Koalas are popular zoo animals, but difficult in husbandry. In addition to their specialised diet of eucalyptus leaves, they are prone to "stress" and disease. Particularly in European zoos, themonitoring of theirwell-being has high priority and they are protected from possible stressors. However, stress signs in koalas are vague and monitoring techniques like weighing might result in discomfort itself. Additionally, husbandry routines are planned according to keeper's schedule, not to the endogenous rhythms of the koalas. Therefore it is necessary to investigate activity pattern in captive koalas and the signals influencing them. These signals have to be assessed on the strength and quality of their impact. A total of 17 koalas have been observed in three zoological gardens in Australia and Europe. Koalas kept in outdoor enclosures with little human contact (Koala Walkabout, Taronga Zoo, Sydney) showed a uniform activity pattern, which was clearly entrained by light. Activity levels were higher during the night, and there was a pronounced resting period in the morning which corresponds with low body temperature measured by Degabriele and Dawson (1979). Activity peaks were related to twilight and changed during the year related to day lengths. However, there was a clear influence from the introduction of fresh browse which resulted in a distinct feeding peak in the afternoon. With short day lengths, this stimulus competed with dusk. Activity patterns from koalas in indoor enclosures (Zoo Duisburg, Vienna Zoo) varied between individuals and in some cases lacked a detectable rhythm. Though activity peaks were related to light, entrainment to sunlight was weak. In winter, koalas reacted primarily to the artificial light, but some also showed activity peaks related to sunlight. Activity patterns in these koalas were less structured and differed severely from patterns expected according to literature. Activity was often related to the keeper's presence and food introduction. Frequency of feeding bouts was considerably higher at Vienna Zoo compared to the other zoos and the bouts were shorter in duration. Time budgets of the koalas were within the range given in free-range studies. Feeding showed seasonal changes and was increased in lactating females. Koalas at Vinna Zoo had a high level of locomotor activity compared to the size of the enclosure. Koalas at Koala Walkabout were not used to handling, so they resisted the keeper. The koalas at the two European zoos were handled regularly and settled down quickly. However, handling took place in the morning; in most koalas, there was no activity prior to it. In Vienna, resting periods were interrupted daily due to weighing. Food introduction at KoalaWalkabout took place in the afternoon. It was preceded by locomotor activity and triggered a long feeding bout in the koalas. It is not clear, whether food had true Zeitgeber properties or masked the endogenous rhythm. In the two European zoos, food was introduced in the morning. The peaks related to this were smaller than those at Koala Walkabout. Activity was rarely observed prior to food introduction. The koalas at Koala Encounter, Taronga Zoo (Sydney),were regularly confronted with visitors, though no contact was allowed. Direct observation by the keepers did rarely show any stress signs. Activity patterns at night were strikingly similar to Koala Walkabout, but differed dramatically during the day. Food was introduced three times a day, which usually resulted in activity that interrupted a resting period. Generally, the koalas at Koala Encounter were more active than those at KoalaWalkabout. They also displayed a high level of locomotor activity, especially on the ground, which is an accepted sign of discomfort in koalas (Wood 1978; Zoological Society of San Diego 2001; Yusuf& Rosenthal unpublished data). In summary, this chronoethological study of the captive koalas showed that there are several problems with koala husbandry. Artificial light regimes for koalas are not sufficient for entrainment and result in unstructured activity pattern. This is especially the case in winter, when the day in Europe is artificially extended. Due to the mainly nocturnal behaviour of koalas, such an extension might not be necessary and therefore should be avoided. Handling in Europe took place during the physiological resting time of the koalas. Interruptions of resting times are considered as stressors (Wood 1978) and should be avoided. Handling in the afternoon would be more suitable for the koalas and triggered activity in the two koalas at Vienna Zoo. It is also arguable if daily weighing is necessary to monitor health in captive koalas or if the frequent interruption of resting countervail the advantages of constant monitoring. Frequent contact with visitors, evenwithout the so-called cuddling, has a considerable impact on activity patterns and time budget of koalas, even if no immediate stress signs are displayed. Such contact should therefore be reduced to a minimum and chronoethological observations of the koalas should be used. A study on koalas with direct visitor contact is also advisable to revise the current legislation on "koala cuddling". Koalas frequently rested in living trees if they had access to it. Since no food-poisoning has been reported from koalas using living non-food trees, the provision of living trees with an appropriate canopy should be included in the husbandry guidelines. Increased locomotor activity has been shown to be related to conditions of discomfort or stress and possibly to oestrus. This is in accordance with literature (Wood 1978; Zoological Society of San Diego 2001). Further observation, combined with hormone analysis, are advisable to establish this parameter for evaluation of well-being. Chronoethology has proven to be useful for the evaluation of husbandry conditions and group dynamics. Different to other, traditional ethologicalmethods, it indicated problems and enabled me to advise more appropriate times for handling and food introduction. It is desirable that zoos already using 24-hour video observation include chronoethological aspects into their analysis. ; Einleitung Das Leben aller Organismen ist rhythmisch organisiert. Die grundlegenden Rhythmen werden endogen durch ein Multioszillatorensystem aus inneren Uhren erzeugt. Viele davon sind circadian, dauern also ungefähr 24 Stunden. Da es in einem Organismus eine Vielzahl von circadianen Rhythmen (z.B. Schlaf-Wach-Rhythmus, Körpertemperatur, Hormonspiegel) gibt, müssen diese miteinander undmit der Umwelt synchronisiert werden. Dies geschieht durch sogenannte Zeitgeber, rhythmisch auftretende, externe Signale. Der wichtigste externe Rhythmus ist der Tag-Nacht-Wechsel und so ist es nicht verwunderlich, daß Sonnenlicht als einer der stärksten Zeitgeber wirkt. In einer künstlichen Umgebung erreichen Zeitgeber häufig nicht die notwendige Stärke, um den Organismus zu synchronisieren. Die Folge ist eine Abkopplung der endogenen Rhythmen von ihrer Umwelt und von einander. Eine interne Desynchronisation (z.B. ein Jetlag) ist die Folge. Zudem können andere Signale direkt auf den Organismus einwirken und die endogenen Rhythmen überlagen. Man spricht hier von einer Maskierung. Solche Veränderungen können zu Unwohlsein führen und sollten vermieden werden. Andererseits ist es möglich, daß der physiologische Zustand des Tieres, z.B. Östrus, Krankheit oder Stress, Einfluss auf den circadianen Rhythmus hat. In diesem Fall kann die Beobachtung des entsprechenden Parameters (z.B. Aktivitätsrhythmus) Aufschluss über den Zustand des Tieres geben. Koalas sind beliebte Zootiere, doch ihre Haltung ist problematisch. Neben ihrer Spezialisierung auf Eukalyptusblätter als einzige Nahrung gelten sie als anfällig für "Stress" und Krankheiten. Aus diesem Grund hat insbesondere in europäischen Zoos die Überwachung ihres Wohlbefindens eine hohe Priorität. Stressoren werden nach Möglichkeit ausgeschlossen. Stresssignale bei Koalas sind jedoch eher vage, und traditionelle Kontrollmethoden wie regelmäßiges Wiegen können selbst als Störung auf den Koala wirken und so das Wohlbefinden vermindern. Zudem werden Tagesabläufe in der Haltung dem Zeitplan des Tierpflegers, nicht dem endogenen Rhythmus des Koalas angepaßt. Eine chronoethologische Untersuchung der Aktivitätsmuster von Koalas in Zoohaltung könnte Informationen über die grundlegenden circadianen Rhythmen geben. In dieser Studie wurden die einwirkenden externen Faktoren darauf untersucht, inwieweit sie als Zeitgeber oder Maskierung wirken. Es wurde zudem versucht, den Tagesablauf stärker an die Bedürfnisser der Koalas anzupassen. Methode In drei Zoologischen Gärten in Australien und Europawurden die circadianen Rhythmen für allgemeine Aktivität, Futteraufnahme und lokomotorischeAktivität untersucht. Dazu wurden insgesamt 17 Koalas unter vier Haltungsbedingungen mit 24-Stunden-Zeitraffer-Video aufgezeichnet: Taronga Zoo, Sydney liegt innerhalb des natürlichen Verbreitungsgebietes der Koalas. Die Tiere werden in Außengehegen gehalten und sind dem natürlichen Klima und den natürlichen Schwankungen der Tageslängen ausgesetzt. Futter wird täglich in der Umgebung von Sydney gesammelt. Koala Walkabout: Vier Koalas (ein Männchen, drei Weibchen) wurden 2004 über einen Zeitraum von einem Jahr beobachtet. Im Sommer 2003/04 wechselte die Gruppenzusammensetzung aufgrund von Zuchtbemühungen. Daher wurden drei weitere Weibchen für jeweils einige Wochen beobachtet. Die Tagesroutine beinhaltet die morgendliche Gehegereinigung um 07:00 und die Fütterung um 15:30. Kontakt mit dem Pfleger ist selten. Im Verlauf dieser Studie wurden die Tiere in einem Abstand von einem bis vier Monaten gefangen, gewogen und bei denWeibchen der Beutel auf Jungtiere kontrolliert. Koala Encounter: Vier adulteWeibchen und ein einjähriges Jungtier wurden für sechs Wochen imSommer 2005 (Dezember-Januar) beobachtet. Die Tiere wurden in zwei Gruppen gehalten. An den meisten Tagen betreten Besucher für zwei Stunden das Gehege, um sich neben den Koalas photographieren zu lassen. Kontakt mit den Tieren ist verboten und ein Pfleger überwacht den Zustand der Tiere optisch. Stresssymptome werden nur selten beobachtet. Die Koalas werden dreimal täglich gefüttert (07:00, 11:00 und 13:00), dabei kommt es zu gelegentlichem Kontakt mit den Pflegern. Normalerweise werden die Koalas alle zweiWochen gewogen, dies fand jedoch nicht während der Beobachtungszeit statt. In den beiden europäischen Zoos werden die Koalas in klimatisierten Innengehegen gehalten. Zusätzlich zu einem Glasdach werden die Gehege künstlich beleuchtet. Im Winter wird der Tag dadurch um mehrere Stunden verlängert. Die Koalas sind durch eine an der Decke offene Glaswand nach Geschlechtern getrennt, können sich aber sehen, hören und riechen. Kontakt findet nur kontrolliert zu Paarungsversuchen statt. Futter wird zweimal wöchentlich von Plantagen in Südengland bzw. Florida eingeflogen. Zoo Duisburg: Ein Männchen und drei adulteWeibchen wurden für je sechs Wochen im Sommer 2003 (Juni-Juli) und im Winter 2003 (November-Dezember) beobachtet. Die Tiere haben unregelmäßigen Kontakt zum Pfleger. Im Laufe des Vormittags werden die Gehege gereinigt und zu unterschiedlichen Zeiten Futter ausgegeben. Zweimal die Woche werden die Tiere gewogen. Tiergarten Schönbrunn, Wien: Ein Männchen und ein Weibchen wurden für je sechs Wochen im Sommer 2004 (Juni-Juli) und im Winter 2004/05 (Dezember-Januar) beobachtet. Die Gehege werden am frühen Morgen gereinigt, wobei es fast täglich zu Kontakt zwischen Pfleger und Koala kommt. Täglich um10:15 wurden die Tiere gewogen und gefüttert. Aufgrund der Ergebnisse dieser Studie wurde im Juni 2005 das Wiegen auf 16:00 verschoben und die Tiere wurden für weitere sechs Wochen beobachtet. Die Videoaufzeichnungen wurden in bezug auf das Verhaltensmuster und die Reaktion auf verschiedene Pflegetätigkeiten analysiert. Zusätzlich zu den Aktivitätsmustern wurden Zeitbudget und Tag:Nacht-Ratio des Verhaltens berechnet. Ergebnisse Die Koalas im Koala Walkabout, Sydney, zeigten ein einheitliches Aktivitätsmuster, welches deutlich durch das natürliche Licht entrained wurde. Während der Nacht war die Aktivität höher, und es konnte eine ausgeprägte Ruheperiode am Morgen beobachtet werden. Zu dieser Zeit stellten Degabriele and Dawson (1979) bei Koalas eine physiologisch niedrigere Körpertemperatur fest als zu anderen Tageszeiten. Aktivitätsmaxima standen in Bezug zur Dämmerung und veränderten sich im Laufe des Jahres in Relation zur Tageslänge. Zusätzlich zeigte sich ein deutlicher Einfluß der nachmittäglichen Fütterung, die durch ein hohes Aktivitätsmaximum begleitet wurde. Mit kürzer werdenden Tagen kam es zu einer Überlappung des Stimulus Fütterung mit dem Stimulus Abenddämmerung. Bei drei Koalas verschwand die Aktivitätsphase in der Abenddämmerung zugunsten der Fütterung, doch ein Weibchen fraß nur noch in der Abenddämmerung. Die Aktivitätsmuster in den Zoos Duisburg und Wien variierten deutlich zwischen den Individuen. In einigen Fällen fehlte ein erkennbarer Rhythmus, insbesondere der in Sydney deutliche Unterschied zwischen Tag undNacht. Obwohl die Aktivitätsmaxima in Relation zum Licht standen, war das Entrainment durch das durch das Dach einfallende Sonnenlicht eher schwach. Im Winter reagierten die Koalas primär auf die künstliche Beleuchtung, einige Individuen jedoch zeigten zusätzliche Aktivitätsmaxima in Relation zum Sonnenlicht. Die Aktivitätsmuster dieser Koalas waren weniger stark strukturiert und unterschieden sich drastisch von den Mustern, die in der Literatur bei freilebenden Koalas beschrieben wurden. Aktivität stand häufig in Relation zu der Anwesenheit des Pflegers und dem Einbringen neuen Futters. Die Dauer und der Abstand einzelner Aktivitäts- und Fressperioden waren im Zoo Wien waren deutlich kürzer als in den beiden anderen Zoos. Insbesondere das Weibchen fiel durch die hohe Frequenz im Wechsel zwischen Ruhe und Aktivität auf. Das Zeitbudget der Koalas im Koala Walkabout, Zoo Duisburg und Zoo Wien lag innerhalb des für freilebende Koalas bekannten Bereichs. Die Koalas ruhten zwischen 74,1 und 81,7% der Zeit,wobei es keine eindeutigen Unterschiede zwischen den Geschlechtern und nur wenige Unterschiede zwischen den Zoos gab. Fressen war mit 10,7 bis 17,3% die häufigste Aktivität; die Koalas in Duisburg fraßen am längsten. Die Dauer des Fressens war im Winter sowie bei säugende Weibchen länger. Lokomotorische Aktivität zeigte deutliche Unterschiede zwischen den Zoos. Sie war am höchsten in Wien und am niedrigsten in Duisburg. Die Koalas kamen nur gelegentlich auf den Boden. Im Koala Walkabout war dies nötig, um zwischen einigen der Bäume zu wechseln. Daher wurden diese Koalas, insbesondere das Männchen, in bis zu 7% der Beobachtungsintervalle auf dem Boden beobachtet. In den beiden europäischen Zoos war es nicht notwendig, den Boden zu betreten. In Duisburg geschah dies auch selten. In Wien jedoch kamen die Koalas häufig auf den Boden, besonders das Weibchen, um das Gehege zu erkunden oder zu trinken. Die Koalas waren nicht streng nachtaktiv, aber bei den meisten beobachteten Koalas fand ein größerer Teil der Aktivität während der Nacht statt. Dies war besonders ausgeprägt in dem Sydney Weibchen Yindi, die tagsüber kaum Aktivität zeigte. Das Duisburger Männchen und das Wiener Weibchen waren im Winter jedoch während des Tages etwas aktiver als während der Nacht. Die Pfleger im Koala Walkabout, Sydney, hatten selten direkten Umgang mit den Koalas. In den wenigen Fällen, in denen die Tiere gefangen wurden, wehrten sie sich, sonst reagierten sie kaum auf den Pfleger. Nach dem Wiegen bzw. der Kontrolle des Beutels beruhigten sie sich jedoch schnell wieder. In den beiden europäischen Zoos hatten die Koalas regelmäßig Kontakt zu den Pflegern. In Duisburg zeigte sich kaum ein Einfluss auf das Verhalten und die Koalas setzten nach dem Wiegen zumeist ihre vorherige Tätigkeit (Ruhen oder Fressen) fort. In Wien reagierten beide Tiere sehr stark auf den Pfleger. Die Morgenreinigung löste lokomotorische Aktivität im Weibchen aus. Das tägliche Wiegen um 10:15 fiel in die Ruhephase der Koalas. Während das Weibchen danach meist fraß, blieb das Männchen an den meisten Tagen inaktiv und begann seine eigentliche Futteraufnahme erst am Nachmittag. Im Koala Walkabout fand die Fütterung am Nachmittag statt. Davor wurde erhöhte lokomotorische Aktivität beobachtet, und nach dem Füttern fraßen die Tiere für längere Zeit, mitunter für über eine Stunde. In den beiden europäischen Zoos wurde am Morgen gefüttert. Die dieser Fütterung folgenden Aktivitätsmaxima waren niedriger als die am Koala Walkabout und oft fraßen einzelne Tiere erst am Nachmittag. Vor der Fütterung wurde selten Aktivität beobachtet. Die Aktivitätsmuster im Koala Encounter, Sydney, stimmten während der Nacht fast vollständig mit denen derWeibchen imKoalaWalkabout überein. Tagsüber gab es jedoch dramatische Unterschiede. Während die Koalas imWalkabout am Morgen ruhen, zeigten sich im Encounter drei Aktivitätsmaxima, die mit Fütterungen in Verbindung standen. Die Koalas im Encounter waren insgesamt aktiver als die im Walkabout. Die lokomotorische Aktivität war ebenfalls erhöht und die Tiere waren häufiger auf dem Boden. Im Koala Encounter wurden Phasen mit parallel erhöhter lokomotorischer Aktivität in zwei Tieren beobachtet. Dies geschah zum einen nachdemzweiWeibchen, Maggie und Carla, in ein gemeinsames Gehege transferiert wurden, und zum anderen bei Cooee und ihrer Tochter Coco, die zur Beobachtungszeit entwöhnt wurde. Im Koala Walkabout und in Duisburg standen den Tieren lebende Nichteukalyptus-Bäume als Ruheplatz zur Verfügung. Diese wurden von einigen Koalas intensiv genutzt, insbesondere tagsüber. Zwei der Weibchen in Duisburg wurden allerdings sehr selten in den Bäumen beobachtet. Diskussion Die Beobachtungen aus demKoalaWalkabout zeigen, dass die Aktivität der Koalas durch zwei Faktoren beeinflusst wird. Sonnenlicht wirkt als Zeitgeber mit unterschiedlicher Stärke im Jahreslauf. Einen starken, direkten Einfluss, inklusive antizipatorische Aktivität, hat die nachmittägliche Fütterung. Es kann jedoch nicht mit Bestimmtheit gesagt werden, ob es sich hierbei um einen Zeitgeber oder eine Maskierung handelt. Die künstliche Beleuchtung in den beiden europäischen Zoos reicht nicht aus, um die Tiere zu entrainen, was in einem unstrukturierten Aktivitätsmuster resultiert. Dies wird besonders im Winter deutlich, wenn der natürliche Tag künstlich verlängert wird. Hier überwiegt der Einfluss der künstlichen Beleuchtung, doch die Aktivitätsmuster verlieren ihre Struktur und zwei der Koalas wurden sogar leicht tagaktiv. Da Koalas nachtaktiv sind, scheint eine Verlängerung des Wintertages unnötig und Tageslängen sollten sich in Zukunft stärker an dem natürlichen Licht orientieren. Der direkte Kontakt zwischen Pfleger und Koalas, insbesondere das Wiegen, fand während der physiologischen Ruhezeit der Koalas statt. Die Unterbrechung von Ruhezeiten wird als möglicher Stressor angesehen (Wood 1978) und sollte vermieden werden. Pflegerkontakt am Nachmittag wäre demnach akzeptabler für den Koala und resultierte tatsächlich in einer längeren Aktivitäsphase im ZooWien. Es ist zudem fraglich, ob tägliches Wiegen als Gesundheitskontrolle notwendig ist, oder ob die regelmäßigen Störungen der Ruhe- und Freßphasen sich nicht eher negativ auswirken. Häufiger Kontakt mit Besuchern, selbst ohne das sogenannte "Koala-Knuddeln", hat einen deutlichen Einfluß auf das Aktivitätsmuster und das Zeitbudget der Koalas, auch wenn keine direkten Stresssignale gezeigt werden. Daher sollte diese Art von Kontakt minimiert werden. Es ist zudem empfehlenswert, eine systematische Untersuchung von Koalasmit direktemBesucherkontakt unter chronoethologischemAspekt durchzuführen, um die geltende Rechtslage zum "Koala-Knuddeln" zu überprüfen. Lebende Baumkronen sind der natürliche Aufenthaltsort für Koalas. Da Koalas in derWahl ihrer Nahrung sehr wählerisch sind und keiner der Zoos bisher Vergiftungsfälle durch die Nichteukalyptus-Blätter berichtet hat, sollte die Bereitstellung eines lebenden Baumes mit ausreichendem Blattwerk in die Haltungsrichtlinien aufgenommen werden. Es konnte gezeigtwerden, dass ein Anstieg der lokomotorischen Aktivität ein Zeichen für Unwohlsein, Stress oder Östrus sein kann. Hierfür gibt es auch Hinweise in der Literatur (Wood 1978; Zoological Society of San Diego 2001). Weitere Untersuchungen in Kombination mit Hormonmessungen wären sinnvoll, um diesen Parameter zur nichtinvasiven Zustandsmessung zu nutzen. In dieser Studie konnte der Nutzen der Chronoethologie als Methode zur Überprüfung von Haltungsbedingungen und Gruppendynamik gezeigt werden. Im Unterschied zu traditionelleren ethologischen Methoden ermöglichte sie mir, den Einfluss verschiedener externen Faktoren zu bestimmen und geeignetere Zeiten für den Umgang mit dem Pfleger oder die Fütterung zu finden. Es ist empfehlenswert, daß solche Zoos, die bereits 24-Stunden-Videobeobachtung bei ihren Tieren durchführen, dies unter Berücksichtigung des chronoethologischen Aspektes täten.
Bei den Daten handelt es sich um Indikatoren aus den World Values Surveys (Wellen 1-6), die auf Länderebene aggregiert wurden.
Themen: Index Emanzipatorischer Werte (Emancipative Values Index, EVI); Index Emanzipatorischer Werte Kurzversion basierend auf den Komponenten reproductive choice (Reproduktionsentscheidungen) und gender equality (Gleichberechtigung); Komponente reproductive choice (Akzeptanz von Homosexualität, Scheidung und Abtreibung); Komponente Sprache (Priorität auf Redefreiheit und die Stimme der Menschen in nationalen und lokalen Angelegenheiten); Komponente gender equality (Unterstützung für die Gleichberechtigung von Frauen in den Bereichen Beruf, Bildung und Politik); Autonomiekomponente (Unabhängigkeit, Phantasie statt Gehorsam als geschätzte Eigenschaft von Kindern); Index säkularer Werte (Secular Values Index; SVI); Index säkularer Werte Kurzversion basierend auf den Komponenten disbelief (Ungläubigkeit, Zweifel) und defiance (Trotzhaltung, Renitenz); Komponente Ungläubigkeit (schwacher Glaube an Religiosität und wenig religiöse Praxis); Komponente Renitenz (geringer Nationalstolz, geringer Respekt vor Autoritäten und geringe Konformität mit elterlichen Erwartungen); Komponente Skepsis (geringes Vertrauen in die Polizei, Behörden und Gerichte); Komponente Relativismus (nur leichte Ablehnung von Bestechung, Steuerhinterziehung und Gebührenbetrug); Social movement activities (Beteiligung an Petitionen, Boykotten und Demonstrationen); Verknüpfung mit Informationsquellen (Nutzung von Internet, E-Mail und PC); wahrgenommene Stimulation: durchschnittliche Wahrnehmung der täglichen Aufgaben als kreativ, kognitiv und autonom; kognitive Mobilisierung; individuelle Befähigung (individual empowerment); Index zur Temperatur und Wasserversorgung (Cool Water Index); liberales Demokratieverständnis: freie Wahlen, Bürgerrechte und Gleichberechtigung; illiberales Demokratieverständnis: militärische Intervention; religiöse Autorität, Arbeitslosengeld; aufgeklärtes Demokratieverständnis; wahrgenommener Grad der Demokratisierung im eigenen Land; demokratisches Bestreben: Wunsch, in einem demokratisch regierten Land zu leben; Mobilisierungspotential für Demokratie; wahrgenommene Fairness anderer Menschen; Vertrauen: allgemeines Vertrauen; Vertrauen in Familie, Bekannte und Nachbarn; Vertrauen in Unbekannte und Menschen mit anderer Nationalität und Religion; unspezifisches und generalisiertes Vertrauen; Aktivitäten in zivilen Organisationen (z.B. Freizeit, Kirche, Parteien, etc.); Zufriedenheit mit der finanziellen Situation des Haushalts; Selbsteinschätzung des Gesundheitszustands; Fähigkeit zur Gestaltung des eigenen Lebens; Glück; Lebenszufriedenheit; Kampfbereitschaft für das eigene Land im Falle eines Krieges.
Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: für alle Länder: Nummer; Jahr, Name; Erhebungsjahr; Erhebungswelle; Kulturzone; Filterdummy für die letzte Welle je Land; numerischer Ländercode; 3-Buchstaben-Ländercode; Ländercode Weltbank; Index demokratische Rechte 1996 bis 2006; Index Bürgerrechte 1995 bis 2005; Index ehrliche Regierung 1996 bis 2006; Index wirksame Demokratie 1996 bis 2006; Index ehrliche Demokratie; Index Loyalitäts-Normen: Vertrauen in den öffentlichen Dienst, Polizei und Armee; Index Protest-Normen: Beteiligung an Demonstrationen, Boykotten, Petitionen.
Das Modul wurde als Nachwahl-Befragung durchgeführt. Die daraus resultierenden Daten werden mit Daten über das Abstimmungsverhalten, demographischen Daten, und Variablen auf Wahlkreis- und Länderebene in einem einzelnen Datensatz bereitgestellt.
CSES Variable List Eine Liste aller Variablen wird auf der Webseite des CSES bereitgestellt. Sie verdeutlicht, welche Inhalte über das CSES verfügbar sind und erlaubt es die Inhalte über verschiedene Module des CSES zu vergleichen.
Themen:
INDIVIDUALDATEN:
Technische Variablen: Gewichtungsvariablen; Art der Wahl; Erhebungsmodus; Geschlecht des Interviewers; Datum der Datenerhebung; Wahlkreis des Befragten; Anzahl der Tage zwischen Wahltag und Interview.
Demographie: Alter; Geschlecht; Bildung; Familienstand; Gewerkschaftsmitgliedschaft; Gewerkschaftsmitgliedschaft anderer Haushaltsmitglieder; Mitgliedschaft in einem Berufsverband; Erwerbsstatus; Beruf; sozioökonomischer Status; Beschäftigungsform (öffentlicher oder privater Sektor, industrieller Sektor); Erwerbsstatus des Partners; Beruf des Partners; sozioökonomischer Status des Partners; Beschäftigungsform (öffentlicher oder privater Sektor, industrieller Sektor) des Partners; Haushaltseinkommen; Anzahl Personen im Haushalt; Anzahl Kinder unter 18 im Haushalt; Kirchgangshäufigkeit; Religiosität; Konfessionsmitgliedschaft; Haushaltssprache; Rasse; ethnische Zugehörigkeit; Wohnort; ländliches oder städtisches Wohnumfeld.
Befragungsvariablen: Politische Partizipation während des letzten Wahlkampfes (Überzeugungsarbeit, Wahlkampfaktivitäten) und Häufigkeit politischer Partizipation; Kontakt zu einem Kandidaten oder einer Partei während des Wahlkampfes; Wahlbeteiligung bei der aktuellen und der letzten Wahl; Wahlentscheidung (Präsidentschafts-, Unterhaus und Oberhauswahlen ) in der aktuellen und der letzten Wahl; Befragter hat bei der aktuellen und der letzten Wahl Stimme für bevorzugten Kandidaten abgegeben; wichtigste Themen der Wahl; Beurteilung der Problemlösungskompetenz der Regierung; Demokratiezufriedenheit; Einstellung zu ausgewählten Aussagen: Es macht einen Unterschied, wer an der Macht ist und für wen die Menschen stimmen, Demokratie ist besser als andere Regierungsformen; Beurteilung der Leistung der vom Befragten bei der letzten Wahl gewählten Partei; Beurteilung der Vertretung von Wähleransichten bei den Wahlen; Partei und Spitzenpolitiker, die am besten für die Meinung des Befragten stehen; Parteiidentifikation; Intensität der Parteiidentifikation; Sympathie–Skalometer für ausgewählte Parteien; Einstufung von Parteien und Spitzenpolitikern auf einem Links-Rechts-Kontinuum; politische Partizipation während der letzten fünf Jahre (Politikerkontakte, Teilnahme an einer Demonstration, Zusammenarbeit mit Gleichgesinnten); Respektieren von individueller Freiheit und Menschenrechten; Einschätzung der Verbreitung von Korruption im Land; Selbsteinstufung auf einem Links-Rechts-Kontinuum; politische Informiertheit.
WAHLKREISDATEN: Anzahl der zu vergebenden Sitze im Wahlkreis; Anzahl der Kandidaten im Wahlkreis; Anzahl der Parteilisten; Prozentanteil der Parteien (Wahlergebnis); Wahlbeteiligung im Wahlkreis.
LÄNDERDATEN:
Wahlergebnisse der Parteien bei der aktuellen Parlamentswahl (Unterhaus / Oberhaus); Anteil der von den Parteien erhaltenen Sitze im Unterhaus; Anteil der von den Parteien erhaltenen Sitze im Oberhaus; Wahlbeteiligung; Anzahl der von jeder Partei gehalten Kabinettsposten vor und nach der letzten Wahl; Gründungsjahr der Parteien; ideologische Parteifamilien; Fraktionszugehörigkeit der Parteien im Europäischen Parlament und Zugehörigkeit zu einer internationalen Organisation; vor und nach der Wahl nicht repräsentierte bedeutende Parteien; Links-Rechts- Position der Parteien; durch Experten zugeordnete Links-Rechts-Position der Parteien und alternative Dimensionen des Parteienwettbewerbs; Konsens über Platzierung auf weiteren Dimensionen des Parteienwettbewerbs; bedeutendste Faktoren bei der Wahl; Konsens über das Ranking der Einflussfaktoren; Möglichkeit zu Wahlbündnissen im Wahlkampf; existierende Wahlbündnisse; Zahl der gewählten gesetzgebenden Kammern, für Unter- und Oberhäuser wurde codiert: Anzahl der Wahlsegmente, Anzahl der Hautwahlbezirke, Anzahl der Sitze, Größenordnung des Bezirks (Anzahl der aus jedem Bezirk gewählten Mitglieder), Anzahl der sekundären und tertiären Wahlkreise, Wahlpflicht; Anzahl abgegebener Stimmen; Abstimmungsverfahren; Stimmen übertragbar; Stimmen kumulierbar; Parteischwelle; Wahlformel; Parteilisten geschlossen, offen oder flexibel; Möglichkeit von Koalitionen; Mehrparteien-Vermerke auf Stimmzetteln; Unterstützung der verbündeten Partei; gemeinsame Parteilisten; Anforderungen für gemeinsame Parteilisten; Art der Koalitionsvereinbarungen; Staatsoberhaupt (Regimetyp); im Falle mehrerer Runden: Auswahl des Staatsoberhauptes; Direktwahl des Staatsoberhauptes und Verfahren der direkten Wahl; Schwelle für Erstrundensieg; Verfahren der Kandidatenauswahl in der Finalrunde; einfache Mehrheit oder absolute Mehrheit für den Wahlsieg in der 2. Runde; Jahr der Präsidentschaftswahl (vor oder nach den Parlamentswahlen); Prozess bei indirekter Wahl des Staatsoberhauptes; im Falle eines Wahlmänner-Gremiums: Auswahl der Wahlmänner, Beratungs- und Abstimmungsverfahren; wenn durch Gesetzgeber: gesetzgebende Kammern; Abstimmungsverfahren; verfassungsrechtliche Befugnisse des Staatoberhauptes; Stellung des Regierungsoberhauptes; Befugnisse des Ministerpräsidenten; Methoden der Auflösung des Kabinetts; Auflösung der Legislative vor den planmäßigen Wahlen; Auflösung der Legislative durch: Staatsoberhaupt, Regierungschef, Mehrheit der Legislative, Kombination; Einschränkungen bei der Auflösung der Legislative; die zweite Kammer der Legislative (Wahlverfahren, Zusammensetzung, ausschließliche Gesetzgebungsbefugnisse, Machtbefugnisse über das Kabinett); föderale Verfassungsstruktur, zentralstaatliche Macht über Peripherie.
Das Modul wurde als Nachwahl-Befragung durchgeführt. Die daraus resultierenden Daten werden mit Daten über das Abstimmungsverhalten, demographischen Daten, und Variablen auf Wahlkreis- und Länderebene in einem einzelnen Datensatz bereitgestellt. CSES Variable List Eine Liste aller Variablen wird auf der Webseite des CSES bereitgestellt. Sie verdeutlicht, welche Inhalte über das CSES verfügbar sind und erlaubt es die Inhalte über verschiedene Module des CSES zu vergleichen. Themen: INDIVIDUALDATEN: Technische Variablen: Gewichtungsvariablen; Art der Wahl; Erhebungsmodus; Geschlecht des Interviewers; Datum der Datenerhebung; Wahlkreis des Befragten; Anzahl der Tage zwischen Wahltag und Interview. Demographie: Alter; Geschlecht; Bildung; Familienstand; Gewerkschaftsmitgliedschaft; Gewerkschaftsmitgliedschaft anderer Haushaltsmitglieder; Mitgliedschaft in einem Berufsverband; Erwerbsstatus; Beruf; sozioökonomischer Status; Beschäftigungsform (öffentlicher oder privater Sektor, industrieller Sektor); Erwerbsstatus des Partners; Beruf des Partners; sozioökonomischer Status des Partners; Beschäftigungsform (öffentlicher oder privater Sektor, industrieller Sektor) des Partners; Haushaltseinkommen; Anzahl Personen im Haushalt; Anzahl Kinder unter 18 im Haushalt; Kirchgangshäufigkeit; Religiosität; Konfessionsmitgliedschaft; Haushaltssprache; Rasse; ethnische Zugehörigkeit; Wohnort; ländliches oder städtisches Wohnumfeld. Befragungsvariablen: Politische Partizipation während des letzten Wahlkampfes (Überzeugungsarbeit, Wahlkampfaktivitäten) und Häufigkeit politischer Partizipation; Kontakt zu einem Kandidaten oder einer Partei während des Wahlkampfes; Wahlbeteiligung bei der aktuellen und der letzten Wahl; Wahlentscheidung (Präsidentschafts-, Unterhaus und Oberhauswahlen ) in der aktuellen und der letzten Wahl; Befragter hat bei der aktuellen und der letzten Wahl Stimme für bevorzugten Kandidaten abgegeben; wichtigste Themen der Wahl; Beurteilung der Problemlösungskompetenz der Regierung; Demokratiezufriedenheit; Einstellung zu ausgewählten Aussagen: Es macht einen Unterschied, wer an der Macht ist und für wen die Menschen stimmen, Demokratie ist besser als andere Regierungsformen; Beurteilung der Leistung der vom Befragten bei der letzten Wahl gewählten Partei; Beurteilung der Vertretung von Wähleransichten bei den Wahlen; Partei und Spitzenpolitiker, die am besten für die Meinung des Befragten stehen; Parteiidentifikation; Intensität der Parteiidentifikation; Sympathie–Skalometer für ausgewählte Parteien; Einstufung von Parteien und Spitzenpolitikern auf einem Links-Rechts-Kontinuum; politische Partizipation während der letzten fünf Jahre (Politikerkontakte, Teilnahme an einer Demonstration, Zusammenarbeit mit Gleichgesinnten); Respektieren von individueller Freiheit und Menschenrechten; Einschätzung der Verbreitung von Korruption im Land; Selbsteinstufung auf einem Links-Rechts-Kontinuum; politische Informiertheit. WAHLKREISDATEN: Anzahl der zu vergebenden Sitze im Wahlkreis; Anzahl der Kandidaten im Wahlkreis; Anzahl der Parteilisten; Prozentanteil der Parteien (Wahlergebnis); Wahlbeteiligung im Wahlkreis. LÄNDERDATEN: Wahlergebnisse der Parteien bei der aktuellen Parlamentswahl (Unterhaus / Oberhaus); Anteil der von den Parteien erhaltenen Sitze im Unterhaus; Anteil der von den Parteien erhaltenen Sitze im Oberhaus; Wahlbeteiligung; Anzahl der von jeder Partei gehalten Kabinettsposten vor und nach der letzten Wahl; Gründungsjahr der Parteien; ideologische Parteifamilien; Fraktionszugehörigkeit der Parteien im Europäischen Parlament und Zugehörigkeit zu einer internationalen Organisation; vor und nach der Wahl nicht repräsentierte bedeutende Parteien; Links-Rechts- Position der Parteien; durch Experten zugeordnete Links-Rechts-Position der Parteien und alternative Dimensionen des Parteienwettbewerbs; Konsens über Platzierung auf weiteren Dimensionen des Parteienwettbewerbs; bedeutendste Faktoren bei der Wahl; Konsens über das Ranking der Einflussfaktoren; Möglichkeit zu Wahlbündnissen im Wahlkampf; existierende Wahlbündnisse; Zahl der gewählten gesetzgebenden Kammern, für Unter- und Oberhäuser wurde codiert: Anzahl der Wahlsegmente, Anzahl der Hautwahlbezirke, Anzahl der Sitze, Größenordnung des Bezirks (Anzahl der aus jedem Bezirk gewählten Mitglieder), Anzahl der sekundären und tertiären Wahlkreise, Wahlpflicht; Anzahl abgegebener Stimmen; Abstimmungsverfahren; Stimmen übertragbar; Stimmen kumulierbar; Parteischwelle; Wahlformel; Parteilisten geschlossen, offen oder flexibel; Möglichkeit von Koalitionen; Mehrparteien-Vermerke auf Stimmzetteln; Unterstützung der verbündeten Partei; gemeinsame Parteilisten; Anforderungen für gemeinsame Parteilisten; Art der Koalitionsvereinbarungen; Staatsoberhaupt (Regimetyp); im Falle mehrerer Runden: Auswahl des Staatsoberhauptes; Direktwahl des Staatsoberhauptes und Verfahren der direkten Wahl; Schwelle für Erstrundensieg; Verfahren der Kandidatenauswahl in der Finalrunde; einfache Mehrheit oder absolute Mehrheit für den Wahlsieg in der 2. Runde; Jahr der Präsidentschaftswahl (vor oder nach den Parlamentswahlen); Prozess bei indirekter Wahl des Staatsoberhauptes; im Falle eines Wahlmänner-Gremiums: Auswahl der Wahlmänner, Beratungs- und Abstimmungsverfahren; wenn durch Gesetzgeber: gesetzgebende Kammern; Abstimmungsverfahren; verfassungsrechtliche Befugnisse des Staatoberhauptes; Stellung des Regierungsoberhauptes; Befugnisse des Ministerpräsidenten; Methoden der Auflösung des Kabinetts; Auflösung der Legislative vor den planmäßigen Wahlen; Auflösung der Legislative durch: Staatsoberhaupt, Regierungschef, Mehrheit der Legislative, Kombination; Einschränkungen bei der Auflösung der Legislative; die zweite Kammer der Legislative (Wahlverfahren, Zusammensetzung, ausschließliche Gesetzgebungsbefugnisse, Machtbefugnisse über das Kabinett); föderale Verfassungsstruktur, zentralstaatliche Macht über Peripherie.
El objetivo principal de esta Tesis Doctoral es evaluar el desempeño financiero de las inversiones socialmente responsables (ISR). En las últimas décadas, la gestión de inversiones ha experimentado un proceso progresivo de adaptación en el que los objetivos financieros convencionales se han complementado con atributos no financieros como los criterios medioambientales, sociales y de gobernanza (ESG). Esta tendencia refleja una creciente conciencia sobre cuestiones ambientales, sociales y éticas que influye de manera importante en las decisiones de compra de los inversores (Mollet y Ziegler, 2014). La ISR atrae a inversores que desean ir más allá de la utilidad financiera de sus inversiones y que esperan una utilidad no financiera que refleje sus valores sociales (Auer, 2016; Auer y Schuhmacher, 2016). Los aspectos ESG se están convirtiendo en una parte importante del proceso de toma de decisiones de los inversores al ayudarles a identificar oportunidades y riesgos en el largo plazo. De acuerdo con el Global Sustainable Investment Review de 2016, en 2016 hubo 22,89 billones de dólares gestionados profesionalmente en el marco de estrategias de inversión responsable a nivel mundial, lo que representa un aumento del 25% desde 2014. En 2016, el 53% de los gestores en Europa utilizaron estrategias de inversión responsable, siendo esta proporción del 22% en EE.UU. y del 51% en Australia/Nueva Zelanda. Esta tendencia se ha ratificado para los dos últimos años. Los gestores de activos estadounidenses consideraron criterios ESG en su gestión por valor de 11,6 billones de dólares, un 44 por ciento más que los 8,1 billones de dólares de 2016 (USSIF, 2018). El informe EUROSIF (2018) también revela un crecimiento sostenido en Europa de las estrategias de inversión sostenibles. Los dos últimos años (2016-2018) muestran signos manifiestos de que la ISR se está convirtiendo en parte integrante de la gestión de los fondos europeos. La idea básica de la ISR es aplicar un conjunto de filtros al universo de inversión disponible con el fin de seleccionar o excluir activos en función de criterios ESG (Auer, 2016). En la práctica, existen diferentes estrategias ISR, como la integración, la selección positiva/best-in-class, la selección ética/negativa, la gobernanza, el compromiso, etc., todas ellas con el objetivo de dirigir los fondos hacia empresas socialmente responsables con proyectos y políticas constructivas y sostenibles. Desde la perspectiva de los inversores, la cuestión crítica es si la selección de acciones socialmente responsable conduce a ganancias o pérdidas en términos de rendimiento financiero. Por parte de las empresas, la cuestión es si el gasto de recursos en prácticas de responsabilidad social de las empresas (RSE) redundará en beneficio de la empresa y aumentará su valor. Si hacer el bien (social y medioambiental) está vinculado a hacerlo bien (financieramente), las empresas podrían verse incentivadas a comportarse de manera más sostenible. Una relación positiva entre el desempeño social y el financiero legitimaría incluso la RSE sobre razones económicas (Margolis et al. 2009). El crecimiento de la ISR y sus consecuencias ha estimulado la realización de estudios empíricos evaluando su comportamiento financiero. Una parte importante de la literatura se ha centrado en el rendimiento financiero de los fondos de inversión ISR. En general, estos estudios encuentran que no hay diferencias significativas en el desempeño financiero de fondos ISR y fondos de tipo convencional (Leite et al. 2018)2. Sin embargo, la evaluación del impacto financiero de la ISR mediante el análisis del rendimiento de los fondos de inversión ISR gestionados activamente presenta algunas deficiencias. Por ejemplo, como señalan Brammer et al (2006) y Kempf y Osthoff (2007), existen efectos confusos -como las habilidades de gestión del gestor y los honorarios y tasas por la gestión- que pueden dificultar la identificación del rendimiento de las ISR. Además, la evidencia de Utz y Wimmer (2014), Humphrey et al. (2016), y Statman y Glushkov (2016) sugiere que la etiqueta "socialmente responsable" puede ser una estrategia de marketing de los fondos, lo que suscitaría dudas entre los inversores sobre si un fondo ISR es realmente socialmente responsable. En consecuencia, los inversores pueden tener dificultades para saber en qué medida un fondo ISR tiene realmente en cuenta los criterios sociales en su proceso de selección. Para superar las limitaciones asociadas a los estudios sobre fondos de inversión ISR gestionados activamente, un enfoque alternativo para evaluar los efectos financieros de la ISR consiste en analizar el rendimiento de carteras sintéticas formadas utilizando características sociales, medioambientales y de gobernanza de las empresas. En esta Tesis Doctoral, seguimos este enfoque para evaluar las inversiones socialmente responsables. Esta Tesis Doctoral está organizada en dos secciones. La primera incluye los capítulos 1 y 2 en los que se evalúan algunos aspectos metodológicos relacionados con una medida de rendimiento financiero que se utiliza para evaluar el rendimiento financiero de la ISR en la sección dos. La segunda sección incluye los capítulos 3, 4, 5 y 6 en los que se evalúa el desempeño financiero de la ISR desde diferentes perspectivas. Primera Sección. En el Capítulo 1 se evalúa la utilidad de una estrategia de inversión sectorial basada en el modelo de tres factores de Fama y French (1992). En este capítulo desarrollamos un proceso de inversión, que hasta donde sabemos es nuevo, incluyendo en una cartera acciones que están infravaloradas con respecto a sus índices sectoriales, es decir, tomamos como factor de mercado relevante el índice sectorial al que pertenecen las empresas. Nuestro principal objetivo en este capítulo es comprobar si es posible conseguir de forma consistente una rentabilidad extraordinaria mediante una estrategia sectorial basada en el modelo de Fama y French (1992) para la toma de decisiones de inversión. En el Capítulo 2 se evalúa si el modelo Fama y French (1992) puede convertirse en una herramienta más versátil y flexible, capaz de incorporar las variaciones en las características de las empresas de una forma más dinámica. Específicamente, prestamos atención al procedimiento que siguen Fama y French (1992) para formar los factores de riesgo. Ellos toman datos anuales y evalúan las carteras de valor y tamaño una vez al año, manteniéndolas invariables durante todo el período. Sin embargo, observamos que las características de las empresas pueden variar durante un periodo de 12 meses. Argumentamos que en ese periodo la valoración de una empresa puede cambiar como resultado de, por ejemplo, variaciones en su precio de mercado, su tamaño o su precio en libros; sin embargo el modelo de Fama y French (1992) no refleja con precisión esta dinámica. Nuestro principal objetivo en este capítulo es probar la eficacia del modelo tomando datos mensuales y reformando las carteras de valor y tamaño al final de cada mes para desarrollar una herramienta más dinámica y adaptable. Segunda Sección. En el Capítulo 3 se evalúa el rendimiento financiero de carteras que pueden formar inversores minoristas con conciencia social en comparación con inversiones convencionales. Observamos que la mayoría de los estudios previos que evalúan el rendimiento financiero de la ISR se llevan a cabo desde la perspectiva de las decisiones de inversión de los inversores institucionales y no desde la perspectiva de los inversores particulares que desean mantener carteras ISR. Sin embargo, ha habido un aumento considerable de la popularidad de la ISR entre los inversores minoristas (Benijts, 2010). Nilsson (2015) destaca que los inversores particulares optan por dedicar al menos una parte de sus fondos a inversiones que incluyan algún tipo de preocupación social o medioambiental, convirtiéndose así en un factor importante en la configuración de la ISR. Según el Global Sustainable Investment Review de 2016, aunque el mercado ISR en la mayoría de las regiones está dominado por inversores institucionales profesionales, el interés de los inversores particulares por la ISR está adquiriendo relevancia. De hecho, la proporción relativa de inversiones en ISR al por menor en Canadá, Europa y Estados Unidos aumentó del 13 por ciento en 2014 al 26 por ciento a comienzos de 2016 (GSIA, 2016). El objetivo de este capítulo es evaluar el rendimiento de las carteras que pueden formar los inversores minoristas socialmente responsables en comparación con las inversiones convencionales. Utilizamos varias medidas de rendimiento financiero; entre otras, la desarrollada en el capítulo 2 de esta Tesis Doctoral. Como punto relevante para los inversores minoristas, para la selección de las empresas socialmente responsables acudimos a una fuente de información de acceso libre al público a la que puede acceder cualquier inversor minorista. Adicionalmente, en este capítulo analizamos el impacto que pueden tener diferentes estados del mercado (alcistas y bajistas) sobre el rendimiento financiero de las carteras ISR. Investigaciones recientes muestran que el rendimiento de fondos de renta variable ISR (Nofsinger y Varma, 2014; Becchetti et al., 2015, Leite y Cortez, 2015), fondos de renta fija de ISR (Henke, 2016) y empresas socialmente responsables (Brzeszczyński y McIntosh, 2014; Carvalho y Areal, 2016) son sensibles a diferentes estados del mercado. En el Capítulo 4 evaluamos el desempeño financiero de carteras de acciones construidas con criterios de RSC a nivel internacional. Observamos que los estudios previos que abordan el desempeño de las carteras sintéticas socialmente responsables adolecen de algunas limitaciones e inconsistencias, a saber: (1) la mayoría de los estudios previos se centran en los mercados bursátiles de EE.UU. y Europa; (2) con la excepción de Badía et al. (2017), los estudios anteriores no comparan el desempeño de las carteras de ISR de diferentes regiones del mundo; (3) existen estudios que miden la RSC sólo a través de una de sus dimensiones individuales, mientras que otros consideran medidas agregadas de la RSC; (4) la mayoría de los estudios no evalúan la influencia de la industria en el desempeño financiero de las carteras de acciones ISR; (5) en varios de los estudios que evalúan a empresas europeas, se utilizan muestras de tamaño reducido; (6) falta evidencia actualizada; y (7) algunos investigadores simplemente dividen los períodos de análisis en subperíodos para evaluar el ―efecto de tiempo‖, sin embargo, es posible que se haya descuidado un efecto importante, el impacto de diferentes estados del mercado sobre el rendimiento financiero. Nuestro principal objetivo en este capítulo es evaluar el rendimiento financiero de carteras construidas sobre la base de criterios RSC superando las limitaciones previas. Formamos carteras de acciones con valoraciones de sostenibilidad altas y bajas e investigamos el rendimiento de dichas carteras utilizando modelos multifactoriales. En este capítulo, ampliamos el análisis sobre el impacto de la utilización de filtros socialmente responsables en el rendimiento de las carteras de inversión a otras áreas geográficas (Norteamérica, Europa, Japón y Asia-Pacífico); comparamos el rendimiento financiero de las carteras ISR de estas regiones entre sí; formamos carteras basadas en una medida agregada de RSE, así como en tres de sus dimensiones específicas ESG; evaluamos la influencia de la industria en el rendimiento financiero de las carteras de acciones ISR; y, por último, evaluamos el rendimiento financiero de las carteras de acciones ISR en diferentes estados de los mercados: alcistas, bajistas y períodos de mercados mixtos. En el Capítulo 5 evaluamos el rendimiento financiero de carteras de deuda pública formadas según criterios ESG. Observamos que, aunque el concepto de ISR se relacionó originalmente con la selección de acciones, la proporción de inversores que aplican criterios ISR a bonos ha crecido significativamente en los últimos años. Según el Foro Europeo de Inversión Sostenible (EUROSIF, 2016), la renta variable representaba más del 30% de los activos de ISR en diciembre de 2015, lo que supone un descenso significativo respecto al 50% del año anterior. Por otra parte, se ha producido un fuerte aumento de los bonos, que han pasado del 40% registrado en diciembre de 2013 al 64%. Tanto los bonos corporativos como los bonos gubernamentales experimentaron un crecimiento notable. En este sentido, las implicaciones financieras de los procesos de selección ESG sobre bonos corporativos pueden estar estrechamente relacionadas con la selección de acciones, ya que los bonos corporativos están asociados a empresas. De hecho, estudios previos (por ejemplo, Derwall y Koedijk, 2009; Leite y Cortez, 2016) que evalúan el desempeño financiero de fondos que invierten en bonos de renta fija socialmente responsables, encuentran que en promedio tuvieron un desempeño similar al de los fondos convencionales. Estos resultados están en línea con la mayoría de los estudios empíricos sobre el desempeño de los fondos ISR que muestran que tienden a tener un desempeño similar al de sus pares convencionales (Revelly y Viviani, 2015). Sin embargo, los procesos de selección ESG sobre bonos gubernamentales, dado que no están relacionados con las empresas, pueden ayudar a comprender las consecuencias de la ISR para activos alternativos. A pesar del crecimiento del mercado de deuda pública ISR y del desarrollo de calificaciones de los países basadas en factores ESG en los últimos años, se ha pasado por alto el vínculo entre la rentabilidad de la deuda pública y el rendimiento de los países en términos de preocupaciones ESG. De hecho, hasta donde sabemos, ninguna investigación previa ha evaluado el rendimiento financiero de las inversiones responsables en bonos gubernamentales. El objetivo principal de este capítulo es llenar este vacío. Evaluamos el rendimiento financiero de carteras de deuda pública formadas según criterios ESG. A diferencia de estudios previos, en los que se aplican calificaciones de sostenibilidad de las empresas, se utilizan calificaciones de sostenibilidad relacionadas con los países. En el capítulo 6 se estudia un aspecto poco evaluado de la RSE: la distinción entre inversiones en cuestiones de sostenibilidad materiales e inmateriales. Sólo las empresas que se centran en cuestiones de sostenibilidad material asociadas a sus operaciones principales deberían lograr una ventaja competitiva y obtener un mayor rendimiento social y financiero. Las actividades de RSE y las innovaciones relacionadas deben realizarse sobre aspectos materiales, ya que de lo contrario no se debería espera un efecto positivo en el rendimiento financiero. De hecho, las inversiones en cuestiones inmateriales pueden implicar costes empresariales adicionales sin un rendimiento social y financiero asociado. Para las empresas es importante centrarse en las cuestiones materiales ya que de este modo invierten en aspectos sociales que realmente afectan a sus operaciones. A pesar de que temas como la seguridad de los productos, el cambio climático y la intensidad en el uso de los recursos tienen impactos en varias industrias, como señalan Herz and Rogers (2016), esos efectos a menudo varían en gran medida de una industria a otra. Los riesgos pueden estar en todas partes, aunque también son particulares. Como consecuencia, las empresas de diferentes industrias tienen sus perfiles de sostenibilidad particulares. Es probable que una empresa que invierte sobre temas de sostenibilidad material en su industria logre un desempeño financiero positivo. Mientras tanto, es probable que una empresa que invierte en cuestiones de sostenibilidad materiales pero también inmateriales no logre un rendimiento financiero superior. En este capítulo, el objetivo principal es evaluar el rendimiento financiero de carteras de acciones formadas en función de cuestiones de RSC materiales e inmateriales. Khan et al (2016) muestran que las empresas estadounidenses con un fuerte desempeño en aspectos materiales superan a las empresas con un desempeño pobre en temas materiales. Nuestro conjunto de datos incluye empresas de estadounidenses y Europa. De este modo, ampliamos las pruebas anteriores de Khan et al. (2016) a las empresas europeas. La evaluación de las empresas estadounidenses y europeas es particularmente interesante dada la heterogeneidad de las pautas de desarrollo de la ISR en los distintos países (Neher y Hebb, 2015). En este capítulo utilizamos las puntuaciones de las empresas a partir de un conjunto de datos original que integra los estándares del Mapa de Materialidad SASB que, hasta donde sabemos, no se ha utilizado antes en este contexto. ; The main objective of this Doctoral Thesis is to evaluate the financial performance of socially responsible investments (SRI). In recent decades, investment management has undergone a progressive adaption process in which conventional financial objectives are increasingly being complemented by non-financial attributes such as environment, social and governance (ESG) criteria. This trend reflects an increasing awareness of environmental, social, and ethical issues that is strongly influencing the purchase decisions of investors (Mollet and Ziegler, 2014). SRI appeals to investors who wish to go beyond the financial utility of their investments and also derive non-financial utility from holding securities that reflect their social values (Auer, 2016; Auer and Schuhmacher, 2016). Additionally, ESG issues are becoming an important part of investors' decision-making process by helping them to identify firms' long-term opportunities and risks. According to the 2016 Global Sustainable Investment Review, in 2016 there were $22.89 trillion of assets being professionally managed under responsible investment strategies globally, representing an increase of 25% since 2014. In 2016, 53% of managers in Europe used responsible investment strategies, this proportion being 22% in the US and 51% in Australia/New Zealand. This tendency has been ratified recently for the last two years. US asset managers considered ESG criteria across $11.6 trillion in assets, up 44 percent from $8.1 trillion in 2016 (USSIF, 2018). The EUROSIF (2018) report discloses sustained growth for most sustainable and responsible investment strategies. The past two years (2016-2018) show manifest signs of SRI becoming integral to European fund management. The basic idea of SRI is to apply a set of screens to the available investment universe, in order to select or exclude assets based on ESG criteria (Auer, 2016). In practice, there is a range of SRI strategies, such as integration, positive/best-in-class screening, ethical/negative screening, governance and engagement, etc. All of these aim to drive funds towards socially responsible firms with constructive sustainable projects and policies. From an investors' perspective, the critical issue is whether socially responsible stock selection leads to gains or losses in terms of financial performance. On the firms' side, the question is whether spending resources on corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices will render benefits for the firm and increase its value. If doing good is indeed linked to doing well, firms may be led to behave in a more sustainable way. A positive relationship between social and financial performance would even legitimize CSR on economic grounds (Margolis et al. 2009). The growth of SRI and its consequences has stimulated empirical studies assessing financial behaviours. An important stream of the literature has focused on the financial performance of SRI mutual funds. In general, these studies find that there are no significant differences between the performance of SRI mutual funds and conventional funds (Leite et al. 2018). However, assessing the financial impact of SRI by evaluating the performance of actively managed SRI mutual funds has some shortcomings. For instance, as Brammer et al. (2006), and Kempf and Osthoff (2007) point out, there are confounding effects - such as fund manager skills and management fees - that may make it difficult to identify the performance that is due to the social characteristics of the underlying holdings. Furthermore, the evidence of Utz and Wimmer (2014), Humphrey et al. (2016), and Statman and Glushkov (2016) suggests that the 'socially responsible' label may be more akin to a marketing strategy, thus raising doubts among investors that an SRI fund is really socially responsible. As a consequence, investors may find it difficult to know the extent to which an SRI fund is really considering social criteria in its selection process. To overcome the limitations associated to studies on actively managed SRI mutual funds, an alternative approach to evaluate the financial effects of SRI involves evaluating the performance of synthetic portfolios formed on assets' social characteristics. In this Doctoral Thesis, we follow this approach to evaluating socially responsible investments. This Doctoral Thesis is organized in two sections. The first includes chapters 1 and 2 in which we evaluate some methodological aspects related to a financial performance measure which is used to assess the financial performance of SRI in Section two. The second Section includes Chapters 3, 4, 5, and 6 in which we evaluate the financial performance of SRI from different perspectives. First Section. In Chapter 1 we assess the usefulness of a sector investment strategy based on the three-factor Fama and French (1992) model. We develop an investment process that is, as far as we know, new by including stocks that are undervalued with respect to their sector indices in a portfolio. We take as the relevant market factor the sector index to which firms belong. We base the strategy on the difficulty entailed in effectively choosing the appropriate market portfolio (Roll, 1977).Our main objective in this chapter is to test whether it is possible to consistently achieve extra-financial returns by means of a sector strategy using the Fama and French model (1992) as a basis for decision-making. In Chapter 2 we evaluate whether the Fama and French (1992) model may be adapted to become a more versatile and flexible tool, capable of incorporating variations of firms characteristics in a more dynamic form. We pay attention to the procedure that Fama and French (1992) follow to form the risk factors. They take annual data, and the value and size portfolios are assessed once a year, maintaining invariability during the whole period. However, we note that firms' characteristics can change during any given 12-month period. We argue that, over time, firms' valuation may change as a result of variations in its market price, size or book price, and we are aware that the Fama and French (1992) model does not accurately reflect these dynamics. Our main objective in this chapter is to test the effectiveness of the model by taking month-to-month data and reforming the value and size portfolios at the end of each month, aiming to develop a more dynamic and adaptable tool. Second Section. In Chapter 3 we evaluate the financial performance of portfolios that can be formed by socially conscious retail investors compared to conventional investments. We note that most previous studies evaluating the financial performance of SRI are conducted from the perspective of institutional investors' investment decisions and not from the perspective of retail investors who wish to hold SRI portfolios. Nonetheless, there has been a considerable increase in the popularity of SRI among retail investors (Benijts, 2010). Nilsson (2015) highlights that retail investors choose to devote at least part of their funds to investments that include some kind of social or environmental concerns, thereby having become an important factor in shaping SRI. According to the 2016 Global Sustainable Investment Review, although the SRI market in most of the regions is dominated by professional institutional investors, retail investors' interest in SRI is gaining relevance. Indeed, the relative proportion of retail SRI investments in Canada, Europe and the United States increased from 13 percent in 2014 to 26 percent at the start of 2016 (GSIA, 2016). Furthermore, over one third of SRI assets in the United States come from retail investors. The objective of this chapter is to assess the performance of portfolios that can be formed by socially responsible retail investors compared to conventional investments. We use several financial performance measures. Among others, that developed in chapter 2 of this Doctoral Thesis. As a relevant point to retail investors, we use stocks listed on a source freely available to the public that any retail investor may access. Additionally, we analyse the impact of different market states on the financial performance of SRI portfolios. Recent research shows that the performance of SRI equity funds (Nofsinger and Varma, 2014; Becchetti et al., 2015, Leite and Cortez, 2015), SRI fixed-income funds (Henke, 2016), and socially responsible stocks (Brzeszczyński and McIntosh, 2014; Carvalho and Areal, 2016) is sensitive to different market states (e.g., expansion and recession periods). In Chapter 4 we evaluate the financial performance of international stock portfolios based on CSR criteria. We note that previous studies that address the performance of socially screened synthetic portfolios suffer from some limitations and inconsistencies, namely, (1) the majority of prior evidence only refers to the US and European stock markets; (2) with the exception of Badía et al. (2017), previous studies do not compare the performance of SRI portfolios of different regions worldwide; (3) there are studies that measure CSR through one of its individual dimension only, whereas others consider an aggregate construct of CSR; (4) most studies do not evaluate the influence of specific industries on the financial performance of SRI stock portfolios; (5) in several studies assessing European firms, undersized samples are used; (6) up-to-date evidence is lacking; and (7) some researchers who split sample periods merely into sub-periods to evaluate a 'time effect', i.e., whether SRI returns were better in earlier years and yet declined in more recent periods, may have neglected an important effect, specifically, the impact of different market states. Our main objective in this chapter is to evaluate the financial performance of international stock portfolios based on CSR criteria aiming to overcome previous limitations in the evaluation of SRI stock portfolio performance. We form portfolios of stocks with high and low sustainability scores and investigate the performance of such portfolios using multi-factor models. In this chapter, we extend the analysis on the impact of including socially responsible screens on investment portfolios performance to additional geographical areas (North America, Europe, Japan, and Asia Pacific); we compare the financial performance of SRI portfolios of these regions to each other; we form portfolios based on an aggregate measure of CSR as well as on three of its specific ESG dimensions; we evaluate the influence of specific industries on the financial performance of SRI stock portfolios; and finally, we assess the financial performance of SRI stock portfolios over different market states: bear, bull and mixed market periods. In Chapter 5 we evaluate the financial performance of government bond portfolios formed according to ESG criteria. We note that although the concept of SRI was originally related to stock selection, the proportion of portfolio investors applying SRI criteria to bonds has grown significantly in recent years. According to the European Sustainable Investment Forum (EUROSIF, 2016), equities represented over 30% of SRI assets in December 2015, a significant decrease from the previous year's 50%. Meanwhile, there was a strong increase in bonds from the 40% registered in December 2013 to 64%. Both corporate bonds and government bonds underwent a remarkable growth. The former rose from 21.3% to 51.17% of the bond allocation, while the latter increased from 16.6% to 41.26%.In this regard, the financial implications of ESG screening processes on corporate bonds may be closely related to stock selections since corporate bonds are associated with firms. Indeed, previous studies (e.g., Derwall and Koedijk, 2009; Leite and Cortez, 2016) which evaluate the financial performance of mutual funds that invest in socially responsible fixed-income stocks, find that the average SRI bond funds performed similarly to conventional funds. These results are in line with most empirical studies about the performance of SRI funds, which show that they tend to have a similar performance to their conventional peers (Revelly and Viviani, 2015). However, ESG screening processes on government bonds, since they are not related to firms, can help gain an in-depth understanding of SRI consequences for alternative assets. Despite the SRI government bond market growth and the development of country ratings based on ESG factors in recent years, the link between government bond returns and country performance in terms of ESG concerns has been overlooked. In fact, to the best of our knowledge, no previous research has evaluated the financial performance of responsible government bond investments. The main objective of this chapter is to fill this gap. We assess the financial performance of government bond portfolios formed according to ESG criteria. We thus open a discussion on the financial performance of SRI for an alternative asset to firms.In contrast to previous studies, which apply firm sustainability ratings, we use sustainability ratings related to countries. In Chapter 6 we ascertain a less assessed aspect in CSR: distinguishing between investments in material versus immaterial sustainability issues. We note that only firms focused on material sustainability issues associated with their main operations should achieve a competitive advantage and obtain a higher social and financial performance. CSR activities and innovations should be performed on material aspects since otherwise a positive effect on financial performance is not expected. Indeed, investments on immaterial issues may involve additional corporate costs without a social and financial performance associated return. Focusing on material issues is important for firms since they do investments in social aspects that truly affect their operations. Despite issues as prod¬uct safety, climate change, and resource intensity have impacts across several industries, as Hertz et al. (2016) note, those effects often vary to a great extent from one industry to the next. Risks may be everywhere, although they are indeed also particular. As a consequence, firms of specific industries have their particular sustainability profiles. Thus, a firm investing and reporting on material sustainability issues is likely achieved positive financial performance. Meanwhile, a firm investing on material but also on immaterial sustainability issues is likely not achieved superior financial performance. In this chapter, the main objective is to assess the financial performance of stock portfolios formed according to material and immaterial CSR issues. Khan et al. (2016) show that US firms with strong performance on material aspects outperform firms with poor performance on material topics. Our dataset includes companies from US and Europe. We thus extend the previous evidence of Khan et al. (2016) to European firms. Evaluating firms from US and Europe is particularly interesting given the heterogeneity in the patterns of development of SRI across countries (Neher and Hebb, 2015). Furthermore, we use firm' scores from an original dataset that integrates the SASB Materiality Map standards which, to our knowledge, has not been used before.
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified more than 100 genetic variants contributing to BMI, a measure of body size, or waist-to-hip ratio (adjusted for BMI, WHRadjBMI), a measure of body shape. Body size and shape change as people grow older and these changes differ substantially between men and women. To systematically screen for age-and/or sex-specific effects of genetic variants on BMI and WHRadjBMI, we performed meta-analyses of 114 studies (up to 320,485 individuals of European descent) with genome-wide chip and/or Metabochip data by the Genetic Investigation of Anthropometric Traits (GIANT) Consortium. Each study tested the association of up to similar to 2.8M SNPs with BMI and WHRadjBMI in four strata (men 50y, women 50y) and summary statistics were combined in stratum-specific meta-analyses. We then screened for variants that showed age-specific effects (G x AGE), sex-specific effects (G x SEX) or age-specific effects that differed between men and women (G x AGE x SEX). For BMI, we identified 15 loci (11 previously established for main effects, four novel) that showed significant (FDR= 50y). No sex-dependent effects were identified for BMI. For WHRadjBMI, we identified 44 loci (27 previously established for main effects, 17 novel) with sex-specific effects, of which 28 showed larger effects in women than in men, five showed larger effects in men than in women, and 11 showed opposite effects between sexes. No age-dependent effects were identified for WHRadjBMI. This is the first genome-wide interaction meta-analysis to report convincing evidence of age-dependent genetic effects on BMI. In addition, we confirm the sex-specificity of genetic effects on WHRadjBMI. These results may providefurther insights into the biology that underlies weight change with age or the sexually dimorphism of body shape. ; Funding: Funding for this study was provided by the Aarne Koskelo Foundation; the Aase and Ejner Danielsens Foundation; the Academy of Finland (40758, 41071, 77299, 102318, 104781, 117787, 117844, 118590, 120315, 121584, 123885, 124243, 124282, 126925, 129269, 129293, 129378, 130326, 134309, 134791, 136895, 139635, 211497, 263836, 263924, 1114194, 24300796); the Agency for Health Care Policy Research (HS06516); the Agency for Science, Technology and Research of Singapore (A*STAR); the Ahokas Foundation; the ALF/LUA research grant in Gothenburg; the ALK-Abello A/S (Horsholm, Denmark), Timber Merchant Vilhelm Bangs Foundation, MEKOS Laboratories Denmark; the Althingi (the Icelandic Parliament); the American Heart Association (AHA; 13POST16500011); the ANR ("Agence Nationale de la 359 Recherche"); the Ark (NHMRC Enabling Facility); the Arthritis Research UK (19542, 18030); the AstraZeneca; the Augustinus Foundation; the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC; 241944, 389875, 389891, 389892, 389938, 442915, 442981, 496739, 496688, 552485, 613672, 613601 and 1011506); the Australian Research Council (ARC; DP0770096 and DP1093502); the Becket Foundation; the bi-national BMBF/ANR funded project CARDomics (01KU0908A); the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRINL; 184.021.007, CP 32); the Biocentrum Helsinki; the Boehringer Ingelheim Foundation; the British Heart Foundation (RG/10/12/28456, SP/04/ 002); the Canadian Institutes for Health Reseaerch (FRCN-CCT-83028); the Cancer Research UK (C490/A10124, C490/A10119); the Center for Medical Systems Biology (CMSB; NWO Genomics); the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Schools of Public Health (1734, S043, S3486); the Centre of Excellence Baden-Wurttemberg Metabolic Disorders; the Chief Scientist Office of the Scottish Government; the Clinical Research Facility at Guys & St Thomas NHS Foundation Trust; the Contrat de Projets Etat-Region (CPER); the Croatian Science Council (Grant no. 8875); the CVON (GENIUS); the Danish Agency for Science, Technology and Innovation; the Danish Centre for Health Technology Assessment, Novo Nordisk Inc.; the Danish Council for Independent Research (DFF 1333-00124); the Danish Diabetes Association; Danish Heart Foundation; the Danish Medical Research Council; the Danish Ministry of Internal Affairs and Health; the Danish National Research Foundation; the Danish Pharmaceutical Association; Danish Pharmacists Fund; the Danish Research Council; the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft; the Diabetes Hilfs-und Forschungsfonds Deutschland (DHFD); the Dr. Robert Pfleger-Stiftung; the Dresden University of Technology Funding Grant, Med Drive; the Dutch Brain Foundation; the Dutch Diabetes Research Foundation; the Dutch Economic Structure Enhancing Fund (FES); the Dutch Kidney Foundation; the Dutch Ministry for Health, Welfare and Sports; the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs; the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science; the Egmont Foundation; the Else Kraner-Fresenius Stiftung (2012_A147, P48/08//A11/08); the Emil Aaltonen Foundation; the Erasmus Medical Center and Erasmus University, Rotterdam; the Estonian Ministry of Science and Education (SF0180142s08); the European Commission (223004, 2004310, DGXII, FP6-EUROSPAN, FP6-EXGENESIS, FP6-LSHG-CT2006-018947, FP6-LSHG-CT-2006-01947, FP6-LSHM- CT-2004-503485, FP6-LSHM-CT-2006037593, FP6-LSHM-CT-2007-037273, FP7-201379, FP7-201668, FP7-279143, FP7-305739, FP7313010, FP7-ENGAGE-HEALTH-F4-2007-201413, FP7-EurHEALTHAgeing-277849, FP7-HEALTH-F42007-201550, HEALTH-2011.2.4.2-2-EU-MASCARA, HEALTH-F2-2008-201865-GEFOS, HEALTH-F7305507 HOMAGE, LSHM-CT-2006-037593, QLG1CT-2001-01252, QLG1-CT-2002-00896, QLG2-CT2002-01254); the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the Wissenschaftsoffensive TMO; the European Regional Development Fund to the Centre of Excellence in Genomics (EXCEGEN; 3.2.0304.11-0312); the European Research Council (ERC; 2011-StG-280559-SEPI, 2011-294713-EPLORE, 230374); the European Science Foundation (ESF; EU/QLRT-2001-01254); the EuroSTRESS project FP-006; the Finlands Slottery Machine Association; the Finnish Centre for Pensions (ETK); the Finnish Cultural Foundation; the Finnish Diabetes Association; the Finnish Diabetes Research Foundation; the Finnish Foundation for Cardiovascular Research; the Finnish Foundation for Pediatric Research; the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation (40058/07); the Finnish Medical Society; the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture (627; 2004-2011); the Finnish Ministry of Health and Social Affairs (5254); the Finnish National Public Health Institute (current National Institute for Health and Welfare); the Finnish Special Governmental Subsidy for Health Sciences; the Finska Lakaresallskapet, Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation; the Flemish League against Cancer, ITEA2 (project Care4Me); the Folkhalsan Research Foundation; the Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (FWO) Vlaanderen; the Foundation for Life and Health in Finland; the Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF) and the Stockholm County Council (560283); the G. Ph. Verhagen Foundation; the Gene-diet Interactions in Obesity' project (GENDINOB); the Genetic Association Information Network (GAIN); the GENEVA Coordinating Center (U01 HG 004446); the GenomEUtwin (EU/QLRT2001-01254; QLG2-CT-2002-01254); the German Bundesministerium fuer Forschung und Technology (01 AK 803 A-H, 01 IG 07015 G); the German Diabetes Association; the German Ministry of Cultural Affairs; the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF; 03IS2061A, 03ZIK012, 01ZZ9603, 01ZZ0103, 01ZZ0403); the German National Genome Research Network (NGFN-2 and NGFN-plus); the German Research Council (SFB1052 "Obesity mechanisms"); the Great Wine Estates of the Margaret River region of Western Australia; the Greek General Secretary of Research and Technology research grant (PENED 2003); the Gyllenberg Foundation; the Health Care Centers in Vasa, Narpes and Korsholm; the Health Fund of the Danish Health Insurance Societies; the Helmholtz Zentrum Munchen-German Research Center for Environmental Health; the Helsinki University Central Hospital special government funds (EVO #TYH7215, #TKK2012005, #TYH2012209); the Hjartavernd (the Icelandic Heart Association); the Ib Henriksen Foundation; the Illinois Department of Public Health, and the Translational Genomics Research Institute; the INTERREG IV Oberrhein Program (Project A28); the Interuniversity Cardiology Institute of the Netherlands (ICIN; 09.001); the Italian Ministry of Health "targeted project" (ICS110.1/RF97.71); the Italian National Centre of Research InterOmics PB05_ SP3; the John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation Research Networks on Successful Midlife Development and Socio-economic Status and Health; the Johns Hopkins University Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR); the Joint grant from Siemens Healthcare, Erlangen, Germany and the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania; the Juho Vainio Foundation; the Juselius Foundation (Helsinki, Finland); the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation International (JDRF); the KfH Stiftung Praventivmedizin e. V.; the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation; the Kuopio University Hospital; the Leenaards Foundation; the Leiden University Medical Center; the Liv och Halsa; the Local Government Pensions Institution (KEVA); the Lokaal Gezondheids Overleg (LOGO) Leuven and Hageland; the LudwigMaximilians- Universitat, as part of LMUinnovativ; the Lundberg Foundation; the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation; the Medical Research Council (G0601966; G0700931; G0000934; G0500539; G0600705; G1002319; G0701863; PrevMetSyn/SALVE; MC_ U106179471; MC_ UU_ 12019/1); the MRC centre for Causal Analyses in Translational Epidemiology (MRC CAiTE); the MRC Centre for Obesity and Related Metabolic Diseases; the MRC Human Genetics Unit; the Medical Research Council of Canada; the Mid-Atlantic Nutrition and Obesity Research Center (P30 DK072488); the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Brussels, Belgium (G. 0881.13 and G. 0880. 13); the MIUR-CNR Italian Flagship Project; the Montreal Heart Institute Foundation; the Munich Center of Health Sciences (MC Health); the Municipal Health Care Center and Hospital in Jakobstad; the Narpes Health Care Foundation; the National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression (NARSAD); the National Cancer Institute (CA047988); the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (UL1TR000124); the National Center for Research Resources (U54RR020278); the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI, 1RL1MH083268-01, 5R01HL087679-02, HHSN268200800007C, HHSN268201200036C, HL043851, HL080467, HL087647, HL36310, HL45670, N01HC25195, N01HC55015, N01HC55016, N01HC55018, N01HC55019, N01HC55020, N01HC55021, N01HC55022, N01HC55222, N01HC85079, N01HC85080, N01HC85081, N01HC85082, N01HC85083, N01HC85086, N02HL64278, R01HL086694, R01HL087641, R01HL087652, R01HL087676, R01HL59367, R01HL103612, R01HL105756, R01HL120393, U01HL080295); the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI, U01HG004402); the National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL); the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR, RP-PG-0407-10371); the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease (NIDDKDRC, 1R01DK8925601, DK063491, R01DK089256, P30 DK072488); the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (2007-35205-17883); the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS); the National Institute on Aging (NIA; 263-MA-410953, 263-MD-821336, 263-MD-9164, AG023629, AG13196, NO1AG12109, P30AG10161, R01AG15819, R01AG17917, R01AG023629, R01AG30146); the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (5-P60-AR30701, 5-P60-AR49465-03); the National Institutes of Health (NIH; 1R01DK8925601, 1RC2MH089951, 1RC2MH089995, 1Z01HG000024, 2T32 HL 00705536, 5R01DK075681, 5R01MH63706: 02, AA014041, AA07535, AA10248, AA13320, AA13321, AA13326, AG028555, AG08724, AG04563, AG10175, AG08861, DA12854, DK046200, DK091718, F32AR059469, HG002651, HHSN268200625226C, HHSN268200782096C, HL084729, MH081802, N01AG12100, N01HG65403, R01AG011101, R01AG030146, R01D0042157-01A, R01DK062370, R01DK072193, R01DK093757, R01DK075787, R01DK075787, R01HL71981, R01MH59565, R01MH59566, R01MH59571, R01MH59586, R01MH59587, R01MH59588, R01MH60870, R01MH60879, R01MH61675, R01MH67257, R01MH81800, R01NS45012, U01066134, U01CA098233, U01DK062418, U01GM074518, U01HG004423, U01HG004436, U01HG004438, U01HL072515-06, U01HL105198, U01HL84756, U01MH79469, U01MH79470, U01NS069208-01, UL1RR025005); the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre based at Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust; the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical research Centre; the Netherlands Heart Foundation (2001 D 032); the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO; Geestkracht program grant 10-000-1002; 050-060-810; 100-001-004; 175.010.2003.005; 175.010.2005.011; 175.010.2007. 006; 261-98-710; 40-0056-98-9032; 400-05-717; 452-04-314; 452-06-004; 480-01-006; 480-04-004; 480-05-003; 480-07-001; 481-08-013; 60-60600-97-118; 904-61-090; 904-61-193; 911-03012; 985-10-002; Addiction-31160008; GB-MW 94038- 011; SPI 56-464-14192); the Netherlands Organization for the Health Research and Development (ZonMw; 91111025); the Nordic Center of Excellence in Disease Genetics; the Nordic Centre of Excellence on Systems biology in controlled dietary interventions and cohort studies, SYSDIET (070014); the Northern Netherlands Collaboration of Provinces (SNN); the Novo Nordisk Foundation; the Office of Research and Development, Medical Research Service, and the Baltimore Geriatrics Research, Education, and Clinical Center of the Department of Veterans Affairs; the Ollqvist Foundation; the Paavo Nurmi Foundation; the Pahlssons Foundation; the Paivikki and Sakari Sohlberg Foundation; the Perklen Foundation; the Republic of Croatia Ministry of Science, Education and Sports research (108-1080315-0302); the Research Centre for Prevention and Health, the Capital Region of Denmark; the Research Foundation of Copenhagen County; the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (014-93-015; RIDE2); the Reynold's Foundation; the Rotterdam Oncologic Thoracic Study Group, Erasmus Trust Fund, Foundation against Cancer; the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (NWO-RFBR 047.017.043); the Rutgers University Cell and DNA Repository cooperative agreement (NIMH U24 MH068457-06); the Samfundet Folkhalsan; the Sigrid Juselius Foundation; the Social Insurance Institution of Finland, Kuopio, Tampere and Turku University Hospital Medical Funds (9M048, 9N035); the Social Ministry of the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania; the Societe Francophone du 358 Diabste (SFD); the South Tyrolean Sparkasse Foundation; the Stichting Nationale Computerfaciliteiten (National Computing Facilities Foundation, NCF); the Strategic Cardiovascular Programme of Karolinska Institutet and the Stockholm County Council (560183); the Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation; the Swedish Cancer Society; the Swedish Cultural Foundation in Finland; the Swedish Diabetes Association; the Swedish Diabetes Foundation (grant no. 2013-024); the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF; ICA08-0047); the Swedish HeartLung Foundation (20120197); the Swedish Medical Research Council (K2007-66X-20270-01-3, 20121397); the Swedish Ministry for Higher Education; the Swedish Research Council (8691, M-2005-1112, 2009-2298); the Swedish Society for Medical Research; the Swiss National Science Foundation (31003A-143914, 3200B0105993, 3200B0-118308, 33CSCO-122661, 33CS30-139468, 33CS30148401); SystemsX. ch (51RTP0_151019); the Tampere Tuberculosis Foundation; the TEKES (70103/06, 40058/07); the The Paul Michael Donovan Charitable Foundation; the Torsten and Ragnar Sderberg Foundation; the Umea Medical Research Foundation; the United Kingdom NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre; the Universities and Research of the Autonomous Province of Bolzano, South Tyrol; the University Hospital of Regensburg (ReForM A, ReForM C); the University Hospital Oulu, Biocenter, University of Oulu, Finland (75617); the University Medical Center Groningen; the University of Groningen; the University of Maryland General Clinical Research Center (M01RR16500, AG000219); the University of Tartu (SP1GVARENG); the University of Tromso, Norwegian Research Council (185764); the Vasterbottens Intervention Programme; the Velux Foundation; the VU University Institute for Health and Care Research (EMGO+) and Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam (NCA); the Wellcome Trust (064890, 068545/Z/02, 076113/B/04/Z, 077016/Z/05/Z, 079895, 084723/Z/08/Z, 086596/Z/ 08/Z, 088869/B/09/Z, 089062, 090532, 098017, 098051, 098381); the Western Australian DNA Bank (NHMRC Enabling Facility); the Yrjo Jahnsson Foundation (56358); and the Zorg Onderzoek Nederland-Medische Wetenschappen, KWF Kankerbestrijding, Stichting Centraal Fonds Reserves van voormalig Vrijwillige Ziekenfondsverzekeringen. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. More details of acknowledgements can be found in S2 Text.
Tras las primarias de Montana y Dakota del Sur, Barack Obama se convierte en candidato a la presidencia de los Estados Unidos.Barack Obama ha puesto el pasado martes punto final a cinco meses de intensa batalla entre él y su rival Hillary Clinton, durante los que han votado casi 38 millones de personas en más de 50 Estados. El senador por Illinois ha hecho historia tras ganar la nominación demócrata a la Casa Blanca y convertirse en el primer candidato negro con aspiraciones reales de llegar a la presidencia de Estados Unidos. Lo ha logrado después de superar la marca de 2.118 delegados necesarios tras las primarias celebradas en Dakota del Sur y Montana. Varios medios informan al respecto:NEW YORK TIMES"Obama Claims Nomination; First Black to Lead a Major Party Ticket":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/04/us/politics/03cnd-elect.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin"Clinton Donor Base Is Obama's Next Prize":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/04/us/politics/04donate.html?hpCNN"CNN projects Obama clinches nomination":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/06/03/election.democrats/index.html"Obama: I will be the Democratic nominee":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/06/03/election.democrats/index.html?iref=mpstoryview"Clinton wins South Dakota as Obama clinches nomination":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/06/03/democrats.southdakota/index.html?iref=mpstoryview"Obama going strong in Montana":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/06/03/dems.montana/index.html?iref=mpstoryviewMSNBC"Obama claims Democratic nomination.Clinton refuses to concede; aides, colleagues say she's considering No. 2":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24944453/"Clinton hails Obama but doesn't concede. Earlier, she said she would consider VP role to help Democrats win":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24953561/LE MONDE"Interrogations sur la stratégie de fin de campagne d'Hillary Clinton":http://www.lemonde.fr/elections-americaines/article/2008/06/03/les-dernieres-primaires-democrates-ont-commence_1053282_829254.html#ens_id=904503"En fin de campagne, Bill Clinton s'énerve":http://www.lemonde.fr/elections-americaines/article/2008/06/03/en-fin-de-campagne-bill-clinton-s-enerve_1053370_829254.html#ens_id=829615EL PAIS DE MADRID"La carrera hacia la Casa Blanca.El sueño de Bill se desvanece con la derrota de Hillary":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/sueno/Bill/desvanece/derrota/Hillary/elpepuint/20080604elpepiint_2/Tes"Obama promete unir a los demócratas :Los jefes del partido se pasan en masa a la candidatura del senador de Illinois - Clinton afirma que tras las primarias "comienza una nueva fase de la campaña" ":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Obama/promete/unir/democratas/elpepuint/20080604elpepiint_1/Tes"Obama gana la nominación demócrata a la Casa Blanca":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Obama/gana/nominacion/democrata/Casa/Blanca/elpepuint/20080604elpepuint_4/Tes""No tomaré ninguna decisión hoy": La senadora Hillary Clinton descarta renunciar tras perder la nominación demócrata a la presidencia de EE UU ante Barack Obama":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Obama/gana/nominacion/democrata/Casa/Blanca/elpepuint/20080604elpepuint_6/TesTIMES"Barack Obama wins Democrat nomination":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/us_elections/article4061628.ece"Hillary Clinton faces the final curtain":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/us_elections/article4061628.ece"Obama on brink of victory in Democratic race":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/us_elections/article4061451.eceEL UNIVERSAL DE MEXICO"Comienza una nueva travesía: Barack Obama":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/511976.html"Asegura Barack Obama candidatura demócrata: Consigue los 2 mil 118 delegados necesarios para asegurar la candidatura presidencial demócrata, según CNN, lo que lo convierte en el primer negro que competirá por la Casa Blanca":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/511944.htmlLOS ANGELES TIMES"Obama secures Democratic presidential nomination":http://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-na-campaign4-2008jun04,0,7608030.storyMIAMI HERALD"Obama seals nomination: 'This is our moment'":http://www.miamiherald.com/political-currents/story/556053.htmlCHINA DAILY"Obama clinches US Democratic nomination":http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-06/04/content_6733029.htmLA NACION"Las primarias demócratas llegan a su fin: Obama busca consolidar su candidatura en Montana y Dakota del Sur ante los rumores de que Hillary estaría cerca de abandonar la pelea":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1018044"Hillary, más cerca de abandonar la pelea: Crece la presión sobre la ex primera dama y Obama suma más apoyos; Bill Clinton insinuó que sería inminente la renuncia":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1017907 AMERICA LATINAAl menos siete muertos y 13 desaparecidos por un alud de tierra en Colombia. Las precipitaciones que afectan a Colombia desde hace quince días han causado otros 16 muertos, 43 heridos y miles de damnificados, "El País" de Madrid informa: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/muertos/desaparecidos/alud/tierra/Colombia/elpepuint/20080601elpepuint_3/TesBolivia"CNN" publica: "Bolivia's Morales faces autonomy votes":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/06/01/bolivia.vote.ap/index.html"La Nación" informa: "Tras los referéndums Morales y la oposición se disputan la victoria: Ganó el sí, pero la abstención fue alta": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1017875"El País" de Madrid publica: "Evo Morales ve a Alan García "gordo y poco antiimperialista"":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Evo/Morales/ve/Alan/Garcia/gordo/poco/antiimperialista/elpepuint/20080604elpepuint_1/Tes"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Bolivia: Gobierno y oposición se disputan la victoria en Beni y en Pando":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/06/03/internacional/internacional/noticias/114D1DC0-E72D-47B3-9DD7-D0D481281561.htm?id={114D1DC0-E72D-47B3-9DD7-D0D481281561}Conflicto entre gobierno y ruralistas en Argentina"CNN" publica: "Argentine farmers say no to tax changes":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/05/31/argentine.farmers/index.htmlEl defensor del Pueblo intercederá en el conflicto del campo con el Gobierno: Las entidades del agro se reunieron con Mondino y le pidieron que medie en el conflicto; "voy a buscar instancia de diálogo", sostuvo Mondino; antes, Buzzi declaró que el sector quiere que "se resuelva el conflicto","La Nación" informa: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/nota.asp?nota_id=1018113"El Mercurio" de Chile publica: "Dirigentes ruralistas refuerzan la embestida contra el Ejecutivo al prolongar paro agrario":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/06/03/internacional/_portada/noticias/FC2EBE1C-1FB7-4BD4-B706-B2A2A25E30BE.htm?id={FC2EBE1C-1FB7-4BD4-B706-B2A2A25E30BE}"The Economist" analiza: "Angry farmers v an obstinate president": http://www.economist.com/world/la/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11465492"MSNBC" analiza: "Peru's Shining Path guerrillas on the rise again: Unlike before, Shining Path rebels have almost unlimited financial support":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24914067/"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Perú insta a Chile a reducir el gasto militar":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/06/03/internacional/internacional/noticias/D952D69A-F4F8-47C4-B1ED-D8A92D4EE995.htm?id={D952D69A-F4F8-47C4-B1ED-D8A92D4EE995"MSNBC" informa: "Brazil reveals 'uncontacted' Amazon tribe; government decides to release photos to alert world to threats on Indians":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24895872/"The Economist" analiza: "South American defence: Speak fraternally but carry a stick. Is there a new arms race—or just overdue retooling of armies?": http://www.economist.com/world/la/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11455155"MSNBC" informa: "Central America hit by historic tropical storm: Alma was first on record to make landfall on region's Pacific coast":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24874471/"La Nación" informa: "Asesinan al vice de un diario de Venezuela. Pierre Fould Gerges, de 48 años fue acribillado por 17 balazos en el auto de su hermano, el presidente del diario Reporte de la Economía , crítico del oficialismo":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1018112"La Nación" publica: "Tenso debate en Venezuela. Polémica ley de inteligencia de Chávez: Obliga a todos los venezolanos a colaborar, de manera encubierta, con los servicios de seguridad": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1017924"El Universal" de Méjico informa: "Impone Chávez sistema de inteligencia basado en espionaje: Afirman que la ley obligará a los ciudadanos a convertirse en informantes del gobierno so pensa de ser encarcelados; abre la posibilidad a que en Venezuela se constituyan grupos similares a los Comités de Defensa cubanos, en los que las personas naturales deben cumplir con tareas de vigilancia y suministro de información a las autoridades estatales": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/511724.html"El País" de Madrid publica: "La población cubana decrece por tercer año consecutivo. Entre las causas están la emigración constante de jóvenes y las carencias materiales, que hace que muchas mujeres en edad fértil no quieran tener hijos": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/poblacion/cubana/decrece/tercer/ano/consecutivo/elpepuint/20080601elpepuint_10/TesMartín Kanenguiser escribe su análisis en "La Nación": "Ante una sinuosa marcha hacia el liderazgo regional: El protagonismo de Chávez desafía a Lula"http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1017922ESTADOS UNIDOS/CANADÁ"El Universal" de México informa: "Defiende secretario de Agricultura de EU uso de biocarburantes":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/511828.htmlObama deja su iglesia de Chicago por sus polémicos sermones.El candidato demócrata decide romper todos sus vínculos con la iglesia de su antiguo pastor Jeremiah Wright, informa "El País" de Madrid: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Obama/deja/iglesia/Chicago/polemicos/sermones/elpepuint/20080601elpepuint_2/Tes"CNN" publica: "Obama quits church, citing controversies":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/05/31/obama.church/index.html"The Economist" analiza situación de Canada: "Much ado about not much: Multiculturalism debated in Quebec":http://www.economist.com/world/la/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11465485McCain critica a Obama por Irán:Lo acusó de "falta de experiencia" por proponer un diálogo, "La Nación" informa:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1017908Washington exige a Pekín la liberación de los presos de Tiananmen. Entre 400 y 2.000 manifestantes murieron en 1989 durante las protestas pacíficas que exigían el fin de la corrupción y más libertades en China, "El País" de Madrid informa: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Washington/exige/Pekin/liberacion/presos/Tiananmen/elpepuint/20080604elpepuint_3/Tes"Times" publica: "Polygamist sect children start returning home":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article4053569.eceEUROPA ETA hace estallar una bomba en Zarautz contra una empresa de la 'Y' vasca. Tres personas, entre ellas dos agentes de la Ertzaintza, han resultado heridas leves.- El artefacto, cargado con tres kilos de explosivo, ha explotado frente a la sede de Construcciones Amenábar.- El ayuntamiento de Zarautz condena el atentado y convoca a una concentración silenciosa mañana. "El País" de Madrid informa: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/ETA/hace/estallar/bomba/Zarautz/empresa/vasca/elpepuesp/20080601elpepunac_1/TesBritain"The Economist" analiza coyuntura económica británica: "Will high oil prices tip the economy into recession?":http://www.economist.com/world/britain/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11455807"The Economist" analiza: "France and its Muslims: The graveyard shift. Official representation of Islam works better at regional than at national level":http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11460109"The Economist" analiza el futuro de Kosovo: "The European Union runs into roadblocks in its plans for Kosovo":http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11460102"The Economist" analiza : "The European Union and Russia. Uneasy partnership":http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11460118"La inmigración ilegal. Críticas por la mano dura de Berlusconi: Preocupación del Vaticano y la ONU", informa "La Nación":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1017924Berlusconi da marcha atrás y descarta que la inmigración ilegal sea delito. Zapatero cuestionó en su reunión con el primer ministro italiano el uso de la vía penal contra la inmigración ilegal, "El País" de Madrid informa: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Berlusconi/da/marcha/descarta/inmigracion/ilegal/sea/delito/elpepuint/20080603elpepuint_14/TesASIA – PACÍFICO Y MEDIO ORIENTE"La Nación" informa: "Atacan la embajada danesa en Paquistán: 10 muertos":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1017911Hezbolá entrega los restos de soldados israelíes muertos en la guerra de 2006. Esto coincide con la llegada a Líbano de Nesim Naser, un libanés preso durante seis años en Israel, "El País" de Madrid informa: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Hezbola/entrega/restos/soldados/israelies/muertos/guerra/2006/elppgl/20080601elpepuint_5/Tes"CNN" publica: "Israel deports Hezbollah spy amid rumors of prisoner swap":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/06/01/spy.release/index.html "The Economist" analiza: "The Palestinian economy: It all depends on the politics":http://www.economist.com/world/africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11465508"New York Times" informa: "Iraqi Military Extends Control in NorthernCity":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/01/world/middleeast/01mosul.html?_r=1&ref=world&oref=slogin"CNN" publica: "Car bomb explodes near Iranian Embassy in Iraq":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/06/01/iraq.main/index.html"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Australia inicia el retiro de sus tropas desde Irak": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/06/03/internacional/internacional/noticias/58010758-28F3-4178-98D9-A7A18A59F9BB.htm?id={58010758-28F3-4178-98D9-A7A18A59F9BB}"MSNBC" publica: "Journalist sent to hospital over torture claim. The Afghan student faces death for allegedly insulting Islam in his writings":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24917547/"China Daily" publica: "Quake inflation to be temporary":http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-06/04/content_6733024.htm"CNN" informa: " Hope that 'quake lake' plan will save Chinese city":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/06/01/china.earthquake/index.html"CNN" publica: "Gates could withdraw Navy ships after Myanmar 'neglect'":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/06/01/gates.myanmar.ap/index.html"MSNBC" informa: "Myanmar junta defends cyclone response. In response to global criticism, the junta says aid was prompt":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24917924/"La Nación" informa: "La ONU reclama más apoyo en Myanmar. El organismo advirtió que aún es insuficiente la ayuda internacional que se reparte tras el devastador paso del ciclón Nargis":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1018033"CNN" publica: " Clashes over U.S. beef in S. Korea":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/06/01/skorea.usbeef/index.htmlÁFRICA"CNN" publica: "U.N. donates tents for those displaced by xenophobic attacks":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/05/30/south.africa.immigration.ap/index.html"MSNBC" informa: "Zimbabwe opposition: 50 killed over election: March 29 presidential results remain in dispute; runoff set for June 27":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24839297/"Times" publica: "Robert Mugabe accuses West of trying to starve him out":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article4059411.ece"MSNBC" informa: "U.S.Africa Command trims its aspirations. Nations loath to host force; aid groups resist military plan to do relief work":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24911801/ ECONOMIA "El País" de Madrid publica: "Microsoft pierde vista. Las dudas sobre Yahoo! y los problemas con Windows amenazan al gigante": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/empresas/Microsoft/pierde/vista/elppgl/20080601elpnegemp_1/Tes"The Economist" publica su informe semanal: "Finance & Economics":http://www.economist.com/finance/"The Economist" publica su informe semanal: "Business this week":http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11461676&CFID=8277248&CFTOKEN=98321699OTRAS NOTICIAS Con respecto a la crisis alimentaria, "El País" de Madrid informa: "Ban Ki-moon: "Las políticas alimentarias no deben empobrecer al vecino" La Cumbre de la FAO busca soluciones a la crisis alimentaria causada por el alza de los precios de los alimentos.- La receta contra la escalada pasa por eliminar barreras a la exportación de productos agrícolas": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Ban/Ki-moon/politicas/alimentarias/deben/empobrecer/vecino/elpepuint/20080603elpepuint_11/Tes"Times" publica: "Leaders at UN food summit tone down menu over fears of hypocrisy":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4058305.ece"El Universal" de Méjico informa: "Debate ONU medidas para combatir industria del tráfico humano. El presidente de la Asamblea General, el macedonio Srgjan Kerim, instó a los 192 países miembros de la organización a poner en práctica mecanismos para proteger y asistir a las víctimas": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/511910.html
This paper offers a personal review of the current state of knowledge on monetary policy. In a nutshell, what Friedman knew-have survived, but that modern monetary policy departs in some important ways from older principles? The older wisdom that monetary policy determines inflation in the long run but can have systematic shorter run effects has survived a major challenge. Most of the new ideas stem from the recognition of the crucial role of expectations. In today's world, this observation lies behind the spectacular trend toward ever greater central bank transparency. Then it is more than likely that ideas will change in the wake of the global financial crisis. Early debates challenge the old wisdom that central banks ought to be mainly concerned with price stability. In particular, financial stability has always been part of a central bank's mission, but it has occupied limited space in theoretical and empirical studies.
Author's introductionNon‐human animals constitute an integral part of human society. They figure heavily in our language, food, clothing, family structure, economy, education, entertainment, science, and recreation. The many ways we use animals produce ambivalent and contradictory attitudes toward them. We treat some species of animals as friends and family members (e.g., dogs and cats), while we treat others as commodities (e.g., cows, pigs, and chickens). Our constructions of animals and the moral and legal status we grant them provide rich topics for sociological study.This teaching and learning guide can serve as a resource for those who want to learn more about the field or for those preparing to teach a course on animals and society. The materials have the common theme of examining animals within the context of larger social issues. The guide begins with an annotated list of major works in the area. It then lists useful online resources. Finally, it provides a sample syllabus, concluding with ideas for course projects and assignments.Author recommends:Arnold Arluke and Clinton R. Sanders, Regarding Animals (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1996). Regarding Animals was the first book‐length sociological work on human‐animal relationships. Arluke and Sanders focus on the ambivalent and contradictory ways that we humans view other species. It examines how we cherish some animals as friends and family members, while we consider others as food, pests, and resources. Based on research in animal shelters, veterinary clinics, primate research laboratories, and among guide‐dog trainers, the book provides sociological insight into how we construct animals – and how in the process we construct ourselves.Arnold Arluke and Clinton R. Sanders, Between the Species: A Reader in Human‐Animal Relationships (Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 2009).Arluke and Sanders have divided this reader into three units. The first, animal, self, and society, includes topical sections on 'Thinking with Animals', 'Close Relationships with Animals', 'The Darkside', and 'Wild(life) Encounters'. The second unit, which focuses on animals in institutions, includes readings on science, agriculture, entertainment and education, and health and welfare. The third unit is organized around the 'changing status and perception of animals'. Its chapters examine healing, selfhood, and rights. The articles, drawn largely from social science journals, have been edited for readability at the undergraduate level.Clifton Flynn, Social Creatures: A Human and Animal Studies Reader (New York, NY: Lantern, 2008).Flynn's edited volume examines the role of animals in language, as food, and as companions. It delves into issues of animal abuse and grief after pet loss. It contains over 30 chapters, mostly reprints of articles in scholarly journals, representing a range of perspectives. Part I gives an overview of the field of human–animal studies. Part II focuses on studying human‐animal relationships. Part III offers comparative and historical perspectives on those relationships. Animals and culture is the focus of Part IV. Part V examines attitudes toward animals. Part VI offers essays on criminology and deviance. Inequality and interconnected oppression focuses the essays in Part VII. The chapters in Part VIII concern living and working with animals, and Part IX includes readings on animal rights, as both philosophy and social movement. Each chapter offers study questions for study and discussion.Adrian Franklin, Animals & Modern Cultures: A Sociology of Human‐Animal Relations in Modernity (London, UK: Sage, 1999).This book examines the changes in human‐animal relationships over the 20th century. It argues that at the start of the century, animals were regarded most often as resources. Moreover, we drew a distinct boundary between humans and other animals. By the end of the century, our attitudes toward animals had changed, and we began to question the subordination implicit in the human–animal boundary. Franklin highlights companionship with animals, hunting and fishing, the meat industry, and leisure activities involving animals, such as bird watching and wildlife parks. He emphasizes variations by gender, class, ethnicity, and nation.Leslie Irvine, If You Tame Me: Understanding our Connection with Animals (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2004).This book examines our relationships with dogs and cats, arguing that animals have a sense of self. Drawing on research conducted at an animal shelter, in dog parks, and in interviews and observation, the author argues that animals become such important parts of our lives because of the subjective experience they bring to the relationship. Challenging the view that we simply anthropomorphize animals, Irvine offers a model of animal selfhood that explains what makes relationships with animals possible. Offering an alternative to George Herbert Mead's perspective on the self, Irvine argues that interaction with animals reveals complex subjectivity, emotionality, agency, and memory.Linda Kalof and Amy Fitzgerald, The Animals Reader: The Essential Classic and Contemporary Writings (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).This edited volume is notable for its diversity in perspectives. It includes readings on ethics, philosophy, sociology, cultural studies, environmental studies, history, and anthropology. It examines questions ranging from 'what is an animal?' to those surrounding the ethics of cloning. Part I examines animals as philosophical subjects. Part II includes essays that suggest that animals are reflexive thinkers. Part III considers the various roles of animals as domesticates, 'pets', and food. The chapters in Part IV focus on animals in sport and spectacle. Part V focuses on animals as symbols. Part VI examines animals as scientific objects. Each chapter offers an introduction and list of further readings.David Nibert, Animal Rights/Human Rights: Entanglements of Oppression and Liberation (Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002).David Nibert connects oppression based on species, gender, ethnicity, and social class to the institution of capitalism. By modifying Donald Noel's theory of ethnic stratification, Nibert explains the oppression of non‐human animals in all forms, from meat eating to vivisection. He then argues that the systematic oppression of animals led to the oppression of other humans.Online materials Animals and Society Section of the American Sociological Association http://www2.asanet.org/sectionanimals/ This website offers membership information specifically for sociologists interested in human–animal studies. It is especially notable for its online syllabi from courses on animals and society. Animals and Society Institute http://www.animalsandsociety.org/ The Animals and Society Institute includes programs in three areas: Human–animal Studies; AniCare, a program dedicated to animal abuse and other forms of violence; and the Animals' Platform, a set of guidelines for animal protection legislation at the state, local, or national levels. The website's homepage includes a link to a video introducing the institute and its programs. The 'Resources' link leads to useful web and print documents and other web pages, including lists of human–animal studies centers and courses. Animal Studies Bibliography http://ecoculturalgroup.msu.edu/bibliography.htm This extensive, well‐organized bibliography is the project of the Ecological & Cultural Change Studies Group at Michigan State University. It includes works on Animals as Philosophical and Ethical Subjects; Animals as Reflexive Thinkers; Domestication and Predation; Animals as Entertainment and Spectacle; Animals as Symbols and Companions; Animals in Science, Education, and Therapy; and a 'miscellaneous' category. HumaneSpot.org http://www.humanespot.org/node HumaneSpot is the creation of the Humane Research Council. It requires registration as a user, and users must complete a short online application and attest that they are animal advocates, but advocacy in the form of scholarship counts. Once registered, users have access to extensive research on all aspects of animal welfare. Users can also have summarized updates of recent studies delivered by email. The Hoarding of Animals Research Consortium (HARC) http://www.tufts.edu/vet/cfa/hoarding/ The HARC website offers a collection of research on animal hoarding or 'collecting'. The studies address issues of animal welfare, public health, mental health, connections with other forms of abuse, and intervention. Pet‐Abuse.com http://www.pet‐abuse.com/ Alison Gianotto started Pet‐Abuse.com after someone kidnapped one of her cats and set him on fire. The cat died of the subsequent injuries and the abuser was never caught. Despite its name, Pet‐Abuse addresses abuse among many species, not just those commonly kept as pets. The project tracks incidents of cruelty throughout the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia, and Spain. The website offers a database that is searchable by location, type of cruelty, gender of offender, and more. It also allows for the creation of real‐time graphic displays of statistics on cruelty cases.Sample syllabusPart I: introduction and overviewWhat is human–animal studies? How can we study animals sociologically? What can the study of animals offer to the field?Reading:Arnold Arluke, 'A Sociology of Sociological Animal Studies,'Society & Animals 10 (2002): 369–374. Leslie Irvine, 'Animals and Sociology,'Sociology Compass 2 (2008):1954–1971. Jennifer Wolch, 'Zoöpolis,' In: Jennifer Wolch and Jody Emel (eds), Animal Geographies: Identity in the Nature Culture Borderlands (London, UK: Verso), 119–138.From Social Creatures:Kenneth J. Shapiro, 'Introduction to Human: Animal Studies'Clifton Bryant, 'The Zoological Connection: Animal‐related Human Behavior'Barbara Noske, 'The Animal Question in Anthropology'Part II: studying human‐animal relationshipsHow can we study our interactions and relationships with animals? What approaches have been used, and what are their strengths and weaknesses?Leslie Irvine, 'The Question of Animal Selves: Implications for Sociological Knowledge and Practice,'Qualitative Sociology Review 3 (2007): 5–21.From Social Creatures:Kenneth J. Shapiro, 'Understanding Dogs through Kinesthetic Empathy, Social Construction, and History'Alan M. Beck and Aaron H. Katcher, 'Future Directions in Human – Animal Bond Research'Clinton R. Sanders, 'Understanding Dogs: Caretakers' Attributions of Mindedness in Canine – Human Relationships'Part III: historical and comparative perspectivesIn this section, we examine how people have regarded animals in other times and places.Reading:Lynda Birke, 'Who – or What – are the Rats (and Mice) in the Laboratory?'Society & Animals 11 (2003): 207–224.From Social CreaturesBarbara Noske, 'Speciesism, Anthropocentrism, and Non‐Western Cultures'Michael Tobias, 'The Anthropology of Conscience'Harriet Ritvo, 'The Emergence of Modern Pet‐keeping'Part IV: animals and cultureThis section focuses on how animals are portrayed in language, advertisements, and other media. It also considers how culture influences our attitudes toward animals.Reading:Rhonda D. Evans and Craig J. Forsyth, 'The Social Milieu of Dogmen and Dogfights,'Deviant Behavior 19 (1998): 51–71.Fred Hawley, 'The Moral and Conceptual Universe of Cockfighters: Symbolism and Rationalization,'Society & Animals 1 (1992): 159–168.Linda Kalof and Amy Fitzgerald, 'Reading the Trophy: Exploring the Display of Dead Animals in Hunting Magazines,'Visual Studies 18 (2003): 112–122.Jennifer E. Lerner and Linda Kalof, 'The Animal Text: Message and Meaning in Television Advertisements,'The Sociological Quarterly 40 (1999): 565–585.From Social Creatures:Andrew Linzey, 'Animal Rights as Religious Vision'Leslie Irvine, 'The Power of Play'Tracey Smith‐Harris, 'There's Not Enough Room to Swing a Dead Cat and There's No Use Flogging a Dead Horse'Part V: attitudes toward other animalsThis part of the course examines how we think about animals, including what research reveals about how our attitudes develop.Reading:Mart Kheel, 'License to Kill: An Ecofeminist Critique of Hunters' Discourse,' In: Carol J. Adams and Josephine Donovan (eds), Animals and Women: Feminist Theoretical Explorations (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995): 85–125.From Social Creatures:Harold Herzog, Nancy S. Betchart, and Robert B. Pittman, 'Gender, Sex‐role Orientation and Attitudes toward Animals'Elizabeth S. Paul and James A. Sarpell, 'Childhood Pet Keeping and Humane Attitudes in Young Adulthood'David Nibert, 'Animal Rights and Human Social Issues'Part VI: criminology and devianceThis section examines animal abuse and neglect, and its possible connections to other forms of violence, particularly that directed at human beings.Reading:Arnold Arluke, 'Animal Abuse as Dirty Play,'Symbolic Interaction 25 (2002): 405–430.From Social Creatures:Frank R. Ascione, 'Children Who Are Cruel to Animals: A Review of Research and Implications for Developmental Psychology'Linda Merz‐Perez, Kathleen M. Heide, and Ira J. Silverman, 'Childhood Cruelty to Animals and Subsequent Violence against Humans'Clifton P. Flynn, 'Women's Best Friend: Pet Abuse and the Role of Companion Animals in the Lives of Battered Women'Gary J. Patronek, 'Hoarding of Animals: An Under‐recognized Public Health Problem in a Difficult‐to‐study Population'Part VII: inequality – interconnected oppressionsThis section considers how our treatment of other animals influences our treatment of others, especially women and people of color.Reading:Isabel Gay Bradshaw, 'Not by Bread Alone: Symbolic Loss, Trauma, and Recovery in Elephant Communities,'Society & Animals 12 (2004): 144–158.Linda Kalof, Amy Fitzgerald, and Lori Baralt, 'Animals, Women, and Weapons: Blurred Sexual Boundaries in the Discourse of Sport Hunting,'Society & Animals 12 (2004): 237–251.From Social Creatures:Marjorie Spiegel, 'An Historical Understanding'Carol J. Adams, 'The Sexual Politics of Meat'David Nibert, 'Humans and Other Animals: Sociology's Moral and Intellectual Challenge'Part VIII: living and working with other animalsWe hold contradictory attitudes toward animals. We love our pets, but we consider some animals as disposable. What do our close living and working relationships with animals reveal about the roles of animals in society?Reading:Leslie Irvine, 'Animal Problems/People Skills: Emotional and Interactional Strategies in Humane Education,'Society & Animals 10 (2002): 63–91.Rik Scarce, 'Socially Constructing Pacific Salmon,'Society & Animals 5 (1997): 115–135.From Social Creatures:Andrew N. Rowan and Alan M. Beck, 'The Health Benefits of Human—Animal Interactions'Rose M. Perrine and Hannah L. Osbourne, 'Personality Characteristics of Dog and Cat Persons'Gerald H. Gosse and Michael J. Barnes, 'Human Grief Resulting from the Death of a Pet'Stephen Frommer and Arnold Arluke, 'Loving Them to Death: Blame‐displacing Strategies of Animal Shelter Workers and Surrenderers'Mary T. Phillips, 'Savages, Drunks, and Lab Animals: The Researcher's Perception of Pain'Part IX: animal rights – philosophy and social movementThis section examines the leading animal rights perspectives. It also considers who animal activists are and how animal rights exists as a social movement.Corwin Kruse, 'Gender, Views of Nature, and Support for Animal Rights,'Society & Animals 7 (1999): 179–197.From Social Creatures:Peter Singer, 'All Animals are Equal'Tom Regan, 'The Case for Animal Rights'Josephine Donovan, 'Animal Rights and Feminist Theory'Lyle Munro, 'Caring about Blood, Flesh, and Pain: Women's Standing in the Animal Protection Movement'Project ideasEssay topicsWrite an essay on each of the following topics: Topic 1: Focus on any species (other than dog or cat) and explore and present the nature of human–animal relations for that species. You should find and evaluate scholarly and popular print and Internet resources regarding this species and its relationships with humans. At least two of your sources should come from articles in scholarly journals.Topic 2: Find current media coverage of an event or issue that applies and extends material in the assigned text. This can involve an individual animal, a group of animals, or an entire species. For example, coverage of the role of livestock in global warming could be approached through several of the readings in the course. You cannot predict when these events will occur, so be continually on the lookout throughout the semester. JournalingTo help you think about the readings and ideas we are discussing, as well as relate the material to your own lives, you must keep a journal throughout the semester. You must have two entries per week. These need not be long; one page for each entry will suffice. However, they must demonstrate that you are thinking about the issues we are studying. The entries are to be analysis, not cute stories of how much you love animals. You must apply the material to your thoughts about and/or your interaction with animals. Each entry should have three parts: a personal reflection, a sociological insight, and an action step.1. Personal reflection (In this section, note any new observations, feelings, epiphanies, or other insights prompted by the course material.) Example: I never knew, or even thought about, the emotional lives of farm animals. Somehow, I have been able to draw a line between pets and other animals. I know many wild animals have emotions. I have seen programs about elephants experiencing grief, for example. However, I always bought into the idea that cows, chickens, and pigs were 'dumb'. I guess we have to think of them that way in order to treat them the way that we do. I was particularly struck by ... 2. Sociological insight (In this section, draw out some of the sociological relevance of the material.) Example: Farm animals have such a huge role in so many institutions. So much of the economy has to do with raising animals, transporting animals, killing them, processing their skin, muscle, organs, coats, and bones. It makes sense that we have commercials promoting 'Beef, it's what's for dinner' and 'Got Milk' ads. If it were 'natural' and necessary to consume animals, we would not need advertising campaigns designed to encourage us to do so. The 'animal industrial complex' depends on a steady supply of consumers. Vegetarians and vegans are very threatening to the status quo. No wonder popular culture makes fun of them.Farm animals also have a huge role in families. We eat animals on most of our holidays and other occasions. In addition, the histories of agricultural families go back ... 3. Action Step(s) (In this section, note at least one and as many as three ways that you will share your new knowledge. Action steps might include taking your cat to the vet, finding out about volunteering at an animal shelter, or becoming vegetarian.) Example: I intend to tell my roommates about the emotional lives of farm animals, and about the animal industrial complex. I will look for information about Farm Sanctuary online and pass it on to my sister.
IntroducciónEs común intentar adelantar el veredicto sobre una presidencia antes de que ésta se complete. Esto es más cierto de la presidencia de George Walker Bush que de cualquier otra reciente: los juicios de valor se vienen adelantando desde hace mucho tiempo, incluso desde 2003. Es solamente ahora, que su último día ha transcurrido, que puede analizarse adecuadamente. Aún así, el paso del tiempo probará ser un prisma muy valioso para evaluar las consecuencias de las decisiones tomadas por Bush y su equipo. Sin embargo, el carácter dramático de lo acontecido en estos ocho años merece un estudio ahora, aún si con el tiempo es posible que se interprete de otra manera.El análisis de los ocho años de gobierno de Bush se divide en dos partes: la política exterior y la política interna, llamada en el léxico anglófono política doméstica. Esta primera entrega refiere a la política exterior, no necesariamente porque sea más importante que la segunda, sino porque es la que más interés despertó durante el período.Política exterior: Ocho años de extremosMás allá de opiniones favorables o desfavorables, los ocho años de gobierno de Bush coincidieron casi milimétricamente con un período de enormes turbulencias para la humanidad en numerosos aspectos.Es así que esta administración ofrece, en términos de política exterior, un resultado mixto: sus logros tienen alcance histórico; sus errores también tienen consecuencias extremas. La administración Bush fue radicalmente distinta de la de su antecesor Bill Clinton, de la de su padre y la de cualquier otro presidente de las últimas décadas, exceptuados Ronald Wilson Reagan y Lyndon Baines Johnson. En períodos de alta conmoción, la reacción del gobierno de Estados Unidos, dada su posición única, da lugar a efectos que gravitan hacia los extremos, ya sean positivos o negativos. La era Bush no fue la excepción.Es evidente que la mayor parte de la opinión mundial, sea de élites o de encuestas generales, arroja un profundo rechazo a la administración Bush. Por lo tanto, es inevitable comenzar por enumerar los errores que ésta cometió en política exterior. Para hacerlo, es fundamental refutar un par de mitos.El primero de estos es Iraq, un país que parece dominar el legado de Bush. El consenso martilleado hasta el cansancio por los medios informativos, la oposición demócrata, los gobiernos europeos, las Naciones Unidas y los propagandistas islámicos es que se trató de un desastre equiparable a Viet Nam. Estados Unidos habría perdido una guerra y habría sido humillado por la valiente "resistencia" iraquí; el país sería ahora un títere de Irán y el retroceso para Washington, por no mencionar la sociedad iraquí, sería enorme.La realidad es distinta. Es cierto que la guerra en Iraq conoció un período oscuro en el que la legitimidad de todo el emprendimiento se hizo cuestionable, pero lo que la multitud de críticos no logra comprender –con demasiada frecuencia por odio a Estados Unidos y Bush, y por lo tanto por la irracionalidad- es que fue eso mismo: un período. Más precisamente, Iraq se sumió en las tinieblas durante tres años: 2004, 2005 y 2006.Durante esos años se conocieron momentos de anarquía, de guerra civil, de violencia extrema y de terrorismo salvaje, encarnado por momentos en Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, quizá el terrorista más violento de todos los tiempos. Mientras la oposición a la guerra publicaba estadísticas y teorías falsas, como los cien mil o más muertos en el conflicto o la idea de que Estados Unidos invadió el país "por el petróleo", Abu Musab, sus acólitos y sus imitadores decapitaban rehenes, dinamitaban escuelas y ambulancias, atacaban funerales y practicaban todo tipo de horrores de los que los medios de comunicaciones nunca hablaron. No caben dudas que Iraq conoció el horror.La clave es que ese período se superó. No es común que en una guerra a la deriva se invierta una estrategia bajo el mismo comandante: no lo hicieron ni Johnson en Viet Nam, ni Truman ni Eisenhower en Corea y ni siquiera Churchill en los momentos oscuros de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Bush pasará a la historia por sí haber reconocido el error y haberlo solucionado. Se deshizo de sus comandantes, Donald Rumsfeld en el Departamento de Defensa y George Casey en Central Command, y le entregó el conflicto a David Petraeus. Este general había dedicado los últimos años a estudiar y redactar la nueva doctrina anti-insurgencia de las Fuerzas Armadas estadounidenses. Bush le confió a él y a Raymond Odierno la guerra en los primeros días de 2007, y su éxito ha sido histórico.La situación en Iraq antes de 2003 era de extrema pobreza bajo un régimen totalitario brutal como pocos. La situación a partir de 2007-8 fue de una democracia liberal en gestación, con una economía de mercado, con reconcilliación étnica en medio del mundo islámico, con un tratado negociado entre partes iguales con Estados Unidos y con prospectos a corto plazo de retiro de las tropas internacionales. La guerra está ganada; el resultado es sumamente positivo para Estados Unidos y, sobre todo, para Iraq y la región. Ahora se cuenta con una democracia en medio del mundo islámico, un conjunto de bases militares desde las cuales vigilar la región y un importante baluarte en la lucha contra el terrorismo. El famoso tema de las armas de destrucción masiva, un importante error de parte de Bush y su equipo, perderá progresivamente importancia para la historia, mientras que los logros de la sociedad iraquí y las tropas estadounidenses cada vez cobrarán mayor prominencia. Otro factor de discordia en la saga iraquí, la falta de aprobación del Consejo de Seguridad de Naciones Unidas, fue un punto legítimo de debate. Sin embargo, el paso del tiempo le va restando cada vez más importancia a esa organización, sumida como está en escándalos de corrupción moral y ética, algunos de ellos con el desaparecido régimen de Saddam Hussein.El segundo error mítico de la administración Bush es el de Guantánamo-waterboarding. Por un lado, es muy razonable debatir Guantánamo y algunas prácticas de las fuerzas de seguridad estadounidenses. Por el otro, los críticos de estas prácticas todavía no han ofrecido una opción distinta respecto a dónde enviar a los prisioneros de la guerra contra la jihad, ni tampoco respecto a cómo obtener información crítica sobre posibles ataques y células terroristas. Los medios suelen omitir el hecho de que el submarino (o waterboarding) se practicó solamente a tres -3- personas en todo el período, todos confesos terroristas. El punto no es si estuvo bien o mal hacerlo, sino el grado de importancia que puede tener en un contexto donde hay acontecimientos mucho más importantes.También se suele omitir el hecho de que el waterboarding funcionó, ya que en particular en el caso de Khaild Sheihk Mohammed sirvió para desmantelar planes específicos para ataques terroristas en Estados Unidos y Europa. Aunque es discutible el uso de esa técnica, es responsabilidad del gobierno evitar otro once de septiembre, y es un hecho que los capturados son prisioneros de guerra. Si nadie recuerda a prisioneros alemanes, italianos, coreanos o vietnamitas en cortes estadounidenses compareciendo por sus crímenes es porque nunca ocurrió: pertenecían al ámbito militar y no tenían derechos civiles que defender en una corte.Por lo tanto, más allá de que sea necesario un debate sobre los métodos empleados por Estados Unidos, es una exageración considerarlo uno de los hechos definidores de la era Bush. Esto no hace más que revelar la parcialidad a la hora de fijar una agenda antiamericana de quienes más han propulsado este tema.Ya descartados esos mitos, sí corresponde señalar los verdaderos fracasos de la administración Bush. El más grande de todos, por lejos, no es entonces Iraq, sino Darfur. Aunque no ocupe las primeras planas –como sí lo hizo el escándalo de Abu Ghraib en el New York Times cincuenta días seguidos-, Darfur es el acontecimiento más nefasto para la humanidad de los últimos diez años. El que lo precedió fue otro genocidio en el que Estados Unidos se abstuvo de actuar: Rwanda en 1994, bajo Bill Clinton.Tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial y la Shoah, el mundo libre se prometió no volver a permitir que ocurriese algo similar; el líder en ese esfuerzo fue Estados Unidos. El genocidio es considerado, y con razón, el mayor peligro y justificativo para la intervención armada, tanto en términos morales como legales. El fracaso de Estados Unidos en impedirle al régimen de Omar Bashir en Sudán, para el asesinato de ya más de cuatrocientos mil civiles desarmados en Darfur, pasará a la historia como un profundo abismo moral.El segundo mayor fiasco de Bush fue su política respecto a Rusia. Los ocho años de su gobierno marcan un período en el que ese país se desvió de una democracia liberal recién nacida hacia una dictadura abiertamente imperialista. Bush es,personalmente, uno de los principales culpables, como lo atestigua su famoso veredicto sobre Vladimir Putin de que había "logrado tener una noción de su alma", y que lo que ahí había era algo bueno. En estos ocho años Rusia pasó, en términos de conducta, de ser un cadáver en descomposición a un agente del caos mundial. Domésticamente se tomó por asalto la economía y asesinó e intimidó a la oposición política. Internacionalmente Rusia ha financiado, protegido diplomáticamente y armado a regímenes como el de los Castro en Cuba, Hugo Chávez en Venezuela, Aleksandr Lukashenko en Belarus, el gobierno genocida de Sudán, el proyecto nuclear iraní, y otros coloridos casos. Esto es sin mencionar las violentísimas agresiones a Ucrania, Estonia y, sobre todo, Georgia. Bajo Bush, la gravedad del accionar ruso llegó a su punto más grave desde 1968, ocasión de la represión de la Primavera de Praga bajo la era soviética.El tercer mayor fracaso de Bush es no haber eliminado al mismo Eje del Mal que describió tan polémicamente. Entre la propaganda a la que se hacía referencia anteriormente se dibujó la imagen de Bush el vaquero, que no sabe lo que es la diplomacia y apuesta invariablemente por la fuerza militar. Sin embargo, la administración apostó claramente por la diplomacia con dos de los tres integrantes del Eje –Irán y Corea Comunista-. Los resultados han sido pésimos.Corea del Norte se ha vuelto una potencia nuclear, aunque el esquema militar con el cual tiene de rehén a Seúl y millones de surcoreanos hacía difícil una intervención militar. No se puede decir lo mismo de Irán, país en el que Bush podría haber intervenido, o ante el cual al menos podría haber dado garantías de apoyo militar a Israel. Para los próximos años, gracias a las actitudes equivocadas de Bush, el régimen responsable por la AMIA, Hizb Allah y el totalitarismo islámico posiblemente contará con bombas nucleares.Queda claro que fueron varios los errores de la administración, aunque no necesariamente los mismos que señala el consenso mediático internacional. Es hora de ver algo que casi ni figura en esos círculos: los logros en los ocho años de gobierno de Bush y su equipo.El primero, más evidente y más importante, es evitar algo que casi el 100% de la opinión mundial –incluso la especializada- daba como un hecho el doce de septiembre de 2001: que "pronto" se verían más ataques terroristas en suelo estadounidense. Ahora mismo, en el calor del momento y con el odio a Bush todavía respirable en el aire, este hecho clave queda sepultado – pero no será así con el paso del tiempo. Bush revolucionó la política exterior, militar, de vigilancia y de espionaje de su país, y el resultado fue exactamente el esperado. Así, se logró cumplir con la función primaria de todo gobierno: proteger las vidas y el ejercicio de las libertades de sus ciudadanos.El segundo logro de Bush que probablemente registrará la historia fue la apertura de India. Ese país, que representa una reserva inmensa de calidad democrática, liberal y capitalista para el futuro, se encontraba prácticamente ignorado desde su entrada a la economía de mercado en 1991. Bush fue el presidente que, de forma similar a Richard Nixon con China, estableció los vínculos clave con ese país. A partir de ahora, la relación de Estados Unidos con India conoce cauces estratégicos, comerciales, nucleares y sobre todo políticos de mucho mayor alcance. Será un aliado clave para enfrentar a una multitud de problemas que tienen en común las democracias, en particular las más grandes: el terrorismo islámico, Rusia y China.Un tercer éxito de la Administración Bush fue su promoción del libre comercio. Bajo esta presidencia se extendió a casi toda América, algo que se suele olvidar. Basta sumar el NAFTA –gran logro de Bill Clinton-, el CAFTA-DR –que cubrió casi toda América Central y la República Dominicana-, los tratados de libre comercio firmados con Colombia, Perú y Chile, y por último los ofrecidos a Ecuador y Uruguay.Además, la administración concluyó tratados con países clave como Australia, Corea del Sur y Singapur.Entre estos fracasos y logros extremos existen algunos pocos puntos de término medio, en los cuales generalmente Bush tuvo razón pero no logró sus objetivos. Un ejemplo claro es América Latina. Fue en estos ocho años donde se formó la ahora tradicional división entre países "serios", como México, Colombia, Perú, Brasil, Chile y Uruguay, y países autodestructivos, como Cuba, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia y Argentina. Los intentos de Bush por tener buenas relaciones con América Latina fueron abiertos y claros. La ya tradicional arrogancia latinoamericana no lo recibió bien y se creyó superior alcowboy tonto. La respuesta de Bush fue pragmática: trataría con quienes estuviesen dispuestos, y a los demás los ignoraría. El resultado es esclarecedor: México lucha contra el narcotráfico y prospera; Colombia derrota al terrorismo narco-comunista-paramilitar tras cuarenta años de guerra, Perú por fin conoce la estabilidad, Brasil se vuelve un modelo atractivo a nivel mundial. Mientras tanto, Cuba conoce la pobreza extrema; Bolivia arde en llamas, Venezuela está sumida en más violencia que Iraq, y Argentina languidece detrás de Etiopía, China y Surinam en el Índice de Libertad Económica. Los logros de los países latinoamericanos arriba mencionados les pertenecen de pleno derecho; Bush se limitó a acompañarlos y premiar la buena conducta, por lo cual merece crédito. Sin embargo, sus omisiones en temas de seguridad en México y Venezuela constituyen problemas sin resolver.Otro punto medio de Bush fue Afganistán, país que se conquistó fácilmente pero que en los últimos años del gobierno pareció escurrirse nuevamente hacia la guerra de alta intensidad. El remedio que buscó aplicar Bush al resurgimiento de los talibanes en el Este del país es el mismo que el de Iraq: David Petraeus y un aumento de tropas anti-insurgentes. Sin embargo, los resultados se verán solamente bajo el gobierno de Barack Obama, a diferencia de Iraq. Bush debería haber solucionado el problema antes, ya que sólo en sus últimos meses en el gobierno dio las órdenes de elevar el número de tropas a 35.000, lo cual aún no alcanza para llegar a la proporción de habitantes por soldado que indica el propio Manual de Contrainsurgencia de su Ejército.ConclusiónLa Administración Bush resulta una de las más interesantes en mucho tiempo para quien estudia la política exterior. Buscó asociarse explícitamente con la escuela del liberalismo internacional o idealismo, en términos de promoción de la democracia y la libertad. Sin embargo, fue un gobierno que tuvo relaciones muy cercanas con regímenes totalitarios como el de Arabia Saudí o China, o con el de su aliado clave Pakistán.La personalidad del Presidente resultó contradictoria. Aunque siempre mantuvo una fuerte convicción moral, en algunas ocasiones predicaba su propia inmovilidad en la persecución de un objetivo de cierta manera, mientras que en otras reconocía la realidad y cambiaba de método – como lo demostró en Iraq en momentos en que casi existía un consenso favorable a la retirada.Bush desplegó el arsenal estadounidense para proteger a sus ciudadanos y expandir la única forma de gobierno legítima, y que constituye el antídoto para la intolerancia, el autoritarismo y la violencia. Sin embargo, en el camino cometió errores, algunos de ellos muy graves y, sobre todo, ignoró otros problemas. La historia, para que sea historia y no propaganda, deberá reconocer esa pluralidad de hechos. Lic. en Estudios Internacionales. Universidad ORT - Uruguay
A 2018 report from the Center for Strategic and International Studies, in partnership with computer security company McAfee, estimated that cybercrime costs the world almost $600 billion or .8% of the global Gross Domestic Product (CSIS, 2018, p. 4). In response to this booming element of transnational crime, states, private sector entities, non-governmental organizations, and individual citizens have sought to implement systems for the investigation, prosecution, and restitution of these crimes. One such solution is the development and enactment of international law. On December 27, 2019, the General Assembly of the United Nations passed Russia-led resolution A/74/401, entitled "Countering the use of information and communications technologies for criminal purposes (United Nations, 2019, Countering the use)." Vehemently opposed by Western states such as the United States, the resolution approved the establishment of a committee of experts to evaluate the potential for an international cybercrime treaty (United Nations). While international cooperation of this kind is commendable, Western states and human rights groups have professed concerns that the vague language of the resolution has the potential to erode the human rights protections afforded to citizens under international law (Hakmeh & Peters, 2020). The purpose of this paper is to identify the human rights concerns of Russia's proposed United Nations resolution and analyze the obligations the international community has to uphold relevant human rights protections while balancing international cooperation necessitated by international law and legal norms. The first section of this paper provides historical background on the relationship between cyber issues like cybercrime and international law. ; Winner of the 2020 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the College of Graduate and Continuing Studies Graduate category. ; Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 1 International Law & the Cyber Domain: Assessing the Human Rights Concerns of Cyber Legislation GD520 International Law and the International System Dr. John Becker Norwich University College of Graduate and Continuing Studies Kathryn R. Lamphere 23 May 2020 Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 2 Introduction A 2018 report from the Center for Strategic and International Studies, in partnership with computer security company McAfee, estimated that cybercrime costs the world almost $600 billion or .8% of the global Gross Domestic Product (CSIS, 2018, p. 4). In response to this booming element of transnational crime, states, private sector entities, non-governmental organizations, and individual citizens have sought to implement systems for the investigation, prosecution, and restitution of these crimes. One such solution is the development and enactment of international law. On December 27, 2019, the General Assembly of the United Nations passed Russia-led resolution A/74/401, entitled "Countering the use of information and communications technologies for criminal purposes (United Nations, 2019, Countering the use)." Vehemently opposed by Western states such as the United States, the resolution approved the establishment of a committee of experts to evaluate the potential for an international cybercrime treaty (United Nations). While international cooperation of this kind is commendable, Western states and human rights groups have professed concerns that the vague language of the resolution has the potential to erode the human rights protections afforded to citizens under international law (Hakmeh & Peters, 2020). The purpose of this paper is to identify the human rights concerns of Russia's proposed United Nations resolution and analyze the obligations the international community has to uphold relevant human rights protections while balancing international cooperation necessitated by international law and legal norms. The first section of this paper provides historical background on the relationship between cyber issues like cybercrime and international law. International Cyber Law Background The cyber domain is often presented as another realm, a world that exists outside of the mostly tidy borders the international community has used to separate themselves. Aligning with Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 3 this view is the notion that cyberspace cannot be regulated because it expands beyond the traditional idea of territorial sovereignty (Kanuck, 2010, p. 1573). These ideas raise two concerns over the identification and prosecution of cybercrime. The first concern is the conflict between "cybercrime, which is global in scale, and police activities that are confined to national borders (Cangemi, 2004, p. 166)." The conflict arises in the very structure of the Internet, which "can be characterized as a multitude of individual, but interconnected, electronic communications networks (Zekos, 2008, p. 30)." This interconnectedness has created a grey area within the legal system, where no one entity has regulatory control over what happens in that area. The second concern is far more technical and highlights the transient nature of information and data (Cangemi, 2004, p. 166). The source of information can be easily masked to hide its actual location, and data "may be amended, moved, or altered in a few seconds (p. 166)." The speed in which data travels presents a significant hurdle to the legal and law enforcement mechanisms typically used to investigate crimes. As Cangemi notes, this creates "an appreciable risk that the evidence of cyber-offences will disappear" long before implementing the required resources (p. 166). Nevertheless, despite these concerns, "nation-states do strive to exercise their sovereignty over cyberspace (Kanuck, 2010, p. 1573)." The physical elements of cybercrime, such as the location of the people perpetrating the crimes or the location of the hardware used to execute the crimes, are used as a connecting link to allow governments "to address cyber conflicts involving both state and nonstate actors as matters to be resolved by sovereign powers under their respective legal systems (p. 1573)." When evidence moves beyond territorial borders, states seek to invoke bilateral or international action to further pursue the crime. This model follows the same formula that society developed over time, whether it be in stopping crimes such as international drug trafficking or heinous acts of terrorism. The international community is well-Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 4 versed in this cycle, and the "nature of the international legal system affords this sovereign-centric approach primacy under the United Nations (U.N.) Charter regime (p. 1573)." If the international community is content in continuing to use this cycle, then "international legislation and action are essential to combat the phenomenon" of cybercrime (Pocar, 2004, 27). The essential requirement of international involvement and negotiation has rung true in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, as the international community takes steps to evolve international law to include cyber issues, specifically cybercrime. The 1980s introduced international consultation on cybercrime by multiple organizations. In 1983, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) commissioned a two-year study focusing "on the possibility of harmonizing and internationalizing national cybercrime laws (Brenner, 2012, p. 133)." OECD later published a report in 1986 summarizing the results of the study and recommending countries criminalize certain cybercrimes. In 1985, the Council of Europe convened its own study, which involved a four-year focus on "the legal issues raised by cybercrime (p. 133)." In 1997, the Council of Europe convened another study tasked with "the drafting of a cybercrime treaty that would harmonize national laws dealing with cybercrime offenses and investigations (p. 133). In 2001, the study's efforts came to fruition in the creation of the Convention of Cybercrime. Also referred to as the Budapest Convention, the international treaty entered into law in July 2004 with the principle objective of "pursuing a common criminal policy aimed at the protection of society against cybercrime, especially by adopting appropriate legislation and fostering international co-operation (Council of Europe, 2001, Preamble)." As of 2018, 29 states have ratified the treaty, but the rapid development of technology has resulted in the convention becoming outdated, leaving governments and organizations calling for a new treaty (Murphy, 2018, p. 549) (Shackelford, 2014, p. 312). Russia's 2019 United Nations resolution is the latest attempt to modernize international cyber Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 5 law and has received much adulation despite its vague, concerning language and human rights implications. The next section of this paper addresses human rights and provides an overview of states' obligations to this arena as members of the international community. Human Rights & the International Community Modern international human rights law begins with the first article of the Charter of the United Nations (UN), which dictates that one of the purposes of the UN is to "achieve international cooperation…in promoting and encouraging "respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion (Buergenthal, 2006, p. 785)." While the Charter provided minimal specificity as to what "respect for human rights" entailed, this provision and others within the Charter catalyzed a new international perspective on human rights. In joining the United Nations, members inherently accepted "the proposition that the Charter had internationalized the concept of human rights (p. 787)." Furthermore, the Charter insinuated that "states were deemed to have assumed some international obligations relating to human rights (p. 787)." Articles 55 and 56 of the Charter cemented the beginnings of these obligations, requiring member states to "take joint and separate action in co-operation with the Organization for the achievement of purposes" such as promoting "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all (United Nations, 1945, Article 55, 56)." The specificity of human rights became more overt when the United Nations devoted the UN Commission on Human Rights to the task of drafting non-legally-binding human rights instrument. In December 1948, the UN General Assembly unanimously adopted the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (Murphy, 2018, p. 402). Composed of thirty articles, the declaration instituted vital human rights and eventually "served as a template for numerous subsequent treaties on human rights (p. 404)." As a result, the Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 6 Universal Declaration on Human Rights "has come to be accepted as a normative instrument in its own right (Buergenthal, 2006, p. 787)." Both documents uphold two pedestals of traditional international law as it pertains to human rights. The first pedestal retains responsibility for "the treatment by one state of another's nationals, an area known as state responsibility for injury to aliens (p. 389)." Although addressed at the state level, this notion asserts that individuals are afforded certain protections when in another state. The second pedestal, advanced by scholars such as Hugo Grotius, focuses on "the protection of persons against the acts of their own governments (p. 389)." It is this pedestal that introduces what is now known as humanitarian intervention, or the "idea of state intervening to protect the other state's nationals (p. 389)." Together, both the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration are "considered to spell out the general human rights obligations of all UN member states," of which there are now 193 (Buergenthal, 2006, p. 787) (Murphy, 2018, p. 59). Each international legal instrument has lent itself to the creation of international institutions dedicated to monitoring "compliance by the states parties with the obligations imposed by these instruments (Buergenthal, 2006, p. 788)." Such institutions include entities like the UN Human Rights Council and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (p. 788). Together, the instruments and institutions "laid the normative foundation of the contemporary international human rights revolution" and "influenced, in part at least, the contents of the legal norms under which international criminal tribunals operate today (p. 791)." The criticality of these elements to the international system, particularly as it pertains to international law, is justification for using each as measuring tools with which to judge the new UN cyber-focused resolution objectively. The third section of this paper will assess the purpose of the resolution and explain the supporting argument for its contents. Supporting Arguments & Analysis of A/74/401 Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 7 In order to truly understand the intent of international laws, it is crucial to develop an understanding of the stances actors take concerning the specific issues at hand. This understanding is of particular importance when discussing Resolution A/74/401 and the underlying views of cyberspace. Two opposing perspectives lie at the heart of debates surrounding the cyber domain and Internet governance and center around the notion of sovereignty. The first perspective is that "many governments are attempting to exert sovereignty in cyberspace in the same way as they do in physical domains (Nocetti, 2015, p. 111)." For these governments, the dominance of private sector institutions within cyberspace and "the unfettered internet access of their fellow citizens" are causes of concerns (p. 111). This sentiment is particularly true within the Russian government. Under its traditional views of governance, Russia "conceives of cyberspace as a territory with virtual borders corresponding to physical state borders, and wishes to see the remit of international laws extended to the internet space (p. 112)." Furthermore, Russia's domestic fears of an open Internet fuel its international concerns. Russia sees the Internet as "politically disruptive because it enables citizens to circumvent government-controlled 'traditional media (p. 113).'" It aligns this perspective "with the inherently authoritarian nature of the Russian regime (p. 114)." Russia's negative perception of the Internet as it is today ultimately lends itself to Russia's ideal mechanism of perpetuating its belief that "global internet governance is envisioned as an issue of high politics in which states - and the interstate balance of power-play – play an essential role (p. 116, 117)." Under this mechanism, it is little wonder that Russia has led international legal initiatives to refine control over the Internet since the Council of Europe's enactment of its Convention on Cybercrime. In a Ministry of Foreign Affairs press release following the General Assembly's adoption of Resolution A/74/401, Russia proclaimed that the "resolution shows that the world community urgently needs to develop a universal, comprehensive, and open-ended convention Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 8 on countering cybercrime (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2019)." The adopted resolution's language appears to align with this projected intent from Russia. The resolution stresses "the need to enhance coordination and cooperation among States in combating the use of information and communications technologies for criminal purposes" and notes "the importance of the international and regional instruments in the fight against cybercrime (United Nations, 2019, Countering the Use)." In order to fulfill these objectives, the resolution establishes an "intergovernmental committee of experts, representative of all regions" that will "elaborate a comprehensive international convention on countering the use of information and communications technologies for criminal purposes (United Nations, 2019)." Remarks of supporting nations support this appearance of cohesion. The representative from Nicaragua indicated the resolution would address cybercrime "in a more representative, democratic and transparent manner, taking into account the individual circumstances of developing and developed countries (Third Committee, 2019, Meetings Coverage)." China echoed this support, stating the resolution "is conducive to filling legal gaps in international cooperation (Third Committee)." At the same time, Belarus declared that "international cooperation is vital in investigating and combating cybercrime (Third Committee)." At face value, the resolution is a gesture of goodwill, a written contract to pursue options to disrupt cybercrime that will benefit all states. However, Russia's press release takes these notions a step further, realigning its message to its traditional view of international politics. It notes, "the resolution proposed by Russia essentially enhances states' digital sovereignty over their information space and ushers in a new page in the history of global efforts to counter cybercrime (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2019)." Furthermore, the press release dictates that the "convention must be based on the principles of respecting state sovereignty and non-interference in internal affairs (2019)." There are two Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 9 essential points within this statement that require further analysis. The first is the reassertion of the authoritarian construct with which Russia chooses to view cyberspace. In a press release initially dedicated to lauding the necessity of international cooperation, Russia simultaneously defaults to its traditional views of the international community and advocates for a "digital Westphalia (Nocetti, 2015, p. 117)." In recognizing sovereignty, Russia insinuates that the international community will successfully legislate mechanisms that will reduce cybercrime. A quick review of the supporting states in favor of the resolution upholds Russia's authoritarian views (United Nations, 2019, Countering the Use). In addition to China, Nicaragua, and Belarus, countries like Iran, Syria, Venezuela, Cuba, and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea are only some of the 88 Member States of the General Assembly who voted to adopt the resolution. Unsurprisingly, these states also abide by similar authoritarian perspectives on international law and sovereignty. China, for example, maintains a "comprehensive, multidimensional system that governs Internet infrastructure, commercial and social use as well as legal domains (Liang & Lu, 2010, p. 105)." This system supports "Internet censorship" and "China's single-party political system and its heavy intervention in Internet development (p. 105)." Given the nature and history of these states' political systems and methods of governance, the sudden focus on international cooperation generates questions of the underlying goals that may hide behind the official demands of the resolution. The second point requiring acknowledgment is the additional re-emphasis of sovereignty while also emphasizing non-interventionist beliefs in discussing non-interference in internal affairs. The resolution itself makes no mention of sovereignty or internal affairs beyond assisting countries with improving "national legislation and frameworks and build the capacity of national authorities" to deal with cybercrime (United Nations, 2019, Countering the Use). Despite the lack of language on this topic, the leading state on this initiative, Russia, felt the need Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 10 to emphasize its sovereignty in a press release about the resolution (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2019). Once again, Russia gives the impression that there may be a hidden desire layered within the words of the resolution. Additionally, the concept of non-interference within the international system is not without exceptions. The most critical exception being suspicion of human rights violations. As previously stated, humanitarian intervention and protecting citizens from their own government is a staple of international human rights law (Murphy, 2018, p. 389). Therefore, while non-interference in domestic matters is undoubtedly an essential tenet of international law, the resolution cannot call for international cooperation to combat cybercrime and simultaneously ignore the international cooperation required to maintain peace and security (United Nations, 1945, Charter of the United Nations). The next section of this paper will address these obligations to cooperation as it pertains to human rights while also highlighting the opposing arguments against Resolution A/74/401. Opposing Arguments for A/74/401 & Analysis of Human Rights Concerns The first perspective at the heart of the cyber domain debates, as described previously, is modeled after authoritarian beliefs and government control. The second perspective, modeled after a more Western approach to governance, is the belief of a free and open Internet that should remain decentralized and that "the best regulatory system is one that develops organically (Shackelford, 2013, p. 53)." A free Internet is more firmly the belief of the United States. This idea introduces the initial context necessary to understand the United States' opposition to the Russian-led cybercrime resolution. Even before the rapid development of the Internet, American foreign policy internalized the notion of "free flow of information internationally as an important element of national security (McCarthy, 2011, p. 92)." Former Secretary of State George Schultz argued that the free flow of information "undermined the Soviet Union and authoritarianism (p. 92, 93)." At its earliest beginnings, the Internet was a product of American ingenuity and, as a Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 11 result, built with a bias for "American libertarianism (p. 93)." In the present, the West has developed this concept in the "context of freedom expression, protection of intellectual property rights, and national security (Powers & Jablonski, 2015, p. 3)." As former Secretary of State Clinton asserted, the United States and other Western nations support the "freedom to connect" in opposition to efforts by states such as China, Iran, and Russia to create state-level information infrastructures designed for censorship (p. 3). The historical rivalry and disagreement between the two states on information, particularly as it pertains to cyberspace, only further roots the United States' opposition to the new United Nations cybercrime resolution. In its statement to the United Nations during the 49th & 50th meetings of the Third Committee, the United States expressed disappointment "with the decisions of the sponsors of this resolution to bring it to the Third Committee (United States Mission to the United Nations, 2019)." Contrary to the resolution's focus on cooperation, the United States' proclaimed the resolution would "drive a wedge between Member States and undermine international cooperation to combat cybercrime at a time when enhanced coordination is essential (United States Mission to the United Nations)." Furthermore, the United States asserted Russia's actions in introducing the resolution essentially bypass the "expert-driven, consensus-based process and therefore is not in line with their precedent (United States Mission to the United Nations)." Other Western states appear to agree with the United States assertions, as states such as the United Kingdom, Australia, France, Republic of Korea, and Germany composed part of the 58 Member States who opposed the adoption of the resolution (United Nations, 2019, Countering the Use). In a manner similar to the states in favor of the adoption, some opposed states made remarks in agreement with those of the United States during the Third Committee. Finland, on behalf of the European Union, remarked that "there is no consensus on the need for a new international instrument to fight cybercrime" and that the draft "represents a duplication of resources (Third Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 12 Committee, 2019, Meetings Coverage). Canada and Australia presented similar sentiments, remarking that "the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime is an important baseline for international cooperation" and that the new resolution "seeks to undercut consensus and will diminish existing global efforts that are already delivering results (Third Committee, 2019)." There is one remaining argument against the new cybercrime resolution: the potential that the document's vague language will create an environment where human rights will be more easily violated if left unchecked (Hakmeh & Peters, 2020). In a letter to the United Nations General Assembly, 37 organizations and six individuals expressed their concern for human rights protections as they pertain to the cybercrime resolution (Association for Progressive Communications (APC), 2019, Open Letter, p. 4). The first concern is a lack of clarity surrounding the scope of the "use of information and communications technologies for criminal purposes (APC, p. 1)." If left undefined, the language in the resolution arguably "opens the door to criminalising ordinary online behaviour that is protected under international human rights law (APC, p. 1)." If steps to do so were taken as a result of the new resolution, they would be in direct violation of the United Nations High Commission for Human Rights; who stated in 2011 that "human rights are equally valid online as offline (Shackelford, 2019, p. 168)." The second concern offered by non-government entities is the increasing trend in "criminalising ordinary online activities of individuals and organisations through the application of cybercrime laws (APC, 2019, Open Letter, p. 1, 2)." The letter even goes so far as to quote the UN Special Rapporteur over these concerns, that the "surge in legislation and policies aimed at combating cybercrime has also opened the door to punishing and surveilling activists and protestors in many countries around the world (APC, p. 2)." If used in such a manner, these initiatives, in addition to the UN cybercrime resolution, are in direct violation of the Charter of United Nations and the Universal Declaration on Human Rights. Within the Charter of the United Nations, efforts to Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 13 restrict or punish opposition elements such as activists or protestors violates Articles 55 and 56, which requires states to cooperate with the UN in achieving the organizations' purposes such as promoting human rights (United Nations, 1945, Article 55, 56). The Universal Declaration on Human Rights provides more specific language with which to attribute potential violations. The open letter notes that legislation of this kind is used to "criminalise legitimate forms of online expression, association and assembly through vague and ill-defined terms that allow for arbitrary or discretionary application (APC, 2019, Open Letter, p. 2)." Immediately, legislation that allows for criminalization of these elements is in direct violation of Articles 18, 19, and 20, which declare "all persons have a right to freedom of thought, conscience, religion, and assembly (Murphy, 2018, p. 402)." Furthermore, violations such as these also violate article two, which guarantees people "the right to life, liberty, and security" and dictates that "these rights are to be held without discrimination of any kind (Murphy, p. 402, 403)." Upholding these rights within cyberspace continues to fall in line with the Western perspective on the Internet. As McCarthy quotes, "the Internet is arguably the greatest facilitator for freedom of expression and innovation in the world today (McCarthy, 2011, p. 94)." The status of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights as "legitimate norms within the international system" permits this interpretation and application of international law to future resolutions (p. 94). If states are signatories to the declaration, any future adoption of any resolution must adhere to the principles and freedoms guaranteed by it. Resolution A/74/401 does refer to human rights protections, "reaffirming the importance of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms in the use of information and communication technologies (United Nations, 2019, Countering the Use)." However, the resolution's open language is in direct contradiction to this promise, if not clarified. As the open letter indicates, "simply reaffirming the importance of respect for human rights" is "insufficient to safeguard human rights while Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 14 countering cybercrime (APC, 2019, Open Letter, p. 2)." The final section of this paper recommends additional actions that may further unify opposing entities on this resolution while simultaneously addressing all human rights concerns. Recommendations The Russian-led supporters of the resolution and the United States-led opposition are unified in one common element, at least in writing. The element is that consensus and international cooperation are vital in addressing cybercrime (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2019) (United States Mission to the United Nations, 2019). This notion is in concert with the Council of Europe, who remains the only entity to successfully orchestrate an international cybercrime treaty (Council of Europe, 2004, Convention on Cybercrime). In 2001, the Council of Europe postulated that "solutions to the problems posed must be addressed by international law, necessitating the adoption of adequate international legal instruments" that can "ensure the necessary efficiency" required to combat cybercrime (Pocar, 2004, p. 28). If the international community determines that another cybercrime treaty is required within the intergovernmental committee of experts authorized by Resolution A/74/401, then the new treaty should consider the aims of the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime (United Nations, 2019, Countering the Use). In doing so, the United Nations should strive to create a "basic framework for the establishment by contracting states of domestic substantive and procedural laws" in a manner that allows states to "cooperate expeditiously with one another (Pocar, 2004, p. 30)." If successful, the United Nations will be able to "establish procedures for relevant international relations" and provide "forms of cooperation between national judicial authorities as many interact with each other both swiftly and efficiently (p. 31)." Furthermore, the necessity of these requirements is supported by the very nature of the "the world-wide dimension of the Internet," Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 15 which "implies that its illegal use and related offenses must prompt responses and concerted efforts from all relevant domestic and international authorities (p. 34)." The non-governmental organizations' open letter to the United Nations supports the need for cooperation but takes it one step further than the states themselves. In its current structure, the Internet is a public-private endeavor, with private entities dominating cyberspace (Nocetti, 2015, p. 111). The present language of the United Nations cybercrime resolution allows for an intergovernmental committee of experts. However, it does not expand on the actual composition of the committee (United Nations, 2019, Countering the Use). Noting that Russia and other authoritarian regimes prefer non-government entities to use the government as a proxy for communication, it can be inferred that a Russia-led resolution intends the committee to be comprised of only government entities (p. 117). The open letter rightly points out that collaboration on cyber issues must expand beyond state cooperation. Addressing cybercrime is "necessarily a multi-stakeholder endeavour" that "requires government officials and experts, members of the technical community, civil society, the private sector, and scientific and research institutions (APC, 2019, Open Letter, p. 4)." An assessment of this viewpoint reveals that a committee dedicated to combatting cybercrime cannot rely on government expertise alone. In order to accurately reflect the composition and requirements of a private-public Internet, all discussions surrounding this resolution should involve both private and public entities. Therefore, the committee should be reformed to more accurately reflect the Internet's users. In doing so, the United Nations breaches the divide between authoritarian and more democratic governments, further increasing cooperation on this resolution. However, increased cooperation through a broader, inclusive committee and implementation of lessons learned from the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime will not ensure that the future convention successfully resolves the resolution's weaknesses. In Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 16 modern-day, the international system emphasizes international human rights more than ever before, as "this branch of international law has experienced phenomenal growth over the past one hundred years (Buergenthal, 2006, p. 807)." This growth has contributed to the "growing political impact of human rights on the conduct of international relations and the behavior of governments (p. 807)." If real success is desired within international governance, then the committee established under the "Countering the use of information and communications technologies for criminal purposes" resolution must account for human rights protections when determining the requirements of the "comprehensive international convention (United Nations, 2019, Countering the Use)." As the representative from Costa Rica during the 49th and 50th meetings of the Third Committee, "the international community must protect and observe fundamental freedoms, including the right to privacy (Third Committee, 2019, Meeting Coverage)." Until there is consensus on "sensitive topics such as…State responsibility to prioritize and protect human rights," the future proposed convention will fall short of its goal of achieving complete international ratification (Third Committee). Conclusion As cyberspace expands in conjunction with the rapid advancement of technology, the fear of the unknown drives further division between already opposing states in the international system. Resolution A/74/401 is the latest testament to the evolution of politicization within Internet governance. In addressing a topic that impacts every Internet-accessible region of the world, the resolution simultaneously magnifies the opposing perspectives of states as it pertains to sovereignty within the cyber domain. Furthermore, it reignites the protracted debate over whether or not human rights obligations addressed in such documents as the Charter of the United Nations or Universal Declaration on Human Rights are legally binding. Preventing further polarization requires both an acknowledgment of a fracturing international system of Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 17 governance and a proposed solution to address the issue. While state-centric governance provides legitimacy and the potential for a higher allocation of resources dedicated to protecting the Internet, increased sovereignty also "risks sacrificing innovation, complicates the regulatory environment of cyberspace, and may threaten a positive vision of cyber peace (Shackelford, 2013, p. 50)." These risks are why an alternative method to an intergovernmental committee must develop in response to the resolution. This method should integrate a multi-stakeholder construct to more fully recognize the competing impacts of cybercrime and fairly address the allegations of human rights infringement. One such method is polycentric governance, a system composed of "diverse organizations and governments working at multiple levels" in order to "increase levels of voluntary cooperation or increase compliance with rules established by governmental authorities (p. 330)." Individually, each organization or type of government faces its own unique hurdles. Together, they "contribute to a governance regime that is multi-level, multi-purpose, multi-type, and multi-sectoral in scope that could complement the top-down governance model increasingly favored" by states such as Russia or China (p. 331). Implementing polycentric governance to more equitably debate the appropriate response to international cybercrime will create an international community willing to consider the developing convention. In doing so, the environment will be better suited to determining whether or not the international system can leverage international law to investigate and prosecute cybercrime. Running head: INTERNATIONAL LAW & THE CYBER DOMAIN 18 References Association for Progressive Communications (APC). (2019). Open Letter to UN General Assembly: Proposed international convention on cybercrime poses a threat to human rights online. Retrieved from https://www.apc.org/sites/default/files/Open_letter_re_UNGA_cybercrime_resolution_0.pdf Brenner, S. (2012). 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This research aims to know the potential effect of Intellectual Capital Performance (ICP) to the intensity of Intellectual Capital Disclosure (ICD). The independent variables used in this research are the components of ICP that consists of Value Added Human Capital (VAHU), Value Added Capital Employed (VACA), and Structural Capital Value Added (SCVA) that is measured by using the Value Added Intellectual Coefficient (VAIC™). While, the dependent variable used in this research is ICD that measured by a disclosure index and relevant scoring system. Company size and leverage are also used in the regression model as moderating variables. One year annual reports (2017) of banking sector companies registered on the Indonesia Stock Exchange (IDX) are analyzed in quantitative research type. The samples that listed on the IDX in 2017 are selected by using purposive sampling method with certain criteria and 33 banking sector companies are obtained. The analysis is made by multiple regression analysis and the data testing is conducted by using SPSS 22 and Eviews 9 which previously has been carried out the classic assumption test first. Results of this study indicate that: (1) Simultaneously, ICP component significantly affect ICD. However, each component of VAHU and SCVA does not significantly affect the ICD, only VACA significantly affects the ICD; (2) Simultaneously, with the moderation of company size, ICP does not significantly affect the ICD. Similarly, each component of VAHU, VACA and SCVA does not significantly affect ICD; and (3) Simultaneously, with the moderation of company leverage, ICP significantly affects ICD. 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