The volume contributes to disrupt the old grand narrative of cultural contact and colonialism in Spanish and Portuguese America in a wide and complete sense. This edited volume aims at exploring contact archaeology in the modern era. Archaeology has been exploring the interaction of peoples and cultures from early times, but only in the last few decades have cultural contact and material world been recognized as crucial elements to understanding colonialism and the emergence of modernity. Modern colonialism studies pose questions in need of broader answers. This volume explores these answers in Spanish and Portuguese America, comprising present-day Latin America and formerly Spanish territories now part of the United States. The volume addresses studies of the particular features of Spanish-Portuguese colonialism, as well as the specificities of Iberian colonization, including hybridism, religious novelties, medieval and modern social features, all mixed in a variety of ways unique and so different from other areas, particularly the Anglo-Saxon colonial thrust. Cultural contact studies offer a particularly in-depth picture of the uniqueness of Latin America in terms of its cultural mixture. This volume particularly highlights local histories, revealing novelty, diversity, and creativity in the conformation of the new colonial realities, as well as presenting Latin America as a multicultural arena, with astonishing heterogeneity in thoughts, experiences, practices, and, material worlds. Pedro Paulo A. Funariis professor of historical archaeology at the University of Campinas, Brazil, former World Archaeological Congress secretary, author and editor of several books, such as Historical archaeology, back from the edge (London, Routledge, 1999), Global Archaeological Theory (New York, Springer, 2005), Memories from Darkness, the archaeology of repression and resistance in Latin America (New York, Springer, 2009), with fieldwork in Brazil, England, Wales, Spain and Italy (several in each country). Funari is member of the editorial boards of several journals, notably the International Journal of Historical Archaeology (New York), Journal of Material Culture (London), Public Archaeology (London, UCL) and is referee in several other journals, like Current Anthropology. Funari has published papers in most prestigious journals, such as Historical Archaeology, Current Anthropology, Archaeologies, Révue Archéologique, Antiquity, American Antiquity, American Journal of Archaeology, and has edited archaeological encyclopedias. María Ximena Senatoreis a National Researcher at CONICET (National Council of Scientific and Technological Research), Argentina. Professor on Historical Archaeology and Heritage at University of Buenos Aires and National University of Patagonia Austral. Senatore has a degree in Archaeology (University of Buenos Aires, 1995) and PhD in History (2003, University of Valladolid, Spain). She is running research projects on Spanish Colonialism in South Patagonia, and Capitalism Expansion to Antarctica. Senatore has published papers in several journals such as International Journal of Historical Archaeology, Historical Archaeology, Polar Record, and 3 books in Argentina and Brazil.
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El presente artículo constituye un intento de sistematización de avances de investigación expuestos en diferentes trabajos (Formento y Merino, 2011; Merino 2011a; 2011b; 2011c; 2011d), en los cuales fue tomando cada vez mayor relevancia la cuestión del territorio. En este sentido, nos focalizaremos en cuatro ejes que consideramos claves desde nuestra perspectiva. En primer lugar, el capital financiero transnacional, su territorialidad y la construcción de lo que llamaremos, como tendencia, un Estado Global. En segundo lugar, las formas en las que dicha territorialidad se expresa en lo local, entendiendo lo local como parte del territorio en disputa por parte de distintos proyectos, fuerzas e intereses. En tercer lugar, desarrollaremos un eje integrador que hace al objetivo del trabajo: analizar las contradicciones que atraviesan al Estado y en particular al Estado-nación y cómo las mismas se manifiestan en el territorio como territorialidades contrapuestas, impulsadas por proyectos políticos-estratégicos enfrentados. En cuarto lugar, a partir de estas consideraciones y sólo a modo de graficar algunas de las afirmaciones expresadas, plantearemos una discusión en torno a la manera en que algunos autores entienden el "progresismo" asociado a la nueva lógica del capital financiero transnacional y su configuración territorial ; This paper attempts to systematize the research advances put forward in various other papers (Formento y Merino, 2011; Merino 2011a; 2011b; 2011c; 2011d), in which "territory" gained progressively more importance. In this sense, we focus on four axes which, in our point of view, are key: first, transnational financial assets, their territoriality and the construction of what we will call, as a tendency, a Global State; second, the ways in which such territoriality is expressed locally - locally meaning part of the territory disputed by various projects, forces and interests; third, the development of an integrating axis that has to do with the aim of this paper: analyzing the contradictions going through the State and, especially, the Nation-state and how they show in the territory as opposing territorialities, launched by confronted political-strategic projects; and, finally, based on all of these considerations and just to graph some of the statements mentioned, a discussión about the way some authors understand "progressivism" associated with the new logic of transnational financial assets and their territorial configuration ; Fil: Merino, Gabriel Esteban. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación. Instituto de Investigaciones en Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales (UNLP-CONICET); Argentina.
El presente artículo constituye un intento de sistematización de avances de investigación expuestos en diferentes trabajos (Formento y Merino, 2011; Merino 2011a; 2011b; 2011c; 2011d), en los cuales fue tomando cada vez mayor relevancia la cuestión del territorio. En este sentido, nos focalizaremos en cuatro ejes que consideramos claves desde nuestra perspectiva. En primer lugar, el capital financiero transnacional, su territorialidad y la construcción de lo que llamaremos, como tendencia, un Estado Global. En segundo lugar, las formas en las que dicha territorialidad se expresa en lo local, entendiendo lo local como parte del territorio en disputa por parte de distintos proyectos, fuerzas e intereses. En tercer lugar, desarrollaremos un eje integrador que hace al objetivo del trabajo: analizar las contradicciones que atraviesan al Estado y en particular al Estado-nación y cómo las mismas se manifiestan en el territorio como territorialidades contrapuestas, impulsadas por proyectos políticos-estratégicos enfrentados. En cuarto lugar, a partir de estas consideraciones y sólo a modo de graficar algunas de las afirmaciones expresadas, plantearemos una discusión en torno a la manera en que algunos autores entienden el "progresismo" asociado a la nueva lógica del capital financiero transnacional y su configuración territorial ; This paper attempts to systematize the research advances put forward in various other papers (Formento y Merino, 2011; Merino 2011a; 2011b; 2011c; 2011d), in which "territory" gained progressively more importance. In this sense, we focus on four axes which, in our point of view, are key: first, transnational financial assets, their territoriality and the construction of what we will call, as a tendency, a Global State; second, the ways in which such territoriality is expressed locally - locally meaning part of the territory disputed by various projects, forces and interests; third, the development of an integrating axis that has to do with the aim of this paper: analyzing the contradictions going through the State and, especially, the Nation-state and how they show in the territory as opposing territorialities, launched by confronted political-strategic projects; and, finally, based on all of these considerations and just to graph some of the statements mentioned, a discussión about the way some authors understand "progressivism" associated with the new logic of transnational financial assets and their territorial configuration ; Fil: Merino, Gabriel Esteban. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación. Instituto de Investigaciones en Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales (UNLP-CONICET); Argentina.
El presente artículo constituye un intento de sistematización de avances de investigación expuestos en diferentes trabajos (Formento y Merino, 2011; Merino 2011a; 2011b; 2011c; 2011d), en los cuales fue tomando cada vez mayor relevancia la cuestión del territorio. En este sentido, nos focalizaremos en cuatro ejes que consideramos claves desde nuestra perspectiva. En primer lugar, el capital financiero transnacional, su territorialidad y la construcción de lo que llamaremos, como tendencia, un Estado Global. En segundo lugar, las formas en las que dicha territorialidad se expresa en lo local, entendiendo lo local como parte del territorio en disputa por parte de distintos proyectos, fuerzas e intereses. En tercer lugar, desarrollaremos un eje integrador que hace al objetivo del trabajo: analizar las contradicciones que atraviesan al Estado y en particular al Estado-nación y cómo las mismas se manifiestan en el territorio como territorialidades contrapuestas, impulsadas por proyectos políticos-estratégicos enfrentados. En cuarto lugar, a partir de estas consideraciones y sólo a modo de graficar algunas de las afirmaciones expresadas, plantearemos una discusión en torno a la manera en que algunos autores entienden el "progresismo" asociado a la nueva lógica del capital financiero transnacional y su configuración territorial ; This paper attempts to systematize the research advances put forward in various other papers (Formento y Merino, 2011; Merino 2011a; 2011b; 2011c; 2011d), in which "territory" gained progressively more importance. In this sense, we focus on four axes which, in our point of view, are key: first, transnational financial assets, their territoriality and the construction of what we will call, as a tendency, a Global State; second, the ways in which such territoriality is expressed locally - locally meaning part of the territory disputed by various projects, forces and interests; third, the development of an integrating axis that has to do with the aim of this paper: analyzing the contradictions going through the State and, especially, the Nation-state and how they show in the territory as opposing territorialities, launched by confronted political-strategic projects; and, finally, based on all of these considerations and just to graph some of the statements mentioned, a discussión about the way some authors understand "progressivism" associated with the new logic of transnational financial assets and their territorial configuration ; Fil: Merino, Gabriel Esteban. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación. Instituto de Investigaciones en Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales (UNLP-CONICET); Argentina.
The article conducts theoretical research to determine the criteria, indicators, and levels of leadership potential in senior preschool children. The lack of unity of the scientists' ideas considering the development of criteria set for assessing the leadership potential development is proved. In contrast, the arsenal of criteria and indicators is diverse (cognitive, activity, communicative, reflexive, emotional-value, etc.). Most of the papers explore the leadership potential of heads of institutions, local government leaders, student leaders, civil servants, and the military. There are almost no studies of criteria and indicators of leadership potential development in senior preschool children. Criteria and indicators of leadership potential development in senior preschool children are determined: personal (broad worldview, basic personal qualities, ability of the individual to analyze the results of activities and further formulation of prospects), creative (aspiration of leadership position in the children's community, sense of novelty and creative approach to activities, leadership behavior), communicative (ability to establish communication, sensitivity to emotions of their own and others), social (ability to partner and achieve mutual understanding, adaptability of behavior). Levels of leadership potential development in children of senior preschool age are defined: creative, adaptive, elementary. The meaningful characteristics of levels are given based on the selected criteria and indicators. ; У статті проведено теоретичну розвідку щодо визначення критеріїв, показників та рівнів сформованості лідерського потенціалу дітей старшого дошкільного віку. Доведено відсутність єдності думок науковців щодо формування набору критеріїв для оцінки сформованості лідерського потенціалу. Навпаки, арсенал критеріїв та показників досить різноманітний (когнітивний, діяльнісний, комунікативний, рефлексивний, емоційно-ціннісний тощо). У більшості праць досліджується лідерський потенціал керівників установ, лідерів місцевого самоврядування, лідерів студентського активу, державних службовців та військових. Практично відсутні дослідження критеріїв та показників сформованості лідерського потенціалу дітей старшого дошкільного віку. Визначено критерії та показники сформованості лідерського потенціалу дітей старшого дошкільного віку: особистісний (широкий світогляд, базові особистісні якості, здатність особистості до аналізу результатів діяльності та подальшого формулювання перспектив), креативно-діяльнісний (прагнення лідерської позиції у дитячій спільноті, відчуття новизни та креативний підхід до діяльності, лідерська поведінка), комунікативний (здатність до налагодження комунікації, чутливість до емоцій своїх власних та оточення), соціальний (здатність до партнерської взаємодії та досягнення взаєморозуміння, адаптивність поведінки). Визначено рівні розвитку лідерського потенціалу дітей старшого дошкільного віку: творчий, адаптивний, елементарний. На основі виокремлених критеріїв і показників надано змістовні характеристики рівнів.
La importancia del paisaje asume no solo el valor como medio de goce y disfrute social sino también como medio de comunicación, identidad, pertenencia, e imagen de destino, al tiempo que como instrumento de comprensión e interpretación al constituirse en expresión y testimonio territorial; constituye así un recurso de utilidad científica y técnica. Las principales cuestiones conceptuales sobre el paisaje, se destacan los vacíos o ambigüedades epistémicas, la influencia de los sesgos disciplinares científicos, los dilemas oncológicos que plantea la relación sociedad-naturaleza, la expectativa por la consideración de una concepción holística. Entre otras cuestiones significativas se advierten además las dificultades de actuación interdisciplinar y de interacción con el sujeto social en tanto protagonista central en el uso y disfrute del sistema paisajístico. En este sentido el trabajo que se expone aspira a concebir la construcción de una actuación interdisciplinar eficaz superadora de la mirada omni-disciplinar específica de la ciencia, al tiempo que inclusiva de las complejas percepciones sociales, en superación de la brecha entre las ciencias del paisaje y las percepciones de la sociedad. El objetivo general del trabajo aspira a construir una base conceptual y un sistema de actuación interdisciplinar susceptible de constituir un aporte generalizable al tiempo que sustento adaptable para la elaboración de estudios y acciones de intervención sobre el sistema paisajístico de destinos turísticos que articule actuación científica y sistema perceptivo de la sociedad local y de la comunidad visitante, ambos sujetos de protagonismo en el uso y disfrute del Paisaje. La metodología ha implicado la recolección, ordenamiento, colección, análisis y evaluación del devenir de conceptos, enfoques y pensamientos de autores o científicos a partir de documentos y publicaciones científicas acreditadas. El análisis y evaluación ha operado sobre la base de criterios de selección conceptual tales como: pertinencia, amplitud de abordaje, precisión, coherencia, consistencia, grado de generalización/especificidad y síntesis, entre los criterios más destacados. No obstante los valiosos aportes ponderados en la conceptualización específica de cada dimensión -que explican por sí su aporte a la totalidad sistémica del paisaje-, es la dimensión sistémica, en sus acepciones global y extendida, la que reúne los conceptos que mejor se aproximan a la comprehensión de su relación dialéctica y articulada con las dimensiones del territorio. Dentro de la acepción extendida de la dimensión sistémica se destacan con valoración más alta unos 15 conceptos clave que se exponen in extenso en el trabajo completo y que dan cuenta de aspectos conceptuales convergentes hacia una concepción sistémica que articula las dimensiones social, físico-ecológica - económica - identitaria (histórica, simbólica, cultural) - política - perceptual - entre otras dimensiones identificadas a lo largo de la investigación. Atribuir entidad científica al paisaje implica asumir el reto y desafío de articular un cuerpo conceptual y disciplinar que contemple las condiciones de monismo, polisemanticidad y multivalencia. No obstante su necesaria consideración, las experiencias interdisciplinarias aún adolecen de limitaciones teórico-conceptuales y técnico-metodológicas de interacción que deben ser superadas. En este sentido el trabajo expone las principales dificultades y recomendaciones de actuación interdisciplinar y de necesaria articulación con la sociedad en tanto sujeto de uso y disfrute del paisaje. ; The importance of landscape value assumes not only as a means of social enjoyment but also as a means of communication, identity, belonging, and destination image, while as a tool for understanding and interpreting the expression and testimony become territorial, is and a useful resource science and technology. The main conceptual issues on the landscape, highlighting gaps or ambiguities epistemic biases influence scientific discipline, oncology dilemmas posed by the relationship between society and nature, the expectation of a holistic consideration. Among other significant issues are noted well the difficulties of interdisciplinary activity and social interaction with the subject as the central protagonist in the use and enjoyment of the landscape system. In this sense the work shown aspires to conceive building effective interdisciplinary action overcomes the specific look of omni-science discipline, while inclusive of complex social perceptions, in bridging the gap between science landscape and perceptions of society. The aim of this paper aims at building a conceptual basis and a system of disciplinary action which may constitute a contribution generalizable while adaptable to support the development of intervention studies and actions on the landscape system of tourist destinations that links scientific and system performance perception of the local community and visitors, both subjects of importance in the use and enjoyment of the landscape. The methodology has involved the collection, sorting, collection, analysis and assessment of the evolution of concepts, approaches and thoughts of authors and scientists from reputable scientific papers and publications. The analysis and evaluation has operated on the basis of conceptual selection criteria such as relevance, breadth of approach, accuracy, consistency, consistency, degree of generalization / specificity and synthesis, criteria highlights. Otherwise the valuable contributions weighted specific conceptualization of each dimension self explaining their contribution to systemic whole-landscape, is the systemic dimension, in its global and extended meanings, which brings together the concepts best approach the comprehension of its dialectical relationship and articulated with the dimensions of the territory. Within the extended sense of the systemic dimension stand out with higher valuation about key concepts set out in full in the complete job and realize conceptual converging towards a systemic approach that articulates the social, physical and ecological - economic - identity (historical, symbolic, cultural) - politics - perceptual - among other dimensions identified through research. Attributing scientific entity to take on the challenge involves landscape and challenge of articulating a conceptual and disciplinary body which covers the conditions of monism and multivalency. But its necessary consideration, interdisciplinary experiences have limitations still theoretical-conceptual-methodological and technical interaction that must be overcome. In this sense, the paper presents the main challenges and recommendations for action and necessary interdisciplinary articulation with society as a subject to use and enjoy the scenery. ; Fil: Dosso, Ricardo. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Sociales; Argentina.
This thesis addresses two topics: technology and values. More specifically, the studied technology is an ensemble of digital technologies that is often referred to as "digitalization," and the values are gathered from empirical material from the Swedish (digital) government. The purpose of the thesis is to generate an enhanced understanding of the relation between digital technology and values. The study is motivated by, a) a need to theorize digital government research, b) a need to establish a link between narratives of technology and research on values, and c) a need to disclose how investments in digital technology are legitimized. The research question of this thesis is, "how can we understand the relation between digital technology and values?" To answer this question, theoretical concepts that are rooted in philosophy of technology are used: polytechnics and monotechnics, externalism, and internalism. Moreover, a theory of four value positions, namely professionalism, efficiency, service, and engagement is used. The thesis revolves around five papers, and its methodological approach is characterized by pragmatism. Data were gathered from relevant literature and document studies, an analysis of expert groups, and survey results from national and local government entities. The findings from the papers were subject to a narrative analysis. This analysis generated three conclusions, which constitute the theoretical contribution of the thesis. The relation between digital technology and values can be understood from these three key conclusions: The first regards convergence, and incorporates two narratives of digital technology: as a polytechnic tool, and as a monotechnic force: a machine. Digital technology is pluralistic in the sense that it may enable several values through multiple technological frames. In parallel, it relies on uniformity and standardization. The technology is therefore subject to several tensions. The story of the machine tends to become dominant through calls for action: it emphasizes the need for rapid adaptation of both individuals and society. In digital government, such adjustment would include an uncertain transformation of professionalism values. The legitimacy of this transformation is highly dependent on which story of technology it is based on. The second conclusion concerns technology as a paradigm. The digital paradigm, as studied in this thesis, is characterized by a story about a technological society for everyone. However, this story stems from a narrow range of actors with respect to educational and geographical context. A broadened view of digital technology and values would require a more symmetrical range of norms, since how values manifest themselves is dependent on the properties of the paradigm. The third and final conclusion regards congruence and divergence. The relation between digital technology and values is shifting between value congruence, and value divergence. When digital technology becomes associated with a narrative of progress that suggests that its value lies in the future while the present is "transformative," it can develop in a seemingly self-augmented and autonomous manner. Contrasting stories of value divergence can be found in evaluations from practice. However, this divergent narrative is repositioned as a story of "barriers", which tells us that values can be realized if society adapts. The interplay between these narratives has implications for how we perceive value realization. The thesis concludes with the following summarizing contributions. Theoretically, it produces an enhanced understanding of the relation between digital technology and values, as described above. Through this theoretical understanding, a link between narratives of technology and values is established empirically. By doing so, this thesis has revealed how values are legitimized, manifested and perceived, depending on what technology "is". Finally, a societal need is fulfilled by suggestions for policy making. Democratization of the norms associated with digital technology would improve governance in the sense that policy makers would have to actively choose between incommensurable views. As a result of this, accountability would increase, together with transparency concerning the narratives that inform policy. ; Denna avhandling studerar relationen mellan digital teknik, ofta benämnd "digitalisering", och värden. Materialet tar sin utgångspunkt i historiska och aktuella utredningar och policys framtagna inom svensk offentlig sektor. Syftet att fördjupa förståelsen för hur olika tekniksyner i dessa påverkar värden såsom professionalitet, effektivitet, service och demokrati. Studiens motivation är att teoretisera forskning om digital förvaltning, skapa en länk mellan historier om teknik, och aktuell forskning om värden, och att förstå hur investeringar i digital teknik legitimeras. Avhandlingen hämtar teoretiska utgångspunkter från teknikfilosofi, och forskning om värden inom offentlig sektor. Resultaten från fem artiklar sammanfattades genom narrativ analys, och renderade följande slutsatser: relationen mellan teknik och värden kan förstås.: -Som en konvergens, där digital teknik assimilerat äldre tekniker. Två berättelser framträder i denna kontext: det flexibla verktyget, och den autonoma maskinen. Konvergens möjliggör realisering av flera värden med hjälp av tekniken, samtidigt som det ofta sker genom standardisering och uniformitet. Berättelsen om maskinen blir dominant eftersom den kommer med uppmaningar om att samhället och individen måste anpassas. I offentlig förvaltning innebär denna anpassning en transformation av professionella värden. Denna transformations legitimitet är i hög grad beroende på vilken tekniksyn den baseras på, då en autonom teknik påverkar värden som till exempel ansvarighet. -Som ett paradigm, där manifesteringen av värden påverkas av normerna inom detta paradigm. Det digitala paradigmet i det studerade materialet, är karaktäriserat av en berättelse om ett teknologiskt samhälle för alla. Denna berättelse berättas dock av aktörer från en smal kontext vad gäller utbildningsbakgrund och geografisk hemvist. I och med att direktiv om digital förvaltning ofta har som mål att bredda användningen av digital teknik, borde en förutsättning för denna bredd vara att bredda normerna som beskriver det digitala samhället. -I termer av kongruens och divergens. Relationen mellan digital teknik och värden skiftar mellan värdekongruens, och värdedivergens. Samspelet mellan dessa berättelser påverkar hur realisering av värden uppfattas. Berättelsen om ett epokskifte karaktäriserat av teknologiska och ekonomiska framsteg tenderar att generera en syn på tekniken som något autonomt, vars värde ligger i framtiden. Nutiden är alltid transformativ. Denna berättelse står i kontrast mot utvärderingar från praktiken, där värden divergerar. Divergensen positioneras som en berättelse om "hinder" för fortsatt utveckling. Avhandlingen konkluderas med att föreslå en breddning av de normer som informerar politik och beslutsfattare. Om dessa beslutsfattare aktivt skulle behöva navigera och välja mellan inkommensurabla tekniksyner skulle det ha positiva konsekvenser för legitimitet, ansvarighet och transparens. ; Vid tidpunkten för disputationen var följande delarbete opublicerat: delarbete 2 (manuskript). At the time of the doctoral defence the following paper was unpublished: paper 2 (manuscript).
This thesis is about the metaphors of the rainbow and the fogbow, investigations and evaluations, public Internet monitors, writing women, reflections and discussions about politics, design and democracy. It is also about the ongoing re-structuring of participation in service design within the development of E-Government. The aim behind the drive towards E-Government is to modernise administration and make it more efficient. The transformation and modernisation of public services are proclaimed to bring about a change in services based on a 'citizen-centred approach.' In such a process, communication between citizens and public authorities should play an essential role. Themes such as accountability, accessibility and participation all form part of the reconfiguration and at the same time these themes is shaped by the transformation. The papers in this thesis discuss, in different ways, how this reconfiguration is enacted in practice. Theories and methodologies from feminist theories, participatory design and informatics, are used in order to develop broader and more complex understandings of ongoing development within E-Government. Introduction to the papers Paper I Everyday Dialogue and Design for Co-Operative Use: An Evaluation of the Public Internet Monitor Project Accessibility is a central issue in the achievement of democracy, i.e. with respect to the opportunity for and right to 'access' to new technology and information – an argument also used when justifying the Public Internet Monitor Project. 'Access' in this context refers not only to purely physical access to new technology and information, it is also about the opportunity to take part in community business on several different levels. The present sub-report presents the project and its background. The paper also discusses the way in which the Public Internet Monitor Project as a whole has contributed to the development of a social interface or contact surface between citizens and public authorities, as well as how it has stimulated processes of change within public administration and in contacts between public authorities and citizens. Among the questions raised during the evaluation are; how local networks and activities can be stimulated by the citizen monitor and how the user's ideas and experience can be utilised in local adaptations so that they become an essential part of a continuous development of services and technology. The paper also describes the linked chains of responsibility exemplified in the excerpts from the interviews. These also include final users as a means of creating a personalised service adapted to local praxis and user environments. The question is posed "is it possible to talk in terms of interactivity on several different levels, not only in the sense of transmitting information or communicating, but also as a means of creating a relation-based interactivity?" Paper II Reconfiguration of Citizenship: Rights and Duties in Development of Public Services This paper presents the case of the cleaner in the library and some examples of feedback failures. Access to information, technology, and to some degree, participation in development of new services, is a central issue in the prevailing eGovernment discourse. This vision also comprises the idea of the active, contributing citizen and considers the development of local public participation as a process of co-construction of citizenship and services engaging several actors on different levels. At the same time, access must be seen as a contemporaneous process of inclusion and exclusion, a defining and drawing up of the boundaries of a new electronically mediated membership, where access is becoming a prerequisite for activating citizenship, transforming "the right to have access" into a "duty to participate", not just for citizens but for the employees who must manage the reconfiguration of citizenship and relations. The foundations for participation, however, turn out to be relatively restricted in practice. The original title of the paper was: Co-Construction of Citizenship: Rights and duties in development of public services. Paper III Consulting the Citizens – Relationship-based Interaction in the Development of E-Government This paper investigates current practices for involving citizens in the development of web-based services in public administration and tries to track their motives. With respect to democratisation, I argue that there is a large potential in adopting participatory design methods for establishing relation-based interaction between administration and citizens. The paper presents an analysis of E-Government initiatives. More particularly it explores the discourse of the materials surrounding these initiatives, particularly with respect to value systems derived from the marketing perspective contra democratic values. It demonstrates that conventional images of democracy have only a background role to play in such efforts. Paper IV Mapping Out and Constructing Needs in the Development of Online Public Services This paper is based on a study concerning experiences of, access to and requests for public services on-line, within the RISI+ Project. The paper presents a pilot study of the setting up of public services in the local context of the county of Blekinge, in southeast Sweden. The study was conducted as a peer evaluation of a selection of methods, or types of needs analysis, used by different actors and producers of public services in order to gain a picture of various needs among users. One part of this study focuses on the views expressed by service providers about the dialogue between themselves and citizens on the provision of public services. This is compared with the practical use or, in some cases, lack of use, of explicit techniques, such as questionnaires, larger surveys and work carried out with the help of focus groups. A basic question is, 'what role does citizen involvement play in the analysis of needs and services and in the choice of design?'. Parts of this report were presented in a poster display at the NordiCHI 2000 conference, "Design versus design" in Stockholm in October 2000 and, in a different version, as a work-in-progress report at the PDC 2000 (Participatory Design) Conference "Bringing in more voices" , in New York in November. Paper V Making E-Government Happen : Everyday Co-Development of Services, Citizenship and Technology This paper describes the use of a metaphorical figure used in different contexts as part of a discussion of working relationships of the co-development of services, citizenship and technology change. The paper discusses the challenge of developing a supportive infrastructure for the ongoing local adaptation and development of public services as citizens use them. Developing supportive structures for co-operation in the design task involves incorporating ways of including the general public, mapping out networks, developing tailorable software and cultivating shop-floor management. If continuous joint co-development of services is made a central part of the co-development of services, citizenship and technology, this also blurs the boundaries between governmental and municipal authorities, private sector employees and other actors within, for example, the voluntary sector - but above all, continuous joint co-development blurs the boundary between citizens and local authorities. The citizens become key figures in the 'web of connections' that makes up the design, content and use of new technologies. In the discourse on participation in E-Government, few reflections are made concerning the basic issue of the democratic values that could be gained by early involvement of local employees and citizens in developmental work or technology-based changes. Making more deliberate use of participatory design methods for incorporating multi-perspectives in service design as well as technology production and use could be a way to stimulate a broader, more inclusive and sustainable participation in local development of E-Government. Paper VI Discourses and Cracks - A Case Study of Information Technology and Writing Women in a Regional Context This is the first of the papers I wrote, where empirical material from a local IT project is discussed and mirrored against the dominating discourses of information technology. Paper VI discusses information technology as a political and practical discourse, which is in part shaped by the repetition of an exalted rhetoric. This repetitive discursive model can be distinguished in global, regional and local contexts and reflects an optimistic belief in technology as an independent power that automatically furthers democratic development. The second part of the paper presents empirical material and experiences from the Women Writing on the Net-project (this was included in the framework of the DIALOGUE project, which was partially funded by ISPO/EC). The aim of the project was to create a virtual space for women on the Internet, and to explore the writing process in terms of aims, tool and method. The method of approach incorporates reflections and discussions about empowerment, democracy and representation of women. This contributed to a more complex understanding of the values of the predominant IT discourses, and revealed the "cracks" in, and possibilities of feminist redefinitions of, these values. ; Denna licenciat avhandling diskuterar bland annat regnbågars och dimbågars relevans som metaforer för tillgång till teknik. Vidare presenteras utvärderingar och studier samt reflektioner kring politik, utveckling av e-government och e-demokrati, även benämnd 24-timmarsmyndigheten. Dessa studier av olika praktiker och diskurser relateras till design och utveckling av elektroniska tjänster på lokal, regional och nationell nivå. Syftet bakom den pågående omvandlingsprocessen är en vilja att modernisera och effektivisera offentlig administration. Denna förändring och modernisering av offentlig service är avsedd att få tills tånd förändring inom såväl offentlig administration som vad gäller utformning och erbjudande av offentliga tjänster, och att stimulera verksamhetsutveckling. Tjänster erbjuds elektroniskt och tillskapas utifrån ett medborgarperspektiv (citizen-centered-approach). I en sådan omfattande omvandlingsprocess spelar kommunikationen mellan medborgaren och offentliga myndigheter en väsentlig roll. Teman som ansvarstagande (accountability), tillgänglighet(accessibility) och deltagande (participation), utgör aktiva delar av denna omstrukturering som får effekter för utvecklingen av publika tjänster, verksamheter och utövandet av medborgarskap. Samtidigt gestaltas och omskapas också själva förändringsprocessen utifrån vad som faktiskt sker i olika praktiker. I sammanlagt sex paper diskuteras, med olika utgångspunkt, hur denna omstrukturering tar sig uttryck. Teori- och metodram är hämtade från flera discipliner och tillämpade forskningsområden, några exempel är feministiska teorier, deltagande (participatory, även collaborative) design, samt community informatics med syfte att skapa en holistisk, mångfacetterad förståelse och ge utrymme för den komplexitet som den pågående utvecklingen inom e-government och e-demokrati omfattar.
Water is a matter of life. At its 58th session, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a draft resolution, without a vote, proclaiming 2005 to 2015 as the International Decade for Action Water for Life. This recommendation, which came at the close of the International Year of Freshwater 2003, called for a greater focus on water-related issues and for actions to ensure the participation of women in water-related development efforts. It also recommitted countries to achieving the water-related goals of the 2000 Millennium Declaration, the 2002 Johannesburg Plan of Implementation and Agenda 21. The Decade is to focus on water-related issues at various levels and on the implementation of programmes and projects, and the furtherance of cooperation on all levels, in order to help achieve the internationally agreed water-related goals. The goal is to halve by 2015 the proportion of people unable to reach or afford safe drinking water who also lack access to basic sanitation.1 We, the editors, think that the goal is justified on many grounds although it is unlikely to be achieved as such. Yet, we remain hopeful that the goal will for its part help provide the necessary water and sanitation to as many people in the global village as possible. This is the second time that water issues have been highlighted as part of a UN Decade. The UN declared 1981-1990 as the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade with the aim of providing safe drinking water and adequate sanitation systems for all people by 1991. The official start of the 'Water for Life' Decade was on World Water Day, 22 March 2005.2 In Finland water-related issues are now in good order. It is true that the relatively large water resources and small population of Finland favour the provision of water services in comparison to many other countries. On the other hand, the large number of dispersed settlements is a challenge. Yet, abundant water resources are not the determining factor behind Finland's success in several international water and environment-related comparisons since they also take into account many other factors besides natural conditions. Issues related to the governance of water services have also been considered they also constitute the special emphasis of this book and the related research project "Evolution and futures of water management: strategic decisions, challenges and effectiveness (EFWAM)". Several international comparisons have rated Finland among the top, or as the top country, in the world in the field of water and the environment. The comparisons include the "water quality index" (www.unesco.org/water/wwap) which emphasises water pollution control and quality, the "water poverty index" (www. nwl.ac.uk/research/WPI) focusing on the availability and management of water resources, the "transparency index" (www.gwdg.de/~uwvw/icr.htm) indicating transparency and level of corruption, the "environmental sustainability index" measuring environmental protection and sustainability (www.ciesin.columbia. edu/indicators/ESI) as well as the European comparison of water pollution control called "name, shame and fame" (www.europa.eu.int/comm./environment/nsf/ index.htm). For instance, according to the Water Poverty Index (WPI) published in 2002, Finland was the highest-ranking country with a WPI of 77.9 points. The WPI evaluated performance in the following five categories: resources, access, capacity, use and environmental impact (Lawrence et al 2002). Even though the Finnish institutional arrangements may not be replicable as such, they present an example of an enabling environment for successful water governance (Hukka et al 2006). Another example of international interest towards Finnish development is the annual development report of the World Bank (2005) which monitors social equality and its development. Finland's contribution to the report consisted of a study on factors that enabled the quick progress of Finland into an egalitarian welfare state. Similar interest has also been shown by OECD and the American Society of Civil Engineers (Heikkilä 2005). Finnish comprehensive education has also received top marks in PISA assessments (www.oph.fi/english/SubPage. asp?path=447,65535). Yet, during the compilation of this book we Finns received a reminder of how vulnerable our infrastructure can be. Although lives were not directly lost as a result of the contamination of the water supply in the City of Nokia, all the other consequences were really troublesome for the whole community. The incident proved again that all technical systems linked closely to the environment are subject to errors of various types, particularly in operation and management. An analysis of the long-term experiences and futures of the water sector has not yet been made. There is reason to believe that such a study would improve understanding and produce research-based knowledge. Research on the development and strategies of Finnish water supply and sanitation would be relevant since the country's development in that sector was among the fastest after WW II. Besides, the tacit knowledge of the experts involved in the development is still available for analysis. In "Water: a Matter of Life" we used primarily the New Institutional Economics Approach. The Nobel Prize Laureate Douglass C. North (1990, p. 3-4), a driving force behind the approach, defines institutional development as follows: "institutions are the rules of the game in a society, or the humanly devised constraints that shape human interaction" while "organisations are groups of individuals bound to some common purpose to achieve objectives". Using the analogy of soccer, institutions are the rules of the game while organisations are the players (North 1990, p. 3). This book and research are also an integral part of the work of the Capacity Development in Water and Environmental Services (CADWES) team3 at Tampere University of Technology and the International Environmental History Group (IEHG)4 at the Dept. of History, University of Tampere. The aim of the former is to produce useful information about the institutional development of water services and water resources in a broad sense based on inter- and multidisciplinary research: about organisations, administration, legislation, and operating policy including official and unofficial rules. The latter team concentrates on environmental history while many synergies exist between the activities of the two teams. Water is both a global and a local issue in many respects. We hope that the following articles will further illuminate this fact. By publishing the papers as a book, we also aim to disseminate the results to promote the thinking that sustainable governance of water and sanitation systems requires long-term analysis and strategic thinking where pasts and futures influence each other.
Ausgangspunkt der Dissertation ist die Determinationsthese, für die Baerns erstmals wissenschaftliche Belege lieferte. Sie hielt fest, dass Public Relations die Themen und den Zeitpunkt der Veröffentlichung von Themen beeinflussen. Public Relations lähmen die journalistische Recherchekraft. Diese Aussagen riefen innerhalb der Kommunikationswissenschaft vielfache Anerkennung, aber auch Kritik hervor. Wären diese Aussagen zutreffend, dann stünden sie im Widerspruch zu den Funktionen und der demokratietheoretischen Bedeutung der Massenmedien. Zudem ging Baerns in ihren Erhebungen von der ceteris-paribus-Annahme aus: Sie blendete alle Einflussfaktoren auf die journalistische Informationsselektion aus. Zu den bislang unberücksichtigten Faktoren, die das Verhältnis von Journalismus und Public Relations bestimmen können, zählen das Ressort und der Status der Informationsquelle. Meine Fallstudie stellt sich daher die Fragen: Sind die Leistungen des Journalismus von Public Relations abhängig und wenn ja, welche Rolle spielen das Ressort und der Status der Informationsquelle im Prozess der Informationsentstehung, -verarbeitung und -vermittlung innerhalb eines Massenmediums? Auf Grundlage des bisherigen Forschungsstands zum PR-Journalismus-Verhältnis und den dort bestehenden Desideraten formuliere ich sechs Hypothesen zur Determinationsthese, zum Einfluss des Ressort und des Status der Informationsquelle sowie zum Prozess der journalistischen Informationsselektion. Ziel der Untersuchung ist es, die Determinationsthese durch eine Beobachtung der redaktionellen Arbeitsabläufe, -strukturen und Produktionsroutinen zu überprüfen und zu konkretisieren. Als Fallbeispiel habe ich die Thüringer Allgemeine ausgewählt, die Marktführerin unter den regionalen Tageszeitungen Thüringens ist. In der Analyse wurden die Lokalredaktion Erfurt und die Landesredaktion Thüringen verglichen. Diese beiden Redaktionen zeichnen zum einen die räumliche Nähe und daher zum Teil übereinstimmende Informationsquellen aus. Zum anderen bewerten die Lokal- und LandesjournalistInnen laut der Studie Journalismus in Deutschland 1 PR-Quellen unterschiedlich: Danach schätzen LokaljournalistInnen PR-Quellen positiver ein als ihre KollegInnen aus dem politischen Ressort (im Fallbeispiel die Landesredaktion Thüringen); eine Bewertung, die sich in der Aufnahme oder Ablehnung dieser Informationsquellen ausdrücken könnte. Um den möglichen Einfluss des Ressort und des Status der Informationsquelle auf die journalistische Berichterstattung und die Publikation von PR-Quellen erheben zu können, habe ich im September und Oktober 2004 teilnehmende Redaktionsbeobachtungen, ExpertInneninterviews mittels Leitfaden und einen Input-Output-Vergleich aller schriftlichen Informationsquellen mit der Gesamtberichterstattung durchgeführt.Die Ergebnisse der Fallstudie können eine Beeinflussung des Journalismus im Sinne einer problematischen Abhängigkeit von PR-Leistungen nicht nachweisen. Zwar übernehmen JournalistInnen beider untersuchter Ressorts PR-Quellen in ihre Berichterstattung, doch den Vorrang räumen sie eigenen Texten ein. Weniger als ein Viertel der Gesamtberichterstattung geht auf eine PR-Quelle zurück. Demzufolge setzen die JournalistInnen ihre Themen meistens selbst, sie recherchieren und füllen mit ihren Rechercheergebnissen drei Viertel aller Artikel. Ein Gegengewicht journalistisch selbständig recherchierter Themen zu den übernommenen PR-Texten findet sich in jeder Zeitungsausgabe. Wenn eine Übernahme von PR-Texten stattfindet, veröffentlichen LandesjournalistInnen die PR-Informationsquellen mehrheitlich unmittelbar nach ihrem Erhalt. In der Lokalredaktion ist eine Determination des Timings schwächer ausgeprägt. Ressortspezifische Unterschiede zeigen sich im Vergleich zur Gesamtberichterstattung nicht in der Häufigkeit der Übernahme von PR-Quellen, sondern in der Art und Weise der Publikation, beispielsweise in der Wiedergabe der Hauptaussage, dem Anteil der Recherche infolge einer PR-Informationsquelle und dem Üben von Kritik und Kontrolle. LandesjournalistInnen und damit vornehmlich politische JournalistInnen orientieren sich bei der Informationsauswahl stärker am Status der Informationsquelle als LokaljournalistInnen, die sich um eine ausgewogene Berichterstattung bemühen.Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass nur der Vergleich der Abdruckquote mit dem Umfang der Gesamtberichterstattung Aufschluss über eine mögliche Determination des Journalismus geben kann. Mit diesem empirischen Vorgehen wird eine Bezugsgröße geschaffen, so dass der Kritik Schantels, der Determinationsverdacht des Journalismus durch Public Relations sei aufgrund von fehlenden Vergleichen der Abdruckquoten mit der gesamten Berichterstattung ein richtmaßloses Konstrukt, begegnet werden kann. ; The theoretical departure point of this thesis is the determination hypothesis , for which Baerns first provided scientific evidence. She showed that Public Relations influenced both topics and their times of publication. Furthermore Public Relations is detrimental to the drive behind journalistic enquiry. In the field of Communication Sciences these statements were widely acknowledged, but also drew criticism. If correct, the statements contradicted both the function and the theoretically democratic role of the mass media. Furthermore, Baerns surveys were also based upon a ceteris-paribus assumption: ignoring all other factors that influenced the selection of information by journalists. The editorial department and the status of the source are two factors that have remained unexamined in regard to determining the relationship between journalism and public relations. Accordingly, my study inquires: Does the performance of journalism depend on Public Relations, and if so, what roles do the editorial department and the status of the source play in the process of producing, processing and disseminating information within a mass media? On the basis of current research into the relationship between PR and journalism, and suggestions made there, I have formulated six hypotheses on the determination hypothesis, the influence of the editorial department and the status of the source, and the journalistic process of selecting information. The aim of this research is to examine and more clearly define the determination hypothesis by observing editorial working processes, editorial structures, and production routines. I have chosen the Thüringer Allgemeine as my exemplary case; the market leader among the regional daily papers in Thuringia. The local editorial office in Erfurt and the state editorial office for Thuringia were compared in the analysis. Both editorial offices are distinguished by their close proximity to one another and their occasional use of corresponding information sources. On the other hand, according to the study Journalismus in Deutschland 1 the local and the state journalists appraise PR-sources differently: local journalists consider PR sources more positively than their colleagues from the political news department (in the case of the state editorial office in Thuringia) - an assessment that could be expressed in the acceptance or rejection of these sources of information. In order to collect data on the possible influence of editorial departments and the status of information sources on journalistic reporting and the publication of PR sources, in September and October 2004 I conducted participant observations of editorial offices, guided interviews with experts, and an input / output comparison of all written sources with the total reporting output.The results of the study fail to demonstrate that journalism is unduly influenced, in the sense of a problematic dependency, by PR services. Although journalists in both of the departments studied did use PR sources in their reporting, they gave precedence to their own texts. Less than a quarter of all reporting originated at a PR source. According to this, the journalists set their own topics, research these and fill three-quarters of their articles with the results of their research. A counterbalance of independently researched journalistic topics to adopted PR texts is present in every newspaper issue. When PR texts are adopted, the state journalists publish the majority of PR sources immediately after their receipt. The determination of the timing is weaker in the local editorial office. Compared to the total volume of reporting, department-specific differences are evident not so much in the frequency of PR texts adopted as in the type and kind of publication, for example; by taking on the source s central statement, in the proportion of research conducted in following up information from a PR source, and in the levelling of criticism and the exercise of control. In the selection of information, state journalists meaning predominantly political news journalists are more attentive to the status of an information source than local news journalists, who undertake to provide balanced reporting.The results show that only a comparison of the proportion of PR text printed to the total volume of reporting can provide information on the possible determination of journalism. This empirical approach creates a reference point with which to approach Schantel s criticism that the supposed determination of journalism by public relations was in fact a construct resulting from the failure to compare the proportion of adopted text to the total volume of reporting.
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Key Takeaways from the Africa Evidence Summit CIDR PanelAt the 2023 Africa Evidence Summit, panelists Jeanine Condo (Chief Executive Officer, The Centre for Impact, Innovation and Capacity building for Health Information Systems and Nutrition), Rose Oronje (Director of Public Policy and Knowledge Translation, and Head of Kenya Office, AFIDEP), Aurelia Munene (Founder of Eider Africa), and Constantine Manda (Assistant Professor of Political Science, UC Irvine) joined moderator Daniel Posner (Professor of International Development, UCLA) to explore the varied incentives for African scholars to publish. Amy Shipow (Project Manager, CEGA Global Networks) and Maya Ranganath (Associate Director, CEGA Global Networks and Inclusion) synthesize the discussion to shed light on the publication gap and generate insights on how barriers can be alleviated to allow African scholars to participate fully in scholarly publication.Jeanine Condo speaks on the panel at the 2023 Africa Evidence Summit | Luft Ventures"The research infrastructure on the [African] continent remains very low. Few publications are a reflection of the limited investments governments are putting into research […] There are biases in journals. As a PhD student studying in the US, I was told that I should have my Western professor as a co-author to get published." — Rose Oronje, Director of Public Policy and Knowledge Translation, and Head of Kenya Office, AFIDEP.The Collaboration for Inclusive Development Research (CIDR), co-led by CEGA and the Network for Impact Evaluation Researchers in Africa (NIERA), aims to shift norms in global development research towards a more inclusive ecosystem. At the 2023 Africa Evidence Summit in Nairobi, we organized a panel to discuss how differing incentives and resources contribute to publishing disparities between researchers from high income countries (HIC) and those from low- and -middle-income countries (LMICs). The panel also probed the role of journals, universities, and researchers in HICs in exacerbating (or mitigating) this problem.We present the major themes of the discussion below, which shed light on the barriers and opportunities that African scholars face along the education to evidence-use pipeline.Co-authorship with scholars from HICs can serve as a helpful career stepping stone; however, it is only a small step in changing the research ecosystem to produce more African scholarship.Dr. Condo shared that working with and publishing together with CEGA affiliated professor Paul Gertler was an important lever for her career. Yet, African scholars often face internalized pressure (due to external biases) towards co-authoring with scholars from HICs. When Dr. Oronje asked the nearly 500 Summit attendees, "How many African scholars here are first authors when you submit a publication?," hardly anyone raised their hand, leading her to share that not even she submits academic publications as a first author.Panelists shared the structural obstacles African researchers face to conduct their own rigorous social science research.Since most African universities are "teaching" institutions and prioritize this over research, scholars are left with limited time to pursue their own research agendas. Moreover, faculty are rarely trained to mentor or share resources with their students — challenges that are further exacerbated by the significant time constraints they face. Access to scholars with experience publishing at top-tier universities is also privileged for HIC students, who can more easily build subject-matter expertise simply by attending office hours and speaking with other students and faculty. Without this similar exposure to the most relevant literature and resources, African students instead spend more self-directed time finding, reading, and engaging with a variety of potentially less relevant work."Last year, I was challenging the Vice Chancellor of the University of Rwanda — I am breastfeeding but I am expected to publish three papers. How can I have more space and time to be an equal competitor?" — Jeanine CondoFemale scholars face additional barriers to publishing, even at the highest levels of academia.Dr. Condo recently published a paper on gender inequities in publishing, which outlined that in papers from sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), men comprised 61% of first authors, 65% of last authors, and 66% of single authors. A recent survey of over 200 alumni of SSA STEM PhD programs confirmed that women obtain less university and external funding for graduate studies than their male counterparts. Female panelists shared that they had to push back against senior leadership with regard to career expectations in the face of reproductive and domestic responsibilities; they are expected to achieve the same results as their male counterparts but are constrained by additional, invisibilized labor.Given these constraints to African-led authorship, what are the potential solutions to incentivize and support publishing?"Money is the problem and the solution," Dr. Manda shared. Existing funds should be leveraged to support and nurture African researchers so that journals will be eager to publish their work. Dr. Condo recently wrote a grant to research the effects of providing monetary incentives for researchers to publish, instead of accepting small consultancies, where their contributions were less likely to be recognized by name. Preliminary results suggest that this is an effective incentive for SSA researchers. Similarly, panelists cited the dedicated research and pilot funding that CEGA provides to African scholars helps them pursue their own research interests.Investing in the quality of African journals is essential, and can be accomplished through different mechanisms.Panelists urged researchers to publish important work in African journals, which can signal the quality of the journal, can make findings more accessible, and uphold the ethical responsibility to share results with the communities of study. Dr. Oronje also emphasized the need for African scholars to sit on the editorial boards of such journals.Concurrently, HIC journals are making strides to improve geographic equity; for example, PLOS recently announced a policy that authors conducting research outside of their country of origin will be asked to complete a questionnaire that details the ethical, cultural, and scientific considerations taken to uphold inclusivity in their research, including if local authors are included among the authorship list. Making journals open access was another solution proposed by the panel. Initiatives like the Northwestern Research Feedback Project provides LMIC scholars, who have a desk-rejected paper from the Journal of Development Economics (JDE), the opportunity to be matched with a HIC scholar for feedback. While the author is not reconsidered for JDE, it is hoped that the paper can be improved for other submissions.Both Africa-based and HIC-based non-governmental organizations can complement African universities by offering dedicated mentorship to African scholars.Through her work as the founder of Eider Africa, panelist Aurelia Munene is striving to decrease the sense of isolation researchers experience, especially among recent graduates looking to publish. Her organization offers mentorship on essential research and writing skills as well as supports enhancing curricula at African universities. Additionally, panelists mentioned the importance of identifying resources (such as Afrobarometer, the Harvard Dataverse, or datasets of published papers) and training students to use them.While the panel began with discussion about differing incentives to publish, the conversation evolved to mirror CIDR's fundamental goals: how can we best support African researchers so that journals will actively seek out African scholars to publish their research and policymakers will hasten to apply their results?If you are working in this space, we invite you to let us know what you think! We will soon launch an online survey for students, faculty, research professionals, journal editors, and funders to share their thoughts on the current state of inclusion in the evidence ecosystem and ways to improve it. Please watch for the official announcement of this online survey later this month. The results of the survey and other CIDR research will be released in 2024.It Takes a Village to Raise a Researcher was originally published in CEGA on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.
Nicaragua's state domination of productive capacity from the late 1970s to 1990, coupled with the civil war of the 1980s, left the economy with hyperinflation, large fiscal and current account deficits, and an external debt that was six times gross domestic product. As a result, economic activity declined at a sharp rate. By 1993, per capita income had fallen by a full 60 percent from the 1977 level. By the early 1990s the country was receiving aid equivalent to more than 70 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Subsequent administrations tried to address the country's economic problems through fiscal and monetary discipline and market-oriented reforms to redefine the role of the state. There were some successes, for example, decisive government action reduced inflation to around 10 percent by 1995, but many reforms failed due to their slow pace and to continued political volatility. The Bank supported the reform agenda with two economic recovery credit operations in the early 1990s. The results were less positive than expected, as the government's capacity to privatize state-owned enterprises and otherwise reform the public sector wavered in the face of political instability. The lack of political consensus prompted the Bank to withdraw from structural adjustment lending for several years. An opening for re-engagement was provided in 2002 when, after several failed attempts, Nicaragua successfully implemented the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). This allowed the Bank to respond to the government's request for assistance to close a financing gap through fast disbursing budget support in the form of a programmatic structural adjustment credit. While technically a structural adjustment loan, the credit supported objectives based on budget-based goals already attained in implementing a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), which had been prepared by the government in 2001. In this sense, the credit was the last structural adjustment loan and the precursor to the Poverty Reduction Support Credits (PRSCs).
This thesis focuses on the role of forests and forest management in providing global environmental and climate services. The study analyzes multiple dimensions of forest-sector policy development, with a special focus on interactions between policies, livelihoods and land-use processes at sub-national levels in Vietnam. The Lam Dong and Bac Kan provinces are considered to be representative of the variations in forest-cover dynamics in the country, namely those of a frontier (deforestation) zone, and a forest mosaic (reforestation) zone. The study applied interdisciplinary conceptual frameworks, including institutional theory, political ecology and livelihoods theory, to investigate the research objectives. It also used Forest Transition (FT) theory as a narrative framework to understand the trajectories of forest-cover dynamics and policy processes. An interdisciplinary methodological approach was applied to respond to the research objectives of the study. The results may have important implications for emerging forest and environmental policy frameworks such as payments for environmental services (PES) and Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+). The findings reveal that 'second-generation' policy approaches, such as PES and REDD+, are unlikely to represent a paradigm shift in the history of forest management in Vietnam. As a result of institutional reproductions and 'path dependency', there is a rather high risk of prolonging existing approaches. Larger and more fundamental policy reforms, such as independence, the collectivization processes after the Second World War, and the market liberalization and decentralization reforms from the late 1980s onwards, were identified as fundamental explanatory factors for land-use dynamics in the contemporary history of the country. Furthermore, one-dimensional and reductionist land-use change explanation models, inherent to many of the emerging policy schemes such as PES, REDD+ and forest enhancement, risk overlooking the complexities of land use, livelihoods and underlying dimensions of the drivers of change. Complex institutional factors and the interests of more – or less – powerful actors, in the process of creating institutional bricolages, contribute to modifying and transforming policy programs and schemes into local adaptations. The thesis presents four individual but interrelated papers that address different aspects and scales of policy development processes and impacts. Paper 1: Analyzing the transformation of forest PES in Vietnam: Implications for REDD+ The paper analyzes the transformation of market-resembling environmental policy processes, exemplified by the implementation of forest PES in Vietnam. The paper applies a critical institutional path dependency framework to analyze the processes of institutional reproduction in PES encounters with actors and institutions at multiple levels, from the national to the local. PES policies did not enter an institutional vacuum, but instead were transformed through a process of reproducing existing institutional structures. This reflects not only established norms and values about 'best-ways' of organizing forest management, but also existing structures of power, tenure and the control by some groups over forest resources. In this sense, from a path dependency perspective, new and 'innovative' market-based approaches, such as PES, do not at all represent 'critical junctures'. The findings of this study may have important implications for the prospects of implementing similar initiatives, such as REDD+, both in Vietnam and beyond. Thus future PES and REDD+ schemes should take into account the limitations and challenges of institutional reproduction, interplay and path dependency, to a higher degree in their planning and implementation. Paper 2: Sub-national forest transitions in Vietnam This paper compares forest transitions (FT), policy reforms and forest cover change in the Bac Kan and Lam Dong provinces of Vietnam. The country has seemingly been able to shortcut the perceived FT stages by quickly moving to the reforestation phase, which makes it an interesting case country. Provincial level forest cover and socio-economic trends are, however, not necessarily comparable and compatible within a FT analytical framework. Bac Kan is one of the poorest provinces, but has experienced forest regrowth and expansion of forest cover during the past couple of decades. In contrast, Lam Dong province has both higher GDP and population levels, but has had higher levels of deforestation, particularly linked to the expansion of perennial crops. This is quite contrary to what could be expected from a conventional FT hypothesis. The FT turnaround and land use dynamics were found to be linked to the overall and all-encompassing policy shift related to de-colonization, state-control and collectivization, and the new shift of "market-led socialism", decentralization and land tenure reforms. The findings demonstrate that policies can trump typical FT patterns linked to general development trends. This provides a sense of relief in the way that the FT-trajectory is not unavoidable. Policies can make a difference. Yet, these policies have not primarily been guided by forest conservation concerns, but have rather been a side-effect of economic development and political objectives. Paper 3: Livelihoods and land uses in environmental policy approaches: The case of PES and REDD+ in the Lam Dong Province of Vietnam This paper explores assumptions about the drivers of forest cover change in a PES and REDD+ context in the Lam Dong Province in Vietnam. In policy discourses, deforestation is often linked to 'poor' and 'ethnic minority' households and their unsustainable practices such as the expansion of coffee production (and other agricultural activities) into forest areas. The paper applies a livelihood framework to discuss the links between livelihoods and land use amongst small-scale farmers in two communities. The findings of the livelihood survey demonstrate no clear linkages between poverty levels and unsustainable practices. In fact, the poorest group of households was found to deforest the least. The ways in which current PES and REDD+ approaches are designed do not provide appropriate solutions to address the underlying dimensions of issues at stake. The paper criticizes one-dimensional perspectives of the drivers behind deforestation and forest degradation often found in public policies and discourses. We suggest more comprehensive analyses of underlying factors encompassing the entire coffee production and land use system in this region. Addressing issues of land tenure and the scarcity of productive lands, and generating viable off-farm income alternatives seem to be crucial. Sustainable approaches for reducing deforestation and degradation could be possible through engaging with multiple stakeholders, including the business-oriented households in control of the coffee trade and of land transactions. Paper 4: Cultivating forests: Exploring the productive values of forest land in a reforestation zone of northern Vietnam The paper challenges the predominant forest-agriculture dichotomy perception in policy-making and research in Vietnam. Such dichotomies are not endemic to Vietnam, but permeate the whole climate and forest debate globally. This standpoint encompasses a perception that forests are of higher value kept standing and that agricultural practices, forest conservation and the sustainable use of forests are mutually exclusive activities. This study is based on a survey carried out in the province of Bac Kan in northern Vietnam, and applies a livelihoods framework (LF) to investigate the multiple values of forest lands in household economies. The case demonstrates the complexities of adaptations to forest-sector policies, namely that households in different institutional and agro-ecological locations create and use landscapes differently along a forest-agriculture continuum. The findings on the multipurpose uses of forests may have important implications for climate-related forest policies, such as REDD+ and reduced emissions from all land uses (REALU). Policy makers need to engage with people and local communities, their social institutions and agricultural practices, and consider context-specific approaches for integrating the objectives of conserving trees, increasing carbon stocks, and enhancing the total productivity and total outcomes and values of landscapes. The study recommends inter-sectoral and multi-stakeholder policy approaches to integrate and mainstream multiple objectives, including forestry, agriculture, energy, and environmental services such as food production, carbon capture and storage, water provision, and biodiversity conservation. The study concludes that predominant REDD+ discourses, such as those of ecological modernization and green governmentality, encompass presumptions and risks of one-dimensional and reductionist explanation models of the drivers of land-use change processes. In other words, there is an inherent logic – and need – to identify actors of change who must to be compensated for refraining from cutting down trees, and supported in planting new ones. In reality, however, developing and implementing forest conservation and enhancement policies are highly complex processes, influenced by multiple sets of institutional and agro-ecological factors. Policy implementation and land-use change linked to livelihood processes are multifaceted and dynamic imperatives, influenced by multiple institutional structures and actors, with different interests and agendas. The need to act for more sustainable management of tropical forests seems to be indisputable; however in order to make REDD+ policies more efficient, effective and equitable, the institutional complexity and interests of multiple stakeholders need to be taken into account. ; NMBU; Nansen Fund/UNIFOR - University of Oslo
L'objectiu de la tesi es centra en la definició, en l'àmbit de l'ordenament comunitari, de l'actual estatut jurídic dels treballadors extracomunitaris assalariats que formen part del mercat de treball regular d'un Estat membre. Els treballadors nacionals de tercers països que formen part del mercat de treball regular d'un Estat comunitari, així com els membres de les seves famílies, gaudeixen d'un estatut jurídic fragmentat: els seus drets són variables, depenen de la norma que els regula. En aquest sentit, la situació varia en funció de la llei interna de l'Estat d'acollida, l'existència o no d'acords bilaterals entre l'Estat d'acollida i l'Estat d'origen, i les normes de dret comunitari. Aquesta situació també és diferent atenent a l'existència i el contingut d'un acord extern celebrat per la Comunitat i els seus Estats membres i el país de la nacionalitat de l'immigrant, aquest aspecte centra el present estudi. Els acords que s'analitzen són aquells que juntament amb aspectes econòmics, contenen disposicions relatives als treballadors, i que s'han celebrat, prenent com a base jurídica l'actual article 310 TCE, amb països geogràficament fronterers amb la Unió Europea. D'entre ells, el model a seguir és l'Acord d'Associació amb Turquia, que preveu uns objectius més amplis, com ara la creació d'una unió duanera enfront a la zona de lliure comerç prevista en els altres acords i que s'ha desenvolupat mitjançant les decisions adoptades pel seu Consell d'Associació. Aquest acord ha estat objecte d'una àmplia jurisprudència per part del Tribunal europeu, relativa a l'aplicació i la interpretació de les seves disposicions. A fi de delimitar l'abast de les disposicions de l'Acord, i valorar si es tracta d'un estatut privilegiat respecte del dels altres treballadors extracomunitaris, es comparen les seves disposicions amb les corresponents a les dels acords celebrats amb els països del Magreb, entenent per aquests el Marroc, Tunísia i Algèria i amb els 10 països d' Europa Central i Oriental (els anomenats PECO's). A fi de clarificar l'estatut jurídic dels treballadors extracomunitaris, és necessari entrar a considerar altres aspectes directament relacionats amb aquest estatut, com són les condicions d'accés i de permanència en un Estat, matèries, que, fins a l'entrada en vigor del Tractat d'Amsterdam, eren competència exclusiva de cadascun dels Estats membres. De totes maneres, no es fa un estudi comparatiu de les diferents legislacions internes en matèria d'immigració, donat que l'àmbit d'anàlisi es limita a l'ordenament comunitari, i no a l'ordenament intern. La tesi s'estructura en dues parts diferenciades, correspon la primera als 2 Capítols inicials i la segona als altres 3. En els dos primers Capítols se segueix un criteri cronològic, començant amb el Tractat de Roma i culminant amb el Tractat de Niça. En aquests Capítols s'analitzen les possibles bases jurídiques del dret originari que podien haver-se utilitzat, així com la cooperació que varen fer els Estats membres, tant a dins com a fora, de la Unió Europea, en relació a les mesures adoptades destinades a la regulació de l'accés i de l'estatut jurídic dels treballadors immigrants. L'entrada en vigor, l'1 de maig de 1999 del Tractat d'Amsterdam ha suposat un important avenç per a l'atribució de competències a la Comunitat en matèria d'immigració, que queda vinculada al nou objectiu de la creació de l'espai de llibertat, seguretat i justícia. A partir d'aquest moment, s'assumeix la lliure circulació de persones com objectiu propi, que requereix la regulació del control a les fronteres externes, d'asil, de la immigració i de la cooperació dels Estats membres en la prevenció i la lluita contra la delinqüència. Això es concreta en la comunitarització d'una part del Tercer Pilar destinada a visats, asil i immigració, amb l'exclusió del Regne Unit, Irlanda i Dinamarca, i en la integració del cabal Schengen a l'estructura de la Unió Europea, tot i que permetent una exclusió per al Regne Unit i Irlanda. Es crea, doncs, una cooperació sui generis plena de solucions d'enginyeria jurídica, que si bé suposa un avenç, trenca la unitat i l'homogeneïtat del dret comunitari. Tot i aquestes complexitats tècniques que deriven de la reforma del Tractat d'Amsterdam, el nou article 63 en els seus apartats 3 i 4 permet abordar, a través de la coordinació o de l'harmonització, els temes d'interès comú vinculats al fenomen de la immigració. Entre ells, hi ha la possibilitat d'elaborar un estatut comú per als treballadors no comunitaris. Les iniciatives legislatives presentades des de l'entrada en vigor del Tractat d'Amsterdam demostren l'acceleració en l'elaboració i el desenvolupament d'una política comunitària d'immigració, integrada en uns objectius comuns, per primera vegada sembla realista pensar en l'adopció d'un estatut jurídic únic per l'extracomunitari que sigui resident de llarga durada. Tot i que aquest estatut pot quedar configurat com un estàndard mínim de protecció, considero que la seva adopció constituiria un pas de gran rellevància en la clarificació dels drets d'aquest col·lectiu de treballadors. Els altres tres Capítols conformen la segona part de la tesi, dedicada a analitzar l'actual estatut dels treballadors nacionals de tercers Estats. Aquest estatut es caracteritza pel seu caràcter fragmentat, que deriva de la diversitat de les disposicions contingudes en els acords externs. Mitjançant un estudi comparatiu, s'analitzen els objectius, l'estructura, els antecedents i el desenvolupament dels acords celebrats amb Turquia, amb els països del Magreb i amb els PECO's. El contingut dels objectius d'aquests acords constata que ens trobem davant 3 models diferents que reflecteixen una disminució del compromís comunitari. El Tribunal de Justícia, en la seva jurisprudència, ha manifestat que tant els acords externs celebrats per la Comunitat, com les decisions adoptades pels òrgans que els desenvolupen, formen part de l'ordenament jurídic comunitari. El Tribunal de Justícia és l'òrgan competent per interpretar-los, contribuint a clarificar el contingut d'aquests instruments jurídics. Aquesta perspectiva es completa amb l'anàlisi de les nocions que recullen els acords externs, a fi de dilucidar si un mateix terme té idèntic contingut, i si, tot i la diversitat dels instruments jurídics utilitzats, tenen una mateixa interpretació jurisprudencial. Per aquest motiu ha estat necessari, que el Tribunal de Justícia determinés l'abast dels diferents conceptes emprats, i clarifiqués si és el mateix que el relatiu als treballadors comunitaris o és diferent. La redacció dels acords estudiats reflecteix un estatut jurídic privilegiat per als treballadors turcs en relació als altres treballadors immigrants. Els treballadors originaris dels països d'Europa Central i Oriental o del Magreb, podran millorar la seva situació actual en la mesura en què les disposicions dels seus respectius acords siguin, en el futur, desenvolupades. De totes maneres, aquesta situació de privilegi que ha estat un fet fins el moment actual, ha canviat amb l'entrada en vigor de diferents lleis d'estrangeria estatals, i pot modificar-se, també, amb el desenvolupament del Tractat d'Amsterdam. Actualment, a un treballador turc li perjudica, més que no beneficia el sistema de terminis que per accedir a un lloc de treball preveu la Decisió 1/80. Els treballadors turcs que formen part del mercat regular de treball d'un Estat membre haurien de quedar protegits pel règim jurídic que els sigui més beneficiós, amb independència de que aquest sigui l'intern de l'Estat d'acollida, el comunitari previst a l'Acord d'Associació i el seu posterior desenvolupament, o el que derivi de les futures directives quan entrin en vigor. Si bé aquestes disposicions dels Acords d'Associació varen ser positives, actualment hauran de ser objecte de modificació, la qual cosa no implica la seva desaparició. El seu contingut haurà de tendir a ressaltar l'especificitat de les relacions que es volen establir amb un tercer Estat concret, establint en aquest sentit un tractament preferent als seus nacionals enfront als altres immigrants, i reconeixent el seu dret de residència com derivat del permís de treball. De tota manera, amb l'entrada en vigor de la directiva relativa a l'estatut dels residents de llarga durada, aquest règim privilegiat només afectarà als immigrants residents legals a l'Estat d'acollida durant els primers 5 anys, és a dir, abans de que se'ls concedeixi el citat estatut. ; La tesis doctoral pretende determinar el estatuto jurídico de los trabajadores extracomunitarios, tomando como modelo de referencia la situación jurídica que el ordenamiento comunitario otorga a los trabajadores turcos que forman parte del mercado de trabajo regular de un Estado miembro de la Unión Europea, y comparando su situación con la de los trabajadores provenientes de los países del Magreb y de Europa Central y Oriental regulada en los correspondientes acuerdos Euromediterráneos y Europeos. Los dos primeros capítulos se destinan al análisis de las posibles bases jurídicas a utilizar por la Comunidad Económica Europea en su momento, y la actual Comunidad Europea y la unión Europea para definir el alcance de los derechos que se atribuyen al colectivo de trabajadores extracomunitarios. Debido a la estrecha relación entre el estatuto jurídico de este colectivo y el estatuto jurídico general de los immigrantes, las medidas relativas a las condiciones de acceso también son objeto de atención, aunque solamente con la finalidad de contribuir a la concreción del objetivo fundamental de la tesis. Des estea primera parte de la tesis, se desprende que el principal instrumento jurídico utilizado hasta la entrada en vigor del Tratado de Amsterdam han sido los acuerdos concluidos por la Comunidad y sus Estados miembros por una partey un Tercer Estado por otra, a su análisis se dedica la segunda parte de la tesis doctoral. A fin de interpretar correctamente las disposiciones de los acuerdos externos relativas a los trabajadores inmigrantes, en el tercer capítulo se lleva a cabo un estudio comprativo de los objetivos, etapas, instituciones, y desarrollo de los diversos acuerdos, así como de las características de estas disposiciones y de las decisiones que se desarrollan. El capítulo cuarto se destina a las nociones conceptuales que se utilizan, determinando sus semejanzas y diferencias con los conceptos comunitarios. Este capítulo sirve de base para el siguiente destinado a la interpretación que, de las diversas disposiciones de los acuerdos, ha llevado a cabo el Tribunal de Justicia. ; The aim of the thesis is centred on the definition, within European Community regulations, of the current statutory juridical status of employed workers who are from outside the European Community who form part of the employment market in a European Community state. The workers from non-European Community states, who form part of the regular employment market of a member state, as well as the members of their families, possess a fragmentary judicial statute: their rights are variable depending on the regulation which they are subject to. In this sense the situation varies and is dependent on the internal laws of the receiving state, the absence of bilateral agreements between the receiving state and the state of origin and the procedures and regulations of Community law. This situation will also vary depending on the existence and the content of an external agreement made by the Community and its member states and the country of origin of the immigrant. This study focuses on this aspect. The agreements which are analysed here are those which, along with economic aspects, contain provisions relating to the workers which have been adopted, taking as its juridical base the current article 310 European Community Treaty (ECT), with countries which border geographically with the European Union. Amongst them, the model to be followed is the Agreement of Association with Turkey, which foresees broader objectives, such as the creation of a customs union, in line with the area of free trade envisioned by other agreements, and which has been developed in the decisions adopted by its Council of Association. This aforementioned agreement has been the object of abundant jurisprudence relating to the application and interpretation of its provisions, in the European Court in order to define the scope of the provisions of the agreement and also asses whether we are dealing with a privileged status in contrast with other workers coming from countries outside the European Union. These provisions will be compared with those affecting the countries of Magreb, by which we mean Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria and the ten countries of Central and Eastern Europe. In order to clarifying the juridical status of workers from outside the European Community other aspects directly relating to this statute must be considered. These include the conditions of access and residence in a state, subjects which until the application of the Treaty of Amsterdam were the exclusive province of each one of the member states. However, this is not a comparative study of different areas of internal legislation regarding immigration, given that the area of analysis is restricted to European Community regulations and not to internal regulations. The thesis is structured in two different parts, which correspond, in the first case, to the first two Chapters and, in the second, to the remaining three Chapters. In the first two Chapters the criteria are chronological, beginning with the Treaty of Rome and ending with the Treaty of Nice. In these Chapters the original juridical bases which could have been utilised, as well as the co-operation exercised by the member states, both within and outside the European Union are analyzed, in relation to the measures adopted and destined to the regulation of access and the juridical status of immigrant workers. The implementation, on 1st May 1999, of the Treaty of Amsterdam has signified an important step forward towards the attribution of jurisdictional competence in the Community on matters relating to immigration which remain linked to the new objective of creating an area of freedom, safety and justice. From this point on, the free movement of people is assumed as an aim. This requires the regulation of border controls, of asylum, of immigration and co-operation in the struggle to prevent delinquency. This is specified in the comunitarization of a part of the Third Pillar regarding visas, asylum and immigration, excluding the United Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark, and in the integration of "acquis" Schengen in the structure of the European Union albeit at the cost of excluding the United Kingdom and Ireland. An area of co-operation has been created, sui generis, complete with juridical engineering solutions, which, while signifying an advance, break the unity and homogeneity of Community law. Despite all the technical complexities that derive from the Treaty of Amsterdam, the new article 63 and clauses, 3 and 4 enable the Community to assume areas of common interest linked to the phenomenon of immigration through co-ordination and harmonisation. Amongst these, there is the possibility of formulating a common statute for workers who are not members of the European Community. The legislative initiatives which have been presented since the implementation of the Treaty of Amsterdam show the acceleration in the formulation and development of a community policy of immigration, integrated within some common objectives. For the first time, it seems realistic to envision the adoption of a sole juridical statute for the non-community worker who is a long-term resident. Despite the fact that this statute might be characterised as a minimum standard of protection, I believe that the adoption of such a statute would constitute a great step forward in the clarification of the rights of this collective of workers. The remaining three chapters form the second part of the thesis which is dedicated to analysing the present status of workers from other states outside the European Community. This status is characterised by its fragmentary nature, which derives from the diversity of the provisions contained in external agreements. The objectives, structure antecedents and development of the agreements formulated in agreement with Turkey with the countries of the Magreb and with the countries of east and central Europe (PECO's) were analyzed by means of a comparative study. The content of the objectives of the said agreements alleges that we find ourselves facing three different models that reflect a gradual diminishing of the European commitment to safeguarding the status of the immigrant worker. The Court of Justice in its jurisprudence has manifested that both those external agreements adopted by the Community, as well as the decisions taken by the organs which develop them, form part of the juridical regulations of the community. It is the Court of Justice which is the organ most competent to interpret these provisions, contributing to the clarification of the content of these juridical instruments. This perspective will be complemented with the analysis of the notions which take into account external agreements. The aim of this study is to clarify whether the same term has the same content in each agreement and if, despite the diversity of the juridical instruments used, they have the same interpretation in jurisprudence. In order to do this, it has been necessary, for the Court of Justice to determine the scope of the different concepts employed and to clarify whether it applies to the workers of the community or if differs significantly. The drawing up of the agreements studied reflects a privileged juridical status for Turkish workers in comparison with other immigrants. The immigrants who come from the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the Magreb can improve their current situation in as far as the provisions of their respective agreements are developed in the future. However, this privileged situation which has been a fact to date, has changed with the implementation of immigration laws in different states. These may be modified in addition to and following on from the development of the Treaty of Amsterdam. At present, a Turkish worker is affected adversely rather than benefiting from the system of quotas to gain access to a job in accordance with Decision 1/80. The Turkish workers who form part of the regular employment market in a member state should be protected by the juridical ruling which is most beneficial to them, independent of the fact that this may be the internal ruling of the receiving state, the community member foreseen in the Agreement of Association and its latter development, or that which is derived from future directives when they are in force. If the provisions from agreements of association were initially positive they should have be the object of modification, which should not imply their disappearance. Their content should stress the specificity of the relationships which they wish to establish with a third state, in this sense establishing favourable treatment for these nationals as opposed to other immigrants and recognising their right of residence as well as their right to obtain a work permit. However, with the implementation of the directive regarding the status of immigrants who are long term residents, this privileged status only affects those immigrants who are legally resident in the receiving state for the first five years, that is to say before they are given the cited statute.
L'objectiu de la tesi es centra en la definició, en l'àmbit de l'ordenament comunitari, de l'actual estatut jurídic dels treballadors extracomunitaris assalariats que formen part del mercat de treball regular d'un Estat membre. Els treballadors nacionals de tercers països que formen part del mercat de treball regular d'un Estat comunitari, així com els membres de les seves famílies, gaudeixen d'un estatut jurídic fragmentat: els seus drets són variables, depenen de la norma que els regula. En aquest sentit, la situació varia en funció de la llei interna de l'Estat d'acollida, l'existència o no d'acords bilaterals entre l'Estat d'acollida i l'Estat d'origen, i les normes de dret comunitari. Aquesta situació també és diferent atenent a l'existència i el contingut d'un acord extern celebrat per la Comunitat i els seus Estats membres i el país de la nacionalitat de l'immigrant, aquest aspecte centra el present estudi. Els acords que s'analitzen són aquells que juntament amb aspectes econòmics, contenen disposicions relatives als treballadors, i que s'han celebrat, prenent com a base jurídica l'actual article 310 TCE, amb països geogràficament fronterers amb la Unió Europea. D'entre ells, el model a seguir és l'Acord d'Associació amb Turquia, que preveu uns objectius més amplis, com ara la creació d'una unió duanera enfront a la zona de lliure comerç prevista en els altres acords i que s'ha desenvolupat mitjançant les decisions adoptades pel seu Consell d'Associació. Aquest acord ha estat objecte d'una àmplia jurisprudència per part del Tribunal europeu, relativa a l'aplicació i la interpretació de les seves disposicions. A fi de delimitar l'abast de les disposicions de l'Acord, i valorar si es tracta d'un estatut privilegiat respecte del dels altres treballadors extracomunitaris, es comparen les seves disposicions amb les corresponents a les dels acords celebrats amb els països del Magreb, entenent per aquests el Marroc, Tunísia i Algèria i amb els 10 països d' Europa Central i Oriental (els anomenats PECO's). A fi de clarificar l'estatut jurídic dels treballadors extracomunitaris, és necessari entrar a considerar altres aspectes directament relacionats amb aquest estatut, com són les condicions d'accés i de permanència en un Estat, matèries, que, fins a l'entrada en vigor del Tractat d'Amsterdam, eren competència exclusiva de cadascun dels Estats membres. De totes maneres, no es fa un estudi comparatiu de les diferents legislacions internes en matèria d'immigració, donat que l'àmbit d'anàlisi es limita a l'ordenament comunitari, i no a l'ordenament intern. La tesi s'estructura en dues parts diferenciades, correspon la primera als 2 Capítols inicials i la segona als altres 3. En els dos primers Capítols se segueix un criteri cronològic, començant amb el Tractat de Roma i culminant amb el Tractat de Niça. En aquests Capítols s'analitzen les possibles bases jurídiques del dret originari que podien haver-se utilitzat, així com la cooperació que varen fer els Estats membres, tant a dins com a fora, de la Unió Europea, en relació a les mesures adoptades destinades a la regulació de l'accés i de l'estatut jurídic dels treballadors immigrants. L'entrada en vigor, l'1 de maig de 1999 del Tractat d'Amsterdam ha suposat un important avenç per a l'atribució de competències a la Comunitat en matèria d'immigració, que queda vinculada al nou objectiu de la creació de l'espai de llibertat, seguretat i justícia. A partir d'aquest moment, s'assumeix la lliure circulació de persones com objectiu propi, que requereix la regulació del control a les fronteres externes, d'asil, de la immigració i de la cooperació dels Estats membres en la prevenció i la lluita contra la delinqüència. Això es concreta en la comunitarització d'una part del Tercer Pilar destinada a visats, asil i immigració, amb l'exclusió del Regne Unit, Irlanda i Dinamarca, i en la integració del cabal Schengen a l'estructura de la Unió Europea, tot i que permetent una exclusió per al Regne Unit i Irlanda. Es crea, doncs, una cooperació sui generis plena de solucions d'enginyeria jurídica, que si bé suposa un avenç, trenca la unitat i l'homogeneïtat del dret comunitari. Tot i aquestes complexitats tècniques que deriven de la reforma del Tractat d'Amsterdam, el nou article 63 en els seus apartats 3 i 4 permet abordar, a través de la coordinació o de l'harmonització, els temes d'interès comú vinculats al fenomen de la immigració. Entre ells, hi ha la possibilitat d'elaborar un estatut comú per als treballadors no comunitaris. Les iniciatives legislatives presentades des de l'entrada en vigor del Tractat d'Amsterdam demostren l'acceleració en l'elaboració i el desenvolupament d'una política comunitària d'immigració, integrada en uns objectius comuns, per primera vegada sembla realista pensar en l'adopció d'un estatut jurídic únic per l'extracomunitari que sigui resident de llarga durada. Tot i que aquest estatut pot quedar configurat com un estàndard mínim de protecció, considero que la seva adopció constituiria un pas de gran rellevància en la clarificació dels drets d'aquest col·lectiu de treballadors. Els altres tres Capítols conformen la segona part de la tesi, dedicada a analitzar l'actual estatut dels treballadors nacionals de tercers Estats. Aquest estatut es caracteritza pel seu caràcter fragmentat, que deriva de la diversitat de les disposicions contingudes en els acords externs. Mitjançant un estudi comparatiu, s'analitzen els objectius, l'estructura, els antecedents i el desenvolupament dels acords celebrats amb Turquia, amb els països del Magreb i amb els PECO's. El contingut dels objectius d'aquests acords constata que ens trobem davant 3 models diferents que reflecteixen una disminució del compromís comunitari. El Tribunal de Justícia, en la seva jurisprudència, ha manifestat que tant els acords externs celebrats per la Comunitat, com les decisions adoptades pels òrgans que els desenvolupen, formen part de l'ordenament jurídic comunitari. El Tribunal de Justícia és l'òrgan competent per interpretar-los, contribuint a clarificar el contingut d'aquests instruments jurídics. Aquesta perspectiva es completa amb l'anàlisi de les nocions que recullen els acords externs, a fi de dilucidar si un mateix terme té idèntic contingut, i si, tot i la diversitat dels instruments jurídics utilitzats, tenen una mateixa interpretació jurisprudencial. Per aquest motiu ha estat necessari, que el Tribunal de Justícia determinés l'abast dels diferents conceptes emprats, i clarifiqués si és el mateix que el relatiu als treballadors comunitaris o és diferent. La redacció dels acords estudiats reflecteix un estatut jurídic privilegiat per als treballadors turcs en relació als altres treballadors immigrants. Els treballadors originaris dels països d'Europa Central i Oriental o del Magreb, podran millorar la seva situació actual en la mesura en què les disposicions dels seus respectius acords siguin, en el futur, desenvolupades. De totes maneres, aquesta situació de privilegi que ha estat un fet fins el moment actual, ha canviat amb l'entrada en vigor de diferents lleis d'estrangeria estatals, i pot modificar-se, també, amb el desenvolupament del Tractat d'Amsterdam. Actualment, a un treballador turc li perjudica, més que no beneficia el sistema de terminis que per accedir a un lloc de treball preveu la Decisió 1/80. Els treballadors turcs que formen part del mercat regular de treball d'un Estat membre haurien de quedar protegits pel règim jurídic que els sigui més beneficiós, amb independència de que aquest sigui l'intern de l'Estat d'acollida, el comunitari previst a l'Acord d'Associació i el seu posterior desenvolupament, o el que derivi de les futures directives quan entrin en vigor. Si bé aquestes disposicions dels Acords d'Associació varen ser positives, actualment hauran de ser objecte de modificació, la qual cosa no implica la seva desaparició. El seu contingut haurà de tendir a ressaltar l'especificitat de les relacions que es volen establir amb un tercer Estat concret, establint en aquest sentit un tractament preferent als seus nacionals enfront als altres immigrants, i reconeixent el seu dret de residència com derivat del permís de treball. De tota manera, amb l'entrada en vigor de la directiva relativa a l'estatut dels residents de llarga durada, aquest règim privilegiat només afectarà als immigrants residents legals a l'Estat d'acollida durant els primers 5 anys, és a dir, abans de que se'ls concedeixi el citat estatut. ; La tesis doctoral pretende determinar el estatuto jurídico de los trabajadores extracomunitarios, tomando como modelo de referencia la situación jurídica que el ordenamiento comunitario otorga a los trabajadores turcos que forman parte del mercado de trabajo regular de un Estado miembro de la Unión Europea, y comparando su situación con la de los trabajadores provenientes de los países del Magreb y de Europa Central y Oriental regulada en los correspondientes acuerdos Euromediterráneos y Europeos. Los dos primeros capítulos se destinan al análisis de las posibles bases jurídicas a utilizar por la Comunidad Económica Europea en su momento, y la actual Comunidad Europea y la unión Europea para definir el alcance de los derechos que se atribuyen al colectivo de trabajadores extracomunitarios. Debido a la estrecha relación entre el estatuto jurídico de este colectivo y el estatuto jurídico general de los immigrantes, las medidas relativas a las condiciones de acceso también son objeto de atención, aunque solamente con la finalidad de contribuir a la concreción del objetivo fundamental de la tesis. Des estea primera parte de la tesis, se desprende que el principal instrumento jurídico utilizado hasta la entrada en vigor del Tratado de Amsterdam han sido los acuerdos concluidos por la Comunidad y sus Estados miembros por una partey un Tercer Estado por otra, a su análisis se dedica la segunda parte de la tesis doctoral. A fin de interpretar correctamente las disposiciones de los acuerdos externos relativas a los trabajadores inmigrantes, en el tercer capítulo se lleva a cabo un estudio comprativo de los objetivos, etapas, instituciones, y desarrollo de los diversos acuerdos, así como de las características de estas disposiciones y de las decisiones que se desarrollan. El capítulo cuarto se destina a las nociones conceptuales que se utilizan, determinando sus semejanzas y diferencias con los conceptos comunitarios. Este capítulo sirve de base para el siguiente destinado a la interpretación que, de las diversas disposiciones de los acuerdos, ha llevado a cabo el Tribunal de Justicia. ; The aim of the thesis is centred on the definition, within European Community regulations, of the current statutory juridical status of employed workers who are from outside the European Community who form part of the employment market in a European Community state. The workers from non-European Community states, who form part of the regular employment market of a member state, as well as the members of their families, possess a fragmentary judicial statute: their rights are variable depending on the regulation which they are subject to. In this sense the situation varies and is dependent on the internal laws of the receiving state, the absence of bilateral agreements between the receiving state and the state of origin and the procedures and regulations of Community law. This situation will also vary depending on the existence and the content of an external agreement made by the Community and its member states and the country of origin of the immigrant. This study focuses on this aspect. The agreements which are analysed here are those which, along with economic aspects, contain provisions relating to the workers which have been adopted, taking as its juridical base the current article 310 European Community Treaty (ECT), with countries which border geographically with the European Union. Amongst them, the model to be followed is the Agreement of Association with Turkey, which foresees broader objectives, such as the creation of a customs union, in line with the area of free trade envisioned by other agreements, and which has been developed in the decisions adopted by its Council of Association. This aforementioned agreement has been the object of abundant jurisprudence relating to the application and interpretation of its provisions, in the European Court in order to define the scope of the provisions of the agreement and also asses whether we are dealing with a privileged status in contrast with other workers coming from countries outside the European Union. These provisions will be compared with those affecting the countries of Magreb, by which we mean Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria and the ten countries of Central and Eastern Europe. In order to clarifying the juridical status of workers from outside the European Community other aspects directly relating to this statute must be considered. These include the conditions of access and residence in a state, subjects which until the application of the Treaty of Amsterdam were the exclusive province of each one of the member states. However, this is not a comparative study of different areas of internal legislation regarding immigration, given that the area of analysis is restricted to European Community regulations and not to internal regulations. The thesis is structured in two different parts, which correspond, in the first case, to the first two Chapters and, in the second, to the remaining three Chapters. In the first two Chapters the criteria are chronological, beginning with the Treaty of Rome and ending with the Treaty of Nice. In these Chapters the original juridical bases which could have been utilised, as well as the co-operation exercised by the member states, both within and outside the European Union are analyzed, in relation to the measures adopted and destined to the regulation of access and the juridical status of immigrant workers. The implementation, on 1st May 1999, of the Treaty of Amsterdam has signified an important step forward towards the attribution of jurisdictional competence in the Community on matters relating to immigration which remain linked to the new objective of creating an area of freedom, safety and justice. From this point on, the free movement of people is assumed as an aim. This requires the regulation of border controls, of asylum, of immigration and co-operation in the struggle to prevent delinquency. This is specified in the comunitarization of a part of the Third Pillar regarding visas, asylum and immigration, excluding the United Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark, and in the integration of "acquis" Schengen in the structure of the European Union albeit at the cost of excluding the United Kingdom and Ireland. An area of co-operation has been created, sui generis, complete with juridical engineering solutions, which, while signifying an advance, break the unity and homogeneity of Community law. Despite all the technical complexities that derive from the Treaty of Amsterdam, the new article 63 and clauses, 3 and 4 enable the Community to assume areas of common interest linked to the phenomenon of immigration through co-ordination and harmonisation. Amongst these, there is the possibility of formulating a common statute for workers who are not members of the European Community. The legislative initiatives which have been presented since the implementation of the Treaty of Amsterdam show the acceleration in the formulation and development of a community policy of immigration, integrated within some common objectives. For the first time, it seems realistic to envision the adoption of a sole juridical statute for the non-community worker who is a long-term resident. Despite the fact that this statute might be characterised as a minimum standard of protection, I believe that the adoption of such a statute would constitute a great step forward in the clarification of the rights of this collective of workers. The remaining three chapters form the second part of the thesis which is dedicated to analysing the present status of workers from other states outside the European Community. This status is characterised by its fragmentary nature, which derives from the diversity of the provisions contained in external agreements. The objectives, structure antecedents and development of the agreements formulated in agreement with Turkey with the countries of the Magreb and with the countries of east and central Europe (PECO's) were analyzed by means of a comparative study. The content of the objectives of the said agreements alleges that we find ourselves facing three different models that reflect a gradual diminishing of the European commitment to safeguarding the status of the immigrant worker. The Court of Justice in its jurisprudence has manifested that both those external agreements adopted by the Community, as well as the decisions taken by the organs which develop them, form part of the juridical regulations of the community. It is the Court of Justice which is the organ most competent to interpret these provisions, contributing to the clarification of the content of these juridical instruments. This perspective will be complemented with the analysis of the notions which take into account external agreements. The aim of this study is to clarify whether the same term has the same content in each agreement and if, despite the diversity of the juridical instruments used, they have the same interpretation in jurisprudence. In order to do this, it has been necessary, for the Court of Justice to determine the scope of the different concepts employed and to clarify whether it applies to the workers of the community or if differs significantly. The drawing up of the agreements studied reflects a privileged juridical status for Turkish workers in comparison with other immigrants. The immigrants who come from the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the Magreb can improve their current situation in as far as the provisions of their respective agreements are developed in the future. However, this privileged situation which has been a fact to date, has changed with the implementation of immigration laws in different states. These may be modified in addition to and following on from the development of the Treaty of Amsterdam. At present, a Turkish worker is affected adversely rather than benefiting from the system of quotas to gain access to a job in accordance with Decision 1/80. The Turkish workers who form part of the regular employment market in a member state should be protected by the juridical ruling which is most beneficial to them, independent of the fact that this may be the internal ruling of the receiving state, the community member foreseen in the Agreement of Association and its latter development, or that which is derived from future directives when they are in force. If the provisions from agreements of association were initially positive they should have be the object of modification, which should not imply their disappearance. Their content should stress the specificity of the relationships which they wish to establish with a third state, in this sense establishing favourable treatment for these nationals as opposed to other immigrants and recognising their right of residence as well as their right to obtain a work permit. However, with the implementation of the directive regarding the status of immigrants who are long term residents, this privileged status only affects those immigrants who are legally resident in the receiving state for the first five years, that is to say before they are given the cited statute.
