Suchergebnisse

Мета: дослідження чинників, які обумовлюють недобросовісну рекламу лікарських засобів в Україні, та розробка пропозицій щодо їх запобігання. Для досягнення окресленої мети були вирішені завдання, серед яких: аналіз основних тенденцій рекламної практики лікарських засобів в Україні та за кордоном; проведення аналізу чинників, що обумовлюють недобросовісну рекламу лікарських засобів; змістовний аналіз поширення недобросовісної реклами лікарських засобів на вітчизняному фармацевтичному ринку; розробка пропозицій щодо удосконалення інструментарію рекламної практики на фармацевтичному ринку України та запобігання недобросовісної реклами лікарських засобів.Матеріали та методи: електронна база чинного національного законодавства України в контексті досліджуваних питань; звітні матеріали Антимонопольного комітету України; наукові публікації фахового спрямування; результати проведеного анкетного опитування медичних та фармацевтичних працівників. У дослідженні використано наукові методи системного аналізу, синтезу, моніторингу, групування та узагальнення; логіко-семантичний метод і метод соціологічного дослідження. Результати дослідження. Визначено основні чинники недобросовісної реклами лікарських засобів, що мають місце в українському медійному просторі. Отримані результати дослідження дали змогу сформулювати рекомендації щодо здійснення рекламної практики на фармацевтичному ринку на засадах соціальної й етичної функцій комунікативної маркетингової політики.Висновки. Проведені дослідження показали наявність достатньої бази нормативно-правового регулювання рекламної практики на фармацевтичному ринку України. Водночас отримані результати свідчать про те, що фармацевтичні компанії та рекламодавці вдаються до недобросовісної реклами, що свідчить про необхідність поєднання подальших спільних зусиль як законодавчих і регулювальних органів, так і всіх учасників фармацевтичного ринку щодо удосконалення системи протидії недобросовісній конкуренції, основою якої є недобросовісна реклама. ; Aim. To study the factors causing unfair advertising of medicines in Ukraine and development of proposals for their prevention. To achieve this aim the following tasks have been solved: the analysis of the main tendencies of advertising practice of medicines in Ukraine and abroad; the analysis of the factors causing unfair advertising of medicines; the comprehensive analysis of distribution of unfair advertising of medicines at the domestic pharmaceutical market; development of proposals for improving tools of advertising practice at the pharmaceutical market of Ukraine and preventing unfair advertising of medicines.Materials and methods. The following sources were used: the electronic base of the current national legislation of Ukraine in the context of the issues studied; records of the Antimonopoly Committee of Ukraine; scientific publications in the field; results of the questionnaire of medical and pharmaceutical professionals. In the study conducted the scientific methods of the system analysis, synthesis, monitoring, grouping and generalization, the logical-semantic method and the method of sociological research were applied.Results. The main factors of unfair advertising of medicines taking place in the Ukrainian media space have been determined. The results obtained have allowed us to formulate recommendations on implementation of advertising practice at the pharmaceutical market according to the principles of social and ethical functions of communication marketing policy.Conclusions. The studies conducted have shown the existence of the sufficient base for standard and legal regulation of advertising practice at the pharmaceutical market of Ukraine. At the same time, the results obtained demonstrate that pharmaceutical companies and advertisers resort to unfair advertising, confirm the need of a combination of further joint efforts both legislative regulatory bodies, and all participants of the pharmaceutical market on improving the system of counteraction of unfair competition, which basis is unfair advertising. ; Цель: исследование факторов, обусловливающих недобросовестную рекламу лекарственных средств в Украине, и разработка предложений по их предотвращению. Для достижения намеченной цели были решены задачи, среди которых: анализ основных тенденций рекламной практики лекарственных средств в Украине и за рубежом; проведение анализа факторов, обусловливающих недобросовестную рекламу лекарственных средств; содержательный анализ распространения недобросовестной рекламы лекарственных средств на отечественном фармацевтическом рынке; разработка предложений по совершенствованию инструментария рекламной практики на фармацевтическом рынке Украины и предотвращению недобросовестной рекламы лекарственных средств.Материалы и методы: электронная база действующего национального законодательства Украины в контексте исследуемых вопросов; отчетные материалы Антимонопольного комитета Украины; научные публикации профессионального направления; результаты проведенного анкетного опроса медицинских и фармацевтических работников. В исследовании использованы научные методы системного анализа, синтеза, мониторинга, группировки и обобщения; логико-семантический метод и метод социологического исследования.Результаты исследования. Определены основные факторы недобросовестной рекламы лекарственных средств, имеющих место в украинском медиапространстве. Полученные результаты исследования позволили сформулировать рекомендации по осуществлению рекламной практики на фармацевтическом рынке на принципах социальной и этической функций коммуникативной маркетинговой политики.Выводы. Проведенные исследования показали наличие достаточной базы нормативно-правового регулирования рекламной практики на фармацевтическом рынке Украины. В то же время полученные результаты свидетельствуют о том, что фармацевтические компании и рекламодатели прибегают к недобросовестной рекламе, что свидетельствует о необходимости сочетания дальнейших совместных усилий как законодательных и регулирующих органов, так и всех участников фармацевтического рынка по совершенствованию системы противодействия недобросовестной конкуренции, основой которой является недобросовестная реклама.

Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to critically explore the importance of the experiences of female former combatants during the Irish Conflict, colloquially known as "The Troubles" and outline key moments of resistance for female political prisoners during their time at Armagh jail. The paper will situate the analysis within a Foucauldian framework drawing on theoretical tools for understanding power, resistance and subjectivity to contextualise and capture rich narratives and experiences. What makes a Foucauldian analysis of former female combatants of the Conflict so inspiring is how the animation and location of problems of knowledge as "pieces" of the larger contest between The State, institutions of power and its penal subjects (ex-female combatants as prisoners). The paper has demonstrated that the body exists through and in culture, the product of signs and meanings, of discourse and practices.


Design/methodology/approach
This is primarily qualitative methodology underpinned by Foucauldian theory. There were 28 women and 20 men interviewed in the course of this research came from across Ireland, some came from cities and others came from rural areas. Some had spent time in prisons in the UK and others served time in the Republic of Ireland or in the North of Ireland. Many prisoners experienced being on the run and all experienced levels of brutality at the hands of the State. Ethical approval was granted from the Queens University Research Committee.


Findings
This paper only examines the experiences of female ex-combatants and their narratives of imprisonment. What this paper clearly shows through the narratives of the women is the gendered nature of imprisonment and the role of power, resilience and resistance whilst in prison in Northern Ireland. The voices in this paper disturb and interrupt the silence surrounding the experiences of women political prisoners, who are a hidden population, whilst in prison.


Research limitations/implications
In terms of research impact, this qualitative research is on the first of its kind to explore both the experiential and discursive narratives of female ex-combatants of the Irish Conflict. The impact and reach of the research illustrates how confinement revealed rich theoretical insights, drawing from Foucauldian theory, to examine the dialectical interplay between power and the subjective mobilisation of resistance practices of ex-combatants in prison in Northern Ireland. The wider point of prison policy and practice not meeting basic human rights or enhancing the quality of life of such prisoners reveals some of the dystopian features of current prison policy and lack of gender sensitivity to female combatants.


Practical implications
It is by prioritising the voices of the women combatants in this paper that it not only enables their re-positioning at the centre of the struggle, but also moves away methodologically from the more typical sole emphasis on structural conditions and political processes. Instead, prioritising the voices of the women combatants places the production of subjectivities and agencies at the centre, and explores their dialectical relationship to objective conditions and practical constraints.


Social implications
It is clear from the voices of the female combatants and in their social engagement in the research that the prison experience was marked specifically by assaults on their femininity, to which they were the more vulnerable due to the emphasis on sexual modesty within their socialisation and within the ethno-nationalist iconography of femininity. The aggression directed against them seems, in part, to have been a form of gender-based sexual violence in direct retaliation for the threat posed to gender norms by their assumption of the (ostensibly more powerful) role as combatants. They countered this by methods which foregrounded their collective identity as soldiers and their identification with their male comrades in "the same struggle".


Originality/value
This paper is one of the first to explore the importance of the experiences of female former combatants during the Northern Irish Conflict with specific reference to their experience of imprisonment. The aim of this significant paper is to situate the critical analysis grounded in Foucauldian theory drawing on theoretical tools of power, resistance and subjectivity in order to make sense of women's experiences of conflict and imprisonment in Ireland. It is suggested that power and resistance need to be re-appropriated in order to examine such unique gendered experiences that have been hidden in mainstream criminological accounts of the Irish Conflict.

ABSTRACT
IntroductionFor several years, Population Data Linkage initiatives around the world have been successfully linking population‐based administrative and other datasets and making extracts available for research under strong confidentiality protections1. This paper provides an overview of current approaches in a range of scenarios, then outlines current relevant trends and potential implications for population data linkage initiatives.MethodsApproaches to protecting the confidentiality of data in research can also reduce the statistical usefulness, and the trade‐off between confidentiality protection and statistical usefulness is often represented as a Risk‐Utility map [2, 3, 5, 7]. Positioning the range of current approaches on such a Risk‐Utility map can indicate the relative nature of the trade‐off in each case.Such a Risk‐Utility map is only part of the story, however. Each approach needs to be implemented with appropriate levels of governance, information technology security, and ethical oversight. In addition, there are several changes in the external environment that have potential implications for population data linkage initiatives.Results and DiscussionCurrent approaches to protecting the confidentiality of data in research fall into one of two classes. The first class comprises approaches that anonymise the data before analysis, namely:

Removal of identifying information such as names and addresses
Secure data centres on‐site at the custodian premises
Public use files made widely available
Synthetic data files made widely available
Open data files published on the internet

The second class comprises approaches that anonymise the analysis outputs, namely:

Virtual data centres that are on‐line versions of secure data centres [8]
Remote analysis centres where users can request analyses but cannot see data.

Many such initiatives implicitly or explicitly use criteria that have been recently captured in the Five Safes model [3]. However, changes in the external environment may add potential implications to address [6].First, there is a rapid increase in scenarios for data use, many of which involve multiple datasets from multiple sources with multiple custodians. This raises the question of whether there should be centralised data integration versus a proliferation of ad‐hoc decentralised but inter‐related initiatives. In any case, harmonised and shared governance will be essential. Next, the public are becoming increasingly informed and are increasingly exercising their privacy preferences in selecting between competing service providers. It is likely that the public will demand that initiatives move beyond education gain acceptance to a model of full partnership.ConclusionsWhile Population Data Linkage initiatives have been successful to date, changes in the external environment have potential implications such as a need for harmonised and shared governance, as well as full partnership with the public. Meeting the future challenges will require sophistication in the selection, design and operation of approaches to protecting the confidentiality of data in research. Useful frameworks in this context include [1, 4]. Importantly, it is necessary to have a range of approaches in order to adequately meet the needs of a range of different scenarios.AcknowledgementsThis work was partially supported by a grant from the Simons Foundation. The author thanks the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences, University of Cambridge, for support and hospitality during the programme Data Linkage and Anonymisation, which was supported by EPSRC grant no EP/K032208/1.
1For a list of administrative data linkage centres around the world, see www.ipdln.org/data‐linkage‐centres
Key References[1] Desai T, Felix Ritchie F, Welpton R. Five safes: designing data access for research. Preprint 2016.[2] Duncan G, Elliot M, Salazar‐Gonzàlez JJ. Statistical Confidentiality. Springer: New York, 2011.[3] El Emam K. A Guide to the De‐identification of Health Information. CRC Press: New York, NY, 2013.[4] Elliot M, Mackey E, O'Hara K, Tudor C. The Anonymisation Decision‐Making Framework. http://ukanon.net/wp‐content/uploads/2015/05/The‐Anonymisation‐Decision‐making‐Framework.pdf[5] Hundepool A, Domingo‐Ferrer J, Franconi L, Giessing S, Nordholt E, Spicer K, deWolf PP. Statistical Disclosure Control, Wiley Series in Survey Methodology. John Wiley & Sons: United Kingdom, 2012.[6] O'Keefe CM, Gould P, Chipperfield JO. A Five Safes perspective on administrative data integration initiatives, submitted.[7] O'Keefe CM and Rubin DB. Individual Privacy versus Public Good: Protecting Confidentiality in Health Research, Statistics in Medicine 34 (2015), 3081‐3103. DOI: 10.1002/sim.6543[8] O'Keefe CM, Westcott M, O'Sullivan M, Ickowicz A, Churches T. Anonymization for outputs of population health and health services research conducted via an online data centre, JAMIA in press.

A brief summary of the main concepts of Jauss's aesthetic reception theory is followed by an analysis of the novel Haluman's Journey to Lolland by Andrey Ivanov. By provoking the reader, the author constantly attempts to move their horizons of expectation. Ivanov creates a "novel without a plot" and calls it a travelogue, despite the fact that the storyline does not involve an actual journey. By parodying the chivalric romance and the subsequent jester's romance, the author actualizes the aspects that are import to him and explains the characters' "philosophy of non-resistance." Ivanov's novel is set in a Danish refugee camp, which acts as a parody of the 20th century European social and economic structure. Ivanov's provocative anticosmopolitanism makes the reader adopt a new perspective on the European policy of refugee integration. Furthermore, the author flirts with the dream of the Soviet people to move to the US, the interpretation of Buddhism and religiouspostulates, the traditional notion of a respectable life goal and other aspects. The second part of the article concerns the system of characters. First of all, the toponym "Lolland" is analyzed; then, the names of the main characters (e.g., Hanuman, Eugene, Yevgeny and other variants) are examined. At the same time, a brief analysis of intertextual relationships demonstrates how Ivanov adopts ethical questions raised in the works of classical writers, such as Alexander Pushkin, and transfers them to the 20th century or attempts to find an answer in the modern world with its moral principles. In addition, intertextual relationships with Russian folklore, works by N. Karamzin as well as I. Ilf and E. Petrov are described. The 20th century issue of a lost motherland is also discussed. In conclusion, it can be argued that by provoking the reader in various ways, the author focuses on people of different ages and makes his novel comprehensible and attractive for people of different generations. ANDREJAUS IVANOVO ROMANAS "HANUMANO KELIONĖ Į LOLANDĄ" KAIP ŠIUOLAIKINIO SKAITYTOJO PROVOKACIJA (PAGAL ESTETINIO SUVOKIMO TEORIJĄ) Trumpai apibendrinę pagrindinius Jausso estetinio suvokimo teorijos terminus, pereiname prie Andrejaus Ivanovo romano "Hanumano kelionė į Lolandą" analizės. Provokuodamas skaitytoją, autorius nuolat bando sujudinti jo lūkesčių horizontus. Ivanovas kuria "romaną be siužeto", pavadina jį "kelionių knyga", nors jame nėra jokios kelionės. Parodijuodamas riterių romaną ir vėlesnį juokdarių romaną, autorius aktualizuoja jam reikalingus aspektus ir aiškina veikėjų "nieko nedarymo filosofiją". Ivanovo romane aprašyta pabėgėlių stovykla Danijoje – XX a. Europos modelio parodija. Provokuojantis Ivanovo antikosmopolitizmas priverčia skaitytoją kitaip pažvelgti į Europos pabėgėlių integracijos politiką. Be to, autorius žaidžia su visų Sovietų Sąjungos žmonių svajone išvažiuoti į Ameriką, budizmo supratimu ir religijos postulatais, tradiciniu garbingu gyvenimo tikslu ir kitais aspektais. Antroje straipsnio dalyje analizuojama veikėjų sistema. Iš pradžių nagrinėjamas Lolando vietovės pavadinimas, po to –pagrindinių veikėjų vardai (Hanumanas, Judžinas, Eugenijus ir kiti jų variantai). Tuo pat metu trumpa intertekstualinių ryšių analizė parodo, kaip Ivanovas perima klasikinių rašytojų (pavyzdžiui, Aleksandro Puškino) kūriniuose užduotus etinius klausimus, perkelia juos į XX amžių ar mėgina rasti atsakymą šiuolaikiniame pasaulyje, jo moralinėje sistemoje ir principuose. Taip pat analizuojami intertekstualiniai ryšiai su I. Ilfo ir E. Petrovo, N. Karamzino kūriniais bei rusų tautosaka. Straipsnyje taip pat kalbama apie prarastos tėvynės problemą XX a. žmogaus pasaulėžiūroje. Apibendrinant galima teigti, kad "Kelionės" autorius provokuodamas skaitytoją įvairiais būdais orientuojasi į skirtingo amžiaus žmones ir "daro" savo tekstą suprantamą ir įdomų įvairių kartų atstovams. ; В статье анализируется потенциал воздействия романа Андрея Иванова «Путешествие Ханумана на Лолланд» на читателей. Методологической основой исследования является рецептивно-эстетическая теория Х. Р. Яусса и В. Изера, согласно которой автор, создавая свой текст, ведет определенную игру с читателем. Основной прием воздействия – провокация, влекущая за собой изменение мировоззрения читателя, сдвиги горизонтов ожиданий и формирование «нового» значения текста для определенных социальных, исторических и культурных условий. Вскрывая семиотические коды чтения, уже заложенные в «Путешествии», можно объяснить успех книги у публики разных возрастов и стран, причины ее номинации на крупные российские премии и прочие аспекты. Последовательно анализируются название произведения, система персонажей и другие элементы текста. Объясняется, почему роман, с одной стороны, шокирует читателя обилием нецензурных слов и сленга, с другой – завораживает и держит в напряжении. С помощью разнообразных приемов манипуляции читательскими ожиданиями Андрей Иванов ведет диалог с современниками, побуждая их иначе взглянуть на устройство мира и его ценностные установки.

Abstract. This study aims to determine the factors that cause the occurrence of recurring findings on the Inspectorate check and to analyze the coaching role of the Inspectorate in order to minimize the recurring findings. The recurring findings are the findings with same problems, which are repetitive from year to year although the previous findings have been resolved. The recurring findings are not only in the form of the loss of the local government, but also in terms of the administrative arrangement including the aspects of financial management, personnel management, the implementation of the basic tasks and functions, and the management of local government asset. The priciple theory used for this study includes the agency theory, positive accounting theory, compliance theory, attribution theory, and the theory of organizational commitment. This research employs a qualitative method and an exploratory approach. This approach elaborates more about the research topic based on the information collected from the interviews with the participants. These data were triangulated with other data obtained from observation and document analysis and then, they were analyzed interactively by reducing, presenting in the form of texts and tables, and making a conclusion. The result shows that the factors that cause recurring findings on the examination of the Inspectorate from the auditors' side are: 1) lack of coordination and communication in the audits; 2) lack of auditor competence in developing the findings. On the contrary, from the side of the auditee, the factors are: 1) the lack of coordination and communication in the audits; 2) lack of integrity and ethical values; 3) weak internal control systems; 4) lack of management commitment; 5) mutation of the financial managers; and 6) regulatory changes. Inspectorate has made various efforts to minimize their recurring findings in the form of guidance to the Local Government Unit, but in fact it can be said not effective. Suggestion that can be given to the auditor/head of the Inspectorate is to improve the communication and coordination with the object of examination and other related SKPD as well as to enhance the competence, especially in developing the audit findings. In addition, the leaders of SKPD (auditee) should be more active in making further coordination with the inspectorate, controlling the application of SPIP and creating the Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for each activity. Keywords: Recurring findings, Guidance, Inspectorate. Abstrak. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor penyebab terjadinya temuan berulang atas pemeriksaan Inspektorat serta menganalisis peran pembinaan Inspektorat dalam upaya meminimalisir adanya temuan berulang. Temuan berulang adalah temuan dengan permasalahan yang sama, yang selalu berulang dari tahun ke tahun walaupun temuan sebelumnya telah ditindaklanjuti. Temuan berulang yang dimaksud tidak hanya dalam bentuk kerugian daerah namun juga dari sisi penataan administrasi baik dari aspek pengelolaan keuangan, pengelolaan aparatur, pelaksanaan tugas pokok dan fungsi, dan pengelolaan aset daerah. Teori dasar yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini meliputi teori keagenan, teori akuntansi positif, teori kepatuhan, teori atribusi, dan teori komitmen organisasi. Penelitian ini merupakan jenis penelitian metode kualitatif dengan pendekatan eksploratori. Pendekatan ini bertujuan untuk mencari tahu lebih dalam mengenai topik penelitian berdasarkan informasi yang dikumpulkan dari narasumber melalui wawancara. Data ini ditriangulasikan dengan data lain yang diperoleh dari observasi dan studi dokumentasi, kemudian dianalisis secara interaktif dengan mereduksi, menyajikan dalam bentuk teks dan tabel, dan membuat suatu kesimpulan. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan terjadinya temuan berulang atas pemeriksaan Inspektorat dari sisi auditor adalah: 1) kurangnya koordinasi dan komunikasi audit; 2) kurangnya kompetensi auditor dalam pengembangan temuan. Sedangkan dari sisi auditi adalah: 1) kurangnya koordinasi dan komunikasi audit; 2) kurangnya integritas dan nilai etika; 3) lemahnya sistem pengendalian intern; 4) tidak adanya komitmen pimpinan; 5) adanya mutasi pengelola keuangan; dan 6) perubahan regulasi. Inspektorat telah melakukan berbagai upaya dalam meminimalisir adanya temuan berulang dalam bentuk pembinaan kepada Satuan Kerja Pemerintah Daerah (SKPD), namun pada kenyataannya dapat dikatakan belum efektif. Saran yang dapat diberikan bagi auditor/pimpinan Inspektorat adalah memperbaiki komunikasi dan koordinasi dengan objek pemeriksaan dan SKPD terkait lainnya serta lebih meningkatkan kompetensinya terutama dalam hal pengembangan temuan audit. Sedangkan untuk pimpinan SKPD (auditi) diantaranya lebih aktif dalam melakukan koordinasi lebih lanjut dengan Inspektorat, melakukan pengendalian dalam bentuk penerapan SPIP dan membuat Standar Operasional Prosedur (SOP) untuk setiap kegiatan. Kata Kunci : Temuan berulang, Pembinaan, Inspektorat.

INTRODUCTION: Since 40 years, the legislation and the definition of disability evolve trying their adaptation to society's evolutions. Those different legislations shown a positive evolution of the right for the integration of disabled persons and offers a new axe's work on autonomy and emotional and sexual of those persons. Mental disabled, can't always decide knowingly and caregivers can be brings to guide their decisions including questions of sexuality, affectivity, contraception and medical follow-up. It appears lawful to ask ethics considerations of those caregivers in the guidance to education and decision on birth control subject.PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: Principally repair and analyses parents and caregivers position (educator, director, psychologist) front of those ethics stakes, then identify modalities of sexuality talks in residential home also identify the demand, prescription modalities of contraception and the place of women and/or couple choice.MATERIAL AND METHOD: This is a comprehensive, descriptive and qualitative study of parents and caregivers working among adult women with mental disability welcomed in residential home. Data were collected from 11 interviews according to the comprehensive interview method. Content analysis was then performed.RESULTS: The study shows that today, sexuality makes consensus, and that VIOP (voluntary interruption of pregnancy) raises an ethical dilemma because this led to many suffering. For the study participant, contraception can be a solution even if it implies to put women in front of their disability. We always need to get the consent of the woman even more for sterilization. The study shows us that birth control appears as a benefit for born to be children but it led suffering for the woman. It appears clearly that the midwife has a part to play for those women in emotional and sexual life education during consultations.CONCLUSION: The study confirms ethics stakes existence which the caregivers are confronted in. Diversity of those stakes as the one of sexuality, VIOP, sterilization, parentally reflect the difficulties that caregivers encounter in the management of birth control with the women with mental disability. A new professional axe is open for the midwives. ; INTRODUCTION : Depuis 40 ans, la législation ainsi que la définition du handicap évolue en essayant de s'adapter aux évolutions de la société. Ces différentes législations montrent une évolution positive du droit à l'intégration de la personne handicapée et propose un nouvel axe de travail sur l'autonomie et la vie affective et sexuel de ces personnes. Les personnes en situation d'handicap mental ne peuvent pas toujours décider en connaissance de cause et les aidants peuvent être amener à accompagner leur prise de décision notamment sur les questions de sexualité, d'affectivité, de contraception, de suivi médical. Il apparait licite de se poser la question des considérations éthiques de ces aidants dans l'accompagnement à l'éducation et à la décision sur le sujet de la régulation des naissances.OBJECTIF DE L'ÉTUDE : Principalement de repérer et d'analyser le positionnement des parents et des professionnels (éducateurs, directeurs, psychologues) face à ces enjeux éthiques puis d'identifier les modalités de l'abord de la sexualité en institutions ainsi que d'identifier les demandes, les modalités de prescription de contraception et la place du choix pour la femme et/ou le couple.MATÉRIELS ET MÉTHODE : Il s'agit d'une étude qualitative, descriptive et compréhensive concernant des parents et des professionnels travaillant auprès de femmes majeures en situation d'handicap mental accueillies en institutions. Les données ont été recueillies à partir de 11 entretiens selon la méthode de l'entretien compréhensif et l'analyse de contenu a ensuite été réalisée.RÉSULTATS : L'étude montre qu'aujourd'hui la sexualité fait consensus, que l'Interruption Volontaire de Grossesse (IVG) soulève un fort dilemme éthique car il entraine de multiples souffrances. Pour les participants à l'étude, la contraception peut être une solution même si cela implique de mettre les femmes faces à leur handicap. Il faut toujours récupérer le consentement de la femme et d'autant plus pour la stérilisation. L'étude nous montre que la régulation des naissances apparait comme un bien pour le futur enfant à naître mais entraine des souffrances pour la femme. Il apparait clairement que la sage-femme a un rôle à jouer auprès de ces femmes en éducation à la vie affective et sexuelle, lors de consultations.CONCLUSION : L'étude confirme l'existence d'enjeux éthiques auxquels sont confrontés les aidant. La diversité des enjeux comme celui sur la sexualité, l'IVG, la stérilisation, la parentalité reflète les difficultés que rencontrent les professionnels lors de la prise en charge de la régulation des naissances chez les femmes en situation d'handicap mental. Un nouvel axe professionnel s'ouvre donc pour les sages-femmes.

The purpose of the thesis is to put forth and explore a notion of teaching as a practice of attention formation. Drawing on educational philosophy and the Didaktik/Pädagogik-traditions, teaching is explored as a relational and lived-though practice that can promote, form, and share attention. In the context of teaching, attention is connected to the acts of showing and observing. As such, teaching can be seen as a complex of relations that emerges through the intersection of the intentions of the one who is showing and the one who is observing. This intersection creates a tension between the self-active student and the paths made possible for this self-activity. The pedagogical dimension of this tension can be expressed through the principles of the summons to self-activity and Bildsamkeit. By turning to some key-texts of the French philosopher Jacques Rancière, I explore how the notion of teaching as attention formation can be understood from within a radical relational perspective on education and also how attention itself can be thought of as an educational phenomenon. From this critical relational perspective, where the relation is seen as constitutive of educational situations and where the possibility for uniqueness, difference, and freedom are regarded as central characteristics for a democratic conception (and ethical realization) of education, I interpret Rancière's notions of intellectual emancipation and partage du sensible as political/aesthetic analogues to the summons to self-activity and Bildsamkeit, respectively. While the event of intellectual emancipation, although constituted relationally, mainly addresses the unique attentive subject, the notion of le partage du sensible draws attention to the larger and shared context in which this event takes place. In the thesis, teaching as attention formation is addressed as a relational phenomenon in which the unique and irreplaceable subject is called into being and is given space to respond to the summons of the surrounding world and to strive against the materiality of that very same world. It is suggested that attention formation might be the educational event when someone, as a unique other, is called into presence and is given room to claim and to speak for his or her interest. It is an event made possible by those teachers who have the sensibility to discover its coming, the courage to let it happen, and the strength to accept the consequences of it. ; Detta är en pedagogisk-filosofisk avhandling med syfte att undersöka på vilket sätt undervisning kan ses som en praktik som kan skapa, forma och dela uppmärksamhet. Utifrån ett relationellt pedagogiskt perspektiv och med hänvisning till både en pedagogisk och didaktisk problematik utreder jag hur undervisning kan förstås som en praktik där uppmärksamhet både uppfordras och formas, det vill säga som en uppmärksamhetsbildande praktik. Uppmärksamhet är ett fenomen som de senaste 150 åren främst har beskrivits i psykologiska, kognitiva eller neurobiologiska termer. Dock har uppmärksamhet varit en pedagogisk fråga och en fråga för undervisning i minst 3000 år (genom t ex Platon, Rousseau, Comenius, Herbart, Montessori, James, Dewey). I avhandlingen tar jag fasta på den pedagogiska traditionen av att tänka uppmärksamhet i relationella termer och något som skapas i en undervisningssituation, när lärare och elever möts i relation till ett ämnesinnehåll. Med undervisning som en relation mellan någon som visar, något som visas och någon som förväntas uppmärksamma det som visas, skapas en spänning mellan elevens förväntade självverksamhet och de vägar som görs möjliga för denna självverksamhet. Den pedagogiska dimensionen av detta möte förstår jag med hjälp av principerna uppfordran till självverksamhet och bildsamhet. Dessa principer utvecklar jag med hjälp av den franske filosofen Jacques Rancières diskussioner om undervisning som intellektuell emancipation och om estetik/politik som ett delande av det sinnliga. Avhandlingens teoretiska bidrag består i att utveckla en relationell förståelse av undervisning som en uppmärksamhetsbildande praktik, genom att förstå Rancière's begrepp intellektuell emancipation och delandet av det sinnliga som estetisk/politiska paralleller till de pedagogiska principerna uppfordran till självverksamhet och bildsamhet. Då undervisning förstås som en uppmärksamhetsbildande praktik, blir den också möjlig att tänka som en estetisk/politisk verksamhet som erbjuder det unika och oersättliga subjektet att både ta plats och tillföra något nytt bland andra subjekt i en värld av skillnader. Med denna förståelse vill jag göra uppmärksamhet till en pedagogiskt relevant fråga, särskilt i relation till en nutida utbildningsdiskurs som är starkt färgad av mätbarhet, målfokusering och individcentrering. ; Forskarskolan Filosofiska studier av pedagogiska relationer

The debate about positivism in general legal theory or in the international legal scholarship manifests so many different, if not conflicting, meanings of positivism—even among legal positivists themselves—that the debate about legal positivism has proved almost unfathomable and unintelligible. No other approach to theorizing international law is more closely associated with and dependent upon the development of an account of its sources than is positivism. The explanation for this is a simple and familiar one: if there is any thesis regarding (p. 324) law that we can uncontroversially associate with the label 'legal positivism', it is the view that a norm's status as law, its membership in a legal order or system, is solely a matter of its social source without regard for its merit. Whatever their differences (and as the above epigraph attests, they are many), all legal positivists maintain that law is necessarily posited, made, or created, not discerned in the natural order of things or deduced from principles knowable a priori. What counts as a law-creating act in any given legal system depends on the practice of its legal officials; the sources of law are, in this sense, a contingent or arbitrary matter. Commitment to even this relatively modest claim brings with it substantial argumentative burdens. Specifically, it requires international legal positivists to offer the following: (a) a defence of the claim that law must have a social source; (b) an argument outlining the possible sources of law—that is, those act-types that can count as positing or creating law; and (c) an argument defending or rejecting the existence of specific sources of law in a specific legal system; e.g. an assessment of the claim that general principles of law serve as a source of international law. Clearly a comprehensive treatment of these issues requires more than a single book chapter, or for that matter a single book. Instead, the present work offers partial treatments of the first two of the argumentative tasks mentioned as incumbent upon international legal positivists. I begin by considering the case for legal positivism; again, understood as the relatively modest thesis that the existence of law is a matter of its social source, regardless of its merits. Arguments for this thesis are of three types: descriptive (or social scientific), normative (or ethical), and conceptual (or metaphysical). I aim not to adjudicate between these arguments but to demonstrate that what follows for the sources of international law from the commitment to positivism depends to a considerable extent on the specific defence offered for accepting it as an account of the nature of law, including international law. In section III: Customary International Law Creation: Orthodox and Informal Legislation Accounts, I focus specifically on the possibility of customary international law. Though few dispute that custom can, and does serve as a source of international law, there is widespread disagreement regarding the precise mechanism whereby customary legal norms come to exist. If they are to defend custom as a source of international law, positivists owe us a plausible account of how customary rules are made; i.e. what acts count as the positing or making of customary norms, and how they do so. I argue that neither the orthodox account of customary law formation nor those accounts in which judges make law based on a belief in a broad consensus regarding the desirability of there being such a law do so. The former fails to identify an act of positing or creation at all, while the latter is better characterized as informal legislation than as custom formation. I then (p. 325) sketch a third approach that characterizes customary norms as elements of a community's normative practice, and custom-formation as normative interpretations of patterns of behaviour that are successfully integrated into that normative practice. This account avoids the chronological paradox in custom formation and accounts for various features commonly associated with custom, such as its binding agents even in the absence of consent. But is it compatible with legal positivism? I offer a preliminary argument for an affirmative answer, focusing particularly on its compatibility with the rationales Hans Kelsen and Joseph Raz offer for legal positivism.

На основі розкриття змісту нормативного, інструментального (технократичного) та реалістичного (соціолого-культурологічного) підходів визначено, що ризиккомунікація відображує певний набір зв'язків, відносин і дій, що виникають у суспільстві під час сприйняття ризику, оцінки його людьми та необхідності діяти з метою мінімізації ризику або зменшення до прийнятного рівня негативних наслідків його впливу. Проведена демаркація ризик-комунікації з інформуванням про ризики, комунікативними ризиками, кризовою комунікацією. Показано, що ризик-комунікація спрямована на те, щоб переконати громадськість утриматись від ризикованої поведінки або обрати менш ризикований варіант дій. ; На основе раскрытия содержания нормативного, инструментального (технократического) и реалистического (социолого-культурологического) подходов определено, что риск-коммуникация отражает определенный набор связей, отношений и действий, возникающих в обществе при восприятии риска, оценки его людьми и необходимости действовать с целью минимизации риска или уменьшения до приемлемого уровня негативных последствий его влияния. Проведена демаркация рисккоммуникации с информированием о рисках, коммуникативными рисками, кризисной коммуникацией. Показано, что риск-коммуникация направлена на то, чтобы убедить общественность воздержаться от рискованного поведения или выбрать менее рискованный вариант действий. ; The content of the main approaches to risk communication is disclosed. In particular, according to the normative approach of risk communication is based on some of the significant ethical criteria and values, focused on ensuring the fundamental rights of civil society, build confidence and consensus. Instrumental (technocratic) approach focuses on the definition of risk communication as a kind of technology that can apply individual, group or organization to obtain advantages in achieving certain goals. Realistic (sociological and culturological) approach considers risk communication as a means of improving the quality of knowledge that is available when making decisions under uncertainty. It is emphasized that realistic imperative may be associated with pragmatic reasons, but it is aimed to achieve this result, which is consistent with common interests and values. Based on the disclosure of the content of these approaches, it is determined that risk communication reflects a certain set of contacts, relationships and actions that arise in society when perceiving risk, assessing it by people, and the need to act to minimize the risk or reduce to an acceptable level the negative consequences of its impact.Determined that risk communication is aimed at addressing the following main objectives: to make the message as accessible to all addressees could understand their meaning; provide an environment for discussion of risk issues involving all stakeholders in the democratic process aimed at resolving conflicts; create conditions in order to convince the message recipients to change their attitude to a particular type of risk. Successful risk communication depends on how the threat was identified for the implementation of communication activities. For this it is necessary to take the following steps: identification of possible collision situations; definition of situations that may trigger conflicts; determining the critical level of perception; determining the ability of information that serves an incentive for certain actions; determining the level of the motivational power of information provided; determining the level of conflict information provided; determining the level of psychological barriers of perception; determination of the ability to hear and understand information; determining the level of preparedness of criticism and black / gray PR; determining readiness to use methods of "pattern disruption"; determining the ability of media to modify and provoke opposing units; determination of a threat of lack of time mode; determining the level of professionalism and training of performers communicative action; determine the feasibility of using adequate methods, techniques, technologies.Demarcation of risk communication with information on risks, communicative risks, crisis communication was carried out. It is shown that risk communication is a purposeful process of exchanging different types of risk between the parties concerned. However this exchange is not one-sided and interactive process based on the existence and performance feedback, ensuring the mutual exchange of information. Proved that risk communication differs from communicative risks that are generated reality of risks intersection varied (permanent and temporary) factors of risks. In contrast, crisis communication, risk communication is establishing a dialogue between those at risk and those who are able to control or reduce their risk level associated with the determination of risk and is intended to convince the public to refrain from risky behavior. It was determined that the combined risk communication objective («threat») and subjective («outrage») elements.

INTRODUCTION: Since 40 years, the legislation and the definition of disability evolve trying their adaptation to society's evolutions. Those different legislations shown a positive evolution of the right for the integration of disabled persons and offers a new axe's work on autonomy and emotional and sexual of those persons. Mental disabled, can't always decide knowingly and caregivers can be brings to guide their decisions including questions of sexuality, affectivity, contraception and medical follow-up. It appears lawful to ask ethics considerations of those caregivers in the guidance to education and decision on birth control subject.PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: Principally repair and analyses parents and caregivers position (educator, director, psychologist) front of those ethics stakes, then identify modalities of sexuality talks in residential home also identify the demand, prescription modalities of contraception and the place of women and/or couple choice.MATERIAL AND METHOD: This is a comprehensive, descriptive and qualitative study of parents and caregivers working among adult women with mental disability welcomed in residential home. Data were collected from 11 interviews according to the comprehensive interview method. Content analysis was then performed.RESULTS: The study shows that today, sexuality makes consensus, and that VIOP (voluntary interruption of pregnancy) raises an ethical dilemma because this led to many suffering. For the study participant, contraception can be a solution even if it implies to put women in front of their disability. We always need to get the consent of the woman even more for sterilization. The study shows us that birth control appears as a benefit for born to be children but it led suffering for the woman. It appears clearly that the midwife has a part to play for those women in emotional and sexual life education during consultations.CONCLUSION: The study confirms ethics stakes existence which the caregivers are confronted in. Diversity of those stakes as the one of sexuality, VIOP, sterilization, parentally reflect the difficulties that caregivers encounter in the management of birth control with the women with mental disability. A new professional axe is open for the midwives. ; INTRODUCTION : Depuis 40 ans, la législation ainsi que la définition du handicap évolue en essayant de s'adapter aux évolutions de la société. Ces différentes législations montrent une évolution positive du droit à l'intégration de la personne handicapée et propose un nouvel axe de travail sur l'autonomie et la vie affective et sexuel de ces personnes. Les personnes en situation d'handicap mental ne peuvent pas toujours décider en connaissance de cause et les aidants peuvent être amener à accompagner leur prise de décision notamment sur les questions de sexualité, d'affectivité, de contraception, de suivi médical. Il apparait licite de se poser la question des considérations éthiques de ces aidants dans l'accompagnement à l'éducation et à la décision sur le sujet de la régulation des naissances.OBJECTIF DE L'ÉTUDE : Principalement de repérer et d'analyser le positionnement des parents et des professionnels (éducateurs, directeurs, psychologues) face à ces enjeux éthiques puis d'identifier les modalités de l'abord de la sexualité en institutions ainsi que d'identifier les demandes, les modalités de prescription de contraception et la place du choix pour la femme et/ou le couple.MATÉRIELS ET MÉTHODE : Il s'agit d'une étude qualitative, descriptive et compréhensive concernant des parents et des professionnels travaillant auprès de femmes majeures en situation d'handicap mental accueillies en institutions. Les données ont été recueillies à partir de 11 entretiens selon la méthode de l'entretien compréhensif et l'analyse de contenu a ensuite été réalisée.RÉSULTATS : L'étude montre qu'aujourd'hui la sexualité fait consensus, que l'Interruption Volontaire de Grossesse (IVG) soulève un fort dilemme éthique car il entraine de multiples souffrances. Pour les participants à l'étude, la contraception peut être une solution même si cela implique de mettre les femmes faces à leur handicap. Il faut toujours récupérer le consentement de la femme et d'autant plus pour la stérilisation. L'étude nous montre que la régulation des naissances apparait comme un bien pour le futur enfant à naître mais entraine des souffrances pour la femme. Il apparait clairement que la sage-femme a un rôle à jouer auprès de ces femmes en éducation à la vie affective et sexuelle, lors de consultations.CONCLUSION : L'étude confirme l'existence d'enjeux éthiques auxquels sont confrontés les aidant. La diversité des enjeux comme celui sur la sexualité, l'IVG, la stérilisation, la parentalité reflète les difficultés que rencontrent les professionnels lors de la prise en charge de la régulation des naissances chez les femmes en situation d'handicap mental. Un nouvel axe professionnel s'ouvre donc pour les sages-femmes.

Engineering was a recognized human activity at a certain period of the history (17th / 18th centuries) when some militaries designed, constructed, operated, and maintained fortifications and engines of war, and then those activities were transferred into non-military applications. Engineering has continued to change geographically and socially and presently is extremely broad and its relevance it's not solely technology based. However, its role in technology is decisive since is largely by technology that current society keeps its coherence. Philosophy of Technology has particularly attentive to the impact of technology on society and culture, rather than with technology itself. Actually, Philosophy has not paid adequate attention to engineering. On the contrary, at least since the 1960s, members of the philosophical community have been accusing engineers of polluting the natural world, transforming the climate, making useless consumer products, etc. Only in 1994 a new branch of Philosophy of Technology has emerged that is concerned with the technology itself, and may be called Engineering Philosophy of Technology or Philosophy and Ethics of Engineering. This is a new way of looking through engineering, that not only considers the ethical aspects but also many other modern issues that are being transformed by technical creations such as new existentialisms of risk projection, electronic networking, virtual reality, trans human and remote sensation and perception, graphic media presentations and probability analysis, interactive internet web sites, food, housing, transportation, communications, economics, etc. The present work starts with an expedition to the history of the Aeronautical Engineering in parallel with the Philosophy and Ethics in order to demonstrate the relationship between them. This thesis is intended to show the link between the aerospace/aeronautical engineering and world-wide economy growth (or lack of it!). This is done by analyzing some economic data in terms of world impact as well as the relevant social aspects such as the salaries of the airplane industry in the United States, France and Brazil, and their relation to the company income and country. These countries were selected due to their constant increase in state-of-the-art equipment proven in companies like Boeing, Airbus and Embraer. ; A Engenharia é uma atividade humana reconhecida num determinado período da história (séculos XVII e XVIII), quando alguns militares projetaram, construíram, operaram e mantiveram fortificações e máquinas de guerra e, em seguida, essas atividades foram transferidas para aplicações não militares. A Engenharia continuou a mudar geográfica e socialmente e atualmente tem uma abrangência extremamente ampla e a sua relevância não é apenas baseada em tecnologia. No entanto, o seu papel na tecnologia é decisivo, pois é em grande parte pela tecnologia que a sociedade atual mantém sua coerência. A Filosofia da Tecnologia tem estado particularmente atenta ao impacto da tecnologia na sociedade e na cultura, mas não na própria tecnologia. Na verdade, a Filosofia não deu uma atenção adequada à engenharia. Pelo contrário, ao menos desde a década de 1960, membros da comunidade filosófica têm acusado os engenheiros de poluir o mundo natural, transformando o clima, fazendo produtos de consumo inúteis, etc. Somente em 1994 surgiu um novo ramo da Filosofia da Tecnologia que é se preocupa, também, com a própria tecnologia, e pode ser chamado Filosofia de Engenharia da Tecnologia (por contraponto à Filosofia de Humanidades da Tecnologia, versando apenas os aspetos das Humanidades – Humanities Philosophy of Technology) ou Filosofia e Ética da Engenharia. Trata-se de uma nova forma de olhar através da Engenharia, que não só considera os aspetos éticos, mas também muitos outros temas modernos que estão sendo transformados por criações técnicas como os novos existencialismos de projeção de riscos, redes informáticas, realidade virtual, sensação e perceção transumana e remota, apresentações gráficas e análise de probabilidades, sítios de internet interativos, alimentação, alojamento, transporte, comunicações, economia, etc. O presente trabalho começa com uma expedição à história da Engenharia Aeronáutica em paralelo com a Filosofia e Ética, a fim de demonstrar a relação entre eles. Esta tese destina-se a mostrar a ligação entre a engenharia Aeroespacial / Aeronáutica e o crescimento da economia mundial (ou falta dela!). Isto é feito analisando alguns dados econômicos em termos de impacto mundial, bem como os aspetos sociais relevantes, tais como os salários da indústria de aviões nos Estados Unidos, França e Brasil, e sua relação com o rendimento da empresa e país. Estes países foram selecionados devido ao constante aumento de equipamentos de última geração comprovados em empresas como Boeing, Airbus e Embraer.

The present work assumes the role of DIRCOM from an ethical and human perspective, in benefit of fertile-aged women with gynecological complications that have no access to a private health service.The proposal designed an Strategic Comunication Plan in order to position the notoriety of the Hospital Gineco Obstétrico Nueva Aurora, Luz Elena Arismendi, in the area of Nueva Aurora– DMQ, according to: the specification of the relevant communicational aspects of the institution based on communication theories. Of the documentary analysis about the functioning, politics, actions, tactics and communication strategies of the Ecuadorian National System of Health, to diagnose possible lacks and of the identification, description and analysis of inner and outer relations with public of interest. And the formulation of communication strategies applicable to the notoriety positioning of Hospital Gineco Obstétrico Nueva Aura. This project is theorically based upon the adquired knowledge in the master studies, such as: the communication as signifier, the influence of political communication, the importance of organizational communication, how to manage the outer communication, the attainments and disadvantages of the digital age, it puts in practice observational skills, investigation and analysis, from where problems were identified like the misuse of channels of communication, ignorance of the current reality, dispersed strategies to the necessities of the public, lack of strategies outwards the organization, little to none relation with strategical alliances and means of communication, outdated users, hospital service lists of clients not positioned in the community, and advantages like motivated personnel, cultural identity, corporative, symbolical consolidated, access to channels of communication and social networks in a relevant way. Through this plan of communication will provide to the inner, medical, technical and operational public of the necessary knowledge to respond to the users, citizens and per se, in a cordial and clear manner. And it will allow positioning ix the services through public relations strategies, advertising of health, diffusion of services, connection with means of communication, updated and accesible information, and mainly an excellent service, with the purpose of facilitating and guaranteeing the dignified access to public services of the National System of Health. ; El presente trabajo asume el rol del DIRCOM desde una perspectiva ética y humana, en beneficio de las mujeres en edad fértil y con complicaciones ginecológicas que no tienen acceso a un servicio de salud privado. La propuesta contempla el diseño de un Plan Estratégico de Comunicación para posicionar la notoriedad del Hospital Gineco Obstétrico Nueva Aurora, Luz Elena Arismendi, en el sector Nueva Aurora– DMQ, a través de la puntualización de los aspectos comunicacionales relevantes de la institución en base a teorías de comunicación; del análisis documental acerca del funcionamiento, políticas, acciones, tácticas y estrategias de comunicación del Sistema Nacional de Salud del Ecuador, para diagnosticar posibles falencias; y, de la identificación, descripción y análisis de las relaciones internas y externas con los públicos de interés, así como de la formulación de estrategias de comunicación aplicables al posicionamiento de la notoriedad del Hospital Gineco Obstétrico Nueva Aura. Este proyecto se fundamenta teóricamente en: la comunicación como significante, la influencia de la comunicación política, la importancia de la comunicación organizacional, cómo gestionar la comunicación externa, los logros y desventajas de la era digital, pone en práctica habilidades de observación, investigación y análisis, desde el cual se identificaron problemas como mal uso de canales de comunicación, desconocimiento de la realidad actual, estrategias dispersas a las necesidades de los públicos, falta de estrategias hacia fuera de la organización, poco a ninguna relación con alianzas estratégicas y medios de comunicación, usuarios desinformados, cartera de servicios del hospital no posicionada en la comunidad, y ventajas como personal motivado, identidad cultural, corporativa, simbólica consolidada, acceso a canales de comunicación y a redes sociales de manera relevante. Vii A través de este plan de comunicación se dotará al hospital de los conocimientos necesarios para responder a los usuarios, ciudadanía y entre sí, de manera clara y cordial y, permitirá posicionar los servicios mediante estrategias de relaciones públicas, promoción de la salud, difusión de los servicios, vinculación con medios de comunicación, información actualizada, accesible y con un excelente servicio, con el fin de facilitar y garantizar el acceso digno a los servicios públicos de Sistema Nacional de Salud.

51 páginas. ; Trabajo Fin de Máster en Biotecnología Avanzada. Director/Tutor: Eugenio Olmedo Peralta. En este trabajo, tras analizar la normativa vigente en materia de propiedad industrial, así como su evolución histórica, se han expuesto los principales aspectos de la regulación actual de las creaciones biotecnológicas. Éstas poseen ciertas singularidades respecto a las invenciones convencionales al estar constituidas total o parcialmente por materia biológica, lo que les hace requerir de un régimen de protección especial, o al menos el realizar ciertas adaptaciones respecto de la normativa básica de patentes, puesto que ésta se creó en su origen considerando invenciones de carácter eminentemente técnico surgidas en la revolución industrial. Esta tarea se ha llevado a cabo con el objetivo de considerar las posibles soluciones existentes para solventar las carencias de la normativa y ofrecer una protección adecuada a las invenciones biotecnológicas, tal que proporcione una justa remuneración al inventor, fomentando a su vez el desarrollo tecnológico. También se han expuesto las principales características del régimen de las obtenciones vegetales, creado para dar protección a las variedades vegetales desarrolladas. De esta manera, se han abarcado la mayoría de los supuestos de protección legal de creaciones de base biológica, ya sean invenciones patentables o variedades vegetales, profundizando más en las primeras. Así, tras realizar una revisión bibliográfica de las principales aportaciones realizadas en la materia y de la legislación al respecto, contemplando las principales dificultades y singularidades que las creaciones basadas en materia viva presentan en cuanto a su protección jurídica, se puede afirmar que, hoy por hoy, el método de protección mediante patentes es el más adecuado para las invenciones biotecnológicas. Ello es debido a la gran experiencia acumulada que se tiene con este sistema, el cual se ha ido adaptando a este tipo de invenciones a lo largo de los años, siendo el que mejor recompensa proporciona al inventor y el que posee una mayor importancia económica, actuando como un agente dinamizador e impulsor del desarrollo tecnológico. Pese a esto, no se puede ignorar la necesidad de ir adaptando día a día la legislación a la vanguardia de la técnica, intentando proporcionar soluciones equitativas para la sociedad en general, respetando los derechos humanos y ciertos principios éticos, y a su vez intentando fomentar el desarrollo tecnológico, en áreas como la biotecnología, tan necesario para solventar numerosos problemas de nuestra sociedad contemporánea. ; In this paper, after analyzing the current legislation on intellectual property, as well as its historical evolution, have been exposed the main aspects of the current regulation of biotechnological creations. They have certain peculiarities with respect to conventional inventions, since they are wholly or partially constituted by biological matter, which means that they require a special protection regime, or at least some adaptations with respect to the basic patent law, since created in its origin considering inventions of eminently technical nature arisen in the industrial revolution. This task has been carried out with the aim of considering possible solutions to solve the shortcomings of the regulations and to provide adequate protection to biotechnological inventions, such as to provide a fair remuneration to the inventor, while promoting technological development. The main features of the plant variety regime, created to protect developed plant varieties, have also been discussed. In this way, most of the cases of legal protection of biologically based creations have been covered, be they patentable inventions or plant varieties, going deeper into the former. Thus, after a bibliographical review of the main contributions made in this area and of the legislation in this respect, considering the main difficulties and singularities that the creations based on living matter present in terms of their legal protection, it can be affirmed that, nowadays, the method of patent protection is the most appropriate for biotechnological inventions. This is due to the great experience accumulated with this system, which has been adapted to this type of inventions over the years, being the one that gives the best reward to the inventor and has greater economic importance, acting as a driving force of technological development. In spite of this, the need to adapt legislation to the forefront of technology cannot be ignored, trying to provide equitable solutions for society in general, respecting human rights and certain ethical principles, and at the same time trying to promote technological development, in areas such as biotechnology, so necessary to solve many problems of our contemporary society.

The search of the effective technologies of social tolerance formation in Ukraine is an important scientific and practical problem nowadays. Its relevance is determined by a range of reasons, among which the most significant is a social stratification taking place due to the economic, social and other features that consequently increase the manifestations of intolerance, extremism, xenophobia and aggravate social conflicts. The article is dedicated to the tolerance investigation being a social phenomenon, way of social interaction as well as technologies of its formation.The various ways of understanding of tolerance essence being a social phenomenon were analyzed allowing to detect four basic approaches evolved in the modern socio-humanitarian knowledge: philosophical approach considers tolerance as an ethical-philosophical norm; sociological one – as a type of social behavior, action and interaction between various social groups and communities; political – as a principle of relationships between representatives of different classes, political parties, ideological views; psychological approach regards tolerance as a personal quality being formed during the process of socialization and developed as a certain socio-psychological behavioral setting.The key feature of social tolerance is identified which is an active position of an individual, social group or society as a whole, manifested in the corresponding tolerant behavior, rather than passively patient attitude towards certain events. This allows to conclude that tolerance is not identical with indifference and patience as they can not be placed in synonymic series. That is, understanding of social tolerance as patience, indifference, forbearance and unscrupulousness does not correspond to the modern socio-cultural situation. This actualizes the development of special technologies for the social tolerance formation.Social technologies are a special kind of social activity as a result of which the goal is achieved. Non-technological activity, unlike a technological one, is spontaneous, search-based, and the technology itself provides for an optimal and rational scheme of activity.Modern technological doctrine formed at the beginning of the 20th century gave a powerful impetus to the development of several directions for understanding and implementing of social technologies, which are now used in all spheres of public life.Various technologies are considered in the article and their classification is carried out on a number of grounds. From the whole set of technologies of the social tolerance formation, the most effective are emphasized, namely: communicative, interactive, information-communicative, actionable, training and educational.The methods and tools of sociological research which allowed to detect certain tendencies in the student youth attitude to representatives of different social groups are developed during the course of the study.The most effective technologies of the student youth's social tolerance formation are suggested according to the results of the research. ; Поиск эффективных технологий формирования социальной толерантности в Украине является на сегодняшний день важной научной и практической проблемой. Ее актуальность обусловлена целой серией причин, среди которых наиболее значимыми является резкое расслоение общества по экономическим, социальным и другим признакам, а также связанный с этим рост нетерпимости, экстремизма, ксенофобии, обострение социальных конфликтов. Эта статья посвящена исследованию толерантности как социального феномена, как способа социального взаимодействия, а также технологиям ее формирования.Проанализировано различные подходы к пониманию сущности толерантности как социального феномена, что позволило выявить четыре основных подхода, которые сложились в современном социогуманитарном знании: философский, социологический, политологический, психологический. Каждый из подходов акцентирует внимание на разных проявлениях социальной толерантности. Рассмотрено технологии формирования социальной толерантности, среди которых наиболее эффективными являются коммуникативно-деятельностные, тренинговые, образовательные. Разработано методику и инструментарий социологического исследования, которое позволило выявить определенные тенденции толерантного отношения студенческой молодежи к представителям различных социальных групп.По результатам исследования разработаны рекомендации по оптимизации технологий формирования социальной толерантности у студенческой молодежи. ; У статті розглянуто ефективні технологій формування соціальної толерантності в Україні. Її актуальність зумовлюється низкою причин, серед яких найбільш вагомими є різке розшарування суспільства за економічними, соціальними та іншими ознаками, а також пов'язаний із цим ріст нетерпимості, екстремізму, ксенофобії, загострення соціальних конфліктів тощо. Статтю присвячено дослідженню толерантності як способу соціальної взаємодії та технологіям її формування. Проаналізовано підходи до розуміння сутності толерантності як соціального феномена, що дозволило виокремити чотири основних підходи: філософський, соціологічний, політологічний і психологічний. Досліджено технології формування соціальної толерантності, серед яких найбільш ефективними є комунікативно-діяльнісні, тренінгові, освітні. Розроблено методику та інструментарій соціологічного дослідження, що дозволило провести інтернет-опитування й простежити певні тенденції у формуванні соціальної толерантності в студентської молоді. За результатами дослідження запропоновано найбільш дійові технології формування соціальної толерантності в студентської молоді.

Наслідком дій держави щодо впровадження Європейських стандартів освіти в Україні стало прийняття нової редакції Закону України "Про вищу освіту" (2014).Мета. Науково-аналітичне дослідження визначення поняття кваліфікація за законодавством про вищу освіту, як критерію професійного рівня випускника вищого навчального закладу.Методи. У ході дослідження використано бібліографічний, лінгвістичний, змістовно-правовий та порівняльно-правовий методи.Результати. Із проведеного аналізу вбачається, що як в міжнародних, так і в національних стандартах поняття "кваліфікація" застосовується в двох аспектах, а саме: як результат академічної освіти та як результат професійного навчання в інших формах, чим і обумовлені певні відмінності в його артикуляціях залежно від сфери застосування.На погляд авторів, поняття "кваліфікація" у Законі України "Про вищу освіту" є найбільш конкретизованим, однозначним та зрозумілим, відображаючи його змістовну суть, а саме ‒ компетентності відповідно до стандартів вищої освіти, ніж загальні посилання на вид і ступінь професійної підготовки, а тим більше на документ, як форму її фіксації.Висновки. Викладене свідчить, що поняття "кваліфікація" за чинним національним законодавством з вищої освіти має значення не пересічної дефініції, а наскрізної правової категорії, наріжного інституційного критерію з визначення фундаментальних підходів стосовно форм та принципів організації вищої і професійної освіти, міждисциплінарних та міжгалузевих зв'язків, а також порівняння національних і міжнародних стандартів освіти/навчання та професійних рівнів. Що стосується дефініції "кваліфікація" (у контексті вищої освіти), вбачається за доцільне доповнити її, з урахуванням законодавчо визначених задач вищої школи, щодо формування не тільки професійних компетентностей випускника (майбутнього фахівця), але й його громадянських, морально-етичних та інших особистісних якостей. Як за міжнародними офіційними документами, так і національними нормативними актами визначення поняття "кваліфікація" існує в двох вимірах: академічному/освітньому та професійному, що до певної міри різняться за формулюваннями. З метою забезпечення єдиного та стабільного міжгалузевого, міжрівневого розуміння, трактування та застосування, убачається за доцільне уніфікувати та внормувати його за правилами юридичної техніки, на основі артикуляції цього поняття для вищої школи ; The adoption of the new version of the Law of Ukraine "On Higher Education" (2014) was a consequence of the state's efforts to implement the European standards of education in Ukraine.Purpose. Scientific and analytical study of the definition of qualification under the legislation on higher education, as a criterion for the professional level of a graduate of a higher educational establishment.Methods. In the course of the study bibliographic, linguistic, substantive-legal and comparative-legal methods were used.Results. From our analysis, it is seen that both in international and national standards, the concept of "qualification" applies in two aspects, namely: as a result of academic education and as a result of professional training in other forms, which results in certain differences in its articulation depending on from the scope of application.In our opinion, the concept of "qualification" in the Law of Ukraine "On Higher Education" is the most concretised, unambiguous and understandable, reflecting its substantive content, namely, competence in accordance with higher education standards, rather than general references to the type and degree of professional training, and the more so on the document, as the form of its fixation.Conclusions. The above shows that the notion of "qualification" under the current national legislation on higher education is of no significance to the general definition, but the cross-cutting legal category, the cornerstone institutional criterion for defining fundamental approaches to the forms and principles of the organization of higher and vocational education, interdisciplinary and inter-branch relations, as well as comparing national and international standards of education / training and professional levels. With regard to the definition of "qualification" (in the context of higher education), we see it appropriate to supplement it, taking into account the statutory tasks of the higher school, with regard to the formation of not only the professional competences of the graduate (future specialist), but also his civil, moral, ethical and other personal qualities. According to international official documents and national normative acts, the definition of "qualification" exists in two dimensions: academic / educational and professional, which differ to a certain extent by the wording. In order to ensure a unified and stable inter-sectoral, inter-level understanding, interpretation and application, it is considered appropriate to unify and standardize it according to the rules of legal technique, based on the articulation of this concept for higher education