right people. N.C.: Do you think the black community is fully aware of improvements that are being worked at and accomplished for them? Hays: Not always. Quite often inequities like the one I mentioned are corrected but the word never reaches those who most need to know it. Whenever something like that happens, we in the Good Neighbor Council want it proclaimed. That's one of the things the Council exists for. And that name - Good Neighbor - is the best I can think of. I'm very proud to be its chairman. I had heard of and been impressed by the organization years before I moved to North Carolina. And I was proud to speak at its annual meeting in December of 1968. N.C.: What do you view as the Council's proper functions? Hays: I agree with Fred Cooper - the executive director - that they are twofold. First, there's the short-range objective of putting out brush fires before they become big ones. Fred and his staff spend a lot of time on that aspect. Second is the longer range objective of education and persuasion aimed at ending all discrimination continued page 44 21

The 1970 AAPOR Conference was held May 21-24 at the Hotel Sagamore, Lake George, NY. It was chaired by Irving Crespi. An introductory note is presented by Ronald Gatty & John P. Robinson, Proceedings Ed's. The AAPOR Award for Exceptionally Distinguished Achievement was given to Archibald M. Crossley. The Presidential Address was given by Robert T. Bower (Bur of Soc Sci Res, Inc, Washington, DC), & entitled CAVEAT VENDITOR: SOME OBSERVATIONS ON RESEARCH SPONSORS AND PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS. It discusses 3 variants of client perspective in PO res & their relationship to professional norms-the adversary, with his interest in manipulative potentials & lack of interest in high technical standards; the soc action program official, who raises problems for res'ers in protecting the interests of their R's; & the proprietor who inhibits the full & free exchange of survey results. It is held that further attempts must be made to gain some consensus on standards in PO res. In THE IM- PACT OF THE SURVEY METHOD ON THEORY, abstracts of the following papers are given: Robin M. Williams, Jr (Cornell U, Ithaca, NY), 'Sociology and the Survey Method'; Albert G. Hart (Columbia U, New York, NY), 'Impact of Survey Research on Economic Theory'; Norman Bradburn (Nat'l Opinion Res Center, Chicago, Ill), 'Survey Research and Psychological Theory.' In COMMUNICATIONS THEORY REVISITED, the following are presented: Herbert E. Krugman, 'Electroencephalographic Aspects of Low Involvements: Implications for the McLuhan Hypothesis'; Clark Leavitt, 'Classic Models of Communications Effects and Innovations in these Models'; Bruce H. Westley (U of Kentucky, Lexington), 'Communications Theory and General Systems Theory: Implications for Planned Change.' In PUBLIC OPINION DATA AND OTHER REALITIES: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE, the following are presented: Alfred O. Hero, Jr, 'American Public Opinion Versus Official US Foreign Policy: 1936-68'; Michael A. Rappoport, 'Trends in American Political Behavior'; Daniel Yankelovich, 'The Wrong Enemy.' In OPINION AND MARKET RESEARCH IN DEVELOPING NATIONS (WAPOR SESSION), papers are given by: Fred G. Burke (State U of New York, Buffalo), 'Some Grass Roots Attitudes Affecting Political and Social Integration in East Africa'; George M. Gaither, 'Research into Attitudes Toward the Free Enterprise System in Latin America'; Michel Hoffmann (Marcomer S. A., Paris, France), 'Recent Research in Western Africa.' In TOWARD RESPONSIBILITY IN THE REPORTING OF OPINION SUR- VEYS, the following presentations are made: Lucien Nedzi (Congressman, 14th District, Mich), 'Will Legislation Help?'; Philip Meyer (Russell Sage Foundation, New York, NY), 'The Journalist: Friend or Foe?'; Mervin D. Field, 'Response: The Researcher's View.' In TOWARD A THEORY OF PUBLIC OPINION, papers are presented by M. Brewster Smith (U of Chicago, Ill), 'Some Psychological Perspectives on the Theory of Public Opinion'; Sidney Verba (U of Chicago, 111), 'The Impact of Public on Policy'; TRACKING SOCIAL CHANGE: Richard Maisel (New York U, NY), 'Subjective Social Indicators: The Measurement of Well-Being'; Victor D. Beardsley, 'Monitoring the Environment through Community Leaders'; Lawrence Bloomberg (US Bur of the Budget, Washington, DC), 'Social Indicators: Their Past, Present, and Future'; Howard Baumgartel (U of Kansas, Lawrence), 'A Survey Approach to Measuring the Penetration of Modern Management Practices in India.' In CONSUMER ATTITUDES AND BUYING INTEN- TIONS AS AIDS TO MARKETING FORECASTING AND GOV- ERNMENT POLICIES (WAPOR SESSION), the following are included: Gordon Heald (London Business Sch, England), 'The Use of Consumer Attitude and Buying-Intentions Data as an Aid to Government Policymaking'; Wim de Jonge, 'Price Expectations and Time to Buy'; Jay Schmiedeskamp (U of Michigan, Ann Arbor), 'Understanding Why Consumer Attitudes and Expectations Change.' NEW DIRECTIONS IN ELECTION RE- SEARCH, includes: Robert C. Sorensen, 'Social Invention in Political Polling: An Urban Case History'; Samuel Lubell, 'The Hidden Crisis in American Politics'; William R. Klecka (Northwestern U, Evanston, Ill), 'The Use of Political Generations in Studying Political Change'; Derek W. Urwin (Yale U, New Haven, Conn), 'Persistence and Change in Western Party Systems, 1945-1968.' A section entitled, STUDENT AWARD PAPERS presents: Charles K. Atkin (U of Wisconsin, Madison), 'Reassessing Two Alternative Explanations of De Facto Selective Exposure'; Gary A. Mauser (U of California, Irvine), 'A Structural Approach to Predicting Patterns of Electoral Substitution'; Philip Palmgreen (U of Kentucky, Lexington), 'A Daydream Model of Communication: The Effect of Daydreaming on Message Reception and Comprehension.' NEW DIRECTIONS IN ANALYTICAL MODELS, ineludes: Russel Haley, 'Marketing Implications of the Perceptual Screen'; F. Gerald Kline, Marshall J. Graney, & Dennis K. Davis (U of Minnesota, Minneapolis), 'Mass Communication Theory and Nonmetric Models'; Leonard S. Kogan (City U of New York, NY), 'Multivariate Methods and Attitude Research.' BLACKS IN AMERICA TODAY: POLITICS, EDUCA- TION, AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR, contains: Edith Arlen, 'Social Psychological Themes in Negro Life Styles'; Walter Reichman & Marguerite Levy (City U of New York, NY), 'Academic Motivation of College Discovery Program Students and Regular Matriculants in Community Colleges of the City University of New York'; Robert T. Riley & Thomas F. Pettigrew (Harvard U, Cambridge, Mass), 'Sources of White Support for Hatcher, Stokes, and Bradley.' RECENT RESEARCH IN IN- TERVIEWING, presents: Regina Loewenstein & Andre A. O. Varma (Columbia U, New York, NY), 'Effect of Interaction of Interviewers and Respondents in Health Surveys'; Fansayde Calloway (Nat'l Opinion Res Center, Chicago, Ill), 'Interviewers Wanted: No Experience Necessary'; Andre Laurent (U of Michigan, Ann Arbor), 'Memory and Information Retrieval in the Interview.' In NEW PERSPECTIVES IN CROSS- CULTURAL RESEARCH, the following are included: D. F. Haythorne, et al (U of Alberta, Calgary), 'Cross-National Differences in Reported Health Behavior'; Richard W. Brislin (Western Washington State Coll, Bellingham), 'Cross Cultural Attitude Measurement'; Alexander Szalai, 'The Timing of Everyday Activities in Twelve Countries'; F. B. Waisanen & Hideya Kumata (Michigan State U, East Lansing), 'Functional Literacy in Comparative Perspective.' YOUTH IN AMERICA TODAY: POLITICS, CIGARETTES, AND DRUGS, contains: Michael Maidenberg & Philip Meyer (Russell Sage Foundation, New York, NY), 'The Berkeley Rebels: Five Years Later'; Seymour Lieberman, 'Cigarette Smoking and the Teenager'; Eric Josephson (Columbia U, New York, NY), 'Adult Perceptions of Youthful Drug Behavior'; Ann F. Brunswick (Columbia U, New York, NY), 'Black Adolescents: Some of Their Self-Attitudes and Expectations of Life.' A brief report of the Annual Advisory AAPOR Business Meeting concludes the Proceedings. M. Maxfield.

SummaryCHANGING FUNCTIONS OF THE COMMUNITYWhile it can be argued on a general level that the modernization of agriculture has impact on society as a whole, in more specific terms this impact is seen to be greatest in rural areas and least in large conurbations. This paper, therefore, concentrates on those areas where the influence is greatest, viz. on farms, villages and small market towns.The modernization of agriculture can be related to changes in the ecological structure of rural areas. These changes are less marked than in other parts of the social system, because ecological relationships are generally stable and resistant to change. Examples include the settlement pattern, which appears often to have been reinforced by improvements in communications. The more easily people can move themselves, the less likely they are to move their work‐place or dwelling. In contrast, the ecological relationship between a community or social group and the territory it occupies is less stable than is commonly supposed: technological change in farming has considerably affected it, for example by a decrease in the number of farms, an increase in farm size etc. Striking instances are provided by the consolidation of strips in open field areas and the Aussiedlung process in Germany.These changes in ecological structure are accompanied by, but not necessarily related to, changes in social structure. Agricultural modernization has had profound effects on group relations, for example within the farm family. The traditional patriarchal organization has been weakened by technological change, the commercialization of farming, and the process of urbanization. Similarly, modernization has affected the operation of the agricultural ladder and through it family relationships.The argument that modernization has destroyed or weakened the 'traditional' neighbourhood or community is examined and it may be accepted that contractual relationships have replaced certain informal ties. It is argued, however, that the change can more meaningfully be analysed in terms of networks of social relations.The relations of these structural changes to the functions of the countryside are discussed in terms of a paradigm of urbanization. Changes in the four major rural functions ‐ food production and certain other forms of primary economic activity; ancillary manufacturing with decentralized factory industries; recreation and tourism; and residential areas for rural folk and commuters ‐ are shown to influence social relations within the countryside in a way that may be termed urbanization.RésuméTRANSFORMATIONS DANS LES FONCTIONS DE LA COMMUNAUTÉ RURALEBien que Ton puisse démontrer que, de manière géndralé, la modernisation de l'agriculture a une influence sur la société globale, en terme spécifique, cette influence est considéreé comme étant importante dans les zones rurales, et de moindre influence dans les vastes conurbations. C'est pour cela que cet exposé est centré sur les zones oil cette influence est prepondérante c'est‐à‐dire les exploitations, les villages et petites villes‐marchés.La modernisation de l'agriculture peut‐être envisagée en fonction des transformations de la structure écologique des zones rurales. Ces transformations y sont moins marquées que dans les secteurs similaires du système social en raison des relations écologiques généralement stables, résistantes à tout changement. Parmi les exemples, le schéma de colonisation apparaît souvent comme ayant été renforcé par les améliorations des communications. Plus les gens disposent de facilités pour se déplacer, moins ils auront à transférer leur lieu de travail ou de résidence. Par contre, les relations écologiques entre une communauté ou un groupe social et le territoire qu'il occupe sont moins stables qu'il n'apparaît communément: le changement technologique en agriculture a considérablement affecté ce lien, par exemple, en raison de la diminution du nombre d'exploitations, de l'accroissement de leur dimension. Des exemples frappants sont fournis par le remembrement dans des zones de »open field« et le processus d'»Aussiedlung« en Allemagne.Ces transformations de la structure écologique sont accompagnées ‐ sans y être nécessairement liées – de changements dans les structures sociales. La modernisation de l'agriculture a eu des effets profonds sur les relations de groupes, par exemple, à l'intérieur des families d'exploitants. L'organisation partiarcale traditionnelle a été afraiblie par le changement technologique, la commercialisation des produits agricoles et le processus d'urbanisation. De la même façon, la modernisation a affecté le jeu de l'échelle sociale agricole et, à travers celuici les relations familiales.L'argument de la modernisation destructrice, affaiblissante des »voisinages« ou de la communauté traditionnelle est examiné, et le fait que des relations contractuelles ont remplacé certains liens informels peut être accepté. Il est démontré, cependant, que le changement peut être analysé de manière beaucoup plus significative en termes de »réseau de relations socials«.Les relations de ces changements structuraux et des fonctions de la campagne sont discustés en termes de paradigme d'urbanisation. L'influence des transformations dans les quatre fonctions rurales majeures – production de biens alimentaires et certaines autres formes de l'activitééconomique primaire; productions industrielles subordonnées à la décentralisation d'usine; loisirs et tourisme; zones residentielles pour ruraux et »naveteurs«– sur les relations sociales des zones rurales est mise en évidence de telle sorte qu'elle peut être qualifieé d'urbanisation.ZusammenfassungVERANDERUNGEN IN DEN FUNKTIONEN DER LANDLICHEN GEMEINDEObwohl allgemein feststeht, daß die Modernisierung der Landwirtschaft einen Einfluss auf die Gesellschaft als ganzes hat, sieht man die Auswirkungen speziellerer Art in ländlichen Gebieten als wesentlich bedeutender an als in Ballungsgebieten. Der vorliegende Beitrag beschäftigt sich daher mit jenen Bereichen, wo die Einflüsse am stärksten sind, nämlich mit landwirtschaftlichen Betrieben, Dörfern und kleinen Landstädten.Die Modernisierung der Landwirtschaft kann mit den Veränderungen in der Umweltstruktur der ländlichen Gebiete in Verbindung gebracht werden. Diese Wandlungen sind weniger bestimmend als in anderen sozialen Teilsystemen, weil die Umweltverhältnisse generell stabil sind und den Veränderungen Widerstand entgegensetzen. Beispielsweise werden – wie es scheint – die Siedlungen durch die Verbesserung der Verkehrsverbindungen vergrößert. Je beweglicher die Menschen selbst werden, umso weniger brauchen sie ihren Arbeits‐oder Wohnort zu wechseln. Andererseits, die Umweltbeziehungen zwischen einer Gemeinde oder einer sozialen Gruppe und dem Gebiet, das sie innehat, sind weniger stabil, als gemeinhin angenommen wird. Die technischen Veränderungen in der Landbewirtschaftung haben beträchtliche Auswirkungen, z.B. auf die zahlenmäßige Abnahme der Betriebe, auf die Zunahme der Betriebsgröße usw. Treffende Beispiele sind die Flurbereinigung und Aussiedlung in Westdeutschland.Diese Veränderungen der Umweltstrukturwerden von Wandlungen der Sozialstruktur begleitet, ohne dass notwendigerweise Beziehungen zwischen beiden bestehen. Der Fortschritt in der Landwirtschaft hat grundlegende Auswirkungen auf die Gruppenbeziehungen gehabt, beispielsweise innerhalb der bäuerlichen Familie. Ihre traditional‐patriarchalische Organisation ist durch den technischen Wandel, die kommerzielle Landbewirtschaftung und durch den Verstädterungsprozess geschwächt worden. Ähnlich hat sich der Fortschritt auf die Gültigkeit landwirtschaftlicher Wertordnungen und damit auf die innerfamiliären Beziehungen ausgewirkt.Das Argument, dass die Modernisierung die traditionelle Nachbarschaft oder Gemeinschaft zerstört oder geschwächt hat, wird untersucht, und man kann annehmen, daß vertragliche Beziehungen gewisse informelle Bande ersetzt haben. Es wird jedoch ausgeführt, dass der Wandel sinnvoller in Form des Netzwerkes sozialer Beziehungen erklärt werden kann.Das Verhältnis der strukturellen Veränderungen zu den Funktionen des Landes wird als ein Musterbeispiel von Urbanisierung disku‐tiert. Der Einfluss der Veränderungen der vier Hauptfunktionen des Landes ‐ Nahrungsproduktion und einige andere Formen primärer wirtschaftlicher Aktivität, Standort dezentralisierter Sekundär‐Industrie, Erholungs‐ und Fremdenverkehrsgebiet, Wohngebiet des Landvolks und der Pendler ‐ auf die sozialen Beziehungen innerhalb des ländlichen Raumes kann man als eine Art der Verstädterung bezeichnen.

This collection contains a diary, personal letters and photos of Edmond Arthur Littlefield principally from his service in the American Field Service during World War I. Other items include pre and post WWI letters and photos. ; Diary is 8 1/2 x 6 in. green covered composition book; letters are sheets of 6 x 9 in. paper; photographs are 2 x 3 in. ; Cunard Bulletin.R. M. S. " ANDANIA." TUESDAY, 2nd October, 1917. AMERICA'S OFFICIAL PEACE REPRESENTATIVE. PRELIMINARY MEASURES ONLY. Washington. Colonel Emhouse of Texas and New York,. one of President Wilson's closest friends, will head the Peace Mission of the United States when one is named to take up with other belligerent representatives the intricate questions to be settled before peace is finally secured. This was the official interpretation placed oil the naming of the Colonel, who has been instructed to gather political, commercial and geographical data to be utilized when a peace conference is held. This does not in any way indicate that hostilities may end soon officials state.There are no British or French official messages to hand from the Western front. FURTHER ITALIAN SUCCESS. Home, September 30th. The Italians, have gained further ground and repulsed the enemy. General Cardorna has rectified his lines by a surprise attack near Monte San Gabrielle.The War Office report reads: " Italian troops made an attack 011 the front above Gorizia yesterday and gained ground which was held in the face of repeated fierce counter attacks." OUST LA FOLLETTE MOTION Washington, September 29th. The move to oust Senator La Follette of Wisconsin, from the United States Senate opened today with the introduction by Senator Kellogg of. Minnesota, of resolutions adopted by the Public Safety Commission of Minnesota demanding Senator La Follett's expulsion. ALLIES TO TIGHTEN THE BLOCKADE OF GERMANY. London, September 30th. A still more vigorous blockade of Germany is to be enforced by the entente allies; as a result of the Conference between Lord Robert Cecil, the British Minister of Blockade with the French Minister of Blockade. Today King George signed a proclamation prohibiting the exportatation of certain articles to Sweden and Holland. His Majesty's approval was also given to other measures to make it more difficult for the enemy in the future to obtain supplies through the neutral countries. JAPAN AND THE MONROE DOCTRINE. New York, September 30th. In the far east the Monroe doctrine guards China says Viscount Ishiu. Speaking amid cheers at a New York banquet in his honour, he declared: " Neither Nippon aggression nor aggression against the territory or independence of China by any other power will be tolerated, and he pledged Japan not to attempt any aggression on her part. The head of the Japanese Mission blamed Germany for the distrust that was prevalent, and stated that he could see the whole world set free by the Allies. " RUSSIAN OFFICIAL.The Russian official communique states: " We pressed enemy's advanced posts back 1000 yards."CUNARD BULLETIN ANOTHER AIR RAID ON LONDON London, September 30th. London was again raided by aeroplanes on the night of September 29th. Three groups approached the city from different directions, but each group was broken up by the defences through which only two of at most three machines managed to penetrate. A fourth group which approached later was also driven off. Bombs were dropped at various places in Kent and Essex. The casualties reported number eleven killed and eighty-two injured. A heavy barrage by our anti aircraft guns was very effective against the enemy. AMERICAN WAR TAX BILL. The House and Senate conferees on the war tax bill reached a final agreement on the measure late yesterday, and the report will be presented to the House tomorrow. The conferees made no change in the approximate levies on excess war profits and incomes. They provided, however, a new system of calculating excess profits. Both Senate and House Committees say the compromise is better than the original draft. NEW YORK'S NEW COLLECTOR. Washington, September 29th The Senate today confirmed the appointment of Mr. Byron Newton, formerly Assistant Secretary of the Treasury as Collector of Customs of the port of New York. Mr. Newton succeeds Mr. Dudley Field M alone. AMERICAN ARMY NEWS. Washington, September 30th. Brigadier General John A. Le Jenn, for three years Senior Assistant to the Major General Commandant at Marine Corps Headquarters has been ordered to command the Marine Cantonment at Quantico, Virginia. NEW SEAMEN'S CLUB FOR NEW YORK. New York. October 1st.The new Clubhouse for the use of American Naval Seamen was opened today at West End Avenue and 93rd Street. The Clubhouse was donated by Professor Blander Matthews and will be directed by the National Special Aid Commission as part of its string of Soldier's and Sailor's Home Clubs. STORM SWEEPS MISSISSIPPI AND FLORIDA COASTS. New Orleans, September 30th. Rescue steamers were being made ready here to-day to go to the relief of Pensacola, Florida, which was cut off from the outside world by the hurricane which has. swept the vicinity. Every attempt is being made to reach the isolated city. Biloxi, Harrison Co., a gulf port, and other Southern Mississippi towns in the storm's path weathered the seventy five mile gale with a few unroofed houses and other slight damage. Subscription lists and other charitable schemes have been started for the relief of the homeless. WAR RELIEF FUND. The American Women's War Relief Fund has equipped and entirely financed a Clinical Hospital of 250 beds at Paignton, Devonshire, and has organized an Economical Relief Scheme, where many women thrown out of employment directly owing to the war, are given employment. Funds are urgently needed to carry on these objects. All donations will be gratefully received by the Hon. Treasurer, WALTER S. H. BURNS, 58, Grosvenor Gardens, LONDON. Offices: 31, Old Burlington Street, London, Eng. where all particulars will be gladly given.

Issue 57.1 of the Review for Religious, January/February 1998. ; religious Christian Heritages and Contemporary Living JANUARY-FEBRUARY 1998 ¯ VOLUME 57 ¯ NUMBER 1 Review for Religious is a forum for. shared reflection on the lived experience~ of all who find, that the church's rich heritages of gpirituality support their personal and apostolic ¯ Christian lives. The articles in ~he journal are meant to be informative, practical, historical, or inspirational, written from a theological or spiritual or sometimes canonical point of view. Review for Religious (1SSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at Saint Louis University by the .Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-977-7363 ¯ Fax: 314-977-7362 E-Mail: FOPPEMA@SLU.EDU Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ° St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP 1150 Cedar Cove Road ¯ Henderson, NC 27536 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©1998 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) cbntained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this perxnission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. for r ligiou$ Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Editorial Staff Advisory Board David L. Fleming sJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Regina Siegfried ASC Elizabeth McDonough OP Mary Ann Foppe Tracy Gramm Jean Read James and Joan Felling Kathryn Richards FSP Joel Rippinger OSB Bishop Carlos A. Sevilla SJ David Werthmann CSSR Patricia Wittberg SC Christian Heritages and Contemporary Living JANUARY-FEBRUARY 1998 ¯ VOLUME 57 ¯ NUMBER 1 contents 34 48 leadership Congregational Leadership and Spirituality in the Postmodern Era Sandra M. Schneiders IHM offers an analysis of changing worldviews as an aid to understanding present-day religious congregations and exercising effective leadership in them. Leadership for the Common Good Donna J. Markham OP focuses on three areas of leadership skill development: conflict management, guarding against "groupthink," and promoting communal efficacious action. Hearts Afire: Leadership in the New Millennium Anne Munley IHM sees congregational leadership as being the work of impassioned hearts sharing, finding, and making meaning in concert with all the members, with a view to warm cooperation in endeavors of burning urgency. 60 67 tradition Stability: A Monastic Charism Retrieved Joel Rippinger OSB explores stability as a matter of heart and place in the light of contemporary rootedness. History's Role in Defining Spiritual Direction Steve R. Wigall proposes that contemporary spiritual direction needs to embrace openly its historical and theological variety. Review for Religious 77 88 prayer Today's Contemplative Prayer Forms: Are They Contemplation? Ernest E. Larkin OCarm takes a discerning look at contemporary personal prayer practice and terminology against the background of centuries-long traditions. Union with God according to John of the Cross Paul J. Bernadicou SJ describes some aspects of the sanjuanist process towards intimacy with God. departments 4 Prisms 94 Canonical Counsel: Life Consecrated by Profession of the Evangelical Counsels 100 Book Reviews Jant~aty-Februat~ 1998 I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of life. prisms 4 T citizens of the United States in recent years have been reinforcing a reputation for being a people that has lost its sense of the sanctity of human life. After a brief lull in the use of the death penalty for what is considered heinous crimes, more and more individual states have been seeking execution for serious crimes committed by both men and women. Then, when we look to the beginning of life, we find that abortion in the United States, even in late term, is justified through the most permissive legal understanding allowed by any Western nation. Finally, when we consider the possible end of life, assisted suicide for the elderly or for the chron-ically ill is already legal in one state and is being promoted by a number of people who defend what is euphemisti-cally called "mercy killing." As we come ~o the last years of this millennium, this most powerful, prosperous, and well-educated nation is sadly being identified as a people that readily "takes life." The year 1998 focuses upon the Holy Spirit in our Christian preparations for entering into the third millen-nium guided by the pastoral plan presented to us by Pope John Paul. Whatever the strength of our faith, the Holy Spirit is the Trinitarian Person most difficult for us to talk about, t9 imagine, and to relate to. Spirit, breath, wind, love, fire are words that in themselves have no face nor even a substance that can be grasped. And yet these are some of the common, traditional words applied to the One we call the Third Person of our Trinitarian God. We might, though, begin this second year of our preparations for the millennium by calling in prayer upon the Spirit by a name appropriate to the times in which we live. Review for Religious In the Nicene Creed we express our belief in the Person called the Holy Spirit, professing first that he is Lord God and then designating this Person as "the Giver of life." What a wonderful identity--Giver of life--especially in regard to a people earning a reputation as "takers of life." It seems obvious that a basic gift we seek from God in this year 1998 is a renewed reverence, respect, and appreciation for human life. Throughout this year, perhaps we all need an examination of conscience on behavior involving us as "takers of life." "Takers of life" can involve an attitude which sullies our approach to any part of God's creation--each part a gift from God. We can become so self-centered that everything--from the ecological environ-ment to the earth's resources to human life itself--is viewed in its value now for us. Takers of life know no gratitude, for life is not seen in terms of gifting but only in terms of getting, a disease of a consumer society. Let us pray that the Holy Spirit will inspire and guide our efforts to be, like God, gi,vers of life. The age-old prayer still speaks out our desire: "Come, Holy Spirit, fill the hearts of your faithful." Review for Religious continues to have its own experience of life being given to us. New life continues to flow into our Advisory Board as some members finish their term of service, and new members join. We welcome Sister Kathryn Richards FSP, vice-provincial of the USA province of the Daughters of St. Paul and executive director of the twenty Pauline Book and Media Centers in the USA and English-speaking Canada. She is also the direc-tor of Paulinas Distribudora, the Daughters' Hispanic media dis-tribution center, and the director of the National Association of Pauline Cooperators, the lay collaborators of the Daughters of St. Paul. In addition we welcome Bishop Carlos Sevilla SJ, bishop of the diocese of Yakima, Washington. Bishop Sevilla serves as a member of the NCCB committees on Hispanic affairs and on religious life and ministry. Before his ordination as bishop, he had filled administration and formation roles in the Society of Jesus (California province). Farewells are always harder to express than welcomes. I want to express my appreciation to Father Edmundo Rodriguez SJ and to Sister Iris Ann Ledden $SND for their many contributions to the advisory board over the years of their service. We remain grateful for their continuing interest and support. David L. Fleming SJ January-Febr~,aot 1998 o o o o o o leadership SANDRA M. SCHNEIDERS Congregational Leadership and Spirituality in the Postmodern Era In addressing the issue of leadership in congregations which are increasingly influenced by the emergence of cultural postmodernism, I write not as one who is engaged in leadership or trained in the fields of organization and management, but as a theologian reflecting on the spiri-tuality of contemporary religious. But part of my prepa-ration for these reflections involved talking with a number of religious in leadership positions, asking them what were the major challenges they faced as leaders. One woman, by means of a highly symbolic vignette, epitomized what many others expressed. She said that, if one prepared an agenda for a meeting far enough ahead of time for the participants to come prepared, the first item on the agenda would be the revision of the agenda because the actual situation in the congregation would have changed so sig-nificantly that neither the items on the agenda nor their relative importance would be what they had been when the agenda was formulated. In other words, the challenges about which leaders talked were not so much specific problems but pandemic unpredictability and uncontrol-lability. While leaders face particular challenges because of Sandra M. Schneiders IHM presented this paper, here slightly revised, to the Leadership Conference of Woxnen Religious on 23 August 1997 in Rochester, New York. She is professor of New Testament Studies and Christian Spirituality at the Jesuit School of Theology at Berkeley, where her address is JSTB; 1735 LeRoy Avenue; Berkeley, California 94709. Review for Religious their public role and more global responsibilities, the situation which makes leadership so difficult today is the same one all of us in religious life face, namely, the context of chaos within which we are trying to live religious life coherently and minister effectively. It is this peculiarly contemporary experience and its significance for spirituality that requires analysis and engagement. Whether or not we articulate it explicitly, we are always living, thinking, working within and out of some implicit worldview which defines both the problems and the potentialities of our historical situation.~ Until we come to some understanding of that world-view, we stand little chance of developing an operative spirituality. How we understand reality in general, religious life in particular, and our own congregation specifically determines what we think we are doing as religious leaders or followers. A worldview is like light or a pair of glasses. We do not notice its role in what and how we see until it flickers or gets cloudy. Furthermore, until relatively recently we were unaware of the plurality of worldviews because we thought that what we saw was simply what is, rather than what is visible through a particular set of lenses which not everyone in the world is wearing. Until the mid-sixties Catholics in general and religious in particular lived within a peculiarly schizophrenic worldview whose intrinsic con-tradictions seldom came clearly into view. Within the institution and culture of the cht~rch, we lived out of a medieval worldview in which society was organized according to an ontologically based, and therefore unchangeable, hierarchy of status and roles; in which all reality could and must be explained in the categories of an Aristotelian/Thomistic philosophy and the-ology; and in which the next world, and therefore religion, held a clear priority over the present world and its concerns. However, outside the church arena we lived out of a modern worldview in which democratic capitalism constructed an economically com-petitive society within a deceptive rhetoric of personal equality. The explanation of reality in this modern world was supplied by the confluence of the dualistic philosophy of Descartes, the mechanistic physics of Newton, the deterministic biology of Darwin, and the materia.listic hydraulics of Freudian psychology. The practical priority of this world over the afterlife was expressed in the banishing of religious concerns from public life to the pri-vate realm of family and church. Although these two worldviews, medieval and modern, were Januat3,-Februat~y 1998 Scbneiders ¯ Congregational Leadership and Spirituality largely incompatible, what they had in common may be more sig-nificant for our present considerations than how they differed. Both of these worldviews presented chaos as the ultimate enemy and order as the ultimate good. It is hardly surprising, then, that we are uncomfortable to the point of panic amid the unpre-dictability and uncontrollability of so much of our experience today. And, the more people, property, and projects we are respon-sible for, the more threatening and even paralyzing widespread chaos in our domain of responsibility is likely to be. However, as cultural critics are increasingly convinced, the modern worldview itself is rapidly giving way to what is being called postmodernirm, a worldview that is still largely inchoate and unarticulated, but which is actually conditioning our experience more deeply and extensively than we can yet appreciate.2 Characteristic of this emerging worldview is what is being called the "new science" or quantum physics,3 which is not only calling into question the adequacy of Newtonian science to explain the natural or physical world, but implying the necessity for a new, cosmologically based philosophy that sees much deeper connec-tions between matter and spirit, between humans and the rest of reality, between this world and whatever transcends it.4 Implied in the collapse of the classical dualisms is ~i revisioning of chaos and order which may open up some possibilities for reinterpreting our present experience within religious life. Although I have been reading voraciously in the new science for a while, I do not claim to understand, much less be able to explain, quantum physics. What I want to do, however, is to use a few of its basic categories, namely, autopoietic structures, fields, and strange attractors, as metaphors for thinking about contem-porary experience in religious congregations. After exploring these categories from the new science in relation to religious life, I will try to make'some suggestions that are theologically sound, spir-itually vital, and culturally plausible about our current experience of religious life and leadership. Autopoietic Structures Margaret Wheatley, in her wonderfully provocative book Leadership and the New Science, brings together new ideas from biology, chemistry, and quantum physics which are analogous in suggesting that order and chaos are not contradictories, but that Review for Religious order emerges from chaos as from its matrix,s Furthermore, con-trol is not synonymous with order nor does it produce stability. Rather, control causes a deadly immobility or stasis which ulti-mately dooms the structure to disintegration. This phenomenon of the constructive relationship between chaos and order is characteristic of living organisms. Erich Jantsch, whom Wheatley cites, describes autopoiesis as "the characteristic of liv-ing systems [by which they] continu-ously renew themselves and., regulate this process in such a way that the integrity of their structure is main-tained.'' 6 In other words, living things maintain their integrity and identity not by eliminating change, but by continu-ous, dynamic interaction with their environment. It is equilibrium, not change, that is fatal! However, the history of religious life in the United States from the 19th century until Vatican II was character-ized by steadily increasing equilibrium and control and steadily decreasing interaction with the environment.7 After the chaotic pioneering days--when our founders and foundresses braved the rigors of frontier life using everything that came to hand, secular and profane included, to survive personally and institutionally-- American religious life settled into a rigidly defined and tightly controlled pattern within an increasingly battened-down eccle-siastical institution. Interchange with the environment was ever more stringently controlled and, to the extent possible, elimi-nated. We understood our congregations as Newtonian machine-like systems composed of virtually identical parts, operating according to established laws of motion codified in Rules and. customs books and functioning best when no part acted in orig-inal, that is, "singular" ways. Leaders functioned somewhat like factory managers maintaining strict control (erroneously seen as order) for the sake of spiritual and ministerial efficiency. Newtonian physics, which supplied this machine model for all systems, also gave us the laws of thermodynamics which gov-ern such systems. The second law of thermodynamics tells us that, when a system reaches equilibrium, entropy or disintegration We are uncomfortable to the point of panic amid the unpredictability and uncontrollability of so mucl of our experience today. Janllary-Februaty 1998 Scbneiders ¯ Congregational Leadership and Spirituality sets in. We moderns learned that this law of increasing entropy or the inevitable wearing down of systems was also characteristic of living things (which we understood as basically very complicated machines) and certainly true of organizations such as religious congregations.8 What the new science is telling us is that social organizations are not entropic like machines, but more like living organisms, which are autopoietic, that is, self-renewing. The basis of autopoiesis or self-re-creation is the openness of organisms to their environment. As Wheatley says, Each structure has a unique identity, a clear boundary, yet it is merged with its environment . What we observe. ¯ in all living entities, are boundaries that both preserve us from and connect us to the infinite complexity of the out-side world. Autopoiesis, then, points to a different universe. Not the fragile, fragmented world we attempt to hold together, but a universe rich in processes that support growth and coherence, individuality and community.9 When we look at religious congregations of the 1950s, we see relatively hermetically sealed organizations operating accord-ing to the quantitative laws of mechanics. Numbers, material resources, institutional agencies of influence, and hierarchical control of all operations were the sources of efficiency. The cat-aclysm of Vatican II and its immediate predecessors in religious life such as the Sister Formation Movement suddenly opened these closed systems to their environment. New information of all kinds flooded the system. Sisters studied new disciplines in secu-lar as well as religious universities and interacted with a variety of people they formerly would never have encountered in any mean-ingful way. The mass media and the uncensored contents of libraries burst through the boundaries of the closed system. And then Vatican II called on congregations to reevaluate those old-world traditions which had so effectively kept religious out of the mainstream of American culture. Ministries changed dramatically and, with them, living situations. Contacts with other religious and with the laity, stringently rationed in previous times, broad-ened and deepened. In short, religious congregations suddenly drew deep breaths of fresh air and discovered that they were not ecclesiastical robots but sociospiritual organisms, living systems in vital interaction with their environment. Increasingly congregations, and their relatively uniform mem-bers, began to exhibit the characteristics of autopoietic structures. Review for Religious Perhaps the most unsettling characteristic is that a healthy liv-ing system is in a continuous state of disequilibrium. New infor-mation, constantly flowing into the system from the environment, challenges it to respond, to change, and to develop without loss of integrity or identity. There is no settling down, no way to call off the bombardment of the new and just be. There are no per-manently right answers, no one correct way to do things, no abso-lute authority. The organism is always off balance. Local chaos is the normal condition out of which global order is continuously being both threatened and resourced. Another characteristic of autopoietic structures, precisely because they are not in balance but precariously poised in the turbulence of a constantly changing ambiance, is that very small influences can have very significant effects on the system. In mechan-ical entities, significant change is usually proportionate to the mass of the influencing agents. Large groups, sizable funds, long-range plans are necessary to alter the status quo. But in a living system a small agent, for example, a virus, can have tremendous impact because it can galvanize the whole organism into response.'° The effect of one book like The Nun in the Modern World, or one speaker like Theresa Kane, is out of all proportion to the mass of the cause. One person generating negative energy can immobilize a whole assembly while one visionary chapter pro-posal can propel the whole congregation into self-renewal. A third feature of living systems is that they are programmed toward life. In this respect they are the very antithesis of the machine. Once entropy has set in, the machine inevitably and irreversibly winds down toward disintegration.11 But, even when very diminished, very endangered, the living system is mobilized toward self-renewal, toward regeneration. I think the merging of some small communities and the combining of facilities among others are examples of this salmonqike burst of upstream energy characteristic of open systems. Fourth, self-organizing systems'are bundles of competencies, "portfolios of skills," rather than collections of optimally func-tioning units,lz This feature has been ve.ry prominent in post-conciliar congregations. V~rhen individual religious or congregations decide that a particular institution or form of ministry no longer responds to the environment and they reconfigure competencies to meet new needs, it seems to me that they are manifesting an organic self-understanding, not, as some seem to think, a des- January-February 1998 Scbneiders ¯ Congregational Leadership and Spirituality perate need to' find something useful to do until the corporate lights go out. Fifth, as Wheatley says, self-r~newing systems are "structures that seem capable of maintaining an identity while changing form. They exhibit "global stability" over time even as their subsystems undergo enormous, seemingly chaotic, change. I was struck by this feature of living systems when I first saw the Great Barrier Reef, the largest organism on earth. This enormous living sys-tem has a form that makes it so distinct from its oceanic envi-ronment that it is even recognizable from the moon, and yet every cell of its vast expanse is undergoing incessant change. Most reli-gious can remember the stupendous resistance to even minor, external changes in religious congregations on the eve of Vatican II. We could hardly conceive of a maintenance of identity through incessant change, and any attempt to engage the environment seemed like a sellout to secularity. But autopoietic structures main-tain their identity precisely by changing in response to environ-mental influence. Obviously not all living systems survive, much less thrive. What determines whether an organism will successfully negotiate what Wheatley calls the "bifurcation point" where the choice between death and transformation occurs? ~4 Wheatley maintains that the deciding factor is what she calls the principle of "self-ref-erence." Healthy organisms do not change randomly or in any and all directions. Rather, they change in ways that are both respon-sive to the environment arid consistent with their own already established identity. A firmly established identity makes the organ-ism both responsive and resilient, both dialogical and autonomous. Whereas a static system constructs external boundaries, fences designed to keep out the influence of the environment and hold the assemblage of units together, the healthy organism develops organic boundaries which make it increasingly autonomous in relation to external pressures even as it remains deeply involved in the ongoing process of iriterchange. Unlike a fence which sim-ply walls out the "other," the organic surface of the Great Barrier Reef is both a resource for relationship with the environment and a self-defining boundary. "Self-reference is what facilitates orderly change in turbulent environments.''~5 This raises directly the question of identity. If religious life itself, religious congregations, and individual religious are open, autopoietic systems whose incessant interaction with the envi- Review for Religious ronment is governed by the principle of self-reference, that is, fidelity to core identity in the midst of continual disequilibrium, what establishes that identity? How is it recognized and main-tained? Fields To begin to get some purchase on this issue, I want to intro-duce a second metaphor from the new science, the familiar but mysterious category of "field." Religious life has always involved the creation by some Christians, "religious virtuosi" in the ter-minology of sociologist Patricia Wittberg,'6 of an alternative "world" within which to live their faith, whether that was a sociologi-cal, geographical, or institutional reality construction.~7 The expres-sion so often used for entering reli-gious life, namely, "leaving the world," was a negative articulation of the positive act of choosing an alternative arena for one's life. Today, speaking of entering reli-gious life as "leaving the world" is so probleinatic as to be counterpro-ductive. Nevertheless, there is something about religious life which distinguishes it from other forms of life. It has an identity. Like the Great Barrier Reef, it stands out from its cultural and ecclesiastical environment even while being involved in continu-ous interchange with it. Perhaps a better metaphor or model for understanding the identity of religious life than the quasi-geo-graphical one of alternative world is the category of "fields." Science has made us aware that reality is composed not pri-marily of substances but of space. Space, however, is not empty. Rather, "space everywhere is now thought to be filled with fields, invisible, non-material structures that are the basic substance of the universe."ls Fields are invisible geometries structuring space, invisible media of connection bringing matter an&or energy into form. We cannot see fields any more than we can see space, but we can observe the effects of fields on that which comes within their influence. We have all seen this mysterious phenomenon in operation when iron filings come within the field of magnetic Perhaps a better metaphor or model for understanding the identity of religious life is the category of "fields." January-Februaty 1998 Scbneiders ¯ Congregational Leadership and Spirituality influence and arrange themselves in certain patterns. Wheatley hypothesizes that personal and corporate space is also filled with fields, both positive and negative, and that, when the personal fields of the people in an organization intersect with the corpo-rate fields of the organization itself, certain predictable behav-iors are manifest. I find this metaphor very descriptive of a frequently experi-enced phenomenon, namely, that the same people behave very differently in situations which do not, exteriorly, differ notice-ably. Something "in the air" (or, perhaps more accurately, "in the space") affects them, for good or ill, and often everyone in the situation is similarly affected. We sometimes call it morale, or good or bad energy, or social climate. Sometimes we even speak of being "in good or bad space." We also know that an individual who is personally "in bad space" either can be pulled out of it by entering positive corporate space or can cause positive space to curdle. Social space, in our experience, seems to be really invisi-bly structured. Perhaps this metaphor of fields could help illuminate the issues of corporate and personal identity that religious have strug-gled with for years under the rubrics of "charism" and "vocation" and their intersection in the mysterious corporate identity prin-ciple called the "spirit of the congregation." Probably the only thing we have agreed on in regard to charism is that it is a mys-terious something that generates a certain recognizable congre-gational identity. Some have tried to equate it with the congregation's traditional ministry, or to identify it as a grace given to the foundress which was somehow passed on to later members, or to find it embodied in a characteristic spirituality. None of these explanations has proved very satisfactory, and all fail in relation to one or another congregation. Wheatley suggests that social fields are generated as people converse, share their visions and hopes, work out their problems, develop modes of interacting, participate in common projects, elaborate symbols and myths to articulate their shared identity and experience?9 In other words, groups create or generate fields. When coherent fields are generated in corporate space, people are drawn together; they begin to act in corporate ways. Eventually the group ethos can be recognized in the members. This sounds very much like what we mean by charism, an invis-ible structuring of corpor.ate space which manifests itself in the Review for Religious indefinable "something common" that is visible in the attitudes and behaviors of all the members. Furthermore, fields, once gen-erated, can outlast the individuals or groups that generated them. Perhaps what comes down through history from our foundations is not some work, set of rules, or uniform spirituality to which new members must conform, but a structured shared space that continues to give common form to ever new energy coming into the congregation in new members. When a new individual comes into this space, her own per-sonal fields intersect with the corporate fields of the congregation and the person is either drawn into and ener-gized by this cgrporate space or not. If vocation were understood as a certain constellation of overlapping fields in an individual personality's inner space, structuring that person's energy and behavior, her entering a congregation would involve the intersection of her personal vocational field with the fields of the particular congregation, especially its charism. Vocational discernment could be understood, then, as try-ing to discover if her personal fields and the congregation's corporate fields are mutually compatible and enriching or not. When the fields that structure the inner space of an individual (that is, her own voca-tion or life call) intersect creatively and har-moniously with the fields that structure the corporate space of a congregation (that is, its charism and other characteristic fea-tures), we often say that the person has "the spirit of the congre-gation." When the members of a congregation are together in "good space," they often feel "the spirit of the congregation." Perhaps what we mean by the spirit of the congregation is the global identity of the group as it manifests itself within the complex of fields that invisibly but really structures the personal into the cor-porate. 2° To use this field metaphor for understanding charism, voca-tion, and the spirit of the congregation does not reduce these realities to the purely natural any more than accounting for the universe by the theory of the "big bang" or for human emergence by evolution denies the divine role in creation. The metaphor simply offers us a more organic way of understanding the human When the members of a congregation are together in "good space," they often feel "the spirit of the congregation." Scbneiders ¯ Congregational Leadership and Spirituality experience of stable and shared congregational identity in the midst of incessant change. It also provides a possible answer to the question about self-reference as the key to coherence for an open, autopoietic sys-tem experiencing continuous life-giving disequilibrium. In a sense, nothing observable in the congregation remains the same--type of ministry, horarium and content of spiritual exercises, commu-nity lifestyle, dress codes, financial practices, patterns ~of inter-acting-- but the field, the spirit of the congregation, in which all the change takes place can account for the ever new order which arises out of the seemingly chaotic pluralism and incessant vari-ation that characterize the community's day-to-day life over time. The Strange Attractor A third possibly illuminating metaphor, drawn from the new science, is that of the "strange attractor," a simple example of which many of us have seen as the computer screen saver of inces-santly changing lines and curves which maintain a moving form that is never repeated. Wheatley says this about the "strange attractor": Chaos theory has given us images of "strange attractors"-- computer pictures of swirling motion that trace the evolu-tion of a system. A system is defined as chaotic when it becomes impossible to know where it will be next. There is no predictability; the system never is in the same place twice. But as chaos theory shows, if we look at such a sys-tem long enough and with the perspective of time, it always demonstrates its inherent orderliness. The most chaotic of systems never goes beyond certain boundaries; it stays con-tained within a shape that we can recognize as the system's strange attractor . '~ This description seems very pertinent to the history of religious life, not to mention that of individual congregations. Religious life has undergone so much movement, so much deep-level change, that it is indeed impossible to know where it will be next. It is never in the same place twice. At times it seems to be in total disarray. And yet, over its nearly two-thousand-year history, it demonstrates a moving pattern which makes it recognizable, distinguishable against the background field of ecclesial life. What, we may ask, is the strange attractor of religious life? A strange attractor is a basin for the system's activity that Review for Religious pulls all activity within the system into a form or shape but with-out immobilizing the system or reducing its inner variety to pre-dictability. The strange attractor itself is not visible. It manifests itself by its power to allow a few simple "instructions," for exam-ple, equations, to repeat and intersect as they feed back upon themselves in an infinite variety of ways so that these iterations create analogous forms at finer and finer levels. These forms are what we call fractals, repetitions at various levels of scale that manifest the whole in each part. Our most homely example is probably a head of broccoli in which each flowerette, down to the tiniest, repeats the pattern of the whole head. But we can see it also in the computer image of lines and curves, or in the clouds, or in a branch of fern. VVheatley was moved to ask the question about the strange attractor when she observed that, in terminally dysfunctional sys-tems verging on collapse, where almost everyone had psycholog-ically abandoned ship and survival had become the only agenda, there were some individuals within the dysfunctional system who continued to be personally centered, creative, and productive. Amid corporate disintegration, personal order. She also observed--in healthy organizations which allowed maximum autonomy, even seeming chaos, at the local level--that the seem-ingly chaotic variety at the local level did not lead to disintegra-tion, but to a kind of global order and stability. Out of local chaos, global order. Somehow the creative individuals in the disinte-grating systems and the healthy organizations permitting high levels of local autonomy were pulled into coherence as if a strange attractor were at work. Her highly suggestive conclusion is that the strange attractor in both cases is meaning generated by a "frame of reference," that is, a coherent vision and pattern of val-ues, which gives direction to all the seemingly disparate activity. Meaning, vision, values, however, are formal categories. What vision, what values, what meaning might be the strange attractor of religious life that accounts for its self-identity and coherence, its fractal wholeness and beauty, through nearly two millennia of chaotic movement in an often dysfunctional church?22 More importantly, is the strange attractor still at work, still generating a recognizable lifeform today in what might be one of the most chaotic periods of development in the history of religious life? Are there a few "equations" that have iterated throughout these two millennia in thousands of different fractal realizations man- January-February 1998 Schneiders * Congregational Leadership and Spirituality ifesting the strange attractor that keeps this lifeform coherent and true to itself?. From the time of the lst-century virgins until it was pro-claimed anew by Vatican II, the basic principle, the fundamental "equation," has been that religious life is essentially gospel life. The pattern of the life has been the paschal mystery of Jesus Christ, perhaps the ultimate instance of order out of chaos, that is, life out of death. Of course, religious life shares this deter-mining equation with all Christian life. But religious life has also always been distinguished from lay Christian life by the particu-lar way religious have entered into the paschal mystery of Christ, by the specifically religious "equation," namely, by the life of con-secrated celibacy lived in community and mission. The strange attractor of religious life, then, may be a partic-ular kind of gospel-based relationship with Jesus Christ, expressed in freely chosen lifelong celibacy, lived in community and mis-sion, that has generated a lifeform which is distinct and recog-nizable despite enormous variety. It has reinvented itself endlessly, but from a distance and over time we can note the repeated pat-terns, its fractal wholeness. The effect of the strange attractor is a global stability and self-identity through incessant change, a particular and recognizable order out of chaos. Christian Spirituality and Congregational Leadership If these metaphors .drawn from the new science--that is, the congregation as an open and autopoietic system invisibly structured by the corporate fields that manifest in the spirit of the congre-gation within the shaping influence of the strange attractor of celi-bate living of the Gospel in community and mission--are illuminating of our current experience of religious life in our par-ticular congregations, we can ask what light they throw on the problematic of leadership. Does such a postmodern model of reli-gious life based on metaphors drawn from the new science suggest anything helpful in understanding what leadership in such sys-tems might mean today? Obviously, the image of the leader as manager whose task is to minimize disequilibrium by control of all personnel, policy, and practice is obsolete. But probably the image of the leader as the lone visionary who boldly imagines and projects goals to gal-vanize the membership toward the future is also obsolete. This is Review for Religious not because care of the community and corporate vision are not as important today as they have always been, but because we increasingly realize that they are the shared responsibility of the entire congregation.23 What is characteristic of the context of leadership today is that the kinds of systems over which leaders preside are situations which are not only uncontrollable in fact, but chaotic in principle. Chaos is the system's "steady state." Whatever leaders do today, it cannot be imagined realistically as merely the direction of reliable resources toward clearly perceived objec-tives. It has to have something to do with the creative potential of chaos itself. Even while managing the modern social systems that our congregations, at one level, certainly are, leaders are chal-lenged to engage the deep dynamics of meaning in the increasingly postmodern systems that we are becoming. It seems to me that religious life today is at the bifurcation point between death and transformation, between entropy and self-renewal, and therefore that the responsibility of leaders in relation to the deep dynamics of meaning has to do with the prin-ciple of self-reference which Wheatley identifies as the most impor-tant single determinant of self-renewal in autopoietic structures.24 The science of autopoietic systems suggests that, if the congre-gation (or religious life as a lifeform) is true to itself, in touch with and living out of its own identity, it will continue to renew itself even in the face of the massive material and ecclesiastical challenges of this historical period. If it is the case that the iden-tity of religious life lies in the celibate living of the gospel in com-munity and mission within the spirit of the particular congregation, we are at the heart of the issue. And the issue is faith. In what follows I am relying heavily on a remarkable 1995 study by a British theologian, Denys Turner, of the apophatic ele-ment in the Christian mystical tradition.2s In this book Turner is dealing with what I suspect is the most challenging issue for all of us in religious life today, but perhaps especially for those charged with the care of the community as a whole, namely, the mean-ing, reality, and integrity of Christian faith today. Religious life is fundamentally a faith reality, and the faith in question is not simply a generalized conviction that there is more to reality than meets the eye. Christian faith is both an unthe-matized openness to the ineffable Divine Mystery that has no name and a thematized participation in a particular religious tra- t--!-9- January-Februa~3~ 1998 Scisneiders ¯ Congregational Leadership and Spirituality 20 dition which believes that this Holy Mystery is both revealed and encountered in Jesus of Nazareth risen from the dead whose life is communicated to us in and through the gift of his Holy Spirit within the community called church. A major question today for Christians, including religious, and especially women, is whether these two aspects of faith, unthematized openness to Divine Mystery (which is not necessarily Christian) and thematic adher-ence to a particular religious tradition (namely, Christianity), are or need necessarily be related and, if they are related, how that can be personally experienced and authentically lived. Many postmodern Christians are caught in an experiential disjunction between their God-experience on the one hand and, on the other, their participation in the particular faith tradition, that is, the religion, within which they were initiated into that God-experience and which still claims to mediate it. In other words, there is an experienced disjunction between spirituality as lived faith experience and religion as articulated tradition. This may be partially due to the sudden (at least historically speaking) reversal of our evaluation of the role of experience in spirituality that coincided with the upheavals in religion of the conciliar era. Let me trace this development in broad strokes. For several centuries Christians were educated to discount feeling in the practice of religion in favor of a kind of blind faith and naked exercise of will. It was not the person who believed but the intellect; not the person who loved but the will. The body with its emotions was that which had to be overcome and sub-jected in order for the soul to seek God. This approach to the spiritual life, which effectively reduced spirituality to religious practice, was seriously challenged by at least three developments in the middle of this century. First, for all kinds of reasons that were psychological and cul-tural as well as theological, the radical wholeness of the human person began to resurface, and many believers began to reclaim the importance, perhaps even priority, of feeling in religious prac-tice. Retreat directors learned to ask people how they felt, not what they thought. Retreatants learned to be attentive to subjec-tive states of consolation .and desolation. Discernment began to take into account the person's felt response to alternative possi-bilities. Rather than considering felt religious experience unreli-able or even suspect, people began to consider it the touchstone, even the essence, of genuine spirituality. Desiring such experi- Review for Religious ence, seeking it, trusting it, living from it was no longer an aber-ration but the norm. Second, the feminist movement took hold among Catholic women, and its analysis of patriarchy enabled women to name and claim their experience of oppression in the church and to trace ecclesiastical sexism to its theological roots in Scripture and tradition. Women's experience of the Catholic religious tradition became laced with negative feeling just as they were learning that feeling was not irrelevant, but a valid and important indicator of the real. Many concluded that, if Catholic religion feels deeply alienating, Catholic spirituality may be highly suspect. Third, Catholics, for the first time, came into meaningful appreciative contact with non-Christian religious traditions where they encountered spiritualities that counteracted some of the very aspects of Christianity that were becoming increasingly problematic. The nature-affirming rituals of native American spirituality countered the overcerebral otherworldliness of traditional Catholic wor-ship. The nondualistic, nondogmatic meditation practices of Eastern mystical traditions offered an attractive alternative to the rationalistic and mechanical prayer practices of ordinary Catholic piety. Thus, at the very time that experience was becoming the touchstone of truth in the sphere of religion, both negative and positive experiences in the realm of spirituality converged to undermine adherence to the Roman Catholic Christian tradition. This has led some, perhaps many, religious to seriously question whether Catholic Christianity offers an adequate, much less a preferable, access to Holy Mystery or compelling motivation for ministry. For many the God of Christianity seems too small, too violent, and too male; the focus on Jesus Christ seems narrow and exclusive; the resurrection seems mythological if not incred-ible and, in any case, irrelevant to a world in anguish; the insti-tutional church seems hopelessly medieval, sexist, and clerical; liturgy is alienating; morality is out of touch with reality; and church ministry is a continual battle with male hostility and power There is an experienced disjunction between spirituality as lived faith experience and religion as articulated tradition. Januao~-FebruaO, 1998 Scbneiders ¯ Congregational Leadership and Spirituality dynamics. Spirituality centered in personal experience was increas-ingly engrossing while religion, especially the Catholic religion, was increasingly alienating. After a certain amount of experimentation, many religious have settled into a kind of personal, often highly eclectic, spiri-tuality within the context of a nominal Christianity whose central tenets and practices are of little practical import in their lives. Their God may no longer be the God of Jesus Christ, but a non-personal, benevolent cosmic energy holding reality together in some mysterious way. Jesus may have been consigned to history as one of many prophetic figures whose memory remains moti-vating although they themselves are long dead. The Bible may no longer be, for them, revelatory or normative Scripture, but one religious classic among others. Christian sacraments may be quarries of symbolic elements which can be combined with anal-ogous elements from other traditions in the formulation of mean-ingful rituals. Prayer may be any practice from listening to music, to Zen sitting or Tai Chi, to hiking or massage which is calming and focusing and helps one keep a balance in a crazy world. In religious communities the effect of these developments in spirituality is profoundly disintegrative. It can no longer be taken for granted that the members share the same faith, a serious sit-uation for a lifeform which is based not only on faith but specif-ically on Christian faith. Members for whom Christian faith remains normative may hesitate to speak in explicitly Christian terms lest they be branded reactionary or dismissed as out of. touch with contemporary reality, while post-Christian or selec-tively Christian members may hesitate to voice their spirituality lest they shock their hearers or find themselves branded as heretics. Christian liturgical celebration at congregational events is sometimes so divisive as to be impossible. Nevertheless, wherever they are on the Christian map, reli-gious women continue to be resolutely religious, seeking God in disciplined spiritual practice, making retreats, engaging seriously in spiritual direction, reading widely and deeply in theology and spirituality, attending workshops and renewal programs. Those religious who have survived the postconciliar exodus and are still committed to both community and ministry are not indifferent to the God quest that brought them to religious life in the first place. This is the point at which the disjuncture between spirituality which is a matter of passionate concern and religion which is a Review for Religious locus of struggle and alienation is apparent; and, in my opinion, this may be the bifurcation point at which the choice between death and transformation is going to be made. We cannot afford to ignore this situation or pretend it does not really matter as long as people are sincere and committed. What is in jeopardy is not control but self-reference, the con-gregation's response to its strange attrac-tor, that is, to religious life itself as a faith reality. It seems to me that what many reli-gious are attempting is not to dispense with faith, but to find God in a kind of personal mystical quest that bypasses what are experienced as the superficiali-ties and hypocrisies, and even the vio-lence, of the official structures of institutional Catholic Christianity. In par-ticular, many are trying to find in the Christian mystical tradi-tion itself guidance for developing an apophatic or nonthematic contemplative spirituality that is experientially satisfying and moti-vating, but that bypasses the concreteness of the Christian cat-aphatic tradition with its specifically religious beliefs, liturgy, and practice. In short, it is an attempt to develop a spirituality with-out religion. Denys Turner wrote his treatise on the Christian mystical tradition, The Darkness of God, as a challenge to this contemporary development, which he calls spiritual "experientialism" and which he sees as widespread among Christians in general. Turner regards this experientialism as a kind of modernist positivism in the arena of spirituality. In other words, felt religious experience has become the "hard data" of authentic spirituality analogous to the observ-able results of laboratory experiments in modern science or the quantifiable data of sociological surveys. Personal experience has become the nonnegotiable criterion of validity in the arena of faith.26 The practice of contemplation, yielding direct experience of either the delightful presence or the painful absence of Holy Mystery, has become for many the sufficient, if mir~imal, structure, content, and dynamics of their spirituality, augmented perhaps by a symbolic and ritual eclecticism that draws from various reli-gious and nonreligious traditions. This experience of Holy Mystery is believed to be "apophatic," that is, unencumbered by What many religious are attempting is not to dispense with faith, but to develop a spirituality without religion. January-February 1998 Scbneiders ¯ Congregational Leadership and Spirituality specific religious doctrines, images, symbols, liturgical traditions, and so on. Against this misguided turn to experience Turner maintains, with impressive support from the data of the tradition, that there is no such thing as "apophatic experience." This is a contradiction in terms. The experience of the absence of God is just as much an experience, that is, just as cataphatic, as is the experience of God's presence even though it might be less enjoyable. It is the quest for mystical experience itself, and especially reliance upon it as the touchstone of faith, which is the problem, Turner maintains. Furthermore, following Bernard McGinn, Turner points out that no one who is serious about the God quest, especially not the mys-tics (at least not until very recent times), attempts to "practice mys-ticism." People practice Christianity or Buddhism or Judaism.27 The mystical is a moment in the practice of these traditions, but there is no freestanding mysticism or pure apophatic practice. The development of this kind of experience-oriented, reli-giously decontextualized spirituality has been encouraged in recent years by a tendency in popular books on spirituality to talk of an apophatic and a cataphatic "way" as if there were two types of spirituality, one of which, the cataphatic, proceeds through the use of the theological symbols, images, rituals, and practices of a religious tradition and one of which, the apophatic, makes no use of these "externals" and reaches directly to the Divine Mystery that transcends all human institutions.28 Furthermore, there has been a tendency to suggest that these "ways" are a matter of per-sonal choice and so one might decide to bypass the cataphatic and plunge into the darkness of the apophatic way, where God would be met in pure spiritual nakedness. There has been much talk of foolproof methods by which to achieve mystical empti-ness and union, often without or before any serious ascetical train-ing, theological formation, or liturgical involvement. What Turner exposes is the basic fallacy of this whole "expe-rientialist" turn in spirituality. All spirituality, insofar as it can be practiced or pursued, is cataphatic, and all religious experience is by definition cataphatic. The apophatic is not a "way" or a "prac-tice," much less a kind of "experience." It is a moment of negativity, of nonexperience, at the heart of genuine, ordinary religious faith and practice. This moment is, by definition, not something one can experience at all. The apophatic or mystical is precisely the neg-ativity, the total darkness which cannot itself be seen or felt. It is Review for Religious the absence of experience, the "hole" at the heart of religious expe-rience, the place of the Holy Mystery Which is utterly beyond our experiencing, attainment, knowing, or naming. Mysticism is not negative (or positive) religious experience, says Turner, but the negativity of all religious experience.2Vlf I can experience it at all, it is not God in Godself that I am experiencing. If Turner is right, this attempt to bypass religious practice of the Christian tradition in search of some direct experience of the Holy Mystery is wrongheaded and futile, and it can end only in self-delusion of the kind pilloried by the author of The Cloud of Unknowing.3°Insofar as the apophatic moment occurs, it is abso-lutely nonexperienceable and hidden. And it occurs only within the cataphatic context of resolutely faithful Christian practice, which may at times overflow in the exaltation of spiritual peak experiences or generate the psychologically devastating suffering of the "dark night" described by John of the Cross. But, as all the mystics have maintained, such graces of light or darkness are neither the content nor the criterion of genuine spirituality. As Turner says, the deformations of the "experientialist" derive . . . from the error of understanding that which is a "moment" of reserve, of denial and unknowing within worship, prayer and sacrament as if it were a rival practice which displaces that Christian ordinariness. "Experientialism" in its most extreme forms is therefore the displacement of a sense of the negativity of all religious experience with the pursuit of some goal of achieving negative experiences.3~ In other words, a purely mystical spirituality is not a viable alternative to full participation in the religious tradition. The mystical, insofar as it is spiritually significant and transformative (as opposed to momentary experiences of oceanic bliss which may be caused by any number of stimuli from drugs to trance) is available only within some ongoing, ordinary, everyday cataphatic practice. The alternative to being imprisoned within the rigidities of an overmaterialized tradition is not the flight into a disembodied, decontextualized, and individualistic pseudomysticism. The deeply interior life of the serious postmodern Christian requires the shaping influence of a tradition worked out over centuries by saints and scholars, mystics and martyrs, even as the tradition itself requires the critical challenge of its postmodern adherents, whose new insights into reality must refine the tradition of its historical dross. 25 Scbneiders ¯ Congregational Leadersbip and Spirituality Let us return now to the framework of meaning that has sup-plied us with the important principle of self-reference. If the focus of self-reference of religious congregations and their members is the gospel-based celibate living of the paschal mystery of Jesus Christ in community and mission within the spirit of the partic-ular congregation, and if the self-renewal and continued flour-ishing of religious life and the particular congregation depend on this self-reference, then nothing is more important than the authenticity of the spirituality of religious. Obviously, people can form and live community and altruis-tically serve others without being either Christian or Catholic. And a religious congregation can certainly transform itself into such a community of life and service, leaving behind its specifically Catholic identity and affirming whatever religious affiliation, or lack thereof, its individual members espouse. That is, it can cease to be a religious congregation and continue as an intentional com-munity with or without religious roots?2 My concern is with con-gregations which have not, or not yet, made that choice, but are struggling to maintain their Catholic Christian identity in a highly dysfunctional ecclesiastical context. For such communities the quiet sidelining of Christian identity believed and practiced in the church is not compatible with their ongoing life and self-renewal as a religious congregation. And perhaps the most impor-tant task of leadership in such congregations is helping the congregation to negotiate the moment of bifurcation between congregational death through the abandonment of that identity and congregational transformation through the critical reappro-priation of its Christian identity. There can be no question, in a postmodern context, of deal-ing with this issue by fiat. The present state of spirituality in many religious congregations is highly chaotic, and attempting to abol-ish chaos by control is, as we have seen, the kiss of death. Hope lies not in the exercise of coercive power, but in the realization that the current disequilibrium is potentially far more creative than the kind of static uniformity that prevailed in the spiritual-ity of most preconciliar communities. But how do leaders facilitate the emergence of new spiritual order from religious chaos? The analogies from the new science suggest several possible leads. First, a climate has to be created in which divergent theological views and spiritual practices can rise to visibility and articulation and be seriously and respectfully Review for Religious engaged. The unspoken agreement not to talk about anything that could cause dissension and not to use any ritual with which someone might be uncomfortable--and to substitute therapeutic methods and organizational techniques for theological engage-ment with controversies in the area of faith--is analogous to main-taining tight managerial control in a dysfunctional organization. The upheaval in spirituality at the individual and local level needs to be articulated, recognized, and owned. Within it lies the poten-tial, not for a restoration of preconciliar uniformity of doctrine and practice, but for a self-renewing reclaiming of the tradition in very new, perhaps even startlingly new, forms. Any Christian!ty that can be relevant and life-giving in a postmodern context is simply not going to look like, or be like, the Catholicism of the Middle Ages or even of the 1950s. Second, the basic framework of meaning needs to be reartic-ulated, but in ways that take seriously the problems which have led to its practical collapse. This basic framework is the gospel in all its depth and breadth, and that means the theological and litur-gical, moral and socially transformative riches of the Christian tradition in dialogue with the postmodern culture emerging in our time. The Christian tradition that has become alienating for so many is not the gospel itself, but the moribund formulations of post-Tridentine Vatican institutionalism. The extraordinary response of so many, especially women religious, to the work of theologians like Elizabeth Johnson and Catherine LaCugna, bib-lical scholars like Carolyn Osiek and Elisabeth Schiissler Fiorenza, liturgists like Mary Catherine Hilkert, ecumenists like Rosemary Radford Ruether, moral theologians like Lisa Sowle Cahill, and scholars of spirituality like Constance FitzGerald and Joann Wolski Conn--along with the rediscovery of the Christian mys-tics themselves--suggests that the tradition has the potential to be reappropriated and renewed in feminist, ecological, and pluralis-tic patterns if the meeting between the postmodern religious and contemporary theology can be facilitated. A system converts local chaos to global order by the infusion of new information which can be appropriated within a coherent frame of reference. Access to theological resources and also deep engagement with the new science, feminist thought and practice, and ecological and social theory by all the members of a congregation would seem to be an absolute requirement for the development of an authentic post-modern Catholic Christian spirituality that would be adequate Scbneiders ¯ Congregational Leadership and Spirit~tality for religious life in the 21st century. If religious develop such a spirituality, we can expect resistance from the official exercisers of institutional control. But, if religious fail to develop such a spir-ituality, we can expect religious congregations to disintegrate from within as their spirituality unravels and becomes a tangle of idiosyncratic and individualistic syncretisms. Third, the interaction between the whole and the parts has to be facilitated so that what is emerging in the spirituality of the members appears in a corporate spirituality that breaks the ver-bal and ritual silence at the global level and also transforms the global frame of reference itself so that it is not a religious strait-jacket but a flexible focus of self-reference. In preconciliar days. most communities had a repertoire of symbols, myths, celebra-tions, and ceremonies which integrated the spirituality of the individual members with the spirituality of the congregation. How can we experience this local-to-global articulation today? The order at the global level, which is not dogmatic uniformity but deep unity in shared faith and spirituality, can be authentic only if it emerges from the lived variety and ferment at the local level, among the individuals and groups that make up the community. In recent years some congregations have begun processes of getting religiously sensitive issues out on the table and seeking ways to bring theological resources into dialogue with personal religious experience in the context of open sharing of faith. This is very risky business. But in many cases it has resulted in unusual experiences of renewal of the spirit of the community. Perhaps, having negotiated so many of the more "external" issues of lifestyle and even ministry, many religious are eager, even if fearful, to engage the deeper issues of faith, religious identity, and spiritu-ality. Congregational leadership may be challenged today to take the initiative in helping the congregation address the fundamen-tal issue of Catholic faith and spirituality, that is, the issue of identity and self-reference. Conclusion Let me briefly summarize and conclude. What leadership means and how it is exercised depends essentially on how one understands the social system one is leading. I have tried to sug-gest that the quasi-mechanical modern model of the religious congregation is giving way to an organic postmodern model of Review for Religious community. I have explored a few features of this new model, namely, the conception of the community itself as an autopoietic or self-renewing organic structure; the category of fields as a way of un.derstanding the unifying forces of charism, vocation, and the spirit of the congregation; and the strange attractor as a way of understanding the quintessential role of the gospel lived in consecrated celibacy in community and mission as the principle of self-reference of religious life. I then tried to suggest that the role of leadership today may be neither primarily social maintenance nor ministerial goal set-ting, but the facilitation of the congregation's self-renewing pro-cess through attention to its core identity, its framework of meaning. This framework of meaning is not a uniform religiosity nor a particular type of ministry. It is Christian paschal spiritual-ity, rooted in the gospel of Jesus Christ, lived celibately in com-munity and mission, a spirituality which cannot bypass the Christian theological, liturgical, moral, and socially transforma-tive tradition within the believing community we call church. But in a postmodern context such spirituality cannot be leg-islated or enforced. Nor are leaders, in all probability, any less caught up in doubt, alienation, and theological-religious confusion than the other members of their congregations. What we ask of our leaders today is not that they supply us with the correct answers, or even that they pi6neer the road to the future, but that they mediate the creative interchange between local and global levels, helping us to own the real questions and search honestly, together, for appropriate responses, and thus facilitate the life-giving interaction between the religious congregation and the real world in which we live and minister. When Peter, that first leader of the Christian community, asked Jesus for a clear fix on church order and ministry by inquiring what role his apparent rival, the Beloved Disciple, was to have, Jesus replied, "That's not your problem. What you need to do is follow me," that is, become a beloved disciple and thereby become capable of the ministry to which you are called. Perhaps for all of us, leaders and followers, it is both that simple and that difficult. Notes ~ On this issue of the i~nportance of worldview and the character of the emerging worldview with which I am concerned in this paper, see the very provocative thesis of Danah Zohar in collaboration with I.N. Marshall, The Quantum Self." Human Nature and Consciousv~ess Defined by the Januao,-FebruaO, 1998 Scbneiders ¯ Congregational Leadership and Spirituality New Physics (New York: Quill/William Morrow, 1990), esp. pp. 231-237. 2 For a comprehensible introduction to the notion of postmodernity in the context of Christian faith, see James B. Miller, "The Emerging Postmodern World," in Postmodern Theology: Christian Faith in a Pluralist World, ed. Frederic B. Burnham (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1989), pp. 1-19, or Douglas C. Bowman, Beyond the Modern Mind: The Spiritual and Ethical Challenge of the Environmental Crisis (New York: Pilgrim Press, 1990). The SUNY Series in Constructive Postmodern Thought, edited by David Ray Griffin, and published in Albany, New York by the State University of New York Press, includes several volumes of essays repre-senting most of the preeminent writers attempting to relate Christianity and its concerns to the postmodern worldview. For a powerful presenta-tion of secular postmodernity, see Albert Borgmann, Crossing the Postmodern Divide (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). 3 My primary resources in trying to understand this new approach to reality have been the following: Heinz Pagels, The Coswtic Code: Quantum Physics as the Language of Nature (New York: Bantam Books, 1983); David S. Toolan, "Praying in a Post-Einsteinian Universe," Cross Currents 46 (Winter 1996-1997): 437-470; Margaret J. Wheatley, Leadership and the New Science: Learning about Organization from an Orderly Universe (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 1992); Margaret J. Wheatley and Myron Kellner-Rogers,/t Simpler Way (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 1996); Danah Zohar in collaboration with I.N. Marshall, The Quantum Self: Human Nature and Consciousness Defined by the New Physics (New York: Quill/William Morrow, 1990). 4 Zohar, The Quantum Self, p. 234, speaks of the new worldview chal-lenging the modernist dualisms which split subject and object (mind and body), individual from relationships, and culture from nature. This is a slightly different focus on what I am talking about in more humanis-tic/ religious terms. 5 Specifically, Wheadey relies on the thought about living systems of Erich Jantsch, The Self-Organizing Universe (Oxford: Pergamon, 1980); the treatment of chemical reality of Ilya Prigogine and Isabelle Stengers, Order out of Chaos (New York: Bantam, 1984); the work of quantum physi-cists on strange attractors as explained by James Gleick in Chaos: Making a New Science (New York: Viking, 1987). 6 Cited in Wheatley, Leadership, p. 18. 7 Much of the following description of U.S. religious life from the 1800s until Vatican II is well illustrated in the volume, coauthored by a team of IHM sisters, Building Sisterhood: A Feminist History of the Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, ed. Margaret Susan Thompson (Syracuse: University Press, 1997). 8 It is interesting that sociological theory of organizations has .applied these Newtonian principles to social systems, leading theorists like Helen Rose E Ebaugh, in Women in the Vanishing Cloister: Organizational Decline in Catholic Religious Orders in the United States (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1993), to confidently predict the immi- Review for Religious nent demise of religious life, not because the spirituality of religious has died, but because the organizations seem to have lost their niche in the social, economic, and occupational machinery. If I understand Wheatley's thesis, she is convinced that the mechanistic understanding of organiza-tions that underlies much organizational and management theory is inap-propriate to the kind of entity such organizations are. I think Wheatley's thesis is applicable to religious life in general and religious congrega-tions in particular. 9Wheatley, Leadership, pp. 18-19. 10 Wheattey, Leadership, pp. 95-96, treats this feature. ~' When I hear religious wearily predicting the demise of their con-gregations as simply inevitable since decline in one or more areas seems to have set in and, in the long run, decline cannot be arrested or reversed, I am struck by the mechanistic character of their image of religious con-gregations. ,2 Wheatley, Leadership, p. 93. 13 Wheatley, Leadership, p. 90, italics mine. 14 Before reading Wheatley, who uses this very expression, "death or transformation," in relation to living organisms, I was looking at this same phenomenon in religious life in terms of the mystical tradition, the "bifurcation point" represented by the "dark night." See Sandra M. Schneiders, "Contemporary Religious Life: Death or Transformation?" Cross Currents 46 (Winter 1996-1997): 510-535. is Wheatley, Leadership, p. 94. 16 See Patricia Wittberg, Pathways to Re-Creating Religious Communities (New York/Mahwah: Paulist, 1996), pp. 19-31, for her very enlighten-ing treatment of the sociological category of the "religious virtuoso" as a descriptive of religious. Peter Brown, in The Body and Society: Men, Women and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), p. 58, refers to the lst- and 2nd-century virgins, the original religious, as "virtuoso practitioners of continence." 17 In the earliest period of church life, the choice of lifelong virgin-ity created an alternative to the sociological givens of society in the 1st century of the Christian era. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the desert ascetics moved geographically out of the overacculturated church of late antiquity. In the Middle Ages cenobitic monasticism was an institutional alternative to life in the cities. The "leaving the world" motif continued in the closed lifestyles of apostolic religious congregations right up to Vatican II. 18 Wheatley, Leadership, p. 48. 19 See esp. Wheatley, Leadership, pp. 52-54. 201 think this dynamic metaphor fnight have some potential for dis-cussions of the issues of belonging and membership. For example, if every individual is a distinct constellation of overlapping and intersecting fields (family, personal friends, professional associations, ministerial involve-ments, and so forth) which structure her personal identity and which 3I Janua~y-Febt'uaty 1998 . 32 Scbneiders * Congregational Leadership and Spirituality intersect with the fields of other members and the corporate constellation of fields of the congregation, we have to expect that ways of belonging and participating in community life are going to be very diverse and that this need not lead to disintegration. Likewise, there may be significant but not determining intersection between the field of some person and the congregational field,, leading to a considerable sense of"belonging" on the part of this person who, nev-ertheless, does not feel called to become a member in the full sense of the word. 2, Wheatley, Leadership, pp. 20-21. 22 The amount of chaos within religious life and the sometimes over-whelmingly dysfunctional character of the ecclesiastical settings in which the life survived and even thrived over the centuries is strikingly chron-icled by Jo Ann Kay McNamara in Sisters in Arms: Catholic Nuns through Two Millennia (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996). 23 1 do not mean to suggest that leadership does not play a special role in maintenance and mission. In fact, I suspect leadership in these arenas is even more important today than it was in the recent past when eccle-siastical control dictated virtually all major decisions about mission and stable financial procedures and reliable resources assured maintenance. I want to suggest, however, that these functions, although facilitated by leadership, are largely handled by specialists or by congregational struc-tures that do not depend exclusively on leaders. 24 Wheatley, Leadership, p. 146: "More than any other science prin-ciple I've encountered, self-reference strikes me as the most important. ¯ . . As an operating principle, it decisively separates living organisms from machines." 2s Denys Turner, The Darkness of God: Negativity in Christian MystMsm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). 26 Turner, Darkness of God, p. 262. Turner says (p. 259): "Experientialism is. the 'positivism' of Christian spirituality. It abhors the experiential vacuum of the apophatic, rushing to fill it with the plenum of the psychologistic." 27 Turner, Darkness of God, pp. 260-261; he cites Bernard McGinn, The Presence of God: A History of VVestern Christian MystMsm, Vol. 1 (New York: Crossroad, 1992), p. xvi. Turner does not actually agree with McGinn about the role of experience in mysticism, but he does agree with him that, until the present century, tnysticism was not isolated from religious traditions but an element within the,n. 2s Mthough there is much of value in Diarmuid O'Murchu's latest book, Quantum Theology (New York: Crossroad, 1997), I have serious hesitations about his facile dismissal of .religion as a dispensable human invention (see esp. pp. 7-12). He is right to point out the distinction between spirituality, religion, and theology, but I doubt that the direct leap from spirituality to theology is possible because, while the categories of theology can be enriched by science, I doubt that they can be supplied Review for Religious without recourse to sacred texts and liturgical ritual. It is indeed part of the function of theology to purify religion of its excesses; but it is also part of the function of religious tradition to criticize theology. 29 Turner, Darkness of God, p. 259. 3o See the caustic description in chaps. 52-53 of The Cloud of Unknowing (The Classics of \Vestern Spirituality), ed. James Walsh (New York/Ramsey/Toronto: Paulist Press, 1981), pp. 220-223. 3t Turner, Darkness of God, p. 259. 3: In speaking of religious congregations, I am using the term theo-logically and not canonically. I am talking about the faith reality that constitutes religious life, not juridical requirements ofany particular period in history. Tropical Night Watch (Cap Haitien, Haiti) The current is cut, the light fails, generators die, sleep prevails. Wakened by silence, I stagger onto the gallery, stumble over stars, so many stars the sky overflows, the Milky Way spilt and star running all down the dome. Does someone, I wonder, watch with me, or do I alone gorge on the glory? Two a.m. an ungodly hour?-- with this luxury of light? this starry sight? I gape, I gape, at this godly night. Mary Alban Bouchard CSJ Januasy-February 1998 DONNA J. MARKHAM Leadership for the Common Good Only a few achieve the colossal task of holding together, without being torn asunder, the clarity of their vision along-side an ability to take their place in a materialistic world. They are the modern heroes . --Irene Claremont de Castillejo Knowing VVoman: A Feminine Psychology AnY person who is called upon to lead today is also called to the heroic act of unifying and healing in the midst of a world that is increasingly fragmented by nationalism and regional separatism. Nor are religious leaders unaffected: denom-inational sectarianism and ideological divisions threaten to take a mortal toll on the community of believers. At the same time, we live in an exciting era, alive in the midst of an enormous shifting in the collective experience of our planet. Insights from world religions, the new sciences, and feminist consciousness are con-tinually shaping our responses to the suffering oppressed. Religious leaders want to unify their members in order to meet the various challenges effectively, but the personal and communal risks are great. Women religious leaders find themselves engaging in heroic action as they contend with complex and differing perspectives on Christology and spirituality and on what constitutes the core Donna J. Markham OP is CEO for Southdown, a center for Christian healing that serves clergy and religious. Her article, published in Origins 27 (I 3 November 1997), is a slightly edited version of her address to the annual assembly of the Leadership Conference of Women Religious, held in Rochester, New York, in August 1997. Her address is Southdown; 1335 St. John's Sideroad East; RR #2, Aurora, Ontario; Canada L4G 3G8. Review for Relig4ous identity of religious life in this emerging global reality. Those who are entrusted for a time with the exciting task of fostering greater union and community are also expected to keep in front of our eyes the gospel-illuminated vision to which we have all committed ourselves. Irene Claremont de Castillejo rightly asserts that those who strive to accomplish such things are, indeed, mod-ern heroes. We actually have modern-day heroes--who have called us to common ground, who have invited us to envision a new way of being dwellers on earth, who have risked opening dif-ficult conversations and bringing forth serious critiques as new insights and truths are searched out. Within our midst are, I believe, unobtrusive modern heroines. The thoughts I share come from one who is clearly not a philosopher or a theologian, but rather a student of human behav-ior who has herself been stretched and challenged by a loving God. I share these thoughts as one who has experienced a call to profound conversion in the midst of the awesome responsibility of being entrusted with leading. I share these thoughts as one who, lost in deserts of confusion, has called out in fear; one who, with her sisters, has called upon a God of mystery, wisdom, and hope to show some clarity or meaning in daunting, sometimes terrifying, situations pregnant with disharmony and division. I hope to propose some specific skills for leaders to use in their efforts regarding the good we hold in common. Before doing that, however, I note two perspectives on the meaning of the com-mon good and offer a summation of our own experience of the past ten years. Perspectives on the Common Good There are two principal perspectives about how to achieve the good of society. The prevalent one, perhaps, is that the aggre-gate of individuals all pursuing their own self-interest constitutes the most good for the greatest number. This individualistic and utilitarian view--from John Locke, Adam Smith, and John Stuart Mill--emphasizes the common good as a composite of individual goods. It wants the civil authority to keep out of people's affairs except to ensure that no one tramples on another's rights. The second perspective, in the Thomistic tradition, emphasizes the common good as a social good that all must.participate in if the good of the whole is to be achieved (Hollenbach, 1989, pp. 85ff). January-February 1998 Markham ¯ Leadership for the Common Good Maritain elucidated this by speaking of a "personalistic commu-nitarianism" in which individuals achieve their own good more fully and readily when, in relationship with others, they work to enhance the common good. History has demonstrated, especially over the past two cen-turies, that two extremes of governance must be avoided: a lais-sez- faire individualistic philosophy that heralds each person in There is an increasing plurality of expression regarding personal spirituality and one's relationship with God. society as completely autonomous and indepen-dent, and a socialistic collectivism in which the individual sacrifices everything for the society, even to the loss of self-actualization. Within these polarities there exists a tension for each of us: to want each individual member in our community to be fulfilled and to flourish and to want our religious institutes to unleash their communal passion and energy in service of the mission of Jesus. After a long history of reflecting a more col-lectivist model, with the needs of individuals heavily subordinated to the needs of the larger community, religious life has, I think, swerved toward the Lockean-Smithian libertarian notion of the common good. Leadership itself has, at times, colluded in this--unconsciously, I think. We saw this reflected in some of our early documents after the call to renewal: the individual member was noted as our primary asset and first concern. While this concern was certainly not intended to subordinate the communal mission, experience has shown that this interrelationship has remained a serious issue for us, and we find ourselves seeking ways to lead well in the midst of escalating diversity of thought and belief. Experiences, Insights, and Questions What I say about the experience of leaders over this past decade is by no means exhaustive; I simply offer my own obser-vations: ¯ Women religious have a far stronger sense of internalized personal identity and individual maturity than previously. We also seek clarity concerning what constitutes corporate, com-munal identity .and what the requisites for membership are. Review for Religious ¯ We have witnessed a growing diversification of ministries, in which members are far more able to use their individual cre-ativity and talents in service of the gospel. ¯ We have deepened our sense of inner authority and self-direct-edness, yet we struggle with how this relates to any congre-gational ministerial focus and communal accountability. ¯ There is an increasing plurality of expression regarding per-sonal spirituality and one's relationship with God. ¯ There is a clear movement away from structures and systems that are oppressive and demeaning to women, and a deliber-ate movement toward systems that address the needs of the poor, the oppressed, and the abandoned. ¯ We have deepened our understanding of feminism in relation to our church and our world. ¯ We see an escalation of profound questioning, with conse-quences for our communal life as members of our institutes, not to mention our life as dwellers on this planet. ¯ As leaders we continue to experience the pervasive tension between our pastoral responsibility with its consequent care-giving obligations, and the possibilities of vision-driven, spirit-linking, heart-stirring leadership. ¯ We continue to examine models of leadership, modes of par-ticipation and decision making, and forms of governance that are faithful to our commitment as gospel-driven women. ¯ We live within the growing complexity of all the institutions and systems in which we minister. ¯ And we have witnessed the common good being held hostage, at times, by malaise and a depletion of communal passion. We have seen the common good compromised by leaders who have become overly preoccupied with the torment of a trou-bled individual and have diverted their attention from the broader work of leadership, with its potential to accomplish major transformations. We have witnessed the common good being co-opted by leaders who have become frightened and paralyzed in the face of an articulate few whose sociocultural precommitments distract them and others from gospel faith, the living water of religious life. At times we have also seen leaders--perhaps in misdirected efforts to affirm individu-als- fail to critique emergent societal, religious, and cultural movements as these impact on the common good of the con-gregation. 'L37 . 1998 Markham ¯ Leadership for the Common Good 3-8A So what is it that we have learned from what we have experi-enced? We have intensified our conviction that pluralism and diversity must work in tandem with a binding sense of identity and relationality. We know that interdependence is imperative for our survival as a planet, as nations, as a church, and as religious institutes. It is clear that all living systems are characterized by net-works of relationships. We are aware, more than ever, that all things are somehow connected and have an impact on one another for good or bad. Consequently, we know that various necessary and desirable boundaries need to be permeable enough for bond-ing with other communities and the global community to be pos-sible. We have learned, too, that neither hieratic leadership models nor totally consensual models are effective in this time of rampant change, greater complexity, and anxiety-provoking ambiguity, and we search for new ways to express leadership and exercise author-ity. We have learned that neither the subordination of individu-als to the needs of the community nor the subordination of the common good to the needs of individual members will make for a viable future. We have learned that new expressions of com-munity are being called for, whereby persons exercise true inter-dependence, participation, and responsibility about matters pertaining to the well-being of all those involved. We know that, if we are to do this, we need to develop skill in managing conflict and diversity. We have embraced even more deeply our need for ongoing contemplative reflection and conversation about mat-ters of the heart and soul. And we have learned with some trepi-dation that, insofar as profound doubt about the meaning and validity of our founding myths pervades our communities, we flirt with division and dissolution. Given all this, we are faced with serious questions. At what point does diversity within our institutes lead to entropy and orga-nizational dissolution? How will we work with our differences so that the result is synergy rather than division? How can we, with our members, become more intently engaged in the promotion of a personal communitarianism which recognizes that each per-son's dignity is most fully achieved in communion with others? What can we do as committed women of the gospel to help heal the gender and ideological rifts within our church, the racial and economic rifts in our country? What deliberate and concerted actions should we be taking as communities of faith to address Review for Religious materialistic individualism and the exploitation and mutilation of creation? How will we inspire others to that end? What signs will identify the better emergent models of leadership? In an effort to shed some light on these questions, I will focus on three areas of skill development: conflict management, guard-ing against "groupthink," and promoting communal efficacious action. By no means the only skills needed, these three call for some special attention today. Skills by themselves are, of course, not enough; but a leadership team's understanding of the princi-ples behind them can help keep the congregation moving for-ward while holding open the possibility of true synergy emerging. By synergy I mean the energy-laden, unexpected accord--or com-munion- within a group that gives it momentum toward the good which it esteems in common. Comfortable and Adept in Handling Conflict Perhaps more than any other skill, religious leaders today need the ability to manage conflict well. This prevents group-think from setting in and supports communal efficacious action. While we all know that some conflict is normal in any human relationship and an important part of the interaction in any vital group, much of what I say about managing conflict will seem counterintuitive. It flies in the face of our upbringing and our instinctive responses to confrontation. Most of us probably employ two basic responses to conflictual situations. Either we shy away from them, taking no action or procrastinating in the hope that the problem will go away, or we engage in symmetrical inter-change, being defensive or aggressive toward one another, prob-ably debating to a standoff. With the first strategy we quickly learn that the denial of the possibility of conflict is an easy way of becoming involved in one. With the second strategy we find our-selves caught in dualistic thinking that categorizes others as either with us or against us; we draw the proverbial line in the sand, and some become self-righteous winners and others demoralized losers. To use a third strategy, that is, to act counterintuitively, we anticipate and deliberately move toward that which is feared in efforts to establish connection. VCe meet conflict proactively or, in the wonderful words of William Shakespeare, we "meet the first beginnings; look to the budding mischief/before it has time to [-~9-- January-February 1998 Markham ¯ Leadership for the Common Good Where debate aims at convincing and winning, dialogue is a commitment to listen and learn from one another. ripen to ,naturity." We anticipate conflict and confrontation and approach the other with the clear, well-articulated intent to dia-logue. In so doing we open the possibility of engaging in a kind of ecological relationship building, a way of working through erroneous assumptions about and resistance to one another. We do not engage in debate, but rather in dialogue that has been pre-pared for with rigorous study, prayer, and reflection. Where debate aims at convincing and winning, dialogue is a commitment to lis-ten and learn from one another. Debate encour-ages dogmatic rigidity and judgment; dialogue encourages the search for insight and truth. If all parties have not prepared for the conversation by disciplined and intensive study, prayer, and reflec-tion, we are not ready to dialogue. Dialogue means that, while we are open to lis-tening and learning, we. also know that there are certain issues about which a group cannot com-promise. These include identity, internal consis-tency, and core values. A group ceases to exist as itself when these constitutive elements are com-promised. For example, leaders of religious congregations have a fundamental fiduciary obligation to promote the unity of the con-gregation. They canr~ot compromise those founding values and principles which have endured over ti,ne and which constitute the community's identity, charism, and mythic history. On the other hand, conversation and dialogue around the contentporary meaning of communal identity--no matter how divergent our understand-ings may bemis of critical importance and should not be shied away from in spurious hopes that differences will disappear. Still, to entertain that the fundamental identity of the group is open for negotiation is to promote disunity, disintegration, and ultimate demise. Membership in the group has become meaningless. A few examples: One can be a part of a group called "psy-chologists" and struggle with reformulations and new constructs relative to the study of personality and behavior. But to assert that the study of personality and behavior is no longer relevant to the discipline of psychology is to move oneself outside the iden-tity of being a psychologist. Similarly, Dominicans can struggle with how to enflesh the mandate of the order to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ in today's world, or how they will name and address contemporary heresies, but they cannot say that they will Review for Religious replace the gospel of Jesus Christ as a foundation for that preach-ing mission with some other construct. To do so would be to move outside the identity of being Dominican. Likewise, when an indi-vidual experiences a loss of identity, that person moves into a state of confusion and terror. In the most dramatic sense of this phe-nomenon, the psychotic person has little or no awareness of who she is, what she is to be doing, or what meaning there is to her very existence. This is why the therapist, as an agent of responsive and responsible authority, must take swift action to protect her from further disintegration and potential self-destruction. Good leaders take clear and directed action to protect the solidarity of the group, its commitment to unity in the face of challenges to its founding purpose, its identity and mission. They do so by calling the group to reflection, prayer, and respectful dialogue. They, with the group, walk toward what is feared and claim their truth in faith and in commitment to the greater good. Leaders in this era of connection (Lipman-Blumen, pp. 8-21) live in the midst of ongoing diversity. Accordingly, they also live in the midst of the conflicts which arise from this diversity of insight and thought. Successful handling of these conflicts demands certain assumptions: that all are committed to learn from one another and to search for truth together; that they agree to carry out the conversation to its conclusion; that they respect one another; and that no party will resort to oppressive or vindictive strategies during or after the conversation. Leaders who succeed possess an internal disposition of grace, flexibility, balance, empa-thy, courage, creativity, and a heavy dose of curiosity about the dif-ferent and unusual. But even these qualities are insufficient if leaders are frightened or unclear about or uncommitted to what constitutes the identity of the group which they have been called to serve. A time may come when evasion or avoidance--or a direct naming of the futility of carrying a discussion any further--may actually be a worthwhile move. The problem has often been that we have resorted to these moves before working proactively with the conflictual situation. Guarding against Groupthink One way, of course, of avoiding conflict within a close work group is for all to adopt patterns of thinking that are so "agree- Janttal.3,-FebtvtaD, 1998 Markham ¯ Leadership for the Common Good able" that disagreement becomes unthinkable: it would be "dis-loyalty." But "agreement," then, is an ambiguous thing. The greater the ambiguity, the more likely it is that a leadership group has fallen into the groupthink that some analysts describe. This dangerous dynamic arises when, in the face of adversity or perceived danger, a cohesive "ingroup" (here, the leadership team) insulates itself from conflict with the "outgroup" (here, the other members). It does this by concurrence seeking and unques-tioning agreeableness among the ingroup members. Groupthink interferes with leadership's ability to act on behalf of the com-mon good because it has closed off alternative courses of action. It falls into a tight-knit, closed system in which team members avoid deviating from consensus. The ingroup thus shares an illu-sion of unanimity concerning most of its judgments and posi-tions. In the worst scenario, certain members of the ingroup unwittingly assume the role of "mindguards" who protect the leader and other ingroup members from adverse information that might break their sense of well-being about their past decisions. Groupthink can result from a largely unconscious effort on the part of a leadership group to fortify itself, in ambiguous and con-flictual times, against perceived threats from the outgroup. It is characterized by the ingroup's feeling a certain invulnerability and having exaggerated optimism about the future. Negative feed-back has been dismissed by rationalizing, by stereotyping the behavior of members who disagree as invalid, irrelevant, erro-neous, disloyal, or uninformed. The search for truth has thus been compromised not only in the leadership group but also throughout the community, because sincere engagement between the ingroup and the outgroup has been aborted. W-hen diversity of thought has been stifled within a leadership group, stagnation, boredom, and a certain brittleness, set in. This situation comes from a misunderstanding of consensus, but it often masquerades as a nonhieratic, more feminist model of managing disagreement and arriving at decisions. Groupthink is serious and should not be underestimated. Group analysis has shown that the membership of any large group reflects the deficiencies of its leaders. V~rhen diversity of opinion, conflict, and serious dialogue find little or no room for expression in the leadership group, the membership will unconsciously mir-ror the leadership or react strongly to it, in either case jeopar-dizing the common good. Review for Religious In order to counter the unconscious pull toward groupthink, leadership teams may wish to set up safeguards. They could, for example, devise ways of getting critical evaluations of decisions and actions (including evaluations from outside the leadership team); they could, before coming to agreement, probe for alternatives; they could seek and happily come up with more than one way of addressing a given issue; they could broaden the decision-making base by consulting persons from different disciplines and areas of expertise; they could, after a period of time apart, hold a sec-ond- chance session to readdress the issue; they could simply ask whether there is "too much unanimity." Promoting Efficacious Communal Action Leadership teams that manage conflict well and avoid group-think instill in their communities the belief that it is indeed pos-sible for something important and significant to come from concerted communal action directed toward the greater good (Bandura, 1997). On the other hand, if a community has little sense that it is making a difference as a group, it will experience organizational anxiety, corporate depression, and a growing fear of the future and it will not attract new members. Leaders who work well with conflict and promote the unity of the group through a clear commitment to pursuing the truth together make a difference in this world of ours. Their fearless-ness and passion in repeatedly calling the group to fidelity to its mission have an impact. If all else is equal, a group that is more unified and clear about its identity and mission will endure beyond one that is fragmented. In other words, integration and unifica-tion contribute to life; disintegration and fragmentation, to demise. We know well that our desire to flourish is not an end in itself. Rather, we choose life as members of religious institutes because we are committed to radical discipleship. We commit ourselves to a vowed life in community in order to make a differ-ence-- for the poor, the oppressed, the vulnerable, and the aban-doned in our world. We believe we can do this better because we are united as sisters, and so we invite others to walk with us. We do this not simply to bolster our sense of well-being, but because we believe desperately in the mission of Jesus to promote justice and right relationships among people, between people and their Januaty-Februa~y 1998 Markham ¯ Leadersh~ for the Common Good God, and among all the various peoples that dwell upon this planet. We know that this work is not finished. We invite others to join us in this connective mission of pursuing what is true, what is just, what is merciful, and what ultimately is the One who unites us all. Most of our congregations have identified issues which they see as critical to the common good of our society today. In meet-ing with communities across North America, I have noted a remarkable consensus on the critical issues calling for our response as women religious. Through chapter acts, vision statements, and communal goals, concerns about the environment, racism, the poor and oppressed, spirituality, and women's needs and oppor-tunities continue to surface. These concerns, besides inviting our deep compassion, recall us to our commitment to live the gospel as wholeheartedly as we can. I watched in awe as the NASA scientists shared the excite-ment of accomplishing something awesome. This team of women and men was jubilant that their Martian dreams, their hard work, their collaboration gave us earthlings a chance to see another world. They were passionate, and millions of us on the Internet shared their passion as we took in the unfolding events. Why, then--though our dreams and efforts on behalf of the oppressed and abandoned bring successes and are no less altruistic than those of NASA scientists--do we seem not to have such excitement and passion about our corporate accomplishments, either just among ourselves or in the eyes of others? I found myself pon-dering this question with a tinge of sadness as I watched the ongo-ing televised press briefings. We want to make a difference in our mission. We want to see something come of all our hard work. We want to know that we are participating in something that makes a tangible difference in our world. We long for excitement and passion regarding our work. When a group has a sense of nothing much coming from a colossal effort, it gets discouraged. Negative corporate conse-quences follow: heightened individualism, attrition of member-ship, loss of momentum, corporate sluggishness. While many of us individually experience satisfaction in know-ing that we are addressing those compelling needs identified through our chapter processes, I wonder if we are depriving our-selves of the possibility of magnanimous corporate accomplish-ment. I wonder if the aggregate of our individual good works has Review for Religious buried in oblivion our ability to do something passionately, and concretely, together. What might it mean for us if we were to spec-ify concretely what we will do together as a congregation--or per-haps all of our congregations in concert--by way of making a passionate and grand contribution to this Mother Earth of ours, especially the neediest causes on it? I realize that, as soon as we entertain thoughts of concerted and clearly defined com-munal endeavors, we may conjure up our worst memories of the past. The urgency of the needs of these times, however, demands that we let go of that history and allow the fire of a revived corporate passion to brighten our eyes and our vision as we look toward the future of the life and labor for which God called us together, and keeps calling us. We have dedication and commitment and a vision and a mission that are at least as broad and deep as the NASA team has. We are attuned to needs that make the Martian endeavor look small and childlike. Oppression and exploita-tion are no strangers to us. The exploitation of our planet, of the abandoned, of women and children, is daily being resisted by wonderful women religious all over this continent and beyond. But now is a time for us to come together, in ways we have never imagined, to make an even greater difference for the good of our world's people. We join with John Paul II in seeing ecological concern as a driving force in the communal mission to which we are called: The earth is ultimately a common heritage, the fruits of which are for the benefit of all . It is manifestly unjust that a privileged few should continue to accumulate excess goods, squandering available resources, while masses of people are living in conditions of misery at the very lowest level of sub-sistence. Today the dramatic threat of ecological breakdown is teaching us the extent to which greed and selfishness-- both individual and collective--are contrary to the order of creation, an order which is characterized by mutual interde-pendence . Simplicity., moderation, and discipline, as well as a spirit of sacrifice, must become part of everyday life, lest all suf-fer the negative consequences of the careless habits of a We commit OldYselves to a vowed life in community in order to make a difference-- for the poor, the oppressed, the vulnerable, and the abandoned in our world. Januao~Feb~wa~y 1998 Markham * Leadershi~for the Common Good few . An education in ecological responsibility is urgent; responsibility for oneself, for others, and for the earth . (John Paul II, 1990) Engaging in this efficacious action on behalf of the common good calls each of us to a deeper expression of our personal value and meaning and makes it available for the well-being of one another. To lead on behalf of the common good is as exciting as it is heroic. To stay centered on the ultimate vision of unity; to manage conflict in service of what is true, faithful, and just; to stand committed to the unfolding meaning of our identity in mis-sion-- these things are the substance of leaders who invite con-version and the linking of spirits and hearts at a time when not to do so is, all too probably, to toy with death. Steering Clear of Resistance Temptations to let oneself be drawn away from the demands of such a ministry of spirit-linking leadership abound. To allow oneself to be caught up in efforts directed toward problem persons and a minimal status quo is to entrench oneself and one's con-gregation in a futile defensiveness. Recognizing the difference between getting caught up in crisis management and working with the crisis in order to promote the common good is an art form that requires continual attention and development. In the process we must guard against a certain emotional and behavioral passivity that lulls us into a tolerance of diversity without restraint. Individual efforts and accomplishments should not crowd out the larger vision of a community's contemporary identity in mis-sion. When community leaders sideline or postpone or limit a unified group response to the crying needs of God's people and God's world, when leaders give too much attention to individual members (to their preferences, their convenience, even their per-sonal gratification) or fail to set limits on behaviors that stand in the way of the greater good, then something is wrong. Any group, of course, has maintenance tasks that need atten-tion. But how much time and energy should those entrusted with leadership today spend on those tasks? Honest self-evaluation of the use of team time is an important reality test for a leadership group. Such a group needs continual creative redesign so as to become or remain free to lead and not just manage. Beyond merely managing or even merely leading, I ask con- Rev&w for Religious gregational leaders to call one another and to call our communi-ties to heroism. Call us to risk entering into conflictual conver-sations that hold promise of connecting us in trust and in hope to one another. Lead us into the midst of difficult dialogues that will bring us into deeper and more respectful relationship with all who long for a church, a society, and a world in which communion in spirit and in truth prevails. Risk calling us to concrete corpo-rate ministerial responses. Invite us to be passionate. Help us to face together the different, the other, the frightening, and the unexpected so that we may discover ever more deeply that the good which we hold in common is nothing less than participa-tion in the compassionate goodness and mystery of God. Bibliography Bandura, A. "Human Agency: The Emperor Does Have Clothes." Canadian Psychological Association Convention, Keynote Address, June 1997. Bellah, R., et al. The Good Society. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. Claremont de Castillejo, I. Knowing Woman:/t Feminine Psychology. Harper Colophon Books, 1974. Hollenbach, D. "The Common Good Revisited." Theological Studies 50, no. I (1989), pp. 70-94. Hollenbach, D. "The Catholic University and the Common Good." Current Issues in Higher Education 16, no. 1 (1995). John Paul II. "Peace with God the Creator, Peace with All of Creation." Papal statement, 1 January 1990. Lipman-Blumen, J. The Connective Edge: Leading in an Interdependent World. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996. Rivers, E The Way of the Owk Succeeding with lntegv-i~y in a Conflicted World. HarperSanFrancisco, 1996. Roszak, T., M.E. Gomes, and A.D Kanner, eds. Ecopsychology: Restoring the Earth, Healing the Mind. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1995. Tracy, D. Plurality and Ambiguity: Hermeneutics, Religion, Hope. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1987. Whyte, D. The Heart/1roused: Poetry and the Preset'ration of the Soul in Corporate America. New York: Doubleday Currency, 1994. Wren, J.T., ed. The Leader's Companion: Insights on Leadership through the Ages. New York: Free Press, 1995. Janttary-Feb~'uary 1998 thNv N E MUNLEY Hearts Afire: Leadership in the New Millennium I love you, God, with a penny ~natch of love that I strike when the big and bullying dark of need chases my startled sunset over the hills and in the walls of my house small terrors move.~ ~edeeSSica Powers's image, "a penny match of love," is a won-rful imag~e o.f human desire for God that yearns" to be stronger, that yearns to ignite hearts, capture imaginations, shape dreams, and awaken possibilities. There is nothing paltry about God's gifts. God longs to kindle our penny matches of love into a growing fire as we gather here, more than a thousand strong, representing ninety-four percent of the women religious of the United States. It is a precious gift to be alive and to be called to leadership as one millennium ends and another begins. The last decades of the 20th century have been a time of cataclysmic change. The coming of the third millennium is certain to prompt diverse mus-ings about the challenges of this moment in history. Some, lament-ing present evils, will forecast doom. Others will gloss over substantive issues of dignity and justice to focus on the bizarre. Still others, including ourselves, will view the millennium as a kairos time for renewing hearts and transforlning society. Anne Munley IHM presented this paper, here edited and somewhat short-ened, as the presidential address to the August 1997 national assembly, in Rochester, New York, of the Leadership Conference of V¢o~nen Religious. She may be addressed at the I.H.M. Center; 2300 Adams Avenue; Scranton, Pennsylvania 18509. Review for Religious The year 2000 presents the world with an extraordinary occa-sion to commemorate-the birth of Christ as an historical fact and as a saving event for humanity for all times. The new millennium is an invitation to renewed wonder at the lavishness of a God who so loved the world that Jesus, the Christ, took on human flesh that all might become alive in God. We are called to leadership in a time when humanity yearns for connection with God, with one another, and with all creation. Yet we are acutely aware that we live in a world of violence, envi-ronmental desecration, economic polarization, racism, poverty, systemic oppression, and cultural breakdown. Our senses are bur-dened with images of human suffering in the homes, streets, vil-lages, neighborhoods, suburbs, and cities of this nation and throughout the world. In this age of globalization, when the peo-ples of the world are linked together as never before by commu-nication, economic interdependence, and the diffusion of cultural values, gaps continue to grow between rich and poor. Most peo-ple would agree that beneath obvious contemporary problems lie a crisis of the spirit and an erosion of concern for the common good. There is little sense that all the peoples of the earth are brothers and sisters having a common destiny in one global fam-ily created by the God of infinite love and compassion, but such a sense is what is needed." Inside the walls of our house, "the bul-lying dark of need" aches to see flames of love and moral com-mitment, aches for a revolution of the human heart and a resurgence of spiritual leadership. There are many signs of hope for this moment: conscious-ness that there is a crisis, desire for practical life-giving solutions, hunger for meaning, purpose, and direction and a longing for connectedness. The biblical concept of jubilee offers a revolu-tionary vision of reform for these times. The call to jubilee rec-ognizes the sanctity of time, the sacredness of creation, the importance of rest and contemplation, the equality of all in the eyes of God, the need to attend to the common good and the jus-tice of right relationships. The biblical jubilee calls for forgiveness, reconciliation, and joy, not ju.st an inner joy but a jubilation that is expressed in communal celebration) In proclaiming a new covenant of unity among peoples, Jesus brought the jubilee promise to life. We lead in a time of soul-stretching possibility. It is a holy time for "bringing good news to the afflicted, liberty to captives, January-Februaly 1998 Munley . Hearts Afire sight to the blind, and freedom to the oppressed." One of the greatest gifts that leaders can bring to this age is a sense of hope that transformation is possible. This gift is a penny match of love that can ignite great fires. Scientists tell us that tiny movements can have a huge cumulative impact on vast systems.4 Spiritual seekers discovered this truth long ago. In the words of Kukei, an 8th-century Zen master: "A hand moves, and the fire's whirling takes different shapes . All things change when we do."SMore than anything else these times need leaders who can bring to the outer world the transforming spirit of the inner world. Spiritual Leadership Recent literature about leadership reflects growing awareness that spirituality sustains community, meaning, and hope. The titles of many of these works suggest a shift toward conscious-ness of the inner life: Leading with Soul, The Corporate Mystic, The Heart .4roused, The Soul of Politics, and "Leading from Within.''6 The message of Leading ~vitb Soul is that leadership is a jour-ney of the heart. Heart, hope, faith, compassion, and courage are essential to leadership, to the creation of communities of mean-ing, and to a rediscovery of the ethical and spiritual center of society. Corporate mystics are spiritual leaders who are comfort-able with their own spirituality and who nurture the spiritual development of others. Corporate mystics call forth the best in themselves and others; they operate with integrity and intuition and pursue their visions with passion and compassion. In The Heart/1roused, the poet David Whyte links the inner world of spirit and creativity to the preservation of the soul in corporate America. Whyte knows well that leadership from within involves far more than techniques, plans, goals, or strategies. In his latest book of poetry, The House of Bdonging, he urges us to remember:7 What you can plan is too small for you to live. To be human is to become visible while carrying what is hidden as a gift to others. Re'view for Religious Jim Wallace in The Soul of Politics and Parker Palmer in his essay "Leading from Within" emphasize responsibility for co-creating the world we live in by bringing to it the best of our spiritual traditions and convictions. Our spiritual traditions tell us that we are not victims of the world as it is, but are its co-cre-ators. Borrowing from Annie Dillard,s Palmer says that, unless leaders are willing to take the spiritual journey inward and down-ward, we are likely to project what we hate in ourselves onto other people because we fear to face the enemy in our own souls. Great leaders have the courage to face their shadow side and consciously choose to project a spirit of light. Our own experiences on the inner journey and as women religious committed to co-creation of a just and loving world are a valuable part of our call to lead-ership within our communities. Gift of a Heart Afire At this national assembly of ours in outstate New York, I recall the determination and incredible belief in possibility of the hand-ful of women who organized in 1848 the Seneca Falls Convention that lit a fire to change the legal and political position of women in the United States. Using various means to secure suffrage for women, leaders like Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, and Carrie Chapman Cart drew on their inner fire to breathe spirit and passion into their quest for reform. Women like Mice Paul, Lucy Burns, and Rose Winslow must have drawn deeply on their inner strength as they endured impris-onment, hunger strikes, and forced feedings. I recall also the countless women from all ethnic, class, and racial backgrounds who addressed severe social problems at the end of the last century and the early decades of this one. I recall the inner fire, faith, and vision that sustained the founding and pioneer members of our congregations, enabling them to over-come great obstacles. In the depths of their hearts they realized that, for those who love, the impossible becomes possible. I am conscious of the millions of people who daily confront abuses of human rights and work for change. I am conscious of all of the women religious throughout the world who, with listening hearts and eyes focused on today's fierce urgencies and spiritual hungers, continue to imagine alternate possibilities as they struggle toward the reality of God's reign in the immediate circumstances of daily January-February 1998 Munley . Hearts Afire life. I am conscious of the collective spiritual energy in this room and of the force that it is for the life of the world. Understood in its broadest sense, spirituality includes more than the inner life. It is, in the words of the theologian Anne Carr, "the whole of one's spiritual or religious experience, one's beliefs, convictions, and patterns of thought, one's emotions and behavior in respect to what is ultimate, or to God.''9 As women of faith and conviction, the greatest resource we can bring to the new millennium is the spiritual leadership of a heart afire. Spiritual leadership rooted in the gospel involves working for a transformed understanding of the good life as life that is profoundly good for all. When the heart is on fire, light comes from within. With the "eyes of the enlightened heart," we can see the hope to which we are called (Ep 1:18). By baptism and the mystery of vocation we have proclaimed publicly that the quest for God and the new creation is the fire of our lives. Our world longs for visible expressions of God's saving presence and for new ways of seeing that are graces of the inner experi-ence of God's love. In the Christian tradition seeing with the eyes of the heart occurs on the journey of discipleship. Discipleship is not an easy journey. It is an ongoing effort to live the gospel with integrity--trying, sometimes succeeding, often failing, recognizing the need of being forgiven and then trying again. It is a way of being in the world that affects every relationship. Disciples shape one another according to the action of the Spirit in their lives. The energy of the disciple flows from faith in what_is unseen yet believed. At its root, discipleship is a call to a love that never gives up on God, one's neighbor, or oneself. Disciples are called to love well., as Jesus did, with hope, truth, fidelity, and compassion. This leads inevitably to taking a stand with the Christ of the paschal mystery, who willingly laid down his life in love so that all may have life in abundance. In these times, spiritual leadership rooted in the gospel involves working for a transformed understanding of the good life as life that is profoundly good. for all. Such transformation will happen in our communities and in the world around us when Review for Religious precepts of compassion and justice inspire the collective soul and have an impact on behavior. All around us and among us there are compelling stories of discipleship. As leaders we need to see them with the eyes of the heart. In the sharing of the stories, heart touches heart and souls are filled with the spirit that makes ongoing commitment possible. Meaning-Making Spiritual leaders empower their communities for ongoing commitment by keeping questions of meaning before them: Why are we together in community? How are we called to the unique circumstances of these times? What is our commitment to one another and to those with whom we journey? In times of sub-stantive change there is an extraordinary need to explore ques-tions of meaning and purpose. In the midst of chaos, a coherent worldview and a dynamic understanding of the relevance of reli-gious life are helps toward interpreting the signs of the times and living discipleship with integrity. Leaders can make an enor-mous contribution to this process by helping the other members to make sense of shifting fealties both outside religious !ife and within it. At the deepest level, our congregations are held together by myths, values, beliefs, and foundational stories. These are the roots of the congregation's identity and purpose. They constitute the why of our being together as communities. They have their effect on the passion with which we live our mission. They influ-ence the way we use resources, the way we work together to press the mission forward. The shared meaning and work and mem-ory of our lives together provide symbols, relationships, and prin-ciples for making sense of the changes going on within us and around us. Shared meaning is essential for shared commitment. At a time of rapid social change and shifting demographics and resources, spiritual leadership is not about getting people to do something. It is about helping the group to keep before itself the kind of meaning that will guide choices and call forth com-mitment.~° Spiritual leadership is a group process rather than an individual's personal qualities or skills. It is interactive and rela-tional. When members of a community are closely involved in piecing shared meanings together as a basis for corporate action or direction, they experience significance together, discovery together, leadership together. Today, as many congregations grap- pie with issues of governance and restructuring, it is a key func-tion of leadership to foster meaning-making together. The more things change around us and within us, the more important it will be to create connections for exploring the pos-sibilities that change and newness offer. As Margaret Wheatley notes, "Life invites us to create not only the forms but even the process of discovery.''l~ The kind of effort that we put into mean-ing- making will affect the credibility of our way of life as well as our own sense of authenticity and integrity. Integrity and Justice In

COVID-STORM Clinicians Giuseppe Foti1, Giacomo Bellani 1, Giuseppe Citerio1, Ernesto Contro1, Alberto Pesci2, Maria Grazia Valsecchi3, Marina Cazzaniga4 1Department of Emergency, Anesthesia and Intensive Care, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, San Gerardo Hospital, Monza, Italy. 2Department of Pneumology, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, San Gerardo Hospital, Monza, Italy. 3Center of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, San Gerardo Hospital, Monza, Italy. 4Phase I Research Center, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, San Gerardo Hospital, Monza IT ; COVID Clinicians Jorge Abad1, Sergio Aguilera-Albesa2, Ozge Metin Akcan3, Ilad Alavi Darazam4, Juan C. Aldave5, Miquel Alfonso Ramos6, Seyed Alireza Nadji7, Gulsum Alkan8, Jerome Allardet-Servent9, Luis M. Allende10, Laia Alsina11, Marie-Alexandra Alyanakian12, Blanca Amador-Borrero13, Zahir Amoura14, Arnau Antolí15, Sevket Arslan16, Sophie Assant17, Terese Auguet18, Axelle Azot19, Fanny Bajolle20, Aurélie Baldolli21, Maite Ballester22, Hagit Baris Feldman23, Benoit Barrou24, Alexandra Beurton25, Agurtzane Bilbao26, Geraldine Blanchard-Rohner27, Ignacio Blanco1, Adeline Blandinières28, Daniel Blazquez-Gamero29, Marketa Bloomfield30, Mireia Bolivar-Prados31, Raphael Borie32, Cédric Bosteels33, Ahmed A. Bousfiha34, Claire Bouvattier35, Oksana Boyarchuk36, Maria Rita P. Bueno37, Jacinta Bustamante20, Juan José Cáceres Agra38, Semra Calimli39, Ruggero Capra40, Maria Carrabba41, Carlos Casasnovas42, Marion Caseris43, Martin Castelle44, Francesco Castelli45, Martín Castillo de Vera46, Mateus V. Castro37, Emilie Catherinot47, Martin Chalumeau48, Bruno Charbit49, Matthew P. Cheng50, Père Clavé31, Bonaventura Clotet51, Anna Codina52, Fatih Colkesen53, Fatma Çölkesen54, Roger Colobran55, Cloé Comarmond56, David Dalmau57, David Ross Darley58, Nicolas Dauby59, Stéphane Dauger60, Loic de Pontual61, Amin Dehban62, Geoffroy Delplancq63, Alexandre Demoule64, Jean-Luc Diehl65, Stephanie Dobbelaere66, Sophie Durand67, Waleed Eldars68, Mohamed Elgamal69, Marwa H. Elnagdy70, Melike Emiroglu71, Emine Hafize Erdeniz72, Selma Erol Aytekin73, Romain Euvrard74, Recep Evcen75, Giovanna Fabio41, Laurence Faivre76, Antonin Falck43, Muriel Fartoukh77, Morgane Faure78, Miguel Fernandez Arquero79, Carlos Flores80, Bruno Francois81, Victoria Fumadó82, Francesca Fusco83, Blanca Garcia Solis84, Pascale Gaussem85, Juana Gil-Herrera86, Laurent Gilardin87, Monica Girona Alarcon88, Mònica Girona-Alarcón88, Jean-Christophe Goffard89, Funda Gok90, Rafaela González-Montelongo91, Antoine Guerder92, Yahya Gul93, Sukru Nail Guner93, Marta Gut94, Jérôme Hadjadj95, Filomeen Haerynck96, Rabih Halwani97, Lennart Hammarström98, Nevin Hatipoglu99, Elisa Hernandez-Brito100, Cathérine Heijmans101, María Soledad Holanda-Peña102, Juan Pablo Horcajada103, Levi Hoste104, Eric Hoste105, Sami Hraiech106, Linda Humbert107, Alejandro D. Iglesias108, Antonio Íñigo-Campos91, Matthieu Jamme109, María Jesús Arranz110, Iolanda Jordan111, Philippe Jorens112, Fikret Kanat113, Hasan Kapakli114, Iskender Kara115, Adem Karbuz116, Kadriye Kart Yasar117, Sevgi Keles118, Yasemin Kendir Demirkol119, Adam Klocperk120, Zbigniew J. Król121, Paul Kuentz122, Yat Wah M. Kwan123, Jean-Christophe Lagier124, Bart N. Lambrecht33, Yu-Lung Lau125, Fleur Le Bourgeois60, Yee-Sin Leo126, Rafael Leon Lopez127, Daniel Leung125, Michael Levin128, Michael Levy60, Romain Lévy20, Zhi Li49, Agnes Linglart129, Bart Loeys130, José M. Lorenzo-Salazar91, Céline Louapre131, Catherine Lubetzki131, Charles-Edouard Luyt132, David C. Lye133, Davood Mansouri134, Majid Marjani135, Jesus Marquez Pereira136, Andrea Martin137, David Martínez Pueyo138, Javier Martinez-Picado139, Iciar Marzana140, Alexis Mathian14, Larissa R. B. Matos37, Gail V. Matthews141, Julien Mayaux142, Jean-Louis Mège143, Isabelle Melki144, Jean-François Meritet145, Ozge Metin146, Isabelle Meyts147, Mehdi Mezidi148, Isabelle Migeotte149, Maude Millereux150, Tristan Mirault151, Clotilde Mircher67, Mehdi Mirsaeidi152, Abián Montesdeoca Melián153, Antonio Morales Martinez154, Pierre Morange155, Clémence Mordacq107, Guillaume Morelle156, Stéphane Mouly13, Adrián Muñoz-Barrera91, Leslie Naesens157, Cyril Nafati158, João Farela Neves159, Lisa FP. Ng160, Yeray Novoa Medina161, Esmeralda Nuñez Cuadros162, J. Gonzalo Ocejo-Vinyals163, Zerrin Orbak164, Mehdi Oualha20, Tayfun Özçelik165, Qiang Pan-Hammarström166, Christophe Parizot142, Tiffany Pascreau167, Estela Paz-Artal168, Sandra Pellegrini49, Rebeca Pérez de Diego84, Aurélien Philippe169, Quentin Philippot77, Laura Planas-Serra170, Dominique Ploin171, Julien Poissy172, Géraldine Poncelet43, Marie Pouletty173, Paul Quentric142, Didier Raoult143, Anne-Sophie Rebillat67, Ismail Reisli174, Pilar Ricart175, Jean-Christophe Richard176, Nadia Rivet28, Jacques G. Rivière177, Gemma Rocamora Blanch15, Carlos Rodrigo1, Carlos Rodriguez-Gallego178, Agustí Rodríguez-Palmero179, Carolina Soledad Romero180, Anya Rothenbuhler181, Flore Rozenberg182, Maria Yolanda Ruiz del Prado183, Joan Sabater Riera15, Oliver Sanchez184, Silvia Sánchez-Ramón185, Agatha Schluter170, Matthieu Schmidt186, Cyril E. Schweitzer187, Francesco Scolari188, Anna Sediva189, Luis M. Seijo190, Damien Sene13, Sevtap Senoglu117, Mikko R. J. Seppänen191, Alex Serra Ilovich192, Mohammad Shahrooei62, Hans Slabbynck193, David M. Smadja194, Ali Sobh195, Xavier Solanich Moreno15, Jordi Solé-Violán196, Catherine Soler197, Pere Soler-Palacín137, Yuri Stepanovskiy198, Annabelle Stoclin199, Fabio Taccone149, Yacine Tandjaoui-Lambiotte200, Jean-Luc Taupin201, Simon J. Tavernier202, Benjamin Terrier203, Caroline Thumerelle107, Gabriele Tomasoni204, Julie Toubiana48, Josep Trenado Alvarez205, Sophie Trouillet-Assant206, Jesús Troya207, Alessandra Tucci208, Matilde Valeria Ursini‬83, Yurdagul Uzunhan209, Pierre Vabres210, Juan Valencia-Ramos211, Eva Van Braeckel33, Stijn Van de Velde212, Ana Maria Van Den Rym84, Jens Van Praet213, Isabelle Vandernoot214, Hulya Vatansev215, Valentina Vélez-Santamaria42, Sébastien Viel171, Cédric Vilain216, Marie E. Vilaire67, Audrey Vincent35, Guillaume Voiriot217, Fanny Vuotto107, Alper Yosunkaya90, Barnaby E. Young126, Fatih Yucel218, Faiez Zannad219, Mayana Zatz37, Alexandre Belot220* ; Imagine COVID Group Christine Bole-Feysot, Stanislas Lyonnet*, Cécile Masson, Patrick Nitschke, Aurore Pouliet, Yoann Schmitt, Frederic Tores, Mohammed Zarhrate Imagine Institute, Université de Paris, INSERM UMR 1163, Paris, France. *Leader of the Imagine COVID Group. ; French COVID Cohort Study Group Laurent Abel1, Claire Andrejak2, François Angoulvant3, Delphine Bachelet4, Romain Basmaci5, Sylvie Behillil6, Marine Beluze7, Dehbia Benkerrou8, Krishna Bhavsar4, François Bompart9, Lila Bouadma4, Maude Bouscambert10, Mireille Caralp11, Minerva Cervantes-Gonzalez12, Anissa Chair4, Alexandra Coelho13, Camille Couffignal4, Sandrine Couffin-Cadiergues14, Eric D'Ortenzio12, Charlene Da Silveira4, Marie-Pierre Debray4, Dominique Deplanque15, Diane Descamps16, Mathilde Desvallées17, Alpha Diallo18, Alphonsine Diouf13, Céline Dorival8, François Dubos19, Xavier Duval4, Philippine Eloy4, Vincent VE Enouf20, Hélène Esperou21, Marina Esposito-Farese4, Manuel Etienne22, Nadia Ettalhaoui4, Nathalie Gault4, Alexandre Gaymard10, Jade Ghosn4, Tristan Gigante23, Isabelle Gorenne4, Jérémie Guedj24, Alexandre Hoctin13, Isabelle Hoffmann4, Salma Jaafoura21, Ouifiya Kafif4, Florentia Kaguelidou25, Sabina Kali4, Antoine Khalil4, Coralie Khan17, Cédric Laouénan4, Samira Laribi4, Minh Le4, Quentin Le Hingrat4, Soizic Le Mestre18, Hervé Le Nagard24, François-Xavier Lescure4, Yves Lévy26, Claire Levy-Marchal27, Bruno Lina10, Guillaume Lingas24, Jean Christophe Lucet4, Denis Malvy28, Marina Mambert13, France Mentré4, Noémie Mercier18, Amina Meziane8, Hugo Mouquet20, Jimmy Mullaert4, Nadège Neant24, Marion Noret29, Justine Pages30, Aurélie Papadopoulos21, Christelle Paul18, Nathan Peiffer-Smadja4, Ventzislava Petrov-Sanchez18, Gilles Peytavin4, Olivier Picone31, Oriane Puéchal12, Manuel Rosa-Calatrava10, Bénédicte Rossignol23, Patrick Rossignol32, Carine Roy4, Marion Schneider4, Caroline Semaille12, Nassima Si Mohammed4, Lysa Tagherset4, Coralie Tardivon4, Marie-Capucine Tellier4, François Téoulé8, Olivier Terrier10, Jean-François Timsit4, Théo Trioux4, Christelle Tual33, Sarah Tubiana4, Sylvie van der Werf34, Noémie Vanel35, Aurélie Veislinger33, Benoit Visseaux16, Aurélie Wiedemann26, Yazdan Yazdanpanah36 1Inserm UMR 1163, Paris, France. 2CHU Amiens, France. 3Hôpital Necker, Paris, France. 4Hôpital Bichat, Paris, France. 5Hôpital Louis Mourrier, Colombes, France. 6Institut Pasteur, Paris, France. 7F-CRIN Partners Platform, AP-HP, Université de Paris, Paris, France. 8Inserm UMR 1136, Paris, France. 9Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative, Geneva, Switzerland. 10Inserm UMR 1111, Lyon, France. 11Inserm Transfert, Paris, France. 12REACTing, Paris, France. 13Inserm UMR 1018, Paris, France. 14Inserm, Pôle Recherche Clinique, Paris, France. 15CIC 1403 Inserm-CHU Lille, Paris, France. 16Université de Paris, IAME, INSERM UMR 1137, AP-HP, University Hospital Bichat Claude Bernard, Virology, Paris, France. 17Inserm UMR 1219, Bordeaux, France. 18ANRS, Paris, France. 19CHU Lille, Lille, France. 20Pasteur Institute, Paris, France. 21Inserm sponsor, Paris, France. 22CHU Rouen–SMIT, Rouen, France. 23FCRIN INI-CRCT, Nancy, France. 24Inserm UMR 1137, Paris, France. 25Centre d'Investigation Clinique, Inserm CIC1426, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris, France. 26Inserm UMR 955, Créteil, France; Vaccine Research Instiute (VRI), Paris, France. 27F-CRIN INI-CRCT, Paris, France. 28CHU de Bordeaux–SMIT, Bordeaux, France. 29RENARCI, Annecy, France. 30Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris, France. 31Hôpital Louis Mourier–Gynécologie, Colombes, France. 32University of Lorraine, Plurithematic Clinical Investigation Centre Inserm CIC-P; 1433, Inserm U1116, CHRU Nancy Hopitaux de Brabois, F-CRIN INI-CRCT (Cardiovascular and Renal Clinical Trialists), Nancy, France. 33Inserm CIC-1414, Rennes, France. 34Institut Pasteur, UMR 3569 CNRS, Université de Paris, Paris, France. 35Hôpital la Timone, Marseille, France. 36Bichat–SMIT, Paris, France. ; CoV-Contact Cohort Loubna Alavoine1, Karine K. A. Amat2, Sylvie Behillil3, Julia Bielicki4, Patricia Bruijning5, Charles Burdet6, Eric Caumes7, Charlotte Charpentier8, Bruno Coignard9, Yolande Costa1, Sandrine Couffin-Cadiergues10, Florence Damond8, Aline Dechanet11, Christelle Delmas10, Diane Descamps8, Xavier Duval1, Jean-Luc Ecobichon1, Vincent Enouf3, Hélène Espérou10, Wahiba Frezouls1, Nadhira Houhou11, Emila Ilic-Habensus1, Ouifiya Kafif11, John Kikoine11, Quentin Le Hingrat8, David Lebeaux12, Anne Leclercq1, Jonathan Lehacaut1, Sophie Letrou1, Bruno Lina13, Jean-Christophe Lucet14, Denis Malvy15, Pauline Manchon11, Milica Mandic1, Mohamed Meghadecha16, Justina Motiejunaite17, Mariama Nouroudine1, Valentine Piquard11, Andreea Postolache11, Caroline Quintin1, Jade Rexach1, Layidé Roufai10, Zaven Terzian11, Michael Thy18, Sarah Tubiana1, Sylvie van der Werf3, Valérie Vignali1, Benoit Visseaux8, Yazdan Yazdanpanah14 1Centre d'Investigation Clinique, Inserm CIC 1425, Hôpital Bichat Claude Bernard, APHP, Paris, France. 2IMEA Fondation Léon M'Ba, Paris, France. 3Institut Pasteur, UMR 3569 CNRS, Université de Paris, Paris, France. 4University of Basel Children's Hospital. 5Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, Utrecht, Netherlands. 6Université de Paris, IAME, Inserm UMR 1137, F-75018, Paris, France, Hôpital Bichat Claude Bernard, APHP, Paris, France. 7Hôpital Pitiè Salpétriere, APHP, Paris. 8Université de Paris, IAME, INSERM UMR 1137, AP-HP, University Hospital Bichat Claude Bernard, Virology, Paris, France. 9Santé Publique France, Saint Maurice, France. 10Pole Recherche Clinique, Inserm, Paris, France. 11Hôpital Bichat Claude Bernard, APHP, Paris, France. 12APHP, Paris, France. 13Virpath Laboratory, International Center of Research in Infectiology, Lyon University, INSERM U1111, CNRS UMR 5308, ENS, UCBL, Lyon, France. 14IAME Inserm UMR 1138, Hôpital Bichat Claude Bernard, APHP, Paris, France. 15Service des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales; Groupe Pellegrin-Place Amélie-Raba-Léon, Bordeaux, France. 16Hôpital Hotel Dieu, APHP, Paris, France. 17Service des Explorations Fonctionnelles, Hôpital Bichat–Claude Bernard, APHP, Paris, France. 18Center for Clinical Investigation, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Bichat-Claude Bernard University Hospital, Paris, France. ; Amsterdam UMC Covid-19 Biobank Michiel van Agtmael1, Anna Geke Algera2, Frank van Baarle2, Diane Bax3, Martijn Beudel4, Harm Jan Bogaard5, Marije Bomers1, Lieuwe Bos2, Michela Botta2, Justin de Brabander6, Godelieve de Bree6, Matthijs C. Brouwer4, Sanne de Bruin2, Marianna Bugiani7, Esther Bulle2, Osoul Chouchane1, Alex Cloherty3, Paul Elbers2, Lucas Fleuren2, Suzanne Geerlings1, Bart Geerts8, Theo Geijtenbeek9, Armand Girbes2, Bram Goorhuis1, Martin P. Grobusch1, Florianne Hafkamp9, Laura Hagens2, Jorg Hamann10, Vanessa Harris1, Robert Hemke11, Sabine M. Hermans1, Leo Heunks2, Markus W. Hollmann8, Janneke Horn2, Joppe W. Hovius1, Menno D. de Jong12, Rutger Koning4, Niels van Mourik2, Jeaninne Nellen1, Frederique Paulus2, Edgar Peters1, Tom van der Poll1, Benedikt Preckel8, Jan M. Prins1, Jorinde Raasveld2, Tom Reijnders1, Michiel Schinkel1, Marcus J. Schultz2, Alex Schuurman13, Kim Sigaloff1, Marry Smit2, Cornelis S. Stijnis1, Willemke Stilma2, Charlotte Teunissen14, Patrick Thoral2, Anissa Tsonas2, Marc van der Valk1, Denise Veelo8, Alexander P.J. Vlaar15, Heder de Vries2, Michèle van Vugt1, W. Joost Wiersinga1, Dorien Wouters16, A. H. (Koos) Zwinderman17, Diederik van de Beek4* 1Department of Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 2Department of Intensive Care, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 3Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 4Department of Neurology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 5Department of Pulmonology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 6Department of Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 7Department of Pathology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 8Department of Anesthesiology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 9Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 10Amsterdam UMC Biobank Core Facility, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 11Department of Radiology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 12Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 13Department of Internal Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 14Neurochemical Laboratory, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 15Department of Intensive Care, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 16Department of Clinical Chemistry, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 17Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 18Department of Neurology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. *Leader of the AMC Consortium. ; COVID Human Genetic Effort Laurent Abel1, Alessandro Aiuti2, Saleh Al Muhsen3, Fahd Al-Mulla4, Mark S. Anderson5, Andrés Augusto Arias6, Hagit Baris Feldman7, Dusan Bogunovic8, Alexandre Bolze9, Anastasiia Bondarenko10, Ahmed A. Bousfiha11, Petter Brodin12, Yenan Bryceson12, Carlos D. Bustamante13, Manish Butte14, Giorgio Casari15, Samya Chakravorty16, John Christodoulou17, Elizabeth Cirulli9, Antonio Condino-Neto18, Megan A. Cooper19, Clifton L. Dalgard20, Alessia David21, Joseph L. DeRisi22, Murkesh Desai23, Beth A. Drolet24, Sara Espinosa25, Jacques Fellay26, Carlos Flores27, Jose Luis Franco28, Peter K. Gregersen29, Filomeen Haerynck30, David Hagin31, Rabih Halwani32, Jim Heath33, Sarah E. Henrickson34, Elena Hsieh35, Kohsuke Imai36, Yuval Itan8, Timokratis Karamitros37, Kai Kisand38, Cheng-Lung Ku39, Yu-Lung Lau40, Yun Ling41, Carrie L. Lucas42, Tom Maniatis43, Davoud Mansouri44, Laszlo Marodi45, Isabelle Meyts46, Joshua Milner47, Kristina Mironska48, Trine Mogensen49, Tomohiro Morio50, Lisa FP. Ng51, Luigi D. Notarangelo52, Antonio Novelli53, Giuseppe Novelli54, Cliona O'Farrelly55, Satoshi Okada56, Tayfun Ozcelik57, Rebeca Perez de Diego58, Anna M. Planas59, Carolina Prando60, Aurora Pujol61, Lluis Quintana-Murci62, Laurent Renia63, Alessandra Renieri64, Carlos Rodríguez-Gallego65, Vanessa Sancho-Shimizu66, Vijay Sankaran67, Kelly Schiabor Barrett9, Mohammed Shahrooei68, Andrew Snow69, Pere Soler-Palacín70, András N. Spaan71, Stuart Tangye72, Stuart Turvey73, Furkan Uddin74, Mohammed J. Uddin75, Diederik van de Beek76, Sara E. Vazquez77, Donald C. Vinh78, Horst von Bernuth79, Nicole Washington9, Pawel Zawadzki80, Helen C. Su52, Jean-Laurent Casanova81 1INSERM U1163, University of Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France. 2San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy. 3King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. 4Kuwait University, Kuwait City, Kuwait. 5University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. 6Universidad de Antioquia, Group of Primary Immunodeficiencies, Antioquia, Colombia. 7The Genetics Institute, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center and Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel. 8Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA. 9Helix, San Mateo, CA, USA. 10Shupyk National Medical Academy for Postgraduate Education, Kiev, Ukraine. 11Clinical Immunology Unit, Pediatric Infectious Disease Departement, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Averroes University Hospital; LICIA Laboratoire d'Immunologie Clinique, d'Inflammation et d'Allergie, Hassann Ii University, Casablanca, Morocco. 12Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden. 13Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA. 14University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. 15Medical Genetics, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy. 16Emory University Department of Pediatrics and Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, USA. 17Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Victoria, Australia. 18University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. 19Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA. 20The American Genome Center; Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA. 21Centre for Bioinformatics and System Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, UK. 22University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA. 23Bai Jerbai Wadia Hospital for Children, Mumbai, India. 24School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA. 25Instituto Nacional de Pediatria (National Institute of Pediatrics), Mexico City, Mexico. 26Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland. 27Research Unit, Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria, Canarian Health System, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain. 28University of Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia. 29Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Northwell Health USA, Manhasset, NY, USA. 30Department of Paediatric Immunology and Pulmonology, Centre for Primary Immunodeficiency Ghent (CPIG), PID Research Lab, Jeffrey Modell Diagnosis and Research Centre, Ghent University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium. 31The Genetics Institute, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel. 32Sharjah Institute of Medical Research, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE. 33Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA, USA. 34Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA. 35Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA. 36Riken, Tokyo, Japan. 37Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece. 38University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia. 39Chang Gung University, Taoyuan County, Taiwan. 40The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China. 41Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China. 42Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA. 43New York Genome Center, New York, NY, USA. 44Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. 45Semmelweis University Budapest, Budapest, Hungary. 46KU Leuven, Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Transplantation, Leuven, Belgium. 47Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA. 48University Clinic for Children's Diseases, Skopje, North Macedonia. 49Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark. 50Tokyo Medical & Dental University Hospital, Tokyo, Japan. 51Singapore Immunology Network, Singapore. 52National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA. 53Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Rome, Italy. 54Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome "Tor Vergata," Rome, Italy. 55Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland. 56Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan. 57Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey. 58Laboratory of Immunogenetics of Human Diseases, Innate Immunity Group, IdiPAZ Institute for Health Research, La Paz Hospital, Madrid, Spain. 59IIBB-CSIC, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain. 60Faculdades Pequeno Príncipe e Instituto de Pesquisa Pelé Pequeno Príncipe, Curitiba, Brazil. 61Neurometabolic Diseases Laboratory, IDIBELL–Hospital Duran I Reynals; Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA); CIBERER U759, ISCiii Madrid Spain, Barcelona, Spain. 62Institut Pasteur (CNRS UMR2000) and Collège de France, Paris, France. 63Infectious Diseases Horizontal Technology Center and Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science Technology (A*STAR), Singapore. 64Medical Genetics, University of Siena, Siena, Italy; Genetica Medica, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Senese, Italy; GEN-COVID Multicenter Study. 65Hospital Universitario de Gran Canaria Dr. Negrín, Canarian Health System, Canary Islands, Spain. 66Imperial College London, London, UK. 67Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. 68Saeed Pathobiology and Genetic Lab, Tehran, Iran. 69Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA. 70Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain. 71University Medical Center Utrecht, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 72Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, Australia. 73The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. 74Holy Family Red Crescent Medical College; Centre for Precision Therapeutics, NeuroGen Children's Healthcare; Genetics and Genomic Medicine Centre, NeuroGen Children's Healthcare, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 75Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, College of Medicine, Dubai, UAE; The Centre for Applied Genomics, Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 76Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Neurology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 77University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA. 78McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Canada. 79Charité–Berlin University Hospital Center, Berlin, Germany. 80Molecular Biophysics Division, Faculty of Physics, A. Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznanskiego 2, Poznań, Poland. 81Rockefeller University, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Necker Hospital, New York, NY, USA. *Leaders of the COVID Human Genetic Effort. ; NIAID-USUHS/TAGC COVID Immunity Group Huie Jing1,2, Wesley Tung1,2, Christopher R. Luthers3, Bradly M. Bauman3, Samantha Shafer2,4, Lixin Zheng2,4, Zinan Zhang2,4, Satoshi Kubo2,4, Samuel D. Chauvin2,4, Kazuyuki Meguro1,2, Elana Shaw1,2, Michael Lenardo2,4, Justin Lack5, Eric Karlins6, Daniel M. Hupalo7, John Rosenberger7, Gauthaman Sukumar7, Matthew D. Wilkerson7, Xijun Zhang7 1Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, Division of Intramural Research, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA. 2NIAID Clinical Genomics Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA. 3Department of Pharmacology & Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA. 4Laboratory of Immune System Biology, Division of Intramural Research, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA. 5NIAID Collaborative Bioinformatics Resource, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick, MD, USA. 6Bioinformatics and Computational Biosciences Branch, Office of Cyber Infrastructure and Computational Biology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA. 7The American Genome Center, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA. ; Clinical outcome upon infection with SARS-CoV-2 ranges from silent infection to lethal COVID-19. We have found an enrichment in rare variants predicted to be loss-of-function (LOF) at the 13 human loci known to govern TLR3- and IRF7-dependent type I interferon (IFN) immunity to influenza virus, in 659 patients with life-threatening COVID-19 pneumonia, relative to 534 subjects with asymptomatic or benign infection. By testing these and other rare variants at these 13 loci, we experimentally define LOF variants in 23 patients (3.5%), aged 17 to 77 years, underlying autosomal recessive or dominant deficiencies. We show that human fibroblasts with mutations affecting this pathway are vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2. Inborn errors of TLR3- and IRF7-dependent type I IFN immunity can underlie life-threatening COVID-19 pneumonia in patients with no prior severe infection. ; We thank the generous donation from Fisher Center for Alzheimer's Research Foundation for our research. The Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases is supported by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the Rockefeller University, the St. Giles Foundation, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (R01AI088364), the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), NIH Clinical and Translational Science Award (CTSA) program (UL1 TR001866), a Fast Grant from Emergent Ventures, Mercatus Center at George Mason University, the Yale Center for Mendelian Genomics and the GSP Coordinating Center funded by the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) (UM1HG006504 and U24HG008956), the French National Research Agency (ANR) under the "Investments for the Future" program (ANR-10-IAHU-01), the Integrative Biology of Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratory of Excellence (ANR-10-LABX-62-IBEID), the French Foundation for Medical Research (FRM) (EQU201903007798), the FRM and ANR GENCOVID project, ANRS-COV05, the Square Foundation, Grandir - Fonds de solidarité pour l'enfance, the SCOR Corporate Foundation for Science, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), the University of Paris. The French COVID Cohort study group was sponsored by Inserm and supported by the REACTing consortium and by a grant from the French Ministry of Health (PHRC 20-0424). Regione Lombardia, Italy (project "Risposta immune in pazienti con COVID-19 e co-morbidità"), and the Intramural Research Program of the NIAID, NIH. The laboratory of Genomes & Cell Biology of Disease is supported by "Integrative Biology of Emerging Infectious Diseases" (grant no. ANR-10-LABX-62-IBEID), the "Fondation pour la Recherche Medicale" (grant FRM - EQU202003010193), the "Agence Nationale de la Recherche" (ANR FLASH COVID project IDISCOVR cofounded by the "Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale"), University of Paris ("Plan de Soutien Covid-19": RACPL20FIR01-COVID-SOUL). IM is a senior clinical investigator with the FWO Vlaanderen; IM and LM are supported by FWO G0C8517N – GOB5120N. The VS team was supported by "Agence Nationale de la Recherche" (ANR-17-CE15-0003, ANR-17-CE15-0003-01), and by Université de Paris "PLAN D'URGENCE COVID19". LK was supported by a fellowship from the French Ministry of Research. VS-S is supported by a UKRI Future Leaders Fellowship (MR/S032304/1). SZA-M is supported by the Elite Journals Program at King Saud University through grant number PEJP-16-107. JM lab is supported by Columbia University COVID biobank and grant: UL1TR001873. Work in the Laboratory of Virology and Infectious Disease was supported by NIH grants P01AI138398-S1, 2U19AI111825, and R01AI091707-10S1, a George Mason University Fast Grant, and the G. Harold and Leila Y. Mathers Charitable Foundation. JLP is supported by a European Molecular Biology Organization Long-Term Fellowship (ALTF 380-2018). Work at the Neurometabolic Diseases Laboratory received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No 824110 (EasiGenomics grant COVID-19/ PID12342) to A.P., and Roche and Illumina Covid Match Funds to M.G. C.R.G and colleagues are supported by cInstituto de Salud Carlos III (COV20_01333 and COV20_01334), Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, with the funding of European Regional Development Fund-European Social Fund -FEDER-FSE; (RTC-2017-6471-1; AEI/FEDER, UE), and Cabildo Insular de Tenerife (CGIEU0000219140 and "Apuestas científicas del ITER para colaborar en la lucha contra la COVID-19"). D.C.V. is supported by the Fonds de la recherche en santé du Québec clinician-scientist scholar program. Helen Su is adjunct faculty at the University of Pennsylvania. A-L.N. was supported by the Foundation Bettencourt Schueller. The Amsterdam UMC Covid-19 Biobank was funded by the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMw, NWO-vici 91819627), The Corona Research Fund (Amsterdam UMC), Dr. J. C. Vaillantfonds, and Amsterdam UMC. Work on COVID-19 at the AG-S lab is partly supported by NIH supplements to grants U19AI135972, U19AI142733 and R35 HL135834, and to contract HHSN272201800048C, by a DoD supplement to grant W81XWH-20-1-0270, by DARPA project HR0011-19-2-0020, by CRIP (Center for Research on Influenza Pathogenesis), a NIAID funded Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance (CEIRS, contract HHSN272201400008C), by an NIAID funded Collaborative Influenza Vaccine Innovation Center (SEM-CIVIC, contract 75N93019C00051) and by the generous support of the JPB Foundation, the Open Philanthropy Project (research grant 2020-215611(5384)) and anonymous donors. The Virscan analysis presented in fig. S11 was performed with financial support from Sidra Medicine ; Peer reviewed

Verkehr und Information

(Siehe dazu auch das downloadbare PDF-Dokument zu dieser Studie)

Die Entwicklung der regionalen Wirtschaft, des Handels und damit des Wohlstands hängen eng mit der zur Verfügung stehenden Verkehrsinfrastruktur zusammen. Der Verkehrssektor sorgt für die Mobilität von Personen sowie den effizienten Austausch von Gütern und Nachrichten und lässt die Bedeutung räumlicher Distanzen in den Hintergrund treten. Hierbei sind sämtliche Bereiche des Verkehrs- und Informationswesens von Bedeutung. In verschiedenen Studien konnten große wirtschaftliche Modernisierungseffekte für die frühe Neuzeit durch die Entwicklung des Postverkehrs in festen Fahrplänen sowie den Bau von Chausseen nachgewiesen werden. Die Innovationen im Bereich der Telekommunikation beschleunigen den Austausch von Informationen um ein Vielfaches, frühere Technologien werden ergänzt oder sogar vollkommen ersetzt durch neue Formen der Informationsvermittlung. (Ein Beispiel ist das Telegramm, das Ende des 19. Jh. und Anfang des 20. Jh. eine hilfreiche und schnelle Form der Nachrichtenübermittlung war, da es wenig Telefone gab und die Briefe eine Laufzeit von ca. 4 Tagen hatten. Im 21. Jh. werden Telegramme nur selten eingesetzt. Das Telegramm hat an Bedeutung verloren, da das Kommunikationsnetz ausgebaut wurde und mittlerweile modernere Möglichkeiten der Datenübertragung wie z.B. SMS, E-Mail, Instant Messaging, zur Verfügung stehen.) Später wurden hinsichtlich der Entwicklung und des Ausbaus des Eisenbahnverkehrs ähnliche Effekte für den Warenhandel und die Integration von Regionen in den überregionalen nationalen Markt und in den Welthandel für die Zeit der industriellen Revolution nachgewiesen. Es soll versucht werden, die quantitative Entwicklung von Indikatoren zu den verschiedenen Verkehrsbereichen Eisenbahn, Kraftfahrzeuge, Binnen- und Seeschifffahrt, Luftverkehr sowie Post- und Nachrichtenverkehr über einen möglichst langen Zeitraum wiederzugeben, um so aufbereitete Zeitreihen der Forschung zur Verfügung zu stellen.

Die vorliegende Datensammlung zum Themenbereich 'Verkehr und Information' enthält insgesamt 75 Zeitreihen, die sich auf den Zeitraum vom Beginn der Amtlichen Statistik zur Zeit des Deutschen Reiches im Jahr 1870 bis zur heutigen Bundesrepublik in den Grenzen vom 3. Oktober 1990 erstrecken; es soll also, soweit es die Quellen erlauben, der Zeitraum von 1870 bis 2010 statistisch wiedergegeben werden. Aufgrund der sich häufig ändernden Erhebungssystematiken sowie durch die Folgen des 1. und des 2. Weltkrieges können nicht für alle Zeitreihen kontinuierlich Daten für den gewünschten Zeitraum zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Entweder liegen für die Zeitabschnitte während der Kriege keine Daten vor oder aber die Vergleichbarkeit insbesondere bei unterschiedlicher Erhebungssystematik ist stark eingeschränkt. Letzeres Problem tritt in besonderer Weise für die Statistik aus der Zeit der ehemaligen Deutschen Demokratischen Republik auf, aber auch die Statistik der früheren Bundesrepublik Deutschland (das Gebiet der alten Länder) kann erhebliche Brüche in der Systematik aufweisen. Der technische Fortschritt ist ein weiterer Grund, der das Fortführen kontinuierlicher Zeitreihen erschwert.

Die Zeitreihen zum Bereich 'Verkehr und Information' decken folgende Gebiete ab:
• 01: Eisenbahnen: Streckenlängen und Fahrzeugbestände (1850-2009)
• 02: Eisenbahnen: Personen- und Güterverkehr (1850-2002)
• 03: Straßenverkehr: Bestand an Kraftfahrzeugen (1902-2010)
• 04: Straßenverkehr: Straßenverkehrsunfälle (1906-2010)
• 05: Binnenschifffahrt: Bestand an Binnenschiffen (1872-2010)
• 06: Binnenschifffahrt: Güterverkehr auf den Binnenwasserstraßen (1909-2010)
• 07: Seeschifffahrt: Handelsschiffstonnage und Anzahl der Schiffe (1971-2010)
• 08: Seeschifffahrt: Güterumschlag bedeutender Seehäfen -
Hamburg, Bremische Häfen, Emden sowie Rostock, Wismar und Stralsund
(1925-2010)
• 09: Gewerblicher Luftverkehr (1919-2010)
• 10: Deutsche Reichs- und Bundespost, Telekommunikation (1871-2010)


Aufbau und Tabelleninhalt:

Zeitreihen zur Eisenbahn:
01: Eisenbahnen:
Streckenlängen und Fahrzeugbestände (1850-2009), Streckenlänge (alle Bahnen), Streckenlänge (Deutsche Reichsbahn-Bahn/Deutsche Bundesbahn), Fahrzeugbestände (alle Bahnen), Fahrzeugbestände (Deutsche Reichsbahn-Bahn/Deutsche Bundesbahn).

02: Eisenbahnen: Personen- und Güterverkehr (1850-2002)
Beförderte Personen (alle Bahnen), Geleistete Personenkilometer (alle Bahnen), Beförderte Güter (alle Bahnen), Geleistete Tonnenkilometer (alle Bahnen), Beförderte Personen (Deutsche Reichsbahn-Bahn/Deutsche Bundesbahn), Geleistete Personenkilometer (Deutsche Reichsbahn-Bahn/Deutsche Bundesbahn), Beförderte Güter (Deutsche Reichsbahn-Bahn/Deutsche Bundesbahn), Geleistete Tonnenkilometer (Deutsche Reichsbahn-Bahn/Deutsche Bundesbahn).


Zeitreihen zum Kraftfahrzeugverkehr:
03: Strassenverkehr: Bestand an Kraftfahrzeugen (1902-2010)
Kraftfahrzeuge insgesamt, Krafträder, Personenkraftwagen, Kraftomnibusse, Lastkraftfahrzeuge, Zugmaschinen, Sonderkraftfahrzeuge, Bevölkerung in 1000, Krafträder auf 1000 Einwohner, Personenkraftwagen auf 1000 Einwohner, Lastkraftfahrzeuge auf 1000 Einwohner.

04: Strassenverkehr: Straßenverkehrsunfälle (1906-2010)
Unfälle, Getötete, Verletzte.


Zeitreihen zur Binnenschifffahrt:
05: Bestand an Binnenschiffen (1872-2010)
Güterschiffe mit eigener Triebkraft (Anzahl), Güterschiffe mit eigener Triebkraft (Tragfähigk. in 1.000 t), Güterschiffe ohne eigene Triebkraft (Anzahl), Güterschiffe ohne eigene Triebkraft (Tragfähigk. in 1.000 t).

06: Güterverkehr auf den Binnenwasserstraßen (1909-2010)
Beförderte Güter (Mill. T.).
Zeitreihen zur Seeschifffahrt:
07: Handelsschiffstonnage und Anzahl der Schiffe (1871-2010)
Insgesamt, Anteil an Welthandelstonnage, Anzahl der Schiffe.

08: Güterumschlag bedeutender Seehäfen -
Hamburg, Bremische Häfen, Emden sowie Rostock, Wismar und Stralsund
(1925-2010)

Zeitreihen zur Luftfahrt:
09: Gewerblicher Luftverkehr (1919-2010)
Für deutsche Flughäfen: Beförderte Personen, Beförderte Luftfracht, Beförderte Luftpost.
Für deutsche Fluggesellschaften: Beförderte Personen, Personenkilometer (Pkm), Beförderte Luftfracht, Beförderte Luftfracht in Tonnenkilometer (Tkm), Beförderte Luftpost, Beförderte Luftpost in Tonnenkilometer (Tkm)

Zeitreihen zum Post- und Telekommunikationswesen:
10: Deutsche Reichs- und Bundespost, Telekommunikation (1871-2010)
Für das Deutsche Reich, die Alten Länder und die Neuen Länder bis 1990:
Beförderte Briefsendungen, Beförderte Paket- und Wertsendungen, Übermittelte Telegramme, Sprechstellen (Telefonanschlüsse), Ortsgespräche, Ferngespräche, Ton-Rundfunkgenehmigungen (Radioempfang), Fernseh-Rundfunkgenehmigungen.
Für Deutschland in den Grenzen vom 3. Oktober 1990 ab 1990:
Beförderte Briefsendungen, Beförderte Paket- und Wertsendungen, Übermittelte Telegramme, Sprechstellen (Kanäle) - Alle Service-Anbieter, Sprechstellen (Kanäle) - Dt. Telekom, Sprechstellen (Kanäle) - Wettbewerber der Telekom, Sprechstellen (Telefon-Anschlüsse) - Alle Service-Anbieter, Sprechstellen (Telefon-Anschlüsse) - Deutsche Telekom, Sprechstellen (Telefon-Anschlüsse) - Wettbewerber der Telekom, Mobilfunk, Teilnehmer, Verbindungsvolumen im Festnetz(in Mrd. Minuten; zuvor: Summe Ortsgespräche bzw. Ferngespräche) - Alle Service-Anbieter, Verbindungsvolumen im Festnetz(in Mrd. Minuten) - Dt. Telekom, Verbindungsvolumen im Festnetz(in Mrd. Minuten) - Wettbewerber, TAL-Anmietungen durch Wettbewerber der Deutschen Telekom (Mio Anmietungen), Ortsgespräche, Ferngespräche, Ton-Rundfunkgenehmigungen, Fernseh-Rundfunkgenehmigungen.


Zu den einzelnen Bereichen

Die Eisenbahn
Die Frage, ob die Eisenbahn als Staatsbahn oder als privat betriebenes Unternehmen geführt werden soll, begleitet die Eisenbahn schon seit ihren ersten Jahren. Vor allem in den wichtigen Handels- und Industriestädten werden in Deutschland private Aktiengesellschaften gegründet, um den Bau von Eisenbahnstrecken zu finanzieren. Dagegen setzt man in Baden und Braunschweig von Beginn an auf das Staatsbahnsystem. 1886 übernimmt schließlich der preußische Staat die bedeutende "Rheinische Eisenbahngesellschaft". Nach Ende des ersten Weltkrieges 1918 wurde die erste Verfassung eines demokratischen Staates, die Weimarer Verfassung 1919 für das Deutsche Reich beschlossen. Auf Grundlage dieser Verfassung wurde 1920 der Staatsvertrag zur Gründung der Deutschen Reichseisenbahnen in Kraft gesetzt. Die bis dahin noch den Ländern unterstellten staatlichen Eisenbahnen (bzw. Länderbahnen) gingen jetzt in Reichsbesitz über. Im Einzelnen waren dies:
die Königlich Bayerischen Staats-Eisenbahnen,
die Königlich Sächsischen Staatseisenbahnen,
die Königlich Württembergischen Staats-Eisenbahnen,
die Großherzoglich Badischen Staatseisenbahnen,
die Preußischen Staatseisenbahnen,
die Preußisch-Hessische Eisenbahngemeinschaft "K.P. u. G.H. StE",
die Großherzoglich Oldenburgischen Staatseisenbahnen und
die Großherzoglich Mecklenburgische Friedrich-Franz-Eisenbahn.
(Vergl.: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Reichsbahn_%281920%E2%80%931945%29)
Neben dieser Entwicklung waren in Deutschland immer sowohl staatseigene als auch private Bahnen tätig. Für die Zeit des Deutschen Reiches, für die ehemalige Bundesrepublik (alte Länder) sowie für Deutschland nach dem 1. Oktober 1990 werden daher die Angaben zu den aufgeführten Beständen jeweils für alle Bahnen zusammen und für die Staatsbahn im speziellen aufgeführt (d.i. Deutsche Reichsbahn, Deutsche Bundesbahn).
Zu der Entstehungsgeschichte der einzelnen deutschen Bahnen sowie den Entscheidungsphasen sind wertvolle Hinweise aus R. Fremdling und A. Kunz: Statistik der Eisenbahnen in Deutschland 1835 – 1989. Scripta Mercaturae Verlag, 1995, S. 19ff. zu entnehmen.


01: Eisenbahnen: Streckenlängen und Fahrzeugbestände (1850-2009)
Dieser Abschnitt enthält Zeitreihen zur Länge der Schienenstrecken und den Fahrzeugbeständen, die sich aufgliedern in Lokomotiven, Triebwagen, Personenwagen, Gepäckwagen und Güterwagen. Angaben für alle Bahnen zusammen zur Zeit des Deutschen Reiches sowie für die staatseigene Bundesbahn der ehemaligen Bundesrepublik Deutschland in den Grenzen von 1945 wurden – mit Ausnahme der Reihe zu den Triebwagen – bereits von R. Fremdling und A. Kunz im Rahmen ihrer Studie "Statistik der Eisenbahnen in Deutschland 1835 – 1989. Scripta Mercaturae Verlag, 1995" erhoben. Sie decken den Zeitraum 1850-1932 für das Deutsche Reich und 1950-1989 für die Alten Länder (also die ehemalige Bundesrepublik) ab. Ergänzt wurden diese Reihen für 1938 bis 1940 aus den Statistischen Jahrbüchern für das Deutsche Reich bzw. für 1989 bis1993 aus den Statistischen Jahrbüchern für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Zusätzlich zu den Reihen von Fremdlung/ Kunz wurden in dieser Studie für die entsprechenden Werte zur Länge des Schienennetzes sowie zum Fahrzeugbestand speziell für die staatliche Bahn des Deutschen Reiches, also für die Deutsche Reichsbahn, sowie für alle Bahnen der Bundesrepublik bis 1993 zusammengestellt. Für die Zusammenstellung der Streckenlängen und Fahrzeugbestände wurde daher sowohl auf die Ergebnisse dieser Studie als auch auf die Publikationen des Statistischen Bundesamtes zurückgegriffen.
Für die neuen Länder können für die Zeit der ehemaligen DDR nur zur Staatsbahn – also zu der Deutsche Reichsbahn – Angaben gemacht werden, da es zur Zeit der DDR keine privaten Bahnen gab. Neben dem Statistischen Jahrbuch für die DDR wurden hier die von dem Statistischen Bundesamt herausgegebenen Sonderreihen mit Beiträgen für das Gebiet der ehemaligen DDR und die darin enthaltenen verkehrsstatistischen Übersichten herangezogen. Für die ersten Jahre nach der Wiedervereinigung werden noch Werte für die Gebiete der alten Bundesrepublik und der ehemaligen DDR in den Statistischen Jahrbüchern für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland gesondert ausgewiesen. Ab 1994 werden die Bestände nur noch für Gesamtdeutschland nachgewiesen, so dass die Datenreihen jeweils für die Neuen Länder und die Alten Länder mit dem Jahr 1990, spätestens 1993 enden und nur noch für Deutschland in den Grenzen vom 3. Oktober 1990 fortgeführt werden können.
Die Schienenstrecken werden als Eigentumslänge mit Stand am Ende des jeweiligen Kalenderjahres wiedergegeben. Der Fahrzeugbestand bezieht sich immer auf den Stand am Ende des Rechnungs- bzw. Betriebsjahres. Bis 1937 werden Eigentumsbestände der Bahnen ausgewiesen. Anschließend beziehen sich die Werte auf den Einsatzbestand, d.h., in den angegebenen Werten können auch von anderen Bahngesellschaften für den eigenen Bahnbetrieb geliehene Bestände mit enthalten sein.
Die Bahn durchlief grundlegende technische Veränderungen.
In den alten Ländern, dem Tätigkeitsgebiet der Deutschen Bundesbahn, wurden sukzessiv bis 1977 alle Dampflokomotiven durch Elektro- und Diesellokomotiven ersetzt. Die Schienenstreckentypen wurden vereinheitlicht (vollständiger Abbau von Schienenstrecken für Schmalspurbahnen). Neue Wagentypen und Zugtypen (InterCity, TransEuroExpress) wurden eingeführt. Dies alles kann im Rahmen der vorliegenden Studie nicht detailliert in Form von statistischen Zeitreihen nachgezeichnet werden, da dies den zeitlichen Rahmen des Projektes sprengen würde. Die technischen Veränderungen insbesondere im Bereich der Fahrzeugbestände, und hier besonders in Bezug auf die Triebwagen (Lokomotiven, etc.) haben zu einer Veränderung der Systematik geführt. Um die Darstellung der Reihen möglichst konstant zu gestalten, wurden neu hinzugekommene Triebwagentypen bzw. weiter ausdifferenzierte Wagentypen, die in der Statistik gesondert aufgeführt wurden, soweit es möglich war, zu Oberbegriffen zusammengefasst. Dies wird in den jeweils betreffenden Zeitreihen für den Zeitraum, auf den diese Vorgehensweise angewendet wurde, in den Anmerkungen kenntlich gemacht. So werden ab 1990 im Statistischen Jahrbuch für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland unter dem Oberbegriff 'Triebwagen' die Kategorien 'Elektrische Lokomotiven', Diesellokomotiven', 'Elektrische Triebwagen' und 'Dieseltriebwagen' gesondert aufgeführt. Der Bestand der Lokomotiven wurde für die Vademecum-Studie durch die Aufaddierung der Kategorien 'Elektrische Lokomotiven' und 'Diesellokomotiven' erfasst. Dampflokomotiven wurden so lange erfasst, wie sie auch in den Statistischen Jahrbüchern der Bundesrepublik aufgeführt wurden. Für die Triebwagen wurde jeweils die Summe aus ´Elektrische Triebwagen´ und ´Dieseltriebwagen´ gebildet.


02: Eisenbahnen: Personen- und Güterverkehr (1850-2002)
Neben dem Fahrzeugbestand stellt die Leistung in den Bereichen der Personenbeförderung und der Güterbeförderung eine bedeutende betriebswirtschaftliche sowie verkehrsstatistische Größe dar. Der gemäß vergebenen Aufträgen durchgeführte Transport von Gütern inklusive der Be-, Um- und Ausladung, beinhaltet eine Vielzahl von Verkehrsunterstützungs-, Verkehrsvermittlungs- und Verkehrskoordinierungsprozessen. Zum einen kann die Verkehrsleistung in den absoluten Werten ausgedrückt werden, d.h. die Anzahl der transportierten Personen bzw. das Gewicht der transportierten Güter. Statistisch wird die Verkehrsleistung mit Hilfe einer Kennzahl zum Ausdruck gebracht, die für den Personentransport die Dimension »Pkm (Personenkilometer)« (= Personen X Kilometer) und für den Gütertransport die Dimension »tkm (Tonnenkilometer)« (= Tonnen X Kilometer) hat. Das Produkt aus der zurückgelegten Strecke und der Menge der transportierten Güter bzw. der beförderten Personen wird als 'Aufwandsgröße' im Transportwesen verstanden. Diese vier Größen werden jeweils für alle Bahnen zusammen sowie für die Deutsche Reichsbahn/Deutsche Bundesbahn im speziellen dargestellt – wobei für die neuen Bundesländer Angaben nur für die Deutsche Reichsbahn erhältlich sind. Auch hier kann für die Zeit des Deutschen Reiches auf die Studie von Fremdling und Kunz für alle Bahnen zusammen zurückgegriffen werden. Für die Deutsche Reichsbahn im speziellen werden die Angaben des Statistischen Reichsamtes in den herausgegebenen Jahrbüchern herangezogen. Für das Gebiet der alten Bundesländer stellen Fremdling und Kunz Kennzahlen für die Deutsche Bundesbahn zur Verfügung. Dementsprechend werden die Kennzahlen für alle in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Alte Länder) tätigen Bahnen zusätzlich aus der amtlichen Statistik erhoben.


Der motorisierte Strassenverkehr:
Rainer Flik beschreibt in seinen Arbeiten "Motorisierung des Straßenverkehrs, Automobilindustrie und Wirtschaftswachstum in Europa und Übersee bis 1939" (in: M. Lehmann-Waffenschmidt (Hg., 2002): Perspektiven des Wandels - Evolutorische Ökonomik in der Anwendung. Metropolis – Verlag für Ökonomie.) und insbesondere "Von Ford lernen? Automobilbau und Motorisierung bis 1933. Köln: Böhlau, 2001" die Ursachen für die verzögerte Durchsetzung des Automobils als Transportmittel sowie die verspätete Motorisierung der deutschen Bevölkerung. Es waren seiner Analyse zu Folge die schlechteren Rahmenbedingungen für den Automobilmarkt und weniger Unterschiede in den Bedürfnissen der Bevölkerung oder im Unternehmerverhalten, die dem Automobil in Deutschland zunächst zum Nachteil gereichten. In den dicht besiedelten und durch die Eisenbahn und Strassenbahn (sog. Pferdeomnibusse und Pferdebahnen, später um 1880 sukzessive ersetzt durch die Elektrische Stadt- bzw. Strassenbahn) gut erschlossenen Ballungsräumen Deutschlands spielte zunächst das Automobil für die Wirtschaft und den Transport der Güter eine untergeordnete Rolle. Darüber hinaus waren hohe Investitionskosten für den Ausbau von Strassen notwendig, während die Schienenstrecken für die Eisenbahn in den deutschen Großstädten schon vorhanden waren. Daher wurde auch durch die Besteuerungspraxis des Staates das Automobil gegenüber der Eisenbahn zunächst benachteiligt, was zur Folge hatte, dass die Motorisierung des Mittelstandes langsamer verlief als beispielsweise in den USA. Erst in den 1920er Jahren hat das Lastkraftfahrzeug in den Ballungsräumen sich als Transportfahrzeug durchsetzen können, während der Personenkraftwagen noch als teures Luxusgut nur wenigen wohlhabenden Personen zugänglich war. Dagegen spielte das Motorrad für die Motorisierung der deutschen Bevölkerung eine entscheidende Rolle. Deutschland hatte in den 30er Jahren die höchste Motorraddichte und war der bedeutendste Motorradproduzent auf dem Weltmarkt. Als das Automobil technisch ausgereift war und die für den wirtschaftlichen Betrieb notwendige Infrastruktur geschaffen war, konnte sich der Diffusionsprozess schneller und erfolgreicher entfalten. Flik unterscheidet in dem Diffusionsprozess des Automobils in Deutschland drei Stadien: Motorisierung der Oberschicht, Motorisierung des Gewerbe treibenden Mittelstandes und schließlich die Massenmotorisierung (Flik, R.: 2005: Nutzung von Kraftfahrzeugen bis 1939 – Konsum- oder Investitionsgut? In: Walter, R. (Hrsg.): Geschichte des Konsums. Erträge der 20. Arbeitstagung der Gesellschaft für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 23-26. April 2003 in Greifswald. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner). Für die Zeitreihen zum Kraftfahrzeugbestand in Deutschland wird auf die Studiendaten von Flick zurückgegriffen, welche durch Daten der amtlichen Statistik (Statistisches Bundesamt und Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt) ergänzt werden. Ein weiteres Kapitel (Tabelle 04) zeichnet die Entwicklung der Strassenverkehrsunfälle statistisch nach.


03: Bestand an Kraftfahrzeugen (1902-2010)
Der Bestand der Kraftfahrzeuge nach Kraftfahrzeugtyp spiegelt die Durchsetzung dieses Verkehrsmittels wieder. Es liegen Zeitreihen zum Bestand der Kraftfahrzeuge insgesamt und Kraftfahrzeuge untergliedert nach den Typen Motorrad, Personenkraftwagen, Kraftomnibusse, Lastkraftfahrzeuge, Zugmaschinen und schließlich Sonderkraftfahrzeuge vor. Weiterhin werden der Bestand an Motorrädern, Personenkraftwagen und Lastkraftwagen pro 1000 Einwohner wiedergegeben.
Aufgrund vorgenommener Korrekturen können die Werte zu den einzelnen Reihen zwischen den verschiedenen Ausgaben der statistischen Jahrbücher abweichen. Da Flik sich in seiner Studie auf die Angaben der amtlichen Statistik stützt, wurden Werte des Statistischen Bundesamtes dann den Werten von Flik vorgezogen, wenn diese Publikationen neueren Datums sind und von den Angaben bei Flik abweichen.
Für das Deutsche Reich sind die Angaben auf den jeweiligen Gebietsstand Deutschlands bezogen. Das Saarland ist von 1922 bis 1935 nicht eingeschlossen. Die Angaben für 1939 beruhen auf einer Fortschreibung des Kraftfahrzeugbestands von 1938 und schließen die 1938 und 1939 dem Deutschen Reich angeschlossenen Gebiete nicht ein. Die Daten geben den Bestand jeweils zum 1. Januar wieder. Ferner wird bis 1933 der Bestand ohne vorübergehend abgemeldete Fahrzeuge, ab 1934 inklusive der vorübergehend abgemeldeten Kraftfahrzeuge angegeben. Bis 1914 wurde in der Erfassung zwischen Personenkraftwagen und Kraftomnibussen keine Unterscheidung getroffen, so wurden beide in der Kategorie Personenkraftwagen wiedergegeben. Unter der Rubrik 'Sonderkraftfahrzeuge' werden Fahrzeuge der Kommunen (Kommunalfahrzeuge) aufgeführt, wie z.B.: Straßenreinigungsmaschinen, Feuerwehrfahrzeuge, sowie ab 1948 Krankenwagen. Weiterhin werden Abschlepp- u. Kranwagen sowie Wohnwagen u. ähnliche Fahrzeuge dieser Kategorie zugeordnet.
Der Kraftfahrzeugbestand insgesamt für das Gebiet der alten Länder (ehemalige Bundesrepublik) wurde aus den Daten zu den einzelnen Fahrzeugtypen berechnet.
Die Werte für die neuen Länder bzw. für die ehemalige DDR sind für die Zeit bis 1989 den Statistischen Jahrbüchern für die DDR entnommen worden. Für die Zeit von 1990-1994 wurde die Publikation 'Verkehr in Zahlen', vom Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung herausgegeben, herangezogen. Bei der Erfassung der Sonderkraftfahrzeuge und der Kraftomnibusse wurde in der Statistik der ehemaligen DDR 1978 eine neue Systematik eingeführt, in der einige Fahrzeugtypen den jeweiligen Obergruppen neu zugeordnet wurden. Das hat in den beiden Fahrzeug-Gruppen zu einer starken Erhöhung der Fahrzeug-Anzahl geführt. Es muß dennoch festgehalten werden, dass der Anstieg der Fahrzeuge um 28000 bzw. 30000 Fahrzeuge von einem Jahr auf das andere sich nicht aus den Veränderungen der Fahrzeugbestände der anderen Fahrzeugtypen erklären lässt, so dass der Hinweis auf eine veränderte Systematik sich nicht in den Zahlen der Datenreihen wiederspiegelt.


04: Straßenverkehrsunfälle (1906-2010)
Insbesondere das Automobil hat den einzelnen Bürgern in der Gesellschaft in jüngster Zeit einen enormen Mobilitätszuwachs beschert. Im Laufe der Zeit konnten immer größere Teile der Bevölkerung am Individualverkehr partizipieren. Die Kehrseite der Mobilität einer ganzen Gesellschaft sind die Unfälle mit den Verletzten und Getöteten. Durch die massenhafte Verbreitung motorisierter Fahrzeuge, die sich im selben Verkehrsraum wie Pferde und Fuhrwerke, Fußgänger oder Radfahrer bewegen, steigt die Unfallwahrscheinlichkeit stark an. Auch die Geschwindigkeit der motorisierten Verkehrsmittel erhöht die Unfallwahrscheinlichkeit und die Schwere der Unfälle, den Personen- und Sachschaden enorm. Darüber hinaus hat die Strassenverkehrssicherheit und damit die Zuverlässigkeit, mit der Güter schnell und sicher transportiert werden können und unbeschadet am Zielort ankommen, einen empfindlichen Einfluß auf die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung. Denn der Transport übernimmt eine bedeutende Funktion als Wachstumsmotor durch die Erweiterung der Märkte. Eine besondere Zusammenstellung von langen Zeitreihen zur Entwicklung der Strassenverkehrsunfälle erscheint daher sinnvoll. Das Statistische Bundesamt definiert Straßenverkehrsunfälle wie folgt:
"Straßenverkehrsunfälle sind Unfälle, bei denen infolge des Fahrverkehrs auf öffentlichen Wegen und Plätzen Personen getötet oder verletzt wurden oder Sachschaden entstanden ist. Auskunftspflichtig für die Statistik der Straßenverkehrsunfälle ist die Polizei. Demzufolge sind Unfälle, zu denen die Polizei nicht gerufen wurde, in der Statistik nicht enthalten. ( In der Unfallstatistik ) … werden Angaben zu Unfällen, Beteiligten, Fahrzeugen, Verunglückten und Unfallursachen erfasst." Statistisches Bundesamt
Es wird regelmäßig vom Statistischen Bundesamt ein Heft der Fachserie 8, Reihe 7 mit langen Reihen zu Verkehrsunfällen herausgegeben. Auf der Basis dieser Publikation wurden die Reihen zu der Anzahl der Unfälle, der bei Unfällen Getöteten und der Verletzten zusammengestellt.


Die Schifffahrt

Eine der ersten Verkehrsmittel war die Fortbewegung mit Flößen, später mit Schiffen, zunächst in Ufernähe und auf Flüssen, später auf hoher See. Schon sehr früh wurde der Radius der Fortbewegung erheblich erweitert. Noch bevor die Staaten Europas die Blüte der Hochseeschifffahrt erreichten, haben sie schon die Flüsse als Transportwege für den Handel benutzt. Große Handelsstädte entstanden entlang der großen Flüsse Rhein, Main, Mosel, Donau, Oder, usw. Die Schifffahrt ermöglichte so schon früh den Austausch von Gütern und Ideen, brachte aber auch Auseinandersetzungen über territoriale, wirtschaftliche und militärische Interessen mit sich. Im Laufe der Zeit spezialisierte sich die Schifffahrt in zivile und militärische Bereiche, in Handel und Fischerei. Die Schifffahrt wird im folgenden unterteilt in Binnenschifffahrt und Seeschifffahrt.


05: Bestand an Binnenschiffen (1871-2010)
Die Binnenschifffahrt umfasst die Binnen-see-schifffahrt, Flussschifffahrt und Kanalschifffahrt, wobei im Rahmen der vorliegenden Studie auf die Fluss- und Kanalschifffahrt der Schwerpunkt gelegt wird. Binnenfischerei mit Fischerbooten und Transport mit Frachtschiffen auf Binnengewässern machten den Hauptanteil der Binnenschifffahrt aus. Im 17. Jh. wurden noch auf Flößen große Mengen Holz auf den Flüssen nach Holland transportiert. Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts kamen die Treidelschiffe zum Einsatz (Boote und Kähne durch Segel, Ruder, Staken oder Treidel fortbewegt). Mit Erfindung der Dampfmaschine setzten sich Schiffe mit eigener Triebkraft immer stärker in der Binnenschifffahrt durch. Sämtliche Massengüter wurden auf den Binnengewässern transportiert (z.B. Kohle, Erze und Erdölprodukte). Mit dem Ausbau von Binnenwasserstraßen und Schleusen, durch die eine Regulierung des Wasserstandes ermöglicht wurde, kann der Transport über die Binnenwasserstraßen beschleunigt werden. Heute übernimmt die Binnenschifffahrt Massentransporte in vielen Bereichen (Containertransport, Autotransport, etc.). Laut des Bundesverbandes für Deutsche Binnenschifffahrt dominieren Schütt- und greiferfähige Massengüter, wie etwa Baustoffe, Erze, Kohle und Stahl, mit einem Anteil von rund 70 % an der Gesamtmenge das Geschäft der Binnenschifffahrt (http://www.binnenschiff.de/). Für die Hütten- und Stahlindustrie ist die Binnenschifffahrt unentbehrlich. Auch in deutschen und europäischen Logistikketten stellt die Binnenschifffahrt ein unverzichtbares Glied dar.
Im Rahmen dieser Studie kann der Bestand der in der Binnenschifffahrt zum Einsatz gekommenen Schiffe nach Schiffstyp nicht wiedergegeben werden, da dies den Rahmen sprengen würde. Einer der einschneidendsten Veränderungen war die Dampfmaschine und damit die Möglichkeit, Schiffe mit eigener Triebkraft zu bauen. Daher wird hinsichtlich des Bestandes der Binnenschiffe zwischen Güterschiffen mit eigener Triebkraft und Güterschiffen ohne eigene Triebkraft unterschieden. Der Bestand der Schiffe wird dargestellt zum einen anhand der Anzahl der Schiffe, zum anderen aber mittels der Tragfähigkeit des Binnenschiffsbestandes in 1000 t.
Für das Deutsche Reich und für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland dient als Datenquelle die Studie von Kunz, Andreas (Hrsg.), 1999: Statistik der Binnenschiffahrt in Deutschland 1835-1989. St. Katharinen: Scripta Mercaturae Verlag.; GESIS Köln, Deutschland ZA8157 Datenfile Version 1.0.0; Datentabelle: Bestand an Binnenschiffen.
Die Angaben zu den Beständen beziehen sich für die Periode von 1845-1956 auf den 1.1. und ab 1957 auf den 31.12. des jeweiligen Jahres. Zum Teil wurden die Angaben vom Primärforscher geschätzt.
Für den Bestand an Binnenschiffen der ehemaligen DDR dient das Statistische Jahrbuch für die DDR, Jg. 1990, S. 260, Tab. ´Registrierter Bestand an Binnenschiffen´ als Datenquelle. Hier werden nur Schiffe mit eigener Triebkraft aufgeführt und es wird der Jahresdurchschnitt berichtet. Aussagen zu Schiffen ohne eigene Triebkraft können nicht gemacht werden.
Für Deutschland in den Grenzen von Oktober 1990 wurde das Statistische Jahrbuch für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland als Datenquelle herangezogen. Die Werte beziehen sich immer auf den Stand zum 31.12. des jeweiligen Jahres. Es wurde die Summe aus Gütermotorschiffen und Tankmotorschiffen für Reihe der Schiffe mit eigener Triebkraft gebildet. Schlepper und Schubboote wurden nicht mit einbezogen. Fahrgastschiffe wurden ebenfalls nicht mit einbezogen. Güterschleppkähne und Tankschleppkähne wurden dagegen in die Reihe der Binnenschiffe ohne eigene Triebkraft aufgenommen.


06 Güterverkehr auf den Binnenwasserstraßen (1909-2010)
Der Transport von Gütern auf den Binnenwasserstrassen ist ein Indikator für die Leistungs- und Wettbewerbsfähigkeit der Binnenschifffahrt. Bedeutende Einflussfaktoren sind die verfügbaren Höhen der Wasserspiegel der Flüsse und später der Binnenkanäle. Der Bau von Schleusen hat den Transport auf Binnenwasserstraßen entscheidend beschleunigt. Kleinere Flüsse, wie z.B. der Neckar, der Main oder die Mosel wurden durch die Kanalisierung und den Bau von Schleusen erst schiffbar gemacht. Der Bau von Binnenlandkanälen ergänzt die Flüsse, indem zwei Flüsse miteinander verbunden werden (z.B. der Mittellandkanal). Insgesamt wurde durch solche Baumaßnahmen der Umfang der schiffbaren Wasserstraßen entscheidend erhöht. Bei der Erfassung der Transportleistung deutscher Binnenwasserstraßen ist auch der Gütertransport nicht-deutscher Fahrzeuge beteiligt.
Für das Deutsche Reich in den Grenzen vom 31.12.1937 wurde für den Zeitraum von 1909-1914 und 1932-1938 die Publikation vom Statistischen Bundesamt: Bevölkerung und Wirtschaft 1872-1972, S. 207 als Quelle herangezogen. Für 1919-1931sind die erhobenen Zeitreihen von Andreas Kunz: Statistik der Binnenschifffahrt in Deutschland 1835-1989; GESIS Köln, Deutschland ZA8157 Datenfile Version 1.0.0., Datentabelle: Verkehrsleistungen auf Binnenwasserstraßen verwendet worden.
Auch für die frühere Bundesrepublik Deutschland in den Grenzen von 1949, also die sogenannten Alten Länder, wurde für die Jahre 1936, 1938, 1947 u. 1948 auf die Publikation des Statistisches Bundesamtes: Bevölkerung und Wirtschaft, S. 207 zurückgegriffen. Für 1949-1989 stammen die Werte aus der Studie von A. Kunz (ZA8157 Datenfile Version 1.0.0.). Einbezogen wurden für das Bundesgebiet die Wasserstaßen des Elbegebietes, des Wesergebietes, des Mittellandkanalgebietes, das Westdeutsche Kanalgebiet, das Rheingebiet, das Donaugebiet, sowie Berlin (West). Auch der Durchgangsverkehr auf den deutschen Wasserstrassen wurde mit erfasst. Für den Bereich der ehemaligen DDR bzw. der Neuen Länder wurde auf das Statistische Jahrbuch für die DDR zurückgegriffen. In dieser Reihe werden die Transportwerte inklusive der von der Binnenreederei der DDR beladenen Schiffe anderer Länder berichtet. Ausnahmen bilden die Jahre 1960, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980 und 1985 bis 1989. Hier werden nur für die deutschen Binnenschiffe die Werte angegeben.
Für das wiedervereinte Deutschland stehen die Transportwerte seit 1991 zur Verfügung. Die Werte wurden mittels einer Abfrage vom 15. Februar 2012 von der GENESIS-Online Datenbank ermittelt. (vergleiche: (www-genesis.destatis.de; Abfrage: ´Beförderte Güter (Binnenschifffahrt): Deutschland, Jahre, Hauptverkehrsbeziehungen, Flagge des Schiffes, Güterverzeichnis (Abteilungen)´)


07 Handelsschiffstonnage (1871-2010)
Eine leistungsfähige Seeschifffahrt hat schon früh zur Erweiterung der regionalen Märkte beigetragen. Ein Beispiel für die frühe Globalisierung stellt die Hanse dar, die ohne die Seeschifffahrt nicht möglich gewesen wäre.
Die zwischen Mitte des 12. Jahrhunderts und Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts bestehenden Vereinigungen niederdeutscher Kaufleute hatte sich zum Ziel gesetzt, die Sicherheit der Überfahrt zu verbessern und die Vertretung gemeinsamer wirtschaftlicher Interessen besonders im Ausland wahrzunehmen. In den Zeiten ihrer größten Ausdehnung waren beinahe 300 See- und Binnenstädte des nördlichen Europas in der Städtehanse zusammengeschlossen. Eine wichtige Grundlage dieser Verbindungen war die Entwicklung des Transportwesens, insbesondere zur See. Die Kogge, ein bauchiges Handelsschiff, stellte den bedeutendsten größeren Schiffstyp der Hanse dar. Im ausgehenden 14. Jahrhundert wurden die Koggen mehr und mehr von anderen Schiffstypen abgelöst. Im 15. Jahrhundert setzte der Machtverlust der Hanse ein, der unter anderem auch durch die Entdeckung Amerikas ausgelöst wurde. Der bisher dominierende Ostsee-Westsee-Handel (heute Nordsee-Handel) wurde nun in überseeische Gebiete ausgedehnt. Dabei ging nicht etwa das Handelsvolumen der Hanse im eigentlichen Sinne zurück, es entstanden jedoch mächtige Konkurrenten, die die Bedeutung der Hanse für die einzelnen Städte und Kaufleute schwächten (siehe hierzu: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanse und Rolf Hammel-Kiesow (2008): Die Hanse, München 4. aktualisierte Auflage).
Auch heute ist eine leistungsfähige Seeschifffahrt Voraussetzung für die Globalisierung. Arbeitsteilige Volkswirtschaften sind in starkem Maße vom überseeischen Handel abhängig. Die Handelsschiffstonnage gibt die Transportkapazität in Tonnen einer Handelsflotte an. Bei fortschreitender Technik im Schiffsbau steigt auch die Transportkapazität einzelner Schiffe, was die Wettbewerbsfähigkeit positiv beeinflusst. Die Entwicklung der Handelsschiffstonnage ist somit ein Indikator neben anderen, der die Stellung und Leistungsfähigkeit der nationalen Handelsflotte auf dem Weltmarkt angibt. Die Zusammenstellung der deutschen Handelsschiffstonnage gibt die Tonnage einmal in Bruttoregistertonnen und zum anderen, soweit die entsprechenden Werte aus den Quellen erhoben werden konnten, als Anteil an der Welthandelstonnage wieder. Auch die Anzahl der Handelsschiffe wird angeführt. Das Raummaß Bruttoregistertonne (abgekürzt = BRT) ist die Maßeinheit für die Tragfähigkeit der Seeschiffe. Es wird der gesamte umbaute Schiffsraum vermessen (Bruttoraumgehalt bzw. Bruttotonnage). Seit dem 1. Juli 1994 wird der Raumgehalt eines Schiffes in Bruttoraumzahl (BRZ) und Nettoraumzahl (NRZ) berechnet. Die Angaben für das Deutsche Reich beziehen sich auf das Reich in seinen jeweiligen Grenzen. Als Quellen wurde das Statistische Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich sowie die Publikation "Bevölkerung und Wirtschaft" des Statistischen Bundesamtes herangezogen. Ab 1900 geben die Werte den Stand zum 1. Juli des jeweiligen Jahres an. Für die Alten Länder bzw. das Gebiet der ehemaligen Bundesrepublik Deutschland wurden die Werte aus der Publikation "Verkehr in Zahlen" des Bundesministeriums für Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung, Tabelle: ´Seeschifffahrt - Handelsflotte der BRD´ bezogen. Hier beziehen sich die Werte jeweils auf den 31 Dezember des jeweiligen Jahres. In dieser Quelle wurden Schiffe mit mechanischem Antrieb und einem Raumgehalt von mindestens 100 BRT und mehr berücksichtigt. Außerdem sind für den Zeitraum von 1975 – 1990 Schiffe unter der Flagge der Bundesrepublik einschl. ausländischer Schiffe mit Flaggenschein aufgenommen worden. Schiffe der BRD, die unter fremder Flagge fuhren, werden nicht berücksichtigt, da sie nicht für den deutschen Handel und Transport verwendet werden. Leider kann nach 1971 keine Angabe zum Anteil der deutschen Handelsschiffstonnage an der Welthandelstonnage gemacht werden. Für das Gebiet der ehemaligen DDR wurde das Statistische Jahrbuch für die DDR, Jahrgang 1990, als Quelle herangezogen. Hier ist der Stichtag der Bestandsangaben, wie im Falle des Deutschen Reiches, der 1.7. des jeweiligen Jahres. Für das wiedervereinte Deutschland in den Grenzen des 3. Oktobers 1990 beziehen sich die Angaben – wie für die ehemalige Bundesrepublik – auf den Stand zum 31.12. des jeweiligen Jahres. Als Quelle wurde die Publikation "Verkehr in Zahlen" des Bundesministeriums für Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung herangezogen.


08 Güterumschlag in bedeutenden Seehäfen - Hamburg, Bremische Häfen, Emden sowie Rostock, Wismar und Stralsund (1925-2010)
Der Güterumschlag eines Hafens ist ein Indikator für seine wirtschaftliche Bedeutung und der Einbettung des Hafens in der Logistikkette. Bei guter Anbindung an Bahn und Autobahn und kurzen, zügigen Be- und Entladungsphasen von Schiffen sowie LKWs und Bahn-Waggongs wird sich ein Hafen als Güterumschlagszentrum etablieren. Die Datentabelle K15.08 enthält für die wichtigsten Häfen Deutschlands die Entwicklung des Güterumschlags vom Deutschen Reich bis zum Jahr 2010 im wiedervereinten Deutschland in den Grenzen vom 3. Oktober 1990. Vor dem Hintergrund der Teilung Deutschlands nach dem 2. WK in zwei Staaten und der Auswahl der wichtigsten Häfen für die ehemalige DDR, wie sie in dem Statistischen Jahrbuch für die ehemalige DDR getroffen wurde, sind folgende Häfen in der Datentabelle aufgenommen worden: Hamburg, Bremische Häfen, Emden, Rostock, Wismar und Stralsund. Als Quelle dienen die Statistischen Jahrbücher für das Deutsche Reich, für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland und für die DDR. Für die neuen Länder wurde darüber hinaus noch die Publikation des Bundesministeriums für Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung, Verkehr in Zahlen, Jg. 1990, S. 282, Tabelle: 'DDR Kennziffern - Seehäfen und Binnenhäfen' herangezogen.


Die Luftfahrt

Mit der Erfindung des Flugzeuges tritt eine vollkommen neue Form der Fortbewegung auf den Markt. Die ersten Flugzeuge wurden zunächst nur für militärische Zwecke genutzt; 1919 setzte mit Gründung der Deutschen Luft-Reederei (DLR) in Deutschland eine Entwicklung hin zum zivilen Luftverkehr ein. Die Deutsche Luft-Reederei (DLR) wurde vom Reichsluftamt in Berlin als weltweit erste Fluggesellschaft für den zivilen Luftverkehr zugelassen. Zwischen Berlin und Weimar begann der regelmäßige Post- und Passagierverkehr. Die Luftpost mit Flugzeugen, die schon während des Ersten Weltkriegs entstand, wurde wesentlich ausgebaut. In den darauf folgenden Jahren entstanden viele kleine Fluggesellschaften, die häufig nur eine Strecke bedienten. Der technische Fortschritt ermöglichte schließlich die Entwicklung eines Verkehrsflugzeuges mit beheizbarer Kabine und gepolsterten Sitzen. 1926 wurde die "Deutsche Lufthansa AG" unter Beteiligung des Reiches, der Länder und Städte gegründet. Bis 1945 war sie Einheitsgesellschaft für den zivilen Luftverkehr mit weit verzweigtem europäischem Streckennetz. Mit der Kapitulation Deutschlands nach dem 2. Weltkrieg im Mai 1945 wurde die deutsche Luftfahrt zunächst unterbrochen. Nach der Gründung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Einrichtung des Verkehrsministeriums konnte der zivile Luftverkehr wieder 1955 aufgenommen werden.
Der Luftverkehr hat gerade für eine international ausgerichtete Volkswirtschaft wie Deutschland eine enorme Bedeutung durch die hohen Mobilitätszuwächse in wirtschaftlichen Bereichen und im Bereich des Personenverkehrs. Mit Einsetzen des Luftverkehrs als Transportmittel ist eine Verringerung der Transportkosten und Transportzeiten zwischen weit entfernten Orten erreicht worden. Eisenbahn- und Schiffsverkehr stellen für den Flugverkehr aufgrund der größeren Gütermengen, die sie transportieren können, sowie der günstigeren Kosten pro transportierter Gewichtseinheit, weiterhin wichtige Mitbewerber im Bereich des Gütertransportes dar. Wesentliche Akteure des Luftverkehrs sind neben der Flugsicherung die Flughäfen und die Fluggesellschaften. In der Zeit von 1919 bis 1949 entwickelte sich der Luftverkehr bis in die 1970er Jahre hinein als ein stark staatlich regulierter Sektor. Die Luftverkehrsgesellschaften wie z.B. die Deutsche Lufthansa sowie die Flughäfen befanden sich oft im Besitzt des jeweiligen Heimatlandes. Ende der 70er Jahre setzte in den USA ein Deregulierungsprozess des Luftverkehrssektors ein, der schließlich auch in den 80er Jahren die Länder der Europäischen Union erfasste. Die Europäische Gemeinschaft verwirklichte in drei großen Liberalisierungsschritten in den Jahren 1987, 1990 und 1993 eine weitgehend vollständige Dienstleistungsfreiheit für den innereuropäischen Luftverkehr. (vergl.: St. Kraft: Geschäftsmodelle strategischer Luftverkehrsallianzen. Universität Gießen. WEB: http://www.org-portal.org/fileadmin/media/legacy/Gesch_ftsmodelle_strategischer_ Luftverkehrsallianzen.pdf)


09 Gewerblicher Luftverkehr der deutschen Fluggesellschaft und aller Fluggesellschaften auf deutschen Flugplätzen (1919-2010)

Solange der Luftverkehr noch nicht liberalisiert war, diente der größte nationale Flughafen der nationalen Fluggesellschaft als Hauptstützpunkt. Aufgrund der strikten Reglementierung des europäischen Luftverkehrs durch bilaterale Abkommen wurde den Fluggesellschaften die Streckenführung und Passagierbeförderung größtenteils vorgegeben. Nur, wenn es um Zubringerdienste (die sog. spokes) innerhalb des eigenen Landes ging, konnten die Passagierströme für Langstreckenflüge auf einen bestimmen Flughafen als sogenannten Hub (=gewählter Umsteigeflughafen einer Fluggesellschaft) konzentriert werden. Nach der Liberalisierung innerhalb der EU treten Flughäfen und Fluggesellschaften nun als selbständige Akteure auf, die Entscheidungen nach Effizienzgesichtspunkten fällen können. Die Flughäfen treten untereinander in den Wettbewerb ein. Mit dem Ausbau ihrer Kapazitäten und Dienstleistungen am Boden versuchen sie, für Fluggesellschaften als Hauptstützpunkt (das sog. Hub-and-Spokes-System ) attraktiv zu sein. Unternehmen des Güterverkehrs sowie die Teilnehmer des Personenverkehrs sollen aufgrund guter Serviceleistungen angesprochen werden. Die Fluggesellschaften wiederum konkurrieren über angebotene Flugrouten und Preise. (vgl. Gordon Paul Schenk, 2003: Auf dem Weg zu einem gemeinsamen Markt im Luftverkehr. Dissertation, Hamburg, S. 123 f.) Von daher erscheint es sinnvoll, die erbrachten Transportleistungen im Luftverkehr sowohl nach den Fluggesellschaften als auch nach den Flughäfen getrennt darzustellen. Es wurde versucht, möglichst lange kontinuierliche Datenreihen für Deutschland zur Zeit des Deutschen Reiches bis 1938/1940, jeweils für die frühere Bundesrepublik (Alte Länder) und die ehemalige DDR (Neue Länder) von 1950 bis 1990 sowie für das wiedervereinte Deutschland in den Grenzen vom 3. Oktober 1990 für die Zeit von 1990 bis 2010 zusammenzustellen. Für die Flughäfen wurden die Leistungen sämtlicher deutscher und ausländischer Fluggesellschaften aufgenommen. Zur Zeit des Deutschen Reiches ist auch der Luftschiffverkehr in den Zahlen mit enthalten. Für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland und das wiedervereinte Deutschland wurde der Gesamtverkehr einschließlich des Durchgangsverkehrs erfasst. Für die alten Länder (ehemalige Bundesrepublik) wurden die Werte folgender Flughäfen erfasst: Berlin-West, Bremen, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hannover, Köln, München, Nürnberg, Stuttgart, ab 1977 Saarbrücken. Die Datenreihen für die Neuen Länder beziehen sich auf die Flughäfen Berlin- Schönefeld, Dresden, Leipzig/Halle, ab 1998 Erfurt.
Für die Fluggesellschaften werden jeweils neben den Beförderungsleistungen in absoluten Zahlen auch die Kennwerte der Transportleistungen, Personenkilometer und Tonnenkilometer angegeben. Für die ehemalige DDR wird in dem Statistischen Jahrbuch für die DDR nur für die Fluggesellschaft der ehemaligen DDR, die Interflug bzw. Deutsche Lufthansa der DDR berichtet, so dass für die Zeit von 1945 bis 1990 keine Angaben zu den Flughäfen gemacht werden können.
Folgende Zeitreihen sind in dieser Datentabelle aufgenommen worden:
Für die deutschen Flughäfen:
- Beförderte Personen in 1000;
- Beförderte Luftfracht in 1000 t.;
- Beförderte Luftpost in 1000 t.
Für die deutschen Fluggesellschaften:
- Beförderte Personen in 1000;
- Beförderte Personen in Personenkilometer;
- Beförderte Luftfracht in 1000 t.;
- Beförderte Luftfracht in 1000 Tonnenkilometer;
- Beförderte Luftpost in 1000 t.
- Beförderte Luftpost in 1000 Tonnenkilometer.


Die Nachrichtenübermittlung durch Post und Telekommunikation

Die Beförderung von Nachrichten, Kleingütern und zum Teil auch Personen ist ein wesentlicher Bestandteil eines funktionsfähigen Gemeinwesens. Bis zum späten Mittelalter gab es in dem damaligen Heiligen Römischen Reich deutscher Nationen kein etabliertes System der allgemeinen Nachrichtenübermittlung, sondern Kaiser, Klerus und Fürsten sendeten per Boten ihre Nachricht direkt zum Zielort. Der Habsburger Maximilian I. benötigte für die effektive Verwaltung seines Reichs eine zuverlässige und sichere Nachrichtenübermittlung. 1490 beauftragte er die Familie Torre e Tassis (später Thurn und Taxis) mit der Einrichtung einer systematisch organisierten Nachrichtenübermittlung. Durch die Einrichtung von Poststationen war die Übermittlung von Nachrichten nicht mehr an eine Person, den Boten, gebunden, sondern wurde – vergleichbar einem Staffelrennen – an der Station einem anderen Reiter übergeben. Der Nachrichtenbeförderung wurde bei Tag und bei Nacht durchgeführt. Dieses Poststationen-System wurde ständig erweitert, Briefe konnten so über große Distanzen innerhalb von 5 bis 6 Tagen transportiert werden. Die Nachrichtenübermittlung wurde extrem beschleunigt. Raum und Zeit waren plötzlich keine unüberwindbaren Hindernisse. War dieses Übermittlungssystem zunächst ausschließlich für kaiserliche Nachrichten eingerichtet, wurde schon 1530 die Post der Allgemeinheit zugänglich gemacht. In der darauffolgenden Zeit wurden von Landesfürsten, Herzogtümern und Städten konkurrierende Postrouten eingerichtet. Zwar wurde durch Kaiser Rudolf II. die Reichspost 1597 zum kaiserlichen Hoheitsrecht erklärt. Dieses Monopol, welches das Haus Thurn und Taxis als kaiserliches Lehen erhielt, wurde jedoch nicht von allen Landesfürsten anerkannt, was zu einer Vielzahl ausgehandelter bilateraler Verträge zwischen der Reichspost und den jeweiligen konkurrierenden lokalen Postunternehmen zwang. 1850 wurde schließlich der Deutsch-Österreichische Postverein als Zusammenschluß kleinstaatlicher Posten mit dem Ziel eines einheitlichen Tarifsystems gegründet, dem in der Folgezeit immer mehr deutsche Staaten beigetreten sind. Durch die politischen Ereignisse 1866/67 (Deutsch-Preußischer Krieg) wurde der Deutsche Postverein aufgelöst. Schon in dieser Zeit hat der technische Fortschritt zu großen Umwälzungen und neuen Perspektiven geführt. Als technische Erneuerung sind in diese Zeit gefallen: die Telegrafie, die Bahn, die als Transportmittel für die Post entdeckt wurde, und die Rohrpost. Die Preußen führten die Telegrafie 1832 offiziell ein (Telegrafenlinie von Berlin nach Koblenz). 1850 wurde der Deutsch-Österreichische Telegrafenverein gegründet, der den Anschluss an das belgische, französische und das englische Telegrafennetz ermöglichte. "Erst mit der Gründung des Deutschen Reichs 1871 unter Bismarck wurde auch das deutsche Postwesen endgültig unter einem Dach zusammengefasst und über 100 Jahre lang verstaatlicht." (Gregor Delvaux de Fenffe, www.planet-wissen.de/kultur_medien/ kommunikation/post/index.jsp ) Gebühren der Postbeförderung wurden vereinheitlicht, der Einsatz moderner Technologien forciert. Schließlich wurden mittels bilateraler Verträge die Beförderungshemmnisse über die Grenzen des Deutschen Reiches abgebaut.
Führte in der Entstehungszeit des Postwesens die Vielfalt eigenständiger, regionaler Postvereine aufgrund vieler Grenzen und unterschiedlicher Regeln zu einem unübersichtlichen und starrem System, so brachte die Liberalisierung des Post- und Telekommunikationswesens in Deutschland in den 1990er Jahren einen Anstieg der Auswahl für die Verbraucher, stark fallende Preise, neue innovative Dienste und damit mehr Flexibilität. Auslöser der Liberalisierungsprozesse nicht nur für Post und Telekommunikation, sondern für den gesamten Verkehrssektor, war das Binnenmarktprogamm der Europäischen Union, das europäische Wettbewerbsrecht und die Europäische Kommission als Akteur. Ziel der Liberalisierung ist es, wettbewerbsverzerrende staatliche Eingriffe und damit nationalstaatliche Gestaltungsspielräume einzuschränken. Nationalstaatliche Monopole sind wegen bestehender europarechtlicher Verpflichtungen nicht mehr zu halten. (vergl.: Susanne K. Schmidt: Liberalisierung in Europa. Campus, 1998; Justus Haucap / Coenen, Michael (2010): Ordnungspolitische Perspektiven Nr.01. Regulierung und Deregulierung in Telekommunikationsmärkten: Theorie und Praxis. Düsseldorf, Düsseldorfer Institut für Wettbewerbsökonomie DICE) Flankiert wird diese Entwicklung durch eine Vielzahl neuer Technologien der Kommunikation, wie das Internet mit seinen vielfältigen Möglichkeiten (Social Media, das Semantische Web, die Internet-Telefonie, der E-Mail-Verkehr), der Mobilfunk oder die Möglichkeit, SMS zu versenden.


10 Deutsche Reichs- und Bundespost (1871-2010)

Die quantitative Entwicklung der Dienstleistungen des Post- und Telekommunikationswesen von der Zeit des Deutschen Reichs bis zur Gegenwart soll mit folgenden Zeitreihen festgehalten werden:
- Beförderte Briefsendungen,
- Beförderte Paket- und Wertsendungen,
- Übermittelte Telegramme,
- Sprechstellen (Telefonanschlüsse),
- Ortsgespräche,
- Ferngespräche,
- Ton-Rundfunkgenehmigungen
- Fernseh-Rundfunkgenehmigungen

Durch die rasante technische Entwicklung können viele Reihen insbesondere ab den 1990er Jahren in dieser Form nicht mehr fortgeführt werden bzw. müssen durch weitere Reihen ergänzt werden, und zwar:
- Bezüglich der Telefone muss zwischen Telefon-Anschlüssen und Telefon-Kanälen unterschieden werden. Der klassische Analoganschluss ermöglicht durch das ISDN die Bereitstellung von mehreren Kanälen auf einen ISDN-Anschluss. Darüber hinaus stellt der Mobilfunk ein neues Medium dar, das neben dem Festnetzanschluss erfasst werden muß.
- Aufgrund der Monopolstellung, welche die Post für ca. 120 Jahre innehatte, ist sie die Eigentümerin wertvoller Infrastruktur. Im Falle des Telefons ist sie, bzw. die aus ihr hervorgegangene Deutsche Telekom AG Eigentümerin der Telefonanschlussleitungen. Das Telefonnetz kann als einziger Teil nicht oder nur schwer von alternativen Anbietern ersetzt werden und es wird für gewöhnlich von einem örtlichen Zugangsnetz-Monopolisten (die Deutsche Telekom) kontrolliert. Damit die Wettbewerber den Zugang zum Anschluss des Kunden auf wirtschaftliche Weise realisieren können, sorgt die Regulierungsbehörde für eine angemessene Tarifierung der Vorleistungen des etablierten Betreibers. Daher ist die Entwicklung der TAL-Anmietungen durch Wettbewerber ein wichtiger Indikator für den Prozess der Liberalisierung.
- Viele technische Neuerungen, die in letzter Zeit an Bedeutung gewonnen haben, sind im Rahmen dieser Tabelle nicht berücksichtigt worden, so. z.B. die Verbreitung der Internet-Anschlüsse in den Haushalten oder die Internet-Telefonie. Der Grund liegt darin, dass die Reihen oft erst mit Ende der 1990er Jahre oder später beginnen, wie man dies auch am Beispiel der TAL-Anmietungen sehen kann, für die erst mit dem Jahr 1998 der erste Wert erhoben wurde. Zum andern wurde versucht, soweit wie möglich, eine gewisse Vergleichbarkeit zu den Jahren vor 1990 beizubehalten. Für die Telefonanschlüsse bedeutet dies, dass für Deutschland ab 1990 die Sprechstellen, gezählt als Anzahl der Kanäle für alle Anbieter und für die Telekom AG im besonderen ausgewiesen werden. Nach 2007 ergibt sich ein Bruch in diesen Reihen, da ab 2008 nur noch die Sprechstellen, gezählt als Anschlüsse, ausgewiesen werden, womit sich die ausgewiesenen Zahlen verringern (ein Anschluss kann mehrere Kanäle bereitstellen).
- Für die 'Übermittelten Telegramme' sind aus den uns vorliegenden Quellen keine Werte zu entnehmen.

How poor migrants shape city politics during urbanizationAs the Global South rapidly urbanizes, millions of people have migrated from the countryside to urban slums, which now house one billion people worldwide. The transformative potential of urbanization hinges on whether and how poor migrants are integrated into city politics. Popular and scholarly accounts paint migrant slums as exhausted by dispossession, subdued by local dons, bought off by wily politicians, or polarized by ethnic appeals. Migrants and Machine Politics shows how slum residents in India routinely defy such portrayals, actively constructing and wielding political machine networks to demand important, albeit imperfect, representation and responsiveness within the country's expanding cities.Drawing on years of pioneering fieldwork in India's slums, including ethnographic observation, interviews, surveys, and experiments, Adam Michael Auerbach and Tariq Thachil reveal how migrants harness forces of political competition—as residents, voters, community leaders, and party workers—to sow unexpected seeds of accountability within city politics. This multifaceted agency provokes new questions about how political networks form during urbanization. In answering these questions, this book overturns longstanding assumptions about how political machines exploit the urban poor to stifle competition, foster ethnic favoritism, and entrench vote buying.By documenting how poor migrants actively shape urban politics in counterintuitive ways, Migrants and Machine Politics sheds new light on the political consequences of urbanization across India and the Global South

Why the state is the elephant in the room of political theory, too long ignored, and how to put this rightThe future of our species depends on the state. Can states resist corporate capture, religious zealotry, and nationalist mania? Can they find a way to work together so that the earth heals and its peoples prosper? Or is the state just not up to the task? In this book, the prominent political philosopher Philip Pettit examines the nature of the state and its capacity to serve goals like peace and justice within and beyond its borders. Doing so, he breaks new ground by making the state the focus of political theory—with implications for economic, legal, and social theory—and presents a persuasive, historically informed image of an institution that lies at the center of our lives.Offering an account that is more realist than utopian, Pettit starts from the function the polity is meant to serve, looks at how it can best discharge that function, and explores its ability to engage beneficially in the life of its citizens. This enables him to identify an ideal of statehood that is a precondition of justice. Only if states approximate this functional ideal will they be able to deal with the perennial problems of extreme poverty and bitter discord as well as the challenges that loom over the coming centuries, including climate change, population growth, and nuclear arms

Nation und Nationalstaatlichkeit galten bis vor kurzem als etwas, das in einer globalisierten und postnationalen Konstellation immer weiter an Bedeutung verlieren würde. In jüngerer Zeit findet dieser Themenkomplex jedoch wieder deutlich mehr Beachtung. Der Sammelband setzt sich mit den entsprechenden Gründen, Problemen und Ausdrucksformen auseinander.

Secret Wars is the first book to systematically analyze the ways powerful states covertly participate in foreign wars, showing a recurring pattern of such behavior stretching from World War I to U.S.-occupied Iraq. Investigating what governments keep secret during wars and why, Austin Carson argues that leaders maintain the secrecy of state involvement as a response to the persistent concern of limiting war. Keeping interventions "backstage" helps control escalation dynamics, insulating leaders from domestic pressures while communicating their interest in keeping a war contained. Carson shows that covert interventions can help control escalation, but they are almost always detected by other major powers. However, the shared value of limiting war can lead adversaries to keep secret the interventions they detect, as when American leaders concealed clashes with Soviet pilots during the Korean War. Escalation concerns can also cause leaders to ignore covert interventions that have become an open secret. From Nazi Germany's role in the Spanish Civil War to American covert operations during the Vietnam War, Carson presents new insights about some of the most influential conflicts of the twentieth century. Parting the curtain on the secret side of modern war, Secret Wars provides important lessons about how rival state powers collude and compete, and the ways in which they avoid outright military confrontations

A comprehensive look at the world of illicit trade. Though mankind has traded tangible goods for millennia, recent technology has changed the fundamentals of trade, in both legitimate and illegal economies. In the past three decades, the most advanced forms of illicit trade have broken with all historical precedents and, as Dark Commerce shows, now operate as if on steroids, tied to computers and social media. In this new world of illicit commerce, which benefits states and diverse participants, trade is impersonal and anonymized, and vast profits are made in short periods with limited accountability to sellers, intermediaries, and purchasers. Louise Shelley examines how new technology, communications, and globalization fuel the exponential growth of dangerous forms of illegal trade--the markets for narcotics and child pornography online, the escalation of sex trafficking through web advertisements, and the sale of endangered species for which revenues total in the hundreds of millions of dollars. The illicit economy exacerbates many of the world's destabilizing phenomena: the perpetuation of conflicts, the proliferation of arms and weapons of mass destruction, and environmental degradation and extinction. Shelley explores illicit trade in tangible goods--drugs, human beings, arms, wildlife and timber, fish, antiquities, and ubiquitous counterfeits--and contrasts this with the damaging trade in cyberspace, where intangible commodities cost consumers and organizations billions as they lose identities, bank accounts, access to computer data, and intellectual property. Demonstrating that illicit trade is a business the global community cannot afford to ignore and must work together to address, Dark Commerce considers diverse ways of responding to this increasing challenge