Suchergebnisse

Frozen butterbeer isbest, but had much brainfreeze.This week, I got to go back!!!  I hadn't been to Disney World and Universal Florida since 2012 (when we went south to both sell the house in Montreal and celebrate the new job).  This time, instead of Mrs. Spew and Future Hollywood Executive Assistant Spew, I went with my brother and my cousin's family.  At a family occasion last year, I learned that my Floridian cousin and his wife don't like to do the most thrilling rides, leaving their kids frustrated during their visits.  So, I made an unbreakable vow the next time they went to Universal, I would join them.  My brother agreed to crash the party AND wanted us to do Disney World ahead of the U visit, as we had long wanted to do the super-expensive Star Wars experience ... that no longer exists.  We had a blast.  So, I thought I would share some intel and also rank the rides.First, we learned that to have the best time requires spending even more money.  Yep, the tickets are expensive enough, but to spend less time waiting and more time enjoying, well, more money, more money, more money.  For Disney, we were staying off of the property, so this meant paying more money for parking--preferred parking put one much closer and also got one out of a bit of traffic.  We didn't do this and didn't really need to do this for Hollywood Studio, but did payoff for Magic Kingdom and Animal Kingdom.  We did Epcot on the MK day by taking a monorail to the monorail station and then over to Epcot.  Genie plus, which costs money, allows one to reserve a spot on some rides for later in the day--it requires some strategery to make this work best as you can only set one reservation at a time until some time passes or until you do that ride.  Virtual waiting is still waiting but more pleasant.  Lightning lanes are for some rides--you actually pay additional money to get onto that ride for a specific slot.  It has limited utility as they fill up quickly plus see the next paragraph.  For Universal, we stayed at a Universal hotel, which cost more but came with an unlimited express pass, which allowed us to go through the fast lane at most (not all) rides.Second, the parks lie a bit.  For the lightning lanes at Disney, for instance, if you are off property, you can't sign up until after the first hour or two of the morning, which means that those who are staying on property can sign up ahead of you, which means you might not have a slot available for you until late in the day.  We didn't do Avatar (more below) because the first slot was around 5:30, and we had plans to leave the park by then.  For Universal, we were told that the park would open up an hour early for those staying at the hotels onsite, but what we didn't know was that meant only one half of universal (the Isles of Adventure side) and only three rides would be open for that first hour--Hagrid, Velocicoaster, and Hogwarts Forbidden Journey.  Roughly 90% of those coming in early went to the first ride, which quickly meant significant waits.  Uncool--that they funneled all the early people to those rides.   Third, discretion is the better part of amusement park enjoyment.  We had no kids with us for the Disney days so we could avoid rides that weren't really in our win-set.  We were looking for the more thrilling rides, so we could do each of the Disney parks in half a day, more or less. We stayed longer at Hollywood Studios because I had made a reservation three months earlier (which is what one needs to do) to get a couple of spots at Oga's Cantina at the Star Wars part of HS.  I figured I wouldn't want to drink some funky alien cocktails earlier in the day (Narrator: sure you would).  So, we stayed there longer than we needed. That was ok, because the lines at Star Tours were short, and each ride is different (more below).  Anyhow, we got through each park quickly by avoiding stuff that didn't interest us and not getting too committed to incredibly long waits when Genie+, Lightning Lanes, Express Pass wouldn't help.  Fourth, some advance planning does help. Specifically food reservations.  We made some reservations at the parks and associated places (Disney Springs) and mostly found excellent food.  I also learned of First Watch, which is an excellent breakfast chain that has food for those seeking healthy fare and for the stuff I like.  Oga's Cantina was not as special as we thought--no mid-drink brawls with folks losing their arms and no alien adventures, but the drinks were excellent and the bartender was great.  Next time I do Disney (CA or FL), I will again make reservations for Oga's, just earlier in the day.Indeed, one consistency across the two parks--the crew/casts were terrific.  We met a lot of very friendly, patient, often silly folks working the various places (DeSantis is an idiot as damn these places employ a lot of people).  The people at these parks elevated the experience.  And, yeah, it not being summer helped a lot. Another is that each park had plenty of rides with taped appearances by the characters, and I was kind of surprised to see how they got damn near everybody.  I asked my daughter about this--of course, each actor gets paid for their labor--but I wondered if they are required by their big movie deals to do this stuff.  We did bump into one set of rude employees--First Order folks who stayed in character.  Not just at Rise of Resistance but also patrolling the Star Wars land at Hollywood Studies.  My brother almost got sliced in half by Kylo Ren.  Gary Oldman?Speaking of people, the other attendees were pretty great as well.  Folks were friendly and very much engaged in having a great time.  I especially loved the herds of HP cosplayers who looked terrific. I swear I thought I saw Gary Oldman as Sirius Black, the Trelawneys and Umbridges were fantastic (see more below), and yes, the cosplayers ranged in age with many older ones.  While JKR has done much to taint the Potter legacy, the love and the silliness the fans have for that universe and for its characters made me feel less bad about having some of my money end up in the hands of JKR.  I will have to write a separate post about that aspect--what HP means in a world where the author spews out hate.  On the bright side, I saw more than a few gay couples at both parks, so the places are still welcoming even if the governor and the author are awful.  Both places had very diverse audiences--lots of different languages, people from all over.    For the rankings below, my prejudices/guidelines is that I want to be thrilled and amused so more points for fast/swerving/looping/silly.   DisneyGuardians of Galaxy (Epcot): basically space mountain with cars that can move and turn, great soundtrack. Not as funny as GoG tower of terror at Disneyland, but just a great rideTron (MK): Awkward seat as you "ride" a cycle but heaps of fun. Needs to integrate throwing disks.Star Tours (Hollywood): The oldest of these rides.  Each ride is different as they have something like 66 combinations.  Each ride is physically the same--the car goes up, down, tilts, etc--but the screen stuff changes with each ride visiting two planets/experiences in the SW universe.  In our five rides, we got a couple of repeats--we went to Hoth twice in our first two rides, for instance, but we got five different combos.  We saw scenes from all nine of the movies except Attack of the Clones and, yes, Star Wars.  They had plenty of stuff from the prequels and the sequels.  The second scene would be introduced by a different character talking about new coordinates to get our spy to the right place--we saw young Leia twice (her intro led to the same place), older Lando, Yoda, and one more.  We kept going back as the ride was fun and different each time, and the lines were short.  Everest (Animal Kingdom): a fun coaster ride through a mountain that gets interrupted by a Yeti, which meant for some backwards and some drops.  No loops but a thrilling ride.Space Mountain (MK): an oldie but a goodie--a fast coaster in the dark. Captured by the First Order!Rise of the Resistance (HS): somewhat overrated.  It had the longest lines.  I was determined to do it since it was broken (it breaks often) when we tried to do it at Disneyland.  It is a two stage ride--there is a Star Tours like shuttle that gets seized by the First Order.  Then you exit that and are surrounded by tons of Storm Troopers (not living ones, just statues, but scary and incredibly lifelike).  The heart of the ride has us escaping from the bad guys, so we are getting shot at while our driverless car spins and moves all over the place.  It was fun and cool, but not the best ride at the place (a common theme)Kilimanjaro Safari (Animal): a truck took us deeper into Animal Kingdom so we were driven around a bunch of animals--pretty close to some giraffes, and right up to a rhino that blocked our path.  It was really quite cool.Fast track (Epcot): pretty fast--"testing" a new specification.  My brother liked this more than I did, but it was a lot of fun.  Not much surrounding humor or whatever--but a good ride. Smuggler's Run (HS): I had done this before at Disneyland--you get to either help pilot the Falcon, serve as engineer, or shoot at stuff.  It is like being in the cockpit of the Star Tours with some illusion of control.  Tis a fun ride but you can't see that much from the back and hitting the buttons distracts a bit.Dinosaur (Animal): One rides a vehicle in the past to steal a dinosaur for a mad scientist.  Why does it have to be timed to be seconds before the asteroid that extinguishes the dinosaurs hits?  No idea.  Fun but not as thrilling as the rides above Buzz Light Year Ranger Spin (MK).  You sit and one person spins the ride while both shoot to kill aliens. Soaring (Epcot): riding a glider over California.  Fun but pretty calming Excellent shows: Disney Pixar shorts at MK, Indiana Jones Stunt Show at HS.  The three shorts were terrific even as I was ready to dislike the Mickey one.  The Pixar was very pixar-esque.  All three were just great short movies and a welcome rest of the sore feet (my brother's step count was mostly in the high 20,000's).  The Indy show was great--heaps of Indy goodness and much Marion spunkiness.  I love the mini-plane they used" Overrated:  Haunted Mansion and the Navi river ride were slow, boring, and wildly overrated.  I would not do either of these again.Some rides were closed, and some were simply too difficult to line up.  We were not willing to wait 2-3 hours for a ride.  The former were Aerosmith Roller Coaster and Remy's Ratatouille Adventure.  The latter were: Avatar,  Remy's Ratatouille Adventure Universal: No wonderthe raptors wereso angryVelociCoaster (Isle of Adventure): simply the best roller-coaster I have been on.  Fast and twisty from the start, good loops, plunges and swings while approaching the water. At one point, it starts to tilt left but then spins right.  Just a very thrilling ride.Hulk (IofA): similar to VC but not quite as twisty or fast.  Very good loops and twists.Spider-man (IofA): 4D ride--3D spidey lands on your car, shaking it and then shaking it again as he leaps off.  Has a great sense of humor, the pumpkin bombs from the Hobgoblin bring real heat.  Only regret is that it is generic versions, not the Molina Dr. Ock or the Jimmie Fox Electro and so forth.  This ride has been around a long time, but it still works really well.  The Transformers ride is newer but pales in comparison in a big, big way.  Why? Story and character matter (see the above Star Tours).   Gringotts (UniFlorida):  I have been waiting a long time for this as we imagined this ride when we visited 12 years ago--when the park only had rides that built on the first four books/movies.  They did a very nice job of realizing the Gringotts breakout scene.  The cart was fast and spinny but not too scary for my youngest relative.  It had a bit more juice than the most similar Forbidden Journey. Oh and a nice job with the dragon.Forbidden Journey (IofA): like Gringotts, a 3D adventure, this one giving you the feeling of flying a broom through the grounds of Hogwarts.  I did yell Expecto Patronum when the Dementers appeared, but, of course, I didn't have my wand as they made us put all of our loose stuff in lockers (a recurring theme).  Simpsons (UF): Remains a great combo of silly and thrill.  The entire
ride makes fun of the amusement park experience, which makes it even
better.Revenge of the Mummy (UF): another 4Dish ride with lots of ups, downs, and all the rest as we are chased by scrabs and mummies.  Dr Doom's Fearfall (IofA): old ride, slung up, drop down.  Very basic, still works, and good views.Hagrid (IofA): So hard to get on this ride as it is very popular.  But it is not that special.  It is cool that the two riders, one on the motorcycle, one in the side car, have somewhat different experiences, but, otherwise, it is a fine roller-coaster. Men in Black (UF): It is fine, but not that memorable.Race thru NY with Jimmy Fallon  (UF): You are in a car racing thru NY with Fallon.  It is a fun ride, but nothing special.Minions (UF): I did both Minions rides with my younger relative (what is the daughter of a cousin anyway?).  One involved shooting from a standing position that moved along a conveyor built and was hard on the hands--the kid beat us all.  The other ride? I am having a hard time remembering.  Not a good sign.Hogwarts Express: Goes back and forth between the two HP sections--Hogsmeade and Diagon Alley.  Useful for getting between the two parks and amazing design of the scenery.  Not thrilling but a great realization of a key scene in pretty much every book except the last.  Oh, and going to Hogsmeade has different stuff happening along the way than going in the other direction.Fast and Furious/Skull Island: Both are ok, nothing special, basically versions of each other.Transformers: Supposed to be the equivalent of the Spidey ride, but just too loud, too many robots I can't keep straight.  I get it, the bad guy wants the All Spark. Didn't do Rip It Rocket as it was only open for a little while on the second day and we missed our shot.  River Adventure was also out for the count.  We weren't in it to get wet, so not a huge loss. That Star Tours is old and rocks and Transformers is new and doesn't speaks to the importance of story, dialogue,
characters, not just whether the thing one is in goes up and down a
lot.  So, my bias is towards the HP and Marvel stuff, why the Simpsons
is still deceptively one of the best rides, and why I don't are much for
the newer stuff--their IP is just not thrilling to me.Oh, and if I had to combine my rankings to produce a top five:Guardians of the GalaxyVelocicoasterHulkSpidey Tron One quibble with Universal--they seem to have the rights to Back to the
Future, but other than some merch, one Dolorean, and Doc Brown, they
don't really do anything with it.  It is begging to be used in a ride
and then some.  Given that they still have a lame section that might be
under renovation for some kind of Greece/Atlantis thing that my family
scoffed at 12 years ago and wondered if it would be the site of expanded
HP, it seems obvious that BTTF should get some love and space.  But as Doc Brown would say, the future hasn't been written yet.And, yes, you can meet your heroes.  Mando was super friendly, and Grogu cooed cutely.Spidey was very much a friendly neighborhood hero.  I got to chat with him before we took a picture, and he was super nice.  I misheard the woman at the checkout register, sounded like she said she was his girlfriend.  When I asked, she said "I wish." I suggested that his girlfriends often have much drama and trauma in their lives, and she acknowledged that is a good point. Green eggs and ham was not the best meal I had, but the one that I just had to eat.  It was pretty good.Finally, here's a few shots of various HP cosplayers.  As I mentioned, I am far more ambivalent about HP thanks to JKR's hateful stuff of the past several years.  Sure, the representation in the books was not good, and the goblins were always a wee bit anti-semitic.  But the heart of the books focused on love and tolerance.  And I could not help but see how many people seemed to get that as they not only wore their cosplay stuff with great panache, but as you can see from the pics, there was so much camaraderie and, yes, love.Snape and Fleur--not the usual pairingI wish I had taken a picture when I was closer to this herd of cosplayers who gathered in a UF park

Der Wissenschaftsratsvorsitzende Wolfgang Wick zu überdrehten Transfererwartungen der Politik, verlorengegangenen Differenzierungen im deutschen Wissenschaftssystem, drohendem Kontrolldruck nach der Fraunhofer-Affäre  – und neuen Aufgaben für den Wissenschaftsrat.






Wolfgang Wick, Professor für Neurologie und als Neuroonkologe am Heidelberger Universitäts­klinikum, ist seit Februar 2023 Vorsitzender der
Wissenschaftsrats (WR). Foto: Svea Pietschmann.






Herr Wick, die Ampel-Parteien haben sich in der Haushaltskrise geeinigt, der BMBF-Haushalt soll glimpflich davonkommen. Ein Zeichen,
dass die Bundesregierung Bildung und Wissenschaft auch in schwierigen Zeiten die Treue hält? 



 



Das wünsche ich mir sehr. Die BAföG-Strukturreform muss kommen, die Investitionen in Innovation und Hochtechnologie müssen aufrechterhalten werden, der Sanierungsstau im Hochschulbau muss endlich
aufgelöst werden – um nur einige Beispiele zu nennen. Sparen bei Forschung und Innovation würde die Zukunftschancen, die uns die Wissenschaft eröffnet und die wir gerade jetzt so dringend
brauchen, verspielen.



 



Das scheint seit der Pandemie zum Geschäftsmodell der Wissenschaft geworden zu sein: die immensen Heilserwartungen, die Gesellschaft und Politik ihr entgegenbringen, auch noch bestärken,
weil sie nur dann noch auf das nötige Geld hoffen kann?



 



Das Wecken solcher Erwartungen ist immer ein zweischneidiges Schwert. In der Pandemie hat die Wissenschaft einen großen Zuwachs an Bedeutung und Vertrauen erlebt. Das führte dazu, dass der
Anspruch nach kurzfristigen Antworten und Problemlösungen immer größer wurde. Wenn dann aber an Kochrezepte erinnernde Handlungsvorschläge gefordert werden, geraten Wissenschaftlerinnen und
Wissenschaftler in Verlegenheit, weil sie diese aus der Logik der Wissenschaft heraus nicht liefern können. Das sehen wir als Wissenschaftsrat kritisch. Wir glauben, dass Wissenschaftler dann am
effektivsten und am wirksamsten sind, wenn sie als Wissenschaftler argumentieren, und es deutlich sagen, sobald sie sich als Staatsbürger äußern. 



 



Die Versuchungen, die Rollen nicht deutlich zu trennen, sind groß, wenn die Politik doch genau die schnellen Lösungen will.  



 



Wir müssen der Politik gegenüber klar kommunizieren, dass sie zum Beispiel bei der Bewältigung der Klimakrise kaum schnelle Antworten erwarten kann, wenn sie die dafür zuständigen
wissenschaftlichen Disziplinen über Jahre hinweg nur unzureichend gefördert hat. Legt sie jetzt im Zusammenhang mit der Energiewende umfangreiche Programme auf, ist das sehr zu begrüßen,
allerdings lautet die Botschaft an die Politik: Die wissenschaftlichen Resultate werden erst in einigen Jahren zu sehen sein.



 



"Was wir seit einer Weile sehen, ist eine Politik, die getrieben wirkt, die sich zu stark fokussiert auf fast schon beliebige Transfererwartungen, die sie dann
noch in jede wissenschaftspolitische Debatte hineinprojiziert."



 



Lautet nicht die eigentlich wichtige Botschaft: Vergesst die Grundlagenforschung jetzt nicht? 



 



Wissenschaftsfinanzierung hat immer zwei Dimensionen. Die eine ist auf die kurzfristige Lösung von Problemen ausgerichtet, oft verbunden mit der Idee des Transfers von Forschungsergebnissen in
die wirtschaftliche Anwendung hinein. Diese Dimension passt gut zu den kurzatmigen Zyklen der Politik, darum drehen sich die Ressortforschung und große Teile der Programmforschung – vollkommen
legitim. Mehr noch: Mit der entsprechenden Aufrichtigkeit, und damit meine ich vor allem verbunden mit einer langfristigen Finanzierung, lassen sich so die drängenden gesellschaftlichen
Herausforderungen sehr zielgerichtet bearbeiten. Mindestens genauso wichtig aber ist das, was Sie Grundlagenforschung nennen. Und deren Förderung ist für viele Wissenschaftler deutlich
attraktiver, weil sie die Chance auf unerwartete Erkenntnisse in einem Ökosystem eröffnet, in dem sich die Forschung entlang der Neugier der Forschenden frei entwickeln kann. Was wir aber
tatsächlich seit einer Weile sehen, ist eine Politik, die getrieben wirkt, die sich zu stark fokussiert auf fast schon beliebige Transfererwartungen, die sie dann noch in jede
wissenschaftspolitische Debatte hineinprojiziert. Ich gebe zu, darauf reagiere ich zunehmend allergisch.



  



Wie erklären Sie sich das?



 



Wir haben uns in unserem Wissenschaftssystem von einer sauberen Differenzierung der unterschiedlichen Akteure verabschiedet. Wissenschaftstransfer ist für die Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft grundlegend,
in Teilen auch für die Zentren der Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft, wobei das Modell der Großforschungseinrichtungen schon komplexer angelegt ist zwischen Grundlagenforschung, Anwendung und dem Erarbeiten
wissenschaftlicher Lösungen für die Gesellschaft. Die Max-Planck-Gesellschaft und die Universitäten hingegen haben nicht den Anspruch, vor allem anwendbare Wissensprodukte zu erarbeiten.
Max-Planck steht für den Spitzenbereich der Grundlagenforschung, die Hochschulen für die Lehre, Spitzenforschung und die darunterliegenden Grundlagen und erst dann dort, wo es sich wirklich
anbietet und in Kooperation mit anderen, für die Anwendung. Es ist fast schon zu einem Klischee geworden, dass auf guter Forschung immer auch Anwendung und Transfer draufstehen muss. 



 



Welche Folgen hat das?



 



Durch den Fokus auf Anwendungsnähe und hippe Themen werden wir als Wissenschaftler gedrängt oder lassen uns drängen, unser Heil in immer neuen Finanztöpfen zu suchen. Das bindet Kapazitäten, die
woanders fehlen. Genau diese Schieflage, diese Verschiebung von den Grund-zu den Drittmitteln in den vergangenen 20 Jahren, haben wir im Wissenschaftsrat thematisiert in unserem Papier zur
Forschungsfinanzierung an deutschen Hochschulen. 



 



Diesen Erwartungen des Hippen, des Schnellen, von Kochrezepten und politisch gängigen Handlungsanweisungen muss sich auch der Wissenschaftsrat in seiner Arbeit stellen. Sie haben selbst
zu Ihrem Amtsantritt Anfang des Jahres gesagt, es gehe darum, auch im wissenschaftspolitischen Tagesgeschäft aktiver Akzente zu setzen. 



 



Was ich sagen will ist, dass wir da stärker, sichtbarer und teilweise klarer in die Öffentlichkeit hineinkommunizieren sollten, wo wir uns mit unseren Beschlüssen positioniert haben. 



 



Gelingt das schon besser?



 



Mit unseren Empfehlungen zur Geschlechterforschung beispielsweise haben wir zur Versachlichung beigetragen, und es hat eine intensive Debatte dazu gegeben.



 



Was es beim Thema Gender aber eigentlich immer gibt.



 



Es ist ein Beispiel, wo wir so Akzente setzen konnte, wie ich es mir vorstelle. 



 



"Insgesamt sehe ich nicht, dass es schon regelmäßig
eine breite gesellschaftliche Diskussion über die Papiere
des Wissenschaftsrats gibt."



 



Ihre Empfehlungen zur Lehramtsausbildung im Fach Mathematik haben sowohl öffentliche Aufmerksamkeit erhalten als auch die Fachdebatte stark beeinflusst, siehe das Gutachten der Ständigen
Wissenschaftlichen Kommission (SWK) der Kultusministerkonferenz zur Zukunft der Lehrerbildung.  



 



Was zeigt, dass wir in der Lage sind, wissenschaftsgeleitet und fundiert und gleichzeitig pointiert Stellung zu beziehen.



 



Die SWK hat sich in einer zentralen Frage allerdings anders positioniert. Während der Wissenschaftsrat den Ausbau der dualen Lehrerbildung empfiehlt, lehnt die Kommission diese mit
deutlichen Worten ab.



 



So deutlich finde ich das bei näherem Hinsehen gar nicht. Aber das ist für mich ohnehin gar nicht so entscheidend. Wichtig ist, dass zwei Gremien von Wissenschaftlerinnen und Wissenschaftlern in
wissenschaftsgeleiteten Beratungsverfahren klare Empfehlungen formuliert haben und die Politik jetzt ein wissenschaftlich fundiertes Angebot an Möglichkeiten hat, aus denen sie auswählen kann.
Inhaltlich halte ich den Vorschlag des Wissenschaftsrats, den Vorbereitungsdienst in die universitäre Ausbildungsphase zu integrieren, für gangbar und sinnvoll. Was mir aber trotz der Beispiele
Geschlechterforschung und Lehrerbildung wichtig ist festzuhalten: Insgesamt sehe ich nicht, dass es schon regelmäßig eine breite gesellschaftliche Diskussion über unsere Papiere gibt. Das hängt
natürlich, wie Sie sagen, auch vom Thema ab, und oft ist es auch nicht nötig. Insgesamt aber sollten wir noch weiter an unserem Profil als Beratungsgremium arbeiten.



 



Was meinen Sie damit?



 



Was man von uns als Wissenschaftsrat erwarten kann, sind Lösungsvorschläge für Probleme, von denen wir sehen, dass sie in zehn, 15 oder 20 Jahren dramatisch werden. Worin wir gleichzeitig besser
werden können: dass wir uns auf der Grundlage unserer langfristigen Empfehlungen häufiger auch tagesaktuell in Debatten einbringen und unseren Themen dadurch eine größere Beachtung verschaffen.
Im Sinne eines Think Tanks gerade bei Herausforderungen, die sich so dynamisch entwickeln, dass einmal verfasste Empfehlungen allzu schnell überholt wären.



  



Ein Beispiel bitte.



 



Wir haben uns als Wissenschaftsrat bislang nicht zur jüngsten Entwicklung der generativen KI geäußert. Wir sind von deren Geschwindigkeit genauso überrascht worden wie andere Fachleute auch.
Generative KI mit Anwendungen wie ChatGPT ist ein Gamechanger und entwickelt sich mit einer unglaublichen Dynamik. Wir überlegen deshalb, wie wir ein kontinuierliches Monitoring neuer
KI-Entwicklungen und ihrer Auswirkungen auf die Qualität und Kommunikation von Wissenschaft leisten können, auf Lehre, Forschung, auf Begutachtungsprozesse. Das Ziel ist es, als Wissenschaftsrat
auch zu tagesaktuellen Fragen Stellung zu beziehen und Hinweise zu geben. Um noch wirksamer zu werden, müssen wir mit der Politik aber zusätzlich über eine konkrete Erweiterung unserer
Kompetenzen sprechen.



 



"Hauptsache, es entsteht mehr Transparenz. Die wirkt oft besser als jeder erhobene moralische Zeigefinger."



 



Derzeit ist der Wissenschaftsrat als Gremium zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik für die Politikberatung, für die Evaluierung von Wissenschaftseinrichtungen, für die Priorisierung beim
Hochschulforschungsbau und für die Akkreditierung privater Hochschulen zuständig. Sie wollen mehr? 



 



Ich wünsche mir, dass der Wissenschaftsrat künftig die Ressourcen und den Auftrag bekommt, um seine Empfehlungen mehr als bislang nachzuverfolgen. Im Oktober haben wir unser Papier zur
wissenschaftlichen Qualifizierung in den Gesundheitsfachberufen beschlossen. Mit dem Ergebnis haben wir einen echten Punkt gesetzt. Vermutlich werden bei dem Thema schon die unterschiedlichen
Interessengruppen nicht lockerlassen, damit etwas passiert. Bei anderen Themen aber bräuchte es das Nachfassen dringender. Setzen die Länder die Empfehlungen zur Forschungsfinanzierung um? Was
folgt aus unseren Vorschlägen zur Digitalisierung der Hochschulen oder der Medizin? Bund und Länder könnten uns beauftragen, im Sinne eines langfristigen Controllings nach vorher definierten
Kriterien zu dokumentieren, welche politischen Handlungen jeweils aus unseren Empfehlungen gefolgt sind – und wo sich auch nach zwei, fünf oder sieben Jahren wenig oder nichts getan hat. Ich will
keinen Verwaltungs-Wasserkopf generieren. Das kann man je nach Thema auch stichprobenartig machen. Hauptsache, es entsteht mehr Transparenz. Die wirkt oft besser als jeder erhobene moralische
Zeigefinger. 



 



Manches Mal wäre der erhobene Zeigefinger der Wissenschaft aber angebracht gewesen. Bei Fraunhofer zeichnete sich über einen langen Zeitraum ab, dass es dort ein mutmaßliches
Fehlverhalten bis hin zum Missbrauch von Steuergeldern in der Führungsetage gegeben haben könnte. Die Staatsanwaltschaft ermittelt seit vielen Monaten. Das Schweigen der Chefs der anderen großen
Wissenschaftsorganisationen in Deutschland angesichts der schleppend verlaufenden Aufklärung war indes ohrenbetäubend. Hätte sich die Allianz der Wissenschaftsorganisationen, zu der Sie gehören,
nicht positionieren müssen? Der entstandene Imageschaden betrifft das gesamte Wissenschaftssystem.



 



Da ich seit Februar 2023 selbst Mitglied im Fraunhofer-Senat bin, kann ich mich über Einzelheiten nicht äußern. Klar ist: Das mutmaßliche Fehlverhalten einzelner muss aufgeklärt werden, auch hier
gilt die eben genannte Transparenz. Es darf aber nicht reflexhaft zur weiteren Verschärfung bürokratischer Vorgaben führen, die uns ohnehin stark einschränken, etwa bei der Beantragung von
Forschungsförderung und der Berichterstattung während und nach der Forschung. All die Berichtspflichten und Kontrollmechanismen zum Umgang mit staatlichen Mitteln haben schon jetzt viel mit einem
grundsätzlichen Misstrauen gegenüber der Wissenschaft zu tun. Sie führen zu einer eklatanten Überlastung und zu einer Fehlsteuerung von Ressourcen.



 



"Es macht etwas mit einer Organisation



und mit der Wissenschaft insgesamt,



wenn die Glaubwürdigkeit in Frage steht." 



 



Der Senat als wichtiges Aufsichtsgremium hat auch nicht gerade die Aufklärung vorangetrieben, und die Senatsvorsitzende hat Ex-Präsident Reimund Neugebauer noch auf einer großen Tagung
ihres Verbands als Keynote-Speaker empfangen, als Bundesforschungsministerin Bettina Stark-Watzinger (FDP) angesichts drastischer Rechnungshof-Vorwürfe gegen das Fraunhofer-Präsidium bereits
dessen Rücktritt forderte. 



 



Die Vorwürfe laufen darauf hinaus, dass ein System möglicherweise gedehnt oder überdehnt worden ist. Das werden Sie auch durch zusätzliche Regeln nicht verhindern können. Aber eines will ich an
dieser Stelle doch deutlich und unabhängig von einem konkreten Fall sagen: Wir alle, die wir in der Wissenschaft, in Universitäten und Forschungsinstituten Führungsverantwortung tragen, genießen
ein großes Privileg, weil wir aufgrund der Autonomie von Wissenschaft frei und wirkungsvoll agieren können. Dieses Privileg beruht, wie in der Politik auch, auf einer demokratischen Legitimation,
die Integrität, das Einhalten von Spielregeln und die Akzeptanz einer Bezahlung weit unterhalb der Niveaus erfordert, wie diese bei Wirtschaftskonzernen üblich ist. Es macht etwas mit einer
Organisation und mit der Wissenschaft insgesamt, wenn die Glaubwürdigkeit in Frage steht. 



 



Aber genau deshalb wäre es so wichtig gewesen, wenn sich die Wissenschafts-Spitzen klarer positioniert hätten. Jetzt läuft es – nur leicht übertrieben – darauf hinaus, dass sich
Mitarbeiter von Fraunhofer und anderswo für den Kauf jeder Keksdose für die Bewirtung von Gästen rechtfertigen müssen – weil Präsidiumsmitglieder unter anderem mit zunehmender Häufigkeit in
Fünf-Sterne-Hotels genächtigt, zu teure Dienstwagen gehabt und vierstellige Bewirtungen von BMBF-Führungspersonal vorgenommen haben sollen.



 



Offen gesagt erlebe ich ausgesprochen selten Saus und Braus im deutschen Wissenschaftssystem, schon gar nicht im Wissenschaftsrat. Wir sind ein Gremium, dessen Mitglieder alle im Ehrenamt
arbeiten. Und wenn eine Arbeitsgruppe bei uns in Köln arbeitet, bewirten wir sie in der Kantine. Wir sollten aber differenzieren: Die meisten Fehler im Umgang mit Geldern sind Fehler, bei denen
sich jemand vertan hat. Wenn jemand aber wirklich das System missbrauchen will, wird er davon nicht wegen kleinteiliger Berichtspflichten absehen. Die entscheidende Frage für mich lautet:
Schaffen wir es, durch unsere überbordende Drittmittelüberwachung deren Verausgabung zu beschleunigen, zielgerichteter, sachgerechter zu machen und die Projektqualität zu verbessern? Ja oder
nein? Und wenn die Antwort nein ist, sollten wir es lassen. 




Kostenfreien Newsletter abonnieren




In eigener Sache: Blog-Finanzierung














Wie dieser Blog finanziell aufgestellt ist, warum er Ihre Unterstützung braucht – und welche Artikel im November am meisten gelesen
wurden. 



 



Mehr lesen...









"Die Wissenschaft hat sich zu wenig den Bedürfnissen der Gesellschaft gestellt – das ist vorbei"



Wissenschaftsministerin Petra Olschowski über den Gang der ETH Zürich nach Deutschland, den Umbau der Lehrerbildung, die Zukunft der Kultusministerkonferenz – und die Frage, ob
Baden-Württemberg das neue Ruhrgebiet ist. (18. Dezember 2023) >>>

Dottorato di ricerca in Biotecnologia degli alimenti ; This PhD research project focused on the optimization of the biotechnological process for vanillin production from ferulic acid using recombinant Escherichia coli cells. Nowadays flavours market covers about one fourth of the global food additives market with a 25 million dollar turnover and a 5.5% growth rate. Flavouring compounds are generally produced by chemical synthesis or extractive methods from natural sources. Flavours produced by chemical synthesis, are classified as "artificial flavours"; also these processes are damaging for environment and cause some problems with unwanted compounds, with reduction of the process efficiency and rise of the product recovery costs. On the other hand, extraction processes from plants are often more expensive because of the low concentrations of the molecules target in the raw material. Moreover cost of aromatic compounds extracted from plants depends on uncontrollable factors such as plant diseases and weather conditions. The drawbacks of both methods and the increasing interest of consumers in natural product (Sinha et al., 2008), reported in recent market surveys, have led a great interest in the exploration of more "eco-friendly" procedures for production of natural flavours. Vanillin is the major compound responsible for vanilla aroma. It is one of the most commonly used aromatic compounds in drugs and food industry. Since vanillin extracted from cured vanilla beans is very expensive and its availability depends on plantations production, curing process duration and labour costs. Synthetically produced vanillin is the most commonly used in vanilla flavoured products, and covering 99% of the global market. According to the regulation No 1334/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council, vanillin produced by biotechnology from natural feedstocks can be classified as 'natural flavoring', provided that the source is always specified. All these factors make vanillin an important commercial target for biotechnological industry, and bases and applied research. Since vanillin is an intermediate product of the ferulic acid catabolism (a compound present in significant quantities in the lignocellulosic material) it is possible to confer the ability to convert ferulic acid to vanillin, through metabolic engineering, to strains unable to degrade ferulic acid. Unfortunately these bioconversion processes are not economically competitive yet; the high chemical activity and toxicity of both the product (vanillin) and the substrate (ferulic acid) cause low yield in the bioconversion process. With this research project, aiming at develop a competitive bioconversion process for vanillin production, many factors influencing the system productivity and selectivity, have been optimized. Bioconversion experiments carried out using resting cells of E. coli demonstrated that composition and pH of bioconversion buffer affected the formation of vanillin and unwanted products such as vanillyl alcohol. Using moderately alkaline bioconversion buffer (pH 9.0) it has been possible to double the amount of final product, with respect to the systems until now described. Using the statistical approach of the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) it has been possible to evaluate the synergic effect of ferulic acid concentration and stirring speed on the productivity and selectivity of the bioconversion process. Our results demonstrated that the highest vanillin title obtained incubating cells at 135-165 rpm range and initial ferulic acid concentration of 12-18 mM. Under optimized working conditions, vanillin yield increased from 8.51 ± 0.02 to 11.63 ± 0.1 mM, while, ferulic acid concentration higher than 20 mM cause a drastic decrease in vanillin production. Finally, to maintain low initial concentration of ferulic acid in the bioconversion buffer a two-phase (solid-liquid) system for the controlled release of the substrate has been developed. Using agarose gel cylinders containing ferulic acid, in conjunction with optimized buffer and nutrient amendments (LB medium), we demonstrated that, compared to previous results (Barghini et al., 2007), it is possible to increase vanillin final title (up 20%); to reduce the bioconversion time from 4 to 1 day; to increase the final vanillin concentration in the liquid phase of 5-fold. The maximum amount of accumulated vanillin in the liquid phase under optimized conditions was 20.57 ± 0.05 mM, the highest found in the literature for recombinant E. coli strains. In conclusion, results obtained demonstrated that vanillin production by resting cells of E. coli can be increased significantly by acting on several parameters, including the bioconversion buffer formulation and the way to modulate the substrate concentration. ; Questo progetto di tesi ha riguardato lo studio e l'ottimizzazione della produzione biotecnologica di vanillina a partire da acido ferulico utilizzando ceppi ricombinanti di Escherichia coli. Attualmente, il mercato degli aromi copre circa un quarto del mercato mondiale degli additivi alimentari, e il suo giro d'affari è stimato in 25 milioni di dollari, con un tasso di crescita annuo del 5.5%. I composti aromatici vengono generalmente prodotti per sintesi chimica o per via estrattiva da matrici naturali. Le sostanze aromatizzanti ottenute per sintesi chimica, anche se a partire da materie prime naturali, sono classificate come "aromi artificiali"; inoltre questo tipo di processi possono essere dannosi per l'ambiente e comportare alcuni problemi come la formazione di composti non desiderati, con conseguente riduzione nell'efficienza del processo e aumento dei costi di recupero del prodotto. D'altra parte i processi di estrazione da matrici naturali sono spesso costosi a causa della bassa concentrazione delle molecole di interesse. In questo caso i maggiori svantaggi sono legati al fattori ambientali e climatici che comportano un prezzo di mercato molto alto. Gli svantaggi dei metodi estrattivi e di sintesi, e l'interesse crescente dei consumatori per prodotti naturali (Sinha et al. 2008), ha portato alla ricerca di strategie ecosostenibili per la produzione di aromi naturali, come la vanillina. La vanillina è il composto caratterizzante dell'aroma di vaniglia, e rappresenta una delle principali sostanze aromatizzanti impiegate nell'industria alimentare e farmaceutica. La vanillina estratta dai baccelli curati dell'orchidea Vanilla planifolia è molto costosa, poiché la sua produzione è limitata dall'areale di diffusione della pianta, da fattori climatici e ambientali che condizionano lo sviluppo della pianta, dall'impollinazione che deve essere effettuata manualmente e dalla durata del processo di cura dei baccelli di vaniglia. Nei prodotti aromatizzati alla vaniglia si utilizza quasi esclusivamente vanillina ottenuta per sintetica chimica, che di fatto ricopre circa il 99% del mercato mondiale. In accordo con il Regolamento Europeo 1334/2008 del Parlamento e del Consiglio, la vanillina prodotta per via biotecnologica a partire da materie prime naturali è classificabile come aroma naturale a condizione che la matrice di partenza venga sempre specificata. Questi fattori rendono la vanillina un target commerciale importante per le industrie biotecnologiche, e per la ricerca di base e applicata. Poiché la vanillina è un intermedio del catabolismo dell'acido ferulico (composto presente in abbondanza negli scarti lignocellulosici), ed i geni che codificano per gli enzimi responsabili della degradazione dell'acido ferulico sono stati caratterizzati, è possibile conferire la capacità di convertire l'acido ferulico in vanillina, tramite tecniche di ingegneria metabolica, anche a ceppi che non sono in grado di degradare questo composto. Purtroppo i processi per la produzione biotecnologica di vanillina non sono ancora competitivi dal punto di vista economico; l'elevata reattività della vanillina e la tossicità sia del prodotto che del substrato (acido ferulico) comportano basse rese e alti costi nel recupero del prodotto, nonché un alto impatto ambientale a una selettività poco elevata, il che può portare alla formazione di prodotti indesiderati la cui presenza può essere incompatibile con l'uso alimentare. In questo lavoro di tesi è stata valutata la possibilità di utilizzare cellule resting di E. coli per produrre vanillina a partire da acido ferulico, andando a valutare parametri importanti che influenzano la produttività e la selettività del sistema catalitico. I risultati ottenuti hanno evidenziato che l'efficacia del processo di bioconversione è strettamente collegata alla formulazione e al pH del mezzo di bioconversione. Utilizzando tamponi di bioconversione moderatamente alcalini (pH 9.0) è possibile ottenere un incremento di due volte nella quantità di prodotto finale rispetto ai sistemi fino ad oggi descritti. Inoltre, utilizzando l'approccio statistico della Superficie di Risposta (Response Surfece Methodology, RSM) è stato possibile valutare l'effetto sinergico della concentrazione iniziale di acido ferulico e della velocità di agitazione sulla resa molare e la selettività del sistema catalitico. Tali prove hanno dimostrato che entrambe le variabili influenzano il processo e che i risultati migliori sono ottenuti fissando la velocità di agitazione tra 135-165 rpm e la concentrazione di acido ferulico tra 12-18 mM. Nelle condizioni ottimali individuate nel presente lavoro la vanillina prodotta con cellule resting di E. coli FR13 è aumentata da 8.51 ± 0.02 a 11.63 ± 0.1 mM. Concentrazioni iniziali di acido ferulico superiori a 20 mM causano un drastico decremento nella quantità massima di vanillina. Infine, per controllare la concentrazione di acido ferulico nel mezzo di bioconversione è stato sviluppato un sistema a due fasi (solido-liquido) per il rilascio controllato del substrato nel mezzo di bioconversione. Utilizzando acido ferulico intrappolato all'interno di cilindri di agarosio è stato possibile, rispetto a quanto ottenuto in studi precedenti (Barghini et al., 2007), incrementare la quantità massima di vanillina prodotta del 20%; ridurre la durata del processo da 4 ad un giorno; aumentare la concentrazione di vanillina nel mezzo liquido di cinque volte, fino a 20.57 mM , la quantità più alta attualmente ottenuta in letteratura sfruttando cellule resting di E. coli. In conclusione i dati mostrati indicano che la produzione di vanillina mediante cellule resting di E. coli può essere incrementata in modo significativo agendo su più parametri di processo, inclusi la formulazione del mezzo di bioconversione e la modalità di somministrazione del substrato.

As world leaders gather in New York for the United Nations General Assembly, there is a palpable sense that the global balance of power is shifting. Three decades after the end of the Cold War, the unipolar moment appears to have given way to a far more complex system of geopolitics.BRICS — a non-Western geopolitical grouping led by Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa — doubled its size a few weeks ago when it invited six states from the Global South to join its ranks. And well over a year into the war in Ukraine, most countries have chosen not to join the West in its sanctions regime against Russia despite intense diplomatic pressure. "As the unipolar era that followed the end of the Cold War recedes, the global South is coming alive once again," wrote Sarang Shidore in a recent essay for Foreign Affairs. "But its guiding principle this time is not idealism but realism, with an unhesitating embrace of national interests and increased recourse to power politics."To better understand these trends, RS sat down with Shidore, who recently took over the new Global South Program at the Quincy Institute. Shidore brings an unconventional yet realist perspective on the end of the unipolar moment and the rise of a new world order. His message is clear: The U.S. can't stop the rise of a new order, but it can help shape certain trends in its favor if policymakers can accept that unipolarity is, in fact, dead. The following conversation has been edited for length and clarity.RS: Why do you find the category of the "Global South" useful? Why is it analytically valuable?Shidore: The key is to understand that the world is not equitable when it comes to power — not just wealth, not just income, but power. Power is a squishy quality, but it is, at the end of the day, what makes things happen.When you look at the power map of the world, you see some clear winners and some others who are not quite in the room. The winners are the United States and its core allies in Europe, probably Japan, probably Korea to a large degree. You have the other great powers, Russia and China, who by virtue of being great powers can exercise influence and resist various pressures.What's left is a huge number of states. Now, not all of them are poor. The majority of them are quite poor, but there are some middle-income countries or even some countries that have become wealthy. Nevertheless, they are not in the inner rooms of decision making in the world order. They feel they cannot shape the world order in any substantial way. They're deeply dissatisfied in terms of their status and their influence.As with all labels, there is ambiguity. It's not a precise formula that you can punch in and get a precise answer. The point is that any definition like the "Global South" or the "West", if it's useful to describe an important dynamic in the world order, then it is of value.Of course economics is going to come into it. Of course the colonial past is a part of it. It's a tapestry. But nevertheless, it's a geopolitical fact. Broadly speaking, I would center it on geopolitics and power.RS: It's the geopolitical haves and the have-nots.Shidore: That's right. RS: So we've got this group of countries that's dissatisfied, that doesn't want to play great power politics, that wants to be involved in the system. Is that just a desire, and or is there an actual momentum towards change?Shidore: This is a debate. I think most people would agree that we are less unipolar than we were in the 1990s. Most people have accepted that something was lost in the war on terror, that America lost significant amounts of credibility and even took an economic hit and [suffered] a strategic setback. Then, of course, you had the financial crisis. With the financial crisis and then the Covid shock, you create a lot of damaging impact in the Global South. But nevertheless, after these three crises have happened, when we look at the world you still see that today, there are middle powers with significantly more influence than they had in 1992. There's easily nine or 10 of those. Not only do they have more economic power, but they also have more political savviness and ability to play the game of international politics, get their preferences noticed and acted upon, and sometimes really chart their own futures in their regions and beyond.Turkey is an example of that. It plays its game quite cleverly. Of course, it overshoots and has suffered economic shocks recently, and so forth. But the bottom line is, it's no longer the country it was in the 1990s, [when it was] economically much weaker, knocking on the door and patiently trying to get into the European Union saying, "We are Europeans. Please accept us as Europeans." They're now saying, "We don't care if you admit us or not. We are striking out on our own." One can agree or disagree with specific policies, but as an actor, Turkey is asserting itself. It's a variable thing. If you take military power, there's no doubt that the United States dominates the world, and no middle power can come close. If you take financial power, the U.S. again dominates the world. If you take economic power in a broad sense of the term, there things have really changed. Now you have China, of course, the big other in the room, by some measure bigger than the United States. In material terms, China is actually a bigger economy than the U.S. But all these other middle powers have actually achieved a relative economic level of consumption, travel, connectivity through technology. What they had in the 1990s was much less than what they have now. They're able to muscle their way into the debate, at least in some form. But there's still a long way to go for genuine change in institutions.This contestation is happening as we speak. It's going to play out over one, two, maybe three decades, and this is when we are going to have winners and losers on all sides. Ultimately, I'm most interested in what we do in the United States about it. Are you going to be in denial until it's too late? Or are you going to understand what's happening in the world and craft a strategy that benefits the American people and allows the U.S. to navigate the shoals of what is a more complicated and, in some ways, more treacherous world?RS: You're getting at something there about the difficulty of having an American state coming out of the unipolar moment and being in this position where it seems like this trend is a threat to American power. A lot of people will say China is the big problem, but it seems like you're laying out a much larger, broader threat to American power and its ability to enforce its will. Do you see it in those zero sum terms?Shidore: I think people are seeing it in zero sum terms. That's the problem. First of all, I think it's futile. If there was a button we could push and return to 1992, would many people press it? I think a lot of people would say, "Let's go back and give ourselves a second chance." Maybe a world in which America in 1992 had taken its victory humbly and said unipolarity is something we're going to sustain through an enlightened understanding of interests, maybe that would have been a wonderful thing. But that's not what happened. Now, it's too late to put the genie back into the bottle. We are inevitably heading in a certain direction, we cannot have the debates on whether we're gonna return to unipolarity, or whether that would have been a better world. What we have now is the reality of today's world and the world of the future.There are dangers in all orders. There is no perfect global order where all the bases are covered, everybody's safe, rich, and happy, and the environment is perfect. As it is there are threats. Climate change is a major threat. If we start adding threats and inflating threats, then we will have one of two reactions. One is that we will take measures that are far in excess of the real threat. And we have done that before, in the war of terror. We could have another version of it. The other end of the spectrum is we lose hope and confidence, and that's not a good thing either. So let's understand the reality of the world and understand that a lot of what are now called threats are either relatively minor, or they're actually opportunities. There are opportunities here to increase influence in the Global South. Just because country X has invited China to build a port doesn't mean China's going to have a base there. If you push it to choose, then maybe that will happen.There's an anxiety at work here. Behind the facade of confidence is the deep anxiety of losing America's mojo. I don't think America's mojo is lost. This is a huge country with a diverse set of people, and people still want to come and live here. It's got enormous resources. It's secure. There's no reason to lose confidence and get so stricken with anxiety.RS: We've got the General Assembly coming up this week in the UN. Something that Biden and the whole administration have planted a flag on is this idea of Security Council reform. BRICS, too, recently endorsed as a bloc the idea of Security Council reform. Is that one of the key things to move forward into an equitable system for some of these middle powers that really want a higher level of influence?Shidore: There's no doubt that that's a gold standard. The UN is the only really global body. We don't have anything comparable. But everything that I know about it tells me it's hard to change because the bar for reform is very high.I'm more looking at the other major global institutions, the Bretton Woods institutions: the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. There are possibilities there. But because that isn't moving either, alternative institutions are cropping up, whether it's the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, whether it's the New Development, whether it's bilateral projects like China's Belt and Road Initiative, they're stepping in and doing things on the ground. The World Bank System still remains among the biggest. It sets a lot of norms and standards. People look to the World Bank for a lot of things. But if it doesn't reform, there's gonna come a day when it just becomes one of many. That's not beneficial to the U.S. The impatience for change is growing. As we know well, the current design of the order is a 1945 design. We are practically 20 years away from 2045. So how are you going to reach 2045 and after 100 years there's been no significant change to the world order's design? I think that's just not a sustainable proposition.

O número 109 encerra o volume 34 da Revista Contexto & Educação, com quinze artigos. Quatro deles constituem a sessão Educação, Ambiente e Saúde ao tematizarem aspectos da formação profissional e estratégias de ensino. Nos outros onze artigos da demanda espontânea, os autores apresentam reflexões sobre desafios e proposições para a formação docente desde a perspectiva de valores, inclusão, educação científica, ensino de geografia e matemática. A diversidade de abordagens e referenciais instiga outros estudos sobre estes temas, que parecem tão próximos, ao mesmo tempo em que estabelecem propostas singulares de pesquisa.
Educação Ambiente e Saúde
Esta sessão inicia com a formação do professor de Educação Ambiental, passando por aspectos da formação de docentes e de estratégias de desenvolvimento da Educação em Saúde.
Rosangela Inês Matos Uhmann e Luciane Follmann, no artigo A perspectiva do professor na educação ambiental, relatam as discussões de algumas concepções e práticas pedagógicas sobre o tema, num processo de formação continuada entre licenciandos, formadores e professores de escola. Os dados foram construídos mediante análise dos discursos dos participantes dos Ciclos Formativos em Ensino de Ciências, no encontro que tratou das "Questões controversas em uma perspectiva crítica da Educação Ambiental que podem ser abordadas em sala de aula". Além dos aspectos documentais no estudo das leis ambientais, imagens (cartum) foram utilizadas para trabalhar com as questões socioambientais na Educação Básica.
Tatiane Motta da Costa e Silva; Caroline Andressa Bortoluzzi Zalamena e Rodrigo de Souza Balk, no artigo Educação inclusiva e redes de apoio: reflexões a partir de uma realidade escolar, analisaram o contexto de uma escola pública, a fim de identificar as estratégias de articulação e atendimento as/aos alunas/os com deficiência. Trata-se de um estudo qualitativo, caracterizado como uma pesquisa descritiva. O procedimento de coleta de dados ocorreu por meio da observação participante no ambiente escolar e em locais próximos à escola, e de entrevista semiestruturada com a coordenadora pedagógica da escola e com a gestora da Estratégia de Saúde da Família (ESF) adstrita. A escola possui 1.290 alunas/os, e, destes, 53 possuem alguma deficiência. A articulação entre a escola e a ESF ocorre por meio do Programa Saúde na Escola (PSE) e através do encaminhamento das/os alunas/os para atendimento no serviço de saúde.
No artigo, A interculturalidade na formação dos profissionais de enfermagem, Rosane Teresinha Fontana propõe uma reflexão sobre a questão, utilizando a revisão narrativa como método. A interculturalidade configura uma nova perspectiva epistemológica e objeto de estudo interdisciplinar transversal. O estudo tematiza a complexidade na formação em Enfermagem pode agregar valor ao cuidado. Em todas as áreas do conhecimento, a diversidade cultural só pode ser promovida ao reconhecer, como princípio fundador, o diálogo e o respeito entre as civilizações e as culturas.
Daniela Sastre Rossi Visintainer e Félix Alexandre Antunes Soares, no artigo, O desenvolvimento de estratégias de ensino para a promoção da saúde na formação docente continuada, utilizam a pesquisa-ação para investigar a contribuição de oficinas pedagógicas sobre a promoção da saúde na formação docente continuada. Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar o desenvolvimento de estratégias de ensino e aprendizagem contextualizadas com o tema promoção da saúde, a partir da percepção dos professores. Observaram que a contextualização do tema favoreceu o processo de ensino e aprendizagem e a mudança de hábitos em relação à saúde.
No artigo Educação em saúde, mediada por filme comercial, na formação de professores de ciências da natureza, Eliane Gonçalves dos Santos; Maria Cristina Pansera- de- Araújo e Graça Simões de Carvalho partem dos pressupostos de que as mudanças curriculares, a inserção das novas tecnologias, o contexto social e as condições econômicas e políticas da sociedade moderna afetam o processo de formação de professores. Discutem e significam a Educação em Saúde (ES), na formação inicial e continuada de professores, com uso do filme comercial "Uma Prova de Amor" (EUA, 2009)", a partir da questão que aprendizagens em educação em saúde são produzidas na discussão de filmes comerciais, em aulas da educação básica ou superior? Vinte e seis professores de Ciências Biológicas, em formação inicial e continuada, com reuniões formativas sistemáticas, participaram de sete sessões fílmicas. Em cada uma delas, o grupo assistia a um filme e discutia as compreensões de saúde e educação em saúde. A Análise Microgenética das transcrições das discussões produzidas mostrou que o debate e as interações no grupo possibilitaram ampliar e ressignificar o entendimento de saúde numa articulação de aspectos anatômicos, fisiológicos e bioquímicos, sociais, emocionais e ambientais.
A demanda espontânea inicia com o artigo Educação em valores morais numa perspectiva transdisciplinar, Daniel Skrsypcsak e Douglas Orestes Franzen, refletem sobre a questão, numa perspectiva transdisciplinar, em que estendem a discussão a partir das instituições, que oferecem a educação pública básica. Os autores estruturaram o artigo em três momentos: 1) considerações em relação à ética sob a perspectiva da complexidade de Edgar Morin; 2) conceitos sobre a transdiciplinaridade com Basarab Nicolescu, e 3) problematizam os valores morais na escola pública, buscando na transdisciplinaridade uma possibilidade de discussão. Defendem a elaboração de um projeto institucional, em que as ações e relações da escola tenham os valores morais explicitados de forma consciente e intencional.
Roberta Pasqualli; Vosnei da Silva e Adriano Larentes da Silva, no artigo intitulado Limites e potencialidades de materialização do currículo integrado: uma análise dos planos de ensino e diários de classe, objetivaram identificar e compreender os limites e potencialidades de materialização do currículo integrado no cotidiano dos cursos Técnico em Informática Integrado ao Ensino Médio, Campus Chapecó, e Técnico em Agroindústria Integrado ao Ensino Médio, Campus São Miguel do Oeste, ambos ofertados pelo Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de Santa Catarina – IFSC. O foco da análise foram 13 Planos de Ensino e 10 Diários de Classe dos componentes curriculares Oficina de Integração e Projeto Integrador, do primeiro e segundo semestres de 2015. Os resultados da análise mostram a complexidade do trabalho pedagógico no contexto do currículo integrado e apontam diferentes formas de materialização da integração nas Oficinas de Integração e nos Projetos Integradores.
No artigo, Temas e conteúdo do jogo de papéis: sinalizando caminhos para a atuação pedagógica com a atividade lúdica na educação infantil, Dóris de Jesus Moya, Marta Sueli de Faria Sforni e Paula Tamyris Moya afirmam, desde a Teoria Histórico-Cultural, que a atividade lúdica é fundamental no desenvolvimento psíquico da criança. Realizaram uma pesquisa de caráter bibliográfico, centrada na produção de Leontiev e Elkonin, que se ocuparam do estudo do desenvolvimento psíquico e da periodização do desenvolvimento infantil. Elkonin afirma que o jogo de papéis é a atividade lúdica que maior impacto exerce no desenvolvimento de crianças na faixa etária, que corresponde ao final da educação infantil. Por meio da compreensão dos elementos (tema e conteúdo) é possível reconhecer que nas instituições educativas, além de se reservar tempo e espaço para esse tipo de atividade lúdica, é preciso atuar pedagogicamente no conteúdo dela.
Giselly dos Santos Peregrino e Alessandra Gomes da Silva, no artigo Interculturalidade em that deaf: uso de tiras para problematização de estereótipos e preconceitos contra sujeitos surdos e sua língua de sinais, problematizam estereótipos e preconceitos contra as pessoas surdas e a língua de sinais, a partir do viés do próprio sujeito da experiência e do humor como estratégia para a desconstrução de ideias pré-estabelecidas e não ressignificadas.
No artigo, Utilização de modelos didáticos tateáveis como metodologia para o ensino de biologia celular em turmas inclusivas com deficientes visuais, Angela Michelotti e Elgion Lucio da Silva Loreto propõem alternativas aos alunos para visualizarem, manipularem, tocarem em modelos, que representem as verdadeiras estruturas celulares, auxiliando o aprendizado. Neste estudo, testaram a hipótese de que modelos tridimensionais de diversos tipos celulares, assim como de processos envolvendo células (multiplicação celular e a cicatrização), utilizados inicialmente de forma tátil, podem ser uma ferramenta eficiente para o ensino de biologia celular em uma perspectiva de inclusão de alunos com Necessidades Educacionais Especiais.
A formação interdisciplinar de licenciandos em ciências da natureza e o aprendizado das ciências do céu, de autoria de Gisele Soares Lemos Shaw e João Batista Teixeira da Rocha, apresenta a investigação do processo com três licenciandos em Ciências da Natureza durante uma oficina de Astronomia desenvolvida com estudantes do Ensino Fundamental. Por meio da análise textual discursiva de dados provindos de questionário, formulário de planejamento da oficina, projeto da oficina, planos de aula, anotações sobre a apresentação verbal da experiência, relato da experiência em formato de artigo, formulário autoavaliativo e entrevista, foram analisados conhecimentos e habilidades interdisciplinares desenvolvidos por esses licenciandos.
Fatima Passos Kanitar e Rosália Maria Duarte, no artigo Literacia de informação no ensino médio: referencial para pesquisa de informação científica, abordam as competências de pesquisa, seleção e tratamento de informação científica, com recurso às Tecnologias de Informação e Comunicação. Mostram as alterações realizadas no referencial de avaliação dessas competências junto a estudantes do Ensino Superior, da área de Educação, com vistas à formação de estudantes do Ensino Médio Técnico, da área de mecânica; e o seu uso nesse contexto.
No artigo, O ensino da geografia aplicado àa lei 10.639, Pedro Dias Mangolini Neves e Aldenir Dias dos Santos apresentam o projeto de intervenção pedagógica desenvolvido na Escola Municipal Professora Geni Chaves, localizado no município de Uberaba, Minas Gerais, com o envolvimento de alunos, professores e equipe pedagógica no nível Ensino Fundamental II (6º a 9º ano) tendo como foco o tratamento para a educação das relações étnico raciais de forma positiva, bem como o estudo da história e cultura afro-brasileira e africana.
Willian Simões e Adriana Maria Andreis, no artigo, Anoitece na cidade: dilemas e desafios do ensino médio noturno em tempos de reforma, debatem os resultados de uma pesquisa com estudantes (1.913), professores (103) e gestores (48) do Ensino Médio (EM) noturno, de escolas públicas estaduais de Chapecó/SC, sobre os dilemas e desafios do Ensino Médio noturno, em particular, de fatores que influenciam direta ou indiretamente nos índices de evasão/abandono e repetência por parte dos estudantes.
No artigo Realismo crítico e marxismo: contribuições à filosofia da educação matemática, Guilherme Wagner e Everaldo Silveira procuram elucidar pontos nodais do Realismo Crítico com relação às compreensões de verdade científica e progresso da ciência, explicando conceitos-chave como estratificação e emergência da realidade, relativismo epistemológico, ontologia e julgamento racional. Fizeram um estudo da primeira fase da obra de Roy Bhaskar, fundador da corrente filosófica, na qual se percebe as grandes potencialidades para o campo educacional das Ciências e da Matemática, haja vista seu caráter unificador.

2007/2008 ; Il problema della comparsa e propagazione veloce delle antibiotico-resistenze in ambiente ospedaliero, ma anche extraospedaliero, è divenuto ormai un'emergenza che solo un'attenta politica sanitaria può aiutare a combattere o quantomeno a contenere. Molti studi a livello nazionale e nell'ambito della comunità europea e internazionale concordano che solo l'uso oculato dei farmaci e l'identificazione immediata delle specie resistenti possono ridurre la diffusione del fenomeno, che attualmente provoca un notevole incremento della spesa sanitaria e un peggioramento della qualità di vita dei pazienti. I dati epidemiologici indicano una grande variabilità geografica delle antibiotico-resistenze, sia a livello di nazioni, che di singole realtà locali o addirittura evidenziano differenze circoscritte a piccole zone ben delimitate e questo rende praticamente impossibile estrapolare linee guida a validità universale, mentre è necessario creare programmi di sorveglianza adattati alla realtà locale delle specie batteriche e delle loro resistenze. L'industria farmaceutica cerca di sopperire alla costante richiesta di farmaci che possono essere efficaci contro le specie resistenti, ma lo studio di nuove molecole attive richiede molti anni e spesso la loro introduzione nell'uso clinico è in breve neutralizzata dai meccanismi di variabilità batterica. Il progetto di ricerca è partito da una prima valutazione della situazione locale, con particolare attenzione a microrganismi che presentassero antibiotico-resistenze con frequenze anomale rispetto ai dati nazionali o internazionali e verso farmaci di recente introduzione. Si è osservato un dato inconsueto per la resistenza degli enterococchi al linezolid, farmaco appartenente ad una nuova classe di antibiotici, gli oxazolidinoni, il cui uso clinico è iniziato in Italia nel 2001. A Trieste nel 2005 si è registrata una frequenza di resistenza (isolati resistenti e a sensibilità intermedia) al linezolid in enterococchi del 5,5% che non ha riscontro nei report periodici dei programmi di sorveglianza internazionali di tale resistenza (ZAAPS, LEADER, SENTRY). Si è valutata dapprima la strategia più idonea per verificare se la resistenza anomala al linezolid (LNZ) fosse reale o fosse dovuta ad una sovrastima delle resistenze prodotta dalle metodologie seguite. Nel 2006 sono stati caratterizzati (identificazione con strumenti automatici o in base a caratteri fenotipici; sensibilità ad antibatterici con metodi automatici o con test di diffusione in agar) e conservati a -80°C enterococchi isolati da tamponi rettali di sorveglianza, eseguiti regolarmente per il monitoraggio delle resistenze nei reparti ad alto rischio di infezioni (Rianimazione e reparti chirurgici), e da altri campioni afferenti al Laboratorio di Microbiologia dell'Ospedale di Cattinara, in particolare enterococchi con resistenza ai glicopeptidi o con dubbia sensibilità al LNZ per un totale di 121 ceppi (114 isolati dai tamponi rettali di sorveglianza e 7 da materiali diversi). Sono state poi valutate le condizioni più idonee per il rilevamento della mutazione G2576T, che conferisce resistenza al linezolid. Questa mutazione comporta il cambiamento di una base nel domain V della subunità 23S dell'rRNA ed è quella predominante in ambiente clinico. In particolare, sono stati valutati i seguenti punti: • Estrazione del DNA: con fenolo/fenolo-cloroformio-isoamilico e successiva precipitazione con etanolo o, metodo più veloce, trattamento a 95° per 10 minuti di una sospensione in 10 µl di acqua distillata di 2-4 colonie prelevate da una coltura on in agar sangue. • Scelta dei primers per l'amplificazione della sequenza di DNA comprendente il sito di mutazione, scelta delle condizioni di amplificazione e identificazione dell'enzima di restrizione più appropriato, NheI, che, in presenza della mutazione G2576T, procede al taglio del frammento di 745 bp ottenuto dall'amplificazione, generando due frammenti di 556 e 189 bp. • Acquisizione di ceppi di controllo resistenti al linezolid: sono stati forniti, dalla Dott.ssa R. Fontana di Verona, 3 ceppi di Enterococcus faecium con diversi gradi di resistenza al LNZ. In nessuno dei ceppi isolati a Trieste nel 2006 è stata rilevata la mutazione G2576T. I ceppi di controllo, sottoposti agli stessi trattamenti di estrazione, amplificazione e restrizione, hanno invece evidenziato il profilo elettroforetico caratteristico generato dalla presenza della mutazione; è stata inoltre rilevata la difficoltà di individuare la resistenza con i test di sensibilità, sia in automazione, sia in agar-diffusione, soprattutto quando solo poche copie di geni sono mutate. Nel maggio del 2007 è stato isolato il primo enterococco resistente ai glicopeptidi e al linezolid (E. faecalis), da un catetere di drenaggio toracico proveniente da un paziente trattato con vancomicina, ma mai con linezolid. Ciò ha dato il via ad una serie di prove per la caratterizzazione del ceppo, per la verifica della presenza della mutazione G2576T e per il controllo dell'eventuale colonizzazione intestinale attraverso colture da tamponi rettali di sorveglianza. Le prove effettuate hanno evidenziato la difficoltà, con i metodi solitamente usati in laboratorio, di isolare i ceppi resistenti in materiali con abbondante flora commensale, come sono i tamponi rettali di sorveglianza; nel materiale fecale possono infatti coabitare enterococchi resistenti e sensibili e una volta cessata la pressione selettiva, determinata dalla terapia, il ceppo sensibile prende il sopravvento su quello resistente, che sarà così difficilmente identificabile, pur mantenendosi spesso vitale e pronto a moltiplicarsi velocemente in caso di ripresa del trattamento, annullando l'efficacia terapeutica del farmaco. Per superare il problema, è stata studiata una apposita strategia, basata sulla coltura dei campioni su terreno selettivo per enterococchi (Enterococcosel agar) e sul successivo inoculo su agar Mueller Hinton contenente 4 µg/ml di linezolid (Lin-screen) di una sospensione densa (2 McFarland) di colonie H2S positive prelevate dall'Enterococcosel. Tale metodo rende possibile la selezione diretta di enterococchi LNZ-resistenti dai tamponi rettali. La sua applicazione ha consentito sia l'isolamento di E. faecalis LNZ-resistente dal tampone rettale del paziente da cui era stato isolato il primo enterococco resistente al linezolid, sia il ritrovamento di un secondo ceppo resistente ai glicopeptidi e al linezolid (E. faecium) in un campione fecale di un paziente in precedenza trattato con linezolid, ma mai sottoposto a terapia con vancomicina. Lo studio si è quindi focalizzato sui ceppi resistenti al linezolid isolati a Trieste, con la ricerca da un lato della storia clinica dei pazienti da cui i ceppi erano stati isolati, dall'altro con la conferma molecolare della presenza della mutazione G2576T e con la genotipizzazione dei ceppi resistenti e sensibili isolati dagli stessi pazienti. È stato inoltre valutata la frequenza della resistenza ai glicopeptidi nel triennio 2006-2008. I principali risultati ottenuti includono: 1) La dimostrazione che il sistema automatico Vitek tende a sovrastimare la resistenza al Linezolid: 9 ceppi di enterococco, la cui MIC per linezolid, determinata dal sistema automatico Vitek, era di 4 µg/ml, indice di sensibilità intermedia (I), sono stati saggiati con Lin-screen e con E-test: non è stata rilevata crescita e la MIC è risultata nel range di sensibilità dimostrando così che il 5,5% di resistenza (ceppi a sensibilità intermedia o resistenti) al linezolid rilevato nel 2005 era quasi certamente frutto di una sovrastima del Vitek. 2) La descrizione del primo caso in Italia di colonizzazione con E. faecalis resistente sia al linezolid che alla vancomicina: il ceppo è stato isolato da un catetere di drenaggio toracico da un paziente trattato con vancomicina per empiema pleurico causato da S. aureus meticillino-resistente (MRSA). La terapia con vancomicina potrebbe aver indotto la possibile selezione dei ceppi vancomicina-resistenti, ma il paziente non è mai stato trattato con linezolid e quindi resta inspiegabile la comparsa di tale resistenza; presenza continua di infezione da MRSA e procedure invasive (cateteri) possono essere fattori di rischio, come forse la contemporanea presenza in reparto di una persona trattata con linezolid. I ceppi resistenti isolati dal catetere e successivamente dai tamponi rettali di sorveglianza presentano il genotipo vanA e appartengono allo stesso clone, ma risultano genotipicamente diversi dai ceppi sensibili isolati dallo stesso tampone di sorveglianza, come rilevato dalla PFGE. Il ceppo resistente potrebbe quindi essere stato acquisito dal personale o dall'ambiente ospedaliero. Il caso è stato presentato con un poster al XXXVII congresso nazionale AMCLI (5-8 ottobre 2008) ed è ora oggetto di un lavoro per l'eventuale pubblicazione su riviste internazionali. 3) La descrizione di E. faecium resistente a vancomicina, teicoplanina e linezolid isolato da un campione di feci, con la tecnica del Lin-screen, in un paziente con pregressa infezione da VRE. Il paziente non è mai stato trattato con vancomicina; è stato trattato con linezolid per un breve periodo e ciò può aver determinato la comparsa dei VLRE. I ceppi resistenti a vancomicina e linezolid, isolati dopo il trattamento con linezolid, sono stati confrontati con gli E. faecium resistenti a vancomicina isolati dallo stesso paziente, prima del trattamento con linezolid: si è valutata sia la presenza della mutazione G2576T (presente solo nei ceppi resistenti al linezolid), sia la relazione clonale tramite PFGE: i ceppi VRE isolati prima del trattamento con linezolid e quelli VRLE colonizzanti appartengono allo stesso clone, quindi in questo caso si può affermare che il ceppo linezolid-resistente è derivato da quello sensibile dopo pressione selettiva data dall'uso, sia pur breve, del linezolid. E' stata confermata la presenza del gene vanA, tramite amplificazione per PCR, in tutti i ceppi vancomicina-resistenti. 4) L'osservazione che E. faecium vancomicina-resistenti (tutti confermati di genotipo vanA) provenienti da vari reparti ospedalieri, ma anche dall'esterno, sono geneticamente correlati (esame dei profili PGFE dopo macrorestrizione SmaI) e quindi parte della stessa catena di trasmissione; la trasmissione da paziente a paziente o attraverso oggetti contaminati o ancora attraverso gli operatori sanitari potrebbe spiegare la comparsa di VRE anche in pazienti non sottoposti a terapia con glicopeptidi, come nel caso descritto al punto 3. 5) E' stata infine dimostrata la praticità dell'uso del Lin-screen, la sua capacità di individuare batteri resistenti anche se presenti a bassissime concentrazioni in colture miste ricreate in vitro, i molteplici usi a cui può essere destinato: • Nei pazienti da cui sono stati isolati VLRE dove è necessario esaminare campioni multipli e a distanza di tempo per confermare la scomparsa di enterococchi linezolid-resistenti colonizzanti, infatti non sempre un primo campione negativo basta a confermare la loro assenza, campioni successivi possono nuovamente portare a crescita su Lin-screen, in dipendenza della minore o maggiore concentrazione dei ceppi resistenti e del modo con cui il prelievo è stato eseguito. • Per conferma della sensibilità intermedia o dubbia rilevata da strumenti automatici o dai test di diffusione in agar. • Per eventuali resistenze al linezolid non dovute alla classica mutazione G2576T. • Per il controllo della colonizzazione da parte di ceppi resistenti al linezolid in caso di un eventuale uso del farmaco, esame da eseguire prima dell'inizio della terapia, per escludere la presenza di isolati già in possesso della mutazione e quindi tendenzialmente pronti ad evolvere verso una maggiore resistenza, con il conseguente fallimento terapeutico; esame da ripetere al termine della terapia per confermare l'assenza di ceppi resistenti selezionati in corso di terapia. L'utilizzo del Lin-screen nei 2 casi descritti ha confermato l'ipotesi che VLRE e VLSE possono coabitare in siti normalmente ricchi di flora commensale; in caso di terapia la specie resistente potrà facilmente prendere il sopravvento, moltiplicandosi e diffondendosi in altri siti organici dello stesso paziente o, tramite oggetti contaminati od operatori sanitari o dagli stessi pazienti infetti, passare ad altri pazienti, se non vengono seguite attente procedure di prevenzione e di controllo delle infezioni. ; XXI Ciclo

Una corretta nutrizione degli animali d'allevamento permette di ottenere un adeguato livello produttivo e di benessere delle specie allevate, assicurando nel contempo il raggiungimento di ottimali caratteristiche qualitative dei prodotti derivati, in modo da garantire al consumatore alimenti che soddisfino i requisiti richiesti di sicurezza e salubrità e presentino un adeguato valore nutrizionale. In questo contesto, l'applicazione di strategie nutrizionali, inclusa l'aggiunta di additivi, utilizzati per migliorare le caratteristiche nutrizionali dei mangimi, può svolgere un ruolo determinante nella moderna zootecnia e costituisce uno dei temi principali del quadro normativo dell'Unione Europea. Nel presente elaborato sono presentati quattro studi in vivo che valutano gli effetti della dieta sulle performance quanti qualitative di polli da carne e suini; in particolare si sono considerati alcuni interventi quali l'impiego di emulsionanti, di un estratto polpe di oliva ad elevato tenore di polifenoli e di un probiotico nell'intero ciclo produttivo del pollo da carne, mentre per quanto riguarda la specie suina, l'integrazione dell'estratto polpe di oliva ad elevato tenore di polifenoli ha riguardato il periodo compreso tra la fine della gestazione e lo svezzamento dei suinetti, considerati due dei momenti più delicati dell'allevamento di questa specie. La prima prova sperimentale prevedeva l'integrazione di un emulsionante sintetico a 1200 pulcini ROSS 308, equamente suddivisi in maschi e femmine e suddivisi in 4 gruppi costituiti da 12 recinti e 25 animali ciascuno. E' stato utilizzato un disegno sperimentale multifattoriale 2x2 che permette di confrontare il trattamento alimentare (C vs T) e il sesso. L'additivo è stato somministrato in dosi di 1g/kg dal giorno 0 al giorno 12, 0,75g/kg dal giorno 12 al giorno 22 e di 0,5g/kg dal giorno 22 al termine della prova (37 giorni per le femmine e 44 per i maschi). Durante lo svolgimento della prova sono stati valutati i principali parametri produttivi (PV, IMPG, FI e ICA), mentre in fase di macellazione sono stati prelevati campioni di sangue, di tessuto epatico e del contenuto cecale per le successive analisi; è stato inoltre prelevato il petto per la determinazione della resa della carcassa e della qualità della carne. I risultati hanno mostrato che la supplementazione con emulsionante ha aumentato il peso vivo al giorno 12 (P=0.02), l'incremento ponderale nel primo periodo (0-12 giorni; P=0.06) e la resa alla macellazione (P=0.02). Relativamente alla qualità della carne, il gruppo trattato ha mostrato un significativo incremento dell'indice b* (P0.05), la concentrazione di composti fenolici presenti nel fegato rispecchia il livello crescente di integrazione; in aggiunta, è stata osservata una modificazione non significativa dell'espressione dei geni sopra riportati. In conclusione, la somministrazione dell'additivo oggetto della prova ha apportato dei lievi benefici, che tuttavia appaiono interessanti considerando il breve ciclo produttivo dei polli da carne. La terza prova sperimentale ha previsto l'integrazione dell'estratto di polpe di oliva, oggetto della precedente prova, a 18 scrofe pluripare (fase 1), omogenee per età e ordine di parto, suddivise in due gruppi sperimentali di 9 soggetti ciascuno (controllo = C e trattato = T), per un periodo di circa 40 giorni (da circa due settimane prima della data prevista del parto al termine della lattazione). Il gruppo T ha ricevuto una dieta basale (C) addizionata con l'estratto di oliva in quantità di 1,25kg/ton. Al termine della lattazione (25d), tutti i suinetti nati (n=180) sono stati suddivisi in 4 gruppi sperimentali costituiti da 45 soggetti e 9 repliche ciascuno (fase 2), per una durata di 42 giorni. I suinetti appartenenti al gruppo Ctr-Ctr, provenivano da madri C e non hanno ricevuto l'estratto, il gruppo CtrT, proveniva da scrofe controllo, ma ha ricevuto l'additivo; il gruppo T-Ctr nato da madri T non ha ricevuto l'integrazione, infine i soggetti appartenenti al gruppo T-T, nati da scrofe trattate, hanno ricevuto l'estratto di oliva. La fase 2 è stata suddivisa in due periodi (prestarter 0-14d e starter 1542d) e le diete degli animali T sono state integrate con 5,0 e 2,5kg/ton di estratto di oliva, rispettivamente nel primo e nel secondo periodo. Durante la fase 1, sono stati raccolti dati relativi alla condizione corporea e ai parametri riproduttivi delle scrofe, nonché campioni di colostro, per determinare la concentrazione totale di polifenoli e la capacità antiossidante dello stesso. Durante lo svolgimento della fase 2 sono stati invece valutati i principali parametri produttivi dei suinetti (PV, IMPG, FI e ICA). I risultati relativi alla fase 1 non hanno mostrato differenze significative in seguito all'integrazione dell'estratto; tuttavia i parametri produttivi e riproduttivi del gruppo T sono risultati superiori. Per quanto riguarda le analisi del colostro, il potere antiossidante delle scrofe trattate era statisticamente più elevato (P=0.05) rispetto al gruppo C, sebbene la concentrazione di polifenoli totali non ha riportato variazioni significative tra i due gruppi (P>0.05). La fase 2 ha presentato dei risultati più interessanti; il gruppo T-Ctr ha mostrato un maggiore peso vivo al giorno 42 (P=0.03) e un maggior IMPG nel secondo periodo (14-42d) e come media complessiva (0-42d) (P=0.03 e P=0.05, rispettivamente) rispetto al gruppo Ctr-T. Inoltre, l'indice di conversione alimentare (ICA), la resa alimentare e la resa alla trasformazione del gruppo T-Ctr hanno riportato valori statisticamente significativi (P0.01) rispetto agli altri gruppi sperimentali. In conclusione, l'integrazione dell'estratto oggetto della prova ha mostrato i migliori risultati sulle performance dei suinetti, sottolineando l'importanza del latte materno come veicolo di sostanze funzionali e suggerendo possibili effetti benefici del composto d'interesse sulle condizioni generali di salute degli animali; tuttavia l'impiego di estratti vegetali in alimentazione animale presenta un quadro molto complesso, caratterizzato dalla presenza e dall'interazione di molti fattori differenti. La quarta prova sperimentale ha valutato gli effetti della somministrazione di un probiotico costituito da Lactobacillus farmaciminis e L. rhamnosus sulle performance produttive di 960 pulcini ROSS 308 di sesso maschile per una durata di 48 giorni. Gli animali sono stati suddivisi in 4 gruppi sperimentali, costituiti da 12 recinti e 20 soggetti ciascuno; i 3 gruppi trattati (T1, T2 e T3) erano alimentati con una dieta base (CTR) integrata con 600, 400 e 200g/ton di probiotico, rispettivamente. Durante lo svolgimento della prova sono stati valutati i principali parametri produttivi (PV, IMPG, FI e ICA); mentre in fase di macellazione è stato prelevato il petto per la determinazione della resa della carcassa. I risultati relativi alle performance di crescita non hanno evidenziato differenze significative per i parametri analizzati, inoltre, non è stata osservata alcuna differenza statistica per quanto riguarda i rilievi alla macellazione, resa e peso del petto (P>0.05). Per concludere, la somministrazione del probiotico oggetto della prova non ha modificato i parametri considerati, tuttavia non sono da escludere possibili effetti dell'additivo sulla modulazione della flora microbica intestinale e sulle proprietà qualitative delle carni. In tal senso, saranno necessari ulteriori e più approfonditi studi per analizzare le conseguenze sul metabolismo generale di animali a rapida crescita. Analizzando i risultati ottenuti nelle prove sperimentali, è possibile affermare che l'integrazione di sostanze ad azione benefica nell'alimentazione degli animali da reddito è in grado non solo di modificare in maniera significativa i principali parametri di crescita degli stessi e la qualità dei prodotti destinati al consumatore, ma anche di migliorare le condizioni generali di benessere e influenzare positivamente l'equilibrio intestinale degli stessi. ; Optimal animal nutrition allows adequate productive performance and correct welfare conditions of livestock species; moreover, it ensures animal's products with high-quality characteristics that meet safety and security requirements for the consumers and guarantees a suitable nutritional value. In this context, the application of nutritional strategies, including the supplementation of additives, used to improve feed nutrition, may play a significant role in livestock production; it also represents an important issue in the regulatory framework of the European Union. In this paper, four in vivo trials are presented to evaluate the dietary effects on the quali-quantitative performance of broiler chickens and pigs. In particular, the use of synthetic emulsifiers, a polyphenols-enriched olive pulp extract and a probiotic was considered in the whole production cycle of broiler chicken. Whereas, the polyphenol-enriched olive pulp extract was added in the diet of sows and piglets to investigate the positive effects of this supplementation in two critical moments of the productive system of this species: the peripartum of the sows and the weaning of piglets. In the first experimental trial, a total of 1200 one-day-old ROSS 308 broiler chicks were assigned to four experimental groups consisting of 15 pens with 25 birds per pen. A 2×2 factorial design was applied to compare the different dietary treatments [control diet (CTR) or diet supplemented with AVI-MUL TOP (AMT) at 1g/kg from d 0 to 12, 0.75g/kg from d 12 to 22 and 0.5g/kg from d 22 to 44] and gender. Growth performance (BW, ADG, FI and FCR) were determined on days 0, 12, 22, 37 and 44 for males. One female chick (day 37) and one male chick (day 44) from each pen were chosen on BW basis and slaughtered to collect blood, liver samples and caecum content and to determine the dressing and breast muscle percentages. AMT supplementation increased BW on day 12 (P=0.02), ADG from day 0 to 12 (P0.05) on the growth parameters and caecum microbiological analysis among the groups; while the dietary supplementation significantly improved the b* index (yellowness) of animal skin (P=0.003). The extraction and quantification of total polyphenols and the expression of some lipid metabolism related genes (PPARα, ATGL, ACACA, CPT-1, ACOX and FASN) were performed from hepatic samples. The hepatic concentration of phenolic compounds did not show any statistical differences (P>0.05) among the groups, although it reflects the supplementation level. No statistical differences were also found in the gene expression. In conclusion, the olive pulp extract showed minor benefits on the growth performances, which however appear interesting considering the short production cycle of these animals. The third experimental trial was divided into two phases to investigated the effects of the polyphenolsenriched olive pulp extract supplementation on the performance of sows and piglets. During phase 1, 18 multiparous sows, homogeneous by age and birth order, were assigned to two experimental groups of 9 animals each. The dietary treatment were control diet (C) or diet supplemented with 1.25kg/ton of olive pulp extract (T). The compound of interest was added to the diet for a period of about 40 days (from two weeks before the expected date of birth to the end of lactation). Body condition and reproductive parameters were analyzed and colostrum samples were collected to determine the total polyphenols concentration and the antioxidant activity. In phase 2, 180 newborn piglets, homogeneous by body weight, were assigned to four experimental groups consisting of 45 animals and 9 replicates each. The Ctr-Ctr piglets were born from control sows and did not receive the extract, the Ctr-T group was composed by control sow's piglets who received the compound; the T-Ctr piglets group was born from treated sows and they did not receive the olive pulp extract and the T-T group was composed by treated sow's piglets who received the extract. Phase 2 was divided into two periods (prestarter from d 0 to 14 and starter from d 15 to 42) and dietary treatments were control diet (Ctr) and diet supplemented with 5.0 and 2.5kg/ton of olive pulp extract (T) in the first and second period, respectively. Growth performance (BW, ADG, FI and FCR) were determined on days 0, 14 and 42. The supplementation did not show any significant differences (P>0.05) in phase 1; however, it was observed that the body condition and reproductive parameters of the treated animals were higher than the control group. The antioxidant activity of T sows was statistically higher (P=0.05), although the total polyphenol concentrations did not show significant variations (P>0.05) between the two groups. In phase 2, the T-Ctr group showed higher body weight at day 42 (P=0.03) and higher ADG during the second period (14-42d) and overall (0-42d) (P=0.03 and P=0.05, respectively) compared to the other groups. Moreover, FCR, carcass yield and transformation yield of the T-Ctr group were statistically significant (P≤0.01) compared to the other experimental groups. In conclusion, the supplementation of the compound of interest showed the best results on the piglets' performance, underlining the importance of milk as a vehicle of functional substances and suggesting possible beneficial effects on the general health conditions. In the fourth experimental trial, a total of 960 one-day-old ROSS 308 male broiler chicks were assigned to four experimental groups consisting of 12 pens with 20 animals per pen.The dietary treatments were control diet (CTR) and diet supplemented with 600, 400 and 200g/t of METALACT (T1, T2 and T3, respectively). The probiotic additive was composed by a mixture of Lactobacillus pharmacimis and L. rhamnosus and supplemented for a period of 48 days. Growth performance (BW, ADG, FI and FCR) were determined on days 0, 11, 22 and 48. At the end of the trial, one chick from each pen was chosen on BW basis and slaughtered to determine the dressing and breast muscle percentages. The METALACT supplementation did not showed any significant differences (P>0.05) on the growth parameters investigated. In conclusion, the probiotic did not modify the growth performance, but it is not possible to exclude possible beneficial effects on modulation of the microbial intestinal flora and on the qualitative properties of the meat. The overall results showed that the dietary supplementation of beneficial substances is not only able to significantly modify the animal's growth performance and the quality of the products, but it is also able to improve the general welfare conditions and the intestinal balance of the livestock species.

Objective To identify the genetic determinants of fracture risk and assess the role of 15 clinical risk factors on osteoporotic fracture risk. DESIGN Meta-analysis of genome wide association studies (GWAS) and a two-sample mendelian randomisation approach. Setting 25 cohorts from Europe, United States, east Asia, and Australia with genome wide genotyping and fracture data. Participants A discovery set of 37 857 fracture cases and 227 116 controls; with replication in up to 147 200 fracture cases and 150 085 controls. Fracture cases were defined as individuals (>18 years old) who had fractures at any skeletal site confirmed by medical, radiological, or questionnaire reports. Instrumental variable analyses were performed to estimate effects of 15 selected clinical risk factors for fracture in a twosample mendelian randomisation framework, using the largest previously published GWAS meta-analysis of each risk factor. Results Of 15 fracture associated loci identified, all were also associated with bone mineral density and mapped to genes clustering in pathways known to be critical to bone biology (eg, SOST, WNT16, and ESR1) or novel pathways (FAM210A, GRB10, and ETS2). Mendelian randomisation analyses showed a clear effect of bone mineral density on fracture risk. One standard deviation decrease in genetically determined bone mineral density of the femoral neck was associated with a 55% increase in fracture risk (odds ratio 1.55 (95% confidence interval 1.48 to 1.63; P=1.5×10?68). Hand grip strength was inversely associated with fracture risk, but this result was not significant after multiple testing correction. The remaining clinical risk factors (including vitamin D levels) showed no evidence for an effect on fracture. Con clusions This large scale GWAS meta-analysis for fracture identified 15 genetic determinants of fracture, all of which also influenced bone mineral density. Among the clinical risk factors for fracture assessed, only bone mineral density showed a major causal effect on fracture. Genetic predisposition to lower levels of vitamin D and estimated calcium intake from dairy sources were not associated with fracture risk. ; Funding: This research and the Genetic Factors for Osteoporosis (GEFOS) consortium have been funded by the European Commission (HEALTH-F2-2008-201865-GEFOS). AGES: NIH contract N01- AG-12100 and NIA Intramural Research Program, Hjartavernd (the Icelandic Heart Association), and Althingi (the Icelandic Parliament). Icelandic Heart Association. Anglo-Australasian Osteoporosis Genetics Consortium (AOGC): National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia) (grant reference 511132). Australian Cancer Research Foundation and Rebecca Cooper Foundation (Australia). National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia). National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia) Career Development Award (569807). Medical Research Council New Investigator Award (MRC G0800582). Health Research Council of New Zealand. Sanofi-Aventis, Eli Lilly, Novartis, Pfizer, Proctor & Gamble Pharmaceuticals and Roche. National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia. Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, MBF Living Well foundation, the Ernst Heine Family Foundation and from untied educational grants from Amgen, Eli Lilly International, GE-Lunar, Merck Australia, Novartis, Sanofi-Aventis Australia and Servier. Medical Research Council UK and Arthritis Research UK. The Victorian Health Promotion Foundation and the Geelong Region Medical Research Foundation, and the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia (project grant 628582). Action Research UK. DME is supported by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT130101709). This work was supported by a Medical Research Council programme grant (MC_UU_12013/4). B-Vitamins for the PRevention Of Osteoporotic Fractures (BPROOF) study: supported and funded so far by The Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw, grant 6130.0031), The Hague; unrestricted grant from NZO (Dutch Dairy Association), Zoetermeer; Orthica, Almere; Netherlands Consortium Healthy Ageing (NCHA) Leiden/Rotterdam; Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation (project KB-15-004-003), The Hague; Wageningen University, Wageningen; VUmc, Amsterdam; Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam. Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS): National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) contracts HHSN268201200036C, HHSN268200800007C, N01HC55222, N01HC85079, N01HC85080, N01HC85081, N01HC85082, N01HC85083, N01HC85086; and NHLBI grants U01HL080295, R01HL087652, R01HL105756, R01HL103612, R01HL120393, and R01HL130114 with additional contribution from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). Additional support was provided through R01AG023629 from the National Institute on Ageing (NIA). Genotyping supported in part by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, CTSI grant UL1TR000124, and the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease Diabetes Research Center (DRC) grant DK063491 to the Southern California Diabetes Endocrinology Research Center. deCODE Genetics. EPIC-Norfolk: Medical Research Council G9321536 and G9800062, MAFF AN0523, EU FP5 (QLK6-CT-2002-02629), Food Standards Agency N05046, GEFOS EU FP7 Integrated Project Grant Reference: 201865, The UK's National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre Grant to Cambridge contributed to the costs of genotyping. Estonian Genome Center University of Tartu (EGCUT): This study was supported by EU H2020 grants 692145, 676550, 654248, Estonian Research Council Grant IUT20-60, NIASC and EIT—Health and EU through the European Regional Development Fund (project No 2014-2020.4.01.15-0012 GENTRANSMED). Erasmus Rucphen Family Study (ERF): Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO), Erasmus University Medical Centre, the Centre for Medical Systems Biology (CMSB1 and CMSB2) of the Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI). Framingham Osteoporosis Study (FOS): National Institute for Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases and National Institute on Ageing (R01 AR41398; DPK and R01 AR 050066; DK National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's Framingham Heart Study (N01-HC-25195) and its contract with Affymetrix for genotyping services (N02-HL-6-4278). The Gothenburg Osteoporosis and Obesity Determinan Study (GOOD): Swedish Research Council (K2010-54X-09894-19-3, 2006-3832 and K2010-52X-20229-05-3), Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, ALF/LUA research grant in Gothenburg, Lundberg Foundation, Torsten and Ragnar Söderberg's Foundation, Västra Götaland Foundation, Göteborg Medical Society, Novo Nordisk Foundation, and European Commission grant HEALTH-F2-2008- 201865-GEFOS. Health Aging and Body Composition Study (HealthABC): the Intramural Research Program of the National Institute of Health (NIH), National Institute on Ageing. US National Institute of Ageing (NIA) contracts N01AG62101, N01AG62103, and N01AG62106. NIA grant 1R01AG032098. The Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR). National Institutes of Health contract number HHSN268200782096C. Hong Kong Osteoporosis Study (HKOS): Hong Kong Research Grant Council (HKU 768610M); Bone Health Fund of HKU Foundation; KC Wong Education Foundation; Small Project Funding (201007176237); Matching Grant, Committee on research and conference (CRCG) Grant and Osteoporosis and Endocrine Research Fund; and the Genomics Strategic Research Theme of the University of Hong Kong. The Osteoporotic Fractures in Men (MrOS) Study is supported by National Institutes of Health funding. The following institutes provide support: National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS), National Institute on Ageing (NIA), National Center for Research Resources (NCRR), and National Institute of Health (NIH) Roadmap for Medical Research under the following grant numbers: U01 AR45580, U01 AR45614, U01 AR45632, U01 AR45647, U01 AR45654, U01 AR45583, U01 AG18197, U01-AG027810, and UL1 RR024140. Prospective study of pravastatin in the elderly at risk (PROSPER): European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement No HEALTH-F2-2009-223004 PHASE. Rotterdam study I, Rotterdam study II, Rotterdam study III: Netherlands Organisation of Scientific Research (NWO) Investments (No 175.010.2005.011, 911-03-012); Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (014-93-015; RIDE2); Netherlands Genomics Initiative/Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Ageing (050-060-810); German Bundesministerium fuer Forschung und Technology under grants #01 AK 803 A-H and # 01 IG 07015 G. the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development ZonMw VIDI 016.136.367 (funding FR, CM-G, KT). Study of Osteoporotic Fractures (SOF): supported by National Institutes of Health funding. The National Institute on Ageing (NIA) and the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) provides support under the following grant numbers: R01 AG005407, R01 AR35582, R01 AR35583, R01 AR35584, R01 AG005394, R01 AG027574, R01 AG027576, and R01 AG026720. TwinsUK1, TwinsUK2: NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (grant to Guys' and St Thomas' Hospitals and King's College London); Chronic Disease Research Foundation; Wellcome Trust; Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Canadian Foundation for Innovation, Fonds de la Recherche en Santé Québec, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, and Ministère du Développement économique, de l'Innovation et de l'Exportation du Quebec. UK Biobank: This research has been conducted using the UK Biobank Resource (application No 12703). Access to the UK Biobank study data was funded by a University of Queensland Early Career Researcher Grant (2014002959). Access to the UK Biobank study data was funded by University of Queensland Early Career Researcher Grant (2014002959) and University of Western Australia-University of Queensland Bilateral Research Collaboration Award (2014001711). NMW is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council Early Career Fellowship (APP1104818). Women's Genome Health Study (WGHS): HL 043851 and HL69757 from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and CA 047988 from the National Cancer Institute, the Donald W Reynolds Foundation, and the Fondation Leducq Amgen. Women's Health Initiative (WHI) program is funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, US. Department of Health and Human Services through contracts N01WH22110, 24152, 32100-2, 32105-6, 32108-9, 32111-13, 32115, 32118-32119, 32122, 42107-26, 42129-32, and 44221. Young Finns study (YFS): has been financially supported by the Academy of Finland: grants 286284 (TL), 134309 (Eye), 126925, 121584, 124282, 129378 (Salve), 117787 (Gendi), and 41071 (Skidi); the Social Insurance Institution of Finland; Competitive State Research Financing of the Expert Responsibility area of Tampere, Turku and Kuopio University Hospitals (grant X51001); Juho Vainio Foundation; Paavo Nurmi Foundation; Finnish Foundation for Cardiovascular Research; Finnish Cultural Foundation; Tampere Tuberculosis Foundation; Emil Aaltonen Foundation; Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation; Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation; and Diabetes Research Foundation of Finnish Diabetes Association; and EU Horizon 2020 (grant 755320 for TAXINOMISIS). Barcelona cohort osteoporosis (BARCOS): Red de Envejecimiento y fragilidad RETICEF, CIBERER, Instituto Carlos III. Fondos FEDER. Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria (FIS PI13/00116). Spanish MINECO (SAF2014-56562-R), Catalan Government (2014SGR932). Austrios-A, Austrios-B: was supported by BioPersMed (COMET K project 825329), and the Competence Center CBmed (COMET K1 centre 844609), funded by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology (BMVIT) and the Austrian Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour/ the Federal Ministry of Economy, Family and Youth (BMWA/BMWFJ) and the Styrian Business Promotion Agency (SFG). Cantabria-Camargo study (Cabrio-C), Cantabria osteoporosis case-control study (Cabrio-CC): Instituto de Salud Carlos III-Fondo de Investigaciones Sanitarias Grants PI 06/34,PI09/539, PI12/615 and PI15/521 (that could be cofunded by European Union-FEDER funds). Calcium Intake Fracture Outcome Study (CAIFOS): Healthway Health Promotion Foundation of Western Australia, Australasian Menopause Society and the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council Project Grant (254627, 303169 and 572604). Canadian Multicentre Osteoporosis Study (CaMos): was supported by a grant from the Canadian Institutes for Health Research (CIHR) (grant No MOP111103). JBR and JAM are funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Fonds du Recherche Québec Santé, and Jewish General Hospital. Edinburgh Osteoporosis Study (EDOS): was supported by a grant from Arthritis Research UK (grant number 15389). European Prospective Osteoporosis Study (EPOS): EU Biomed 1 (BMHICT920182, CIPDCT925012, ERBC1PDCT 940229, ERBC1PDCT930105), Medical Research Council G9321536 and G9800062, Wellcome Trust Collaborative Research Initiative 1995, MAFF AN0523,EU FP5 (QLK6-CT-2002-02629), Food Standards Agency N05046, GEFOS EU FP7 Integrated Project Grant Reference: 201865. The UK's National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre Grant to Cambridge contributed to the costs of genotyping. Geelong Osteoporosis Study (GEOS): Canadian Institutes for health research operating grant funding reference #86748. Genetic analysis of osteoporosis in Greece (GROS): University of Athens, Greece (Kapodistrias 2009). Hertfordshire Cohort Study (HCS): supported by Medical Research Council UK; Arthritis Research UK; National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Musculoskeletal BRU Oxford; National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Nutrition BRC Southampton. Hong Kong: The projects have been supported by The Hong Kong Jockey Club Charities Trust, VC discretionary fund of The Chinese University of Hong Kong, and Research Grants Council Earmarked Grant CUHK4101/02M. Korean osteoporosis study in Asan Medical Center (KorAMC): a grant of the Korea Health Technology R&D Project, the Ministry of Health and Welfare, Republic of Korea (project No HI14C2258); a grant of the Korea Health Technology R&D Project, the Ministry of Health and Welfare, Republic of Korea (project No HI15C0377). Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam (LASA): largely supported by a grant from the Netherlands Ministry of Health Welfare and Sports, Directorate of Long term Care. MINOS study was supported by a grant from the Merck-Sharp-Dohme Chibret company. Malta osteoporotic fracture study (MOFS): financial support was received from the European Union Strategic Educational Pathways Scholarhip scheme (STEPS). The Osteoporotic Fractures in Men (MrOS) Sweden: financial support was received from the Swedish Research Council (K2010- 54X-09894-19-3, 2006-3832), Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, ALF/LUA research grant in Gothenburg, Lundberg Foundation, Torsten and Ragnar Söderberg's Foundation, Västra Götaland Foundation, Göteborg Medical Society, Novo Nordisk foundation, and European Commission grant HEALTH-F2-2008- 201865-GEFOS. Odense androgen study (OAS): World Anti-Doping Agency, Danish Ministry of Culture, Institute of Clinical Research of the University of Southern Denmark. Prevalence of osteoporosis in Slovenia (Slo-preval): was created as part of projects financially supported by the Slovenian research agency: P3-298 Geni, Hormoni in osebnostne spremembe pri hormonskih motnjah; Z1-3238: Genski in okoljski dejavniki tveganja za razvoj motnje pri remodellaciji kosti; J2-3314 Genetski faktorji in hormoni pri presnovnih boleznih; and J3-2330 Genetski dejavniki pri osteoporozi. TWINGENE: supported in part by the Ragnar Söderberg Foundation (E9/11); the National Science Foundation (EArly Concept Grants for Exploratory Research: "Workshop for the Formation of a Social Science Genetic Association Consortium," SES-1064089) as supplemented by the National Institutes of Health's (NIH) Office of Behavioural and Social Sciences Research; and the National Institute on Ageing/NIH through Grants P01-AG005842, P01-AG005842-20S2, P30-AG012810, and T32-AG000186-23 to the National Bureau of Economic Research. The Swedish Twin Registry is supported by the Swedish Department of Higher Education, European Commission European Network for Genetic and Genomic Epidemiology (ENGAGE: 7th Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013)/Grant agreement HEALTH-F4-2007-201413; and GenomEUtwin: 5th Framework program "Quality of Life and Management of the Living Resources" Grant QLG2-CT-2002-01254); NIH (DK U01-066134); Swedish Research Council (M-2005-1112 and 2009-2298); Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (ICA08-0047); Jan Wallander and Tom Hedelius Foundation; and Swedish Council for Working Life and Social Research. The Umeå Fracture and Osteoporosis Study (UFO) is supported by the Swedish Research Council (K20006- 72X-20155013), Swedish Sports Research Council (87/06), Swedish Society of Medicine, Kempe-Foundation (JCK-1021), and by grants from the Medical Faculty of Umeå University (ALFVLL:968:22-2005, ALFVL:-937-2006, ALFVLL:223:11-2007, ALFVLL:78151-2009) and county council of Västerbotten (SpjutspetsanslagVLL:159:33-2007). GRW and JHDB were funded by the Wellcome Trust (Strategic Award grant No 101123; Joint Investigator Award No 110141; project grant No 094134). DPK was funded by a grant from the National Institute on Arthritis Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases R01 AR041398. The funding agencies had no role in the study design, analysis, or interpretation of data; the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to submit the article for publication.

[SEPTEMBER 1896 - MAI 1906] [Anzeigen von Aufführungen des Landschaftlichen Theaters in Linz aus dem Vergnügungsanzeiger der "Tagespost" 1896-1927] (-) [September 1896 - Mai 1906] (1 / 1996 - Mai 1906) ( - ) Einband ( - ) I. Saison 1896 - 1897 (1.) 1. Zwei glückliche Tage. 2. Der Talisman. 3. Gebildete Menschen. (3.) 4. Das Bild der Signorelli. 5. Ein Rabenvater. 6. Die schöne Helena. (4.) 7. Die Zauberflöte. 8. Martha. 9. Die Schmetterlingsschlacht. (5.) 10. Martha. 11. Die Karlsschülerin. 12. Wettrennen. (6.) 13. Der Veilchenfreffer. 14. Der letzte Brief. 15. Carmen. 16. Der Meineidbauer. (7.) 17. Ouverture zur Oper "Mignon". Cavalleria rusticana. Ein Zündhölzchen zwischen zwei Feuer. 18. Die Orientreise. 19. Der Prophet. (8.) 20. Der Fechter von Ravenna. 21. Der Doppelhofbauer. 22. Der Widerspänstigen Zähmung. (9.) 23. Lolos Vater. 24. Die Hochzeit des Figaro. 25. Die Orientreise. (10.) 26. Dilettanten-Vorstellung. Eine Tasse Thee. 27. Yelva, die russische Waise. Die schöne Galathée. 28. Die Haubenlerche. (11.) 29. Circusleute. 30. Orpheus in der Unterwelt. 31. Circusleute. 32. Liebelei. (12.) 33. Aida. 34. Liebelei. Ein Zündhölzchen zweischen zwei Feuer. 35. Der Feldprediger. (13.) 36. Ein Böhm in Amerika. 37. Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor. 38. Die goldene Eva. (14.) 39. Wilhelm Tell. 40. Heimat. 41. Ein kecker Schnabel. (15.) 42. Der ledige Hof. 43. Othello, der Mohr von Venedig. 44. Der Evangelimann. 45. Die goldene Eva. (16.) 46. Trilby. 47. Die Zauberflöte. 48. Der Evangelimann. (17.) 49. Blaubart. 50. Der Heiratsschwindler. 51. Waldmeister. (18.) 52. Dinorah, oder: Die Wallfahrt nach Ploërmel. 53. Der Hüttenbesitzer (Le Maître de forges). 54. Mamsel Angot, die Tochter der Halle. (19.) 55. Der Nazi. 56. Das grobe Hemd. 57. Der Heiratsschwindler. 58. Die Zauberin am Stein. (20.) 59. Carmen. 60. Das grobe Hemd. 61. Die officielle Frau. 62. Aschenbrödel, oder: Der gläserne Pantoffel. (21.) 63. Der Richter von Zalamea. 64. Der Bajazzo (II Pagliacci). 65. Der Herr Ministerialdirector. 66. Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen. (22.) 67. Die Jüdin von Toldeo. 68. Künstlernamen. 69. Tata-Toto. (23.) 70. Trilby-Parodie (Tripstrilby). Ein toller Tag, oder: Ein einsamer Spatz. 71. Der Herr Expositus. 72. Bocksprünge. (24.) 73. Jägerblut. 74. 's Lieserl von Schliersee. 75. Die Wildschützen. (25.) 76. Königskinder. (26.) 77. Die Kreuzelschreiber. (26.) II. Saison 1897 - 1898 (27.) 1. Kabale und Liebe. 2. Ernani. 3. Vasantasena. (29.) 4. Mignon. 5. Mit Vergnügen. 6. Dorf und Stadt. (30.) 7. Der Carneval in Rom. 8. Gefallene Engel. 9. Margarethe (Faust). (31.) 10. Die Leibrente. 11. Hans Huckebein. 12. Heimchen am Herd. (32.) 13. Heimchen am Herd. 14. Das Käthchen von Heilbronn oder Die Feuerprobe. 15. Der Waffenschmied von Worms. (33.) 16. Heirat auf Probe. Die Chansannette. 17. Das Tschaperl. 18. Der Freischütz. (34.) 19. Die versunkene Glocke. 20. Max und Moritz. 21. Der verwunschene Prinz. Der Präsident. (35.) 22. Die kleinen Lämmer (Schäfchen) (Les petites brebis.) 23. Der Alpenkönig und der Menschenfeind. 24. Die kleinen Lämmer (Schäfchen). (Les petites brebis.) Die Zaubergeige. (36.) 25. Goldene Herzen. 26. Romeo und Julia. 27. Der G'wissenswurm. (37.) 28. Hänsel und Gretel. 29. Eine tolle Nacht. 30. Der Postillon von Lonjumeau. (38.) 31. Frou-Frou. 32. Die Entführung aus dem Serail. 33. Andrea. (39.) 34. Die Entführung aus dem Serail. 35. Die Großherzogin von Gerolstein. 36. 's Katherl. (40.) 37. Wildfeuer. 38. Die Chansonnette. 39. Der Salontiroler. (41.) 40. Der Struwelpeter. 41. Von Cesar. 42. Der Schelm vom Kahlenberg. (42.) 43. Eine tolle Nacht. 44. Der Betrogene Kadi. Flotte Bursche. (42.) 45. Königskinder. 46. Anonyme Briefe. 47. Die wilde Jagd. (44.) 48. Ihr Corporal. 49. Anonyme Briefe. 50. Renaissance. (45.) 51. Der Schlagring. 52. Der Hergottschnitzer von Ammergau. (46.) III. Saison 1898 - 1899 (47.) 1. Die Logenbrüder. 2. Ein Blitzmädel. 3. Der Königslieutenant. (49.) 4. Minna von Barnhelm oder Das Soldatenglück. 5. Ein Judas von anno neun. (50.) 6. Der Traum ein Leben. 7. Der Barbier von Sevilla. 8. Circusleute. (51.) 9. Hofgunst. 10. Mädchentraum. 11. Lohengrin. (52.) 12. Im weißen Rössl. 13. Die Räuber. 14. Im weißen Rössl. (52.) 15. Der Opernball. 16. Die Walküre. (54.) 17. König Ottokars Glück und Ende. 18. König Ottokars Glück und Ende. (55.) 19. Die Walküre. 20. Einer von der Burgmusik. 21. Das Erbe. (56.) 22. Die Walküre. 23. Die Walküre. 24. Die Regimentstochter. Die Schulreiterin. (57.) 25. Mutter Erde. 26. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. (58.) 27. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. 28. Der Pariser Taugenichts. (59.) 29. Der Bibliothekar. 30. Der Vogelhändler. 31. Der Raub der Sabinerinnen. (60.) 32. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. 33. Hofgunst. (61.) 34. Doctor Wespe. 35. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. 36. Ein deutscher Krieger. (62.) 37. Lügenmäulchen und Wahrheitsmündchen. 38. Der Troubadour (Il Trovatore). 39. Der Opernball. 40. Robinsons Eiland. (63.) 41. Pariser leben. 42. Der Vogelhändler. 43. Fuhrmann Heuschel. (64.) 44. Die Walküre. 45. Fuhrmann Heuschel. 46. Mutter Erde. (65.) 66. Die Afrikanerin. 48. Waldmeister. 49. Kosmos. (66.) 50. Die zweite Frau (The Second Mrs. Tanqueray). 51. Der Schlafwagen-Controlor. (67.) 52. Die zärtlichen Verwandten. 53. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. (68.) 54. Die Afrikareise. 55. Die sieben Schwaben. 56. Flitterwochen. (69.) 57. Der Protzenbauer von Tegernsee. 58. 's Haberfeldtreiben. 59. Der Amerika-Seppl. (70.) 60. (Wohltätigkeits-Akademie im landschaftlichen Theater.) (71.) IV. Saison 1899 - 1900 (73.) 1. Das Heiratsnest. 2. Mauerblümchen. 3. Die lieben Kinder. (75.) 4. Mauerblümchen. 5. Die Journalisten. 6. Hans. (76.) 7. Der Troubadour. 8. Der Schlafwagen-Controlor. 9. Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen. (77.) 10. Die Anna-Lise. 11. Die Jüdin. 12. Der lustige Krieg. (78.) 13. Faust. 14. Zaza. 15. Das vierte Gebot. (79.) 16. Zaza. 17. Undine. 18. Boccaccio. (80.) 19. Zaza. 20. Maria Stuart. (81.) 21. Tell. 22. 's Katherl. (82.) 23. Ewige Liebe. 24. Als ich wiederkam. 25. Hand und Herz. (83.) 26. Der Ring des Nibelungen. Das Rheingold. 27. Charleys Tante. (84.) 28. Hans. 29. Ungelöste Fragen. Des Löwen Erwachen. 30. Hoffmanns Erzählungen. (85.) 31. Der Ring des Nibelungen. Das Rheingold. 32. Hoffmanns Erzählungen. (86.) 33. Die Zauberflöte. 34. Der Ring der Nibelungen. Das Rheingold. (87.) 35. Der Bettelstudent. 36. Der Athlet. (88.) 37. Der kleine Zuckerbäcker. 38. Philippine Welser oder Die schöne Augsburgerin. 39. Cabale und Liebe. (89.) 40. Die Puppe. 41. Das Rheingold. (90.) 42. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. 43. Der Wildschütz. 44. Die Puppe. (91.) 45. Linzer Vereinsbrüder. 46. Das Rheingold. 47. Philemon und Baucis. (92.) 48. Der Sohn der Wildnis. 49. Der Freischütz. 50. Das Rheingold. (93.) 51. Schneewittchen und die Zwerge. 52. Goldfische. 53. Linzer Vereinsbrüder. (94.) 54. Der Evangelimann. 55. Die Puppe. 56. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. (95.) 57. Die Kreuzelschreiber. 58. Othello. 59. Der Athlet. (96.) 60. Urania-Theater. 61. Der Mikado oder Ein Tag in Titipu. 62. Eine Musikstunde. La Sorpresa. - La Varietà. Sinfonia Cosmopolita. Ich heirate meine Tochter. (97.) 63. Eine ruhige Partei. Mansieur Herkules. Eine Musikstunde. - La Sorpresa. - Restaurant fin de sièole. - Sinfonia Cosmopolita. - Vorführung des Kinematographen (Bernardographen). 64. Die Puppe. 65. Der Freischütz. (98.) 66. Das fünfte Rad. 67. Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen. 68. Der kleine Zuckerbäcker. (99.) 69. Frühling. 70. O diese Schwiegermütter. 71. Großstadtluft. (100.) 72. Zwei Wappen. 73. Um Haus und Hof. 74. Als ich wiederkam. (101.) 75. Dilettanten-Vorstellung. Lebende Bilder. Ehrung Bruckners. Aus der komischen Oper. Wiener Walzer. 76. 's Lieserl von Schliersee. (102.) 77. Almenrausch und Edelweiß. 78. D' Schatzgraber. (103.) V. Saison 1900 - 1901 (105.) 1. Gretes Glück. 2. Emilia Galotti. 3. Die Badesaison. (107.) 4. Festvorstellung. Ouverture zur Oper "Euryante". Der Kaisertag in Lohndorf. 5. Der Troubadour. (108.) 6. Abschied vom Regiment. Die Bildschnitzer. 7. Renaissance. (109.) 8. Prinz Methusalem. 9. Die Dame von Maxim. (110.) 10. Die Haubenlerche. 11. Der zerstreute Herr Professor. Unter falscher Flagge. 12. Die Jugend von heute. (111.) 13. Hamlet, Prinz von Dänemark. 14. Der Wunderknabe. 15. Die Verschwörung des Fiesco zu Genua. (112.) 16. Die Bildschnitzer. Cavalleria rusticana. 17. Wienerinnen. 18. Das vierte Gebot. (113.) 19. Der Barbier von Sevilla. 20. Eva. 21. Die Fledermaus. (114.) 22. Die sittliche Forderung. Die Bildschnitzer. Abschied vom Regiment. 23. Das Heimchen am Herd. 24. Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. (115.) 25. Die Prinzessin von Trapezunt. 26. Mutter Sorge. 27. Mutter Sorge. (116.) 28. Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. 29. Wienerinnen. (117.) 30. Der Freischütz. 31. Der Störenfried. 32. Eine reiche Frau. (118.) 33. Der Franzl. 34. Die Brautwerbung. (119.) 35. Flachsmann als Erzieher. 36. Die Stumme von Portici. 37. Flachsmann als Erzieher. (120.) 38. Donna Diana. 39. Wohltäter der Menschheit. 40. Die Landstreicher. (121.) 41. Linzer Drahrer. 42. Don Juan. 43. Das Glück im Winkel. (122.) 44. Rosenmontag. 45. Klein Rothkäppchen. (123.) 46. Der Verschwender. 47. Die Feldermaus. (124.) 48. Onkel Bräsig. 49. Die Landstreicher. (123. [125].) 50. Die Afrikanerin. 51. Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. (126.) 52. Flachsmann als Erzieher. 53. Donna Juanita. 54. Coralie & Cie (127.) 55. Tannhäuser und der Sängerkrieg auf der Wartburg. 56. Die Puppe. 57. Ein armes Mädel. (128.) 58. Franz Benus. 59. Gasparone. (129.) 60. Coralie & Cie. 61. Drei Paar Schuhe. (130.) 62. Josef Lanner. 63. Die versunkene Glocke. 64. Orpheus in der Unterwelt. (131.) 65. "Ein Blick in die Tiefen des Meeres" 66., 67. Urania 7./8. V. 68. Frou-Frou. (132.) 69. Renaissance. 70. Hedda Gabler. (133.) VI. Saison 1901 - 1902 (135.) 1. Die rothe Robe. 2. Die Unehrlichen. Zu Befehl, Herr Lieutenant! 3. Die Herren Söhne. (137.) 4. Ein Fallissement. 5. Der Bettelstudent. (138.) 6. Lohengrin. 7. Die berühmte Frau. 8. Die Herren Söhne. (139.) 9. Der Schmetterling. 10. Die Zwillingsschwester. 11. Leontines Ehemänner (Les Maris de Leontine.) (140.) 12. Noth kennt kein Gebot. 13. Undine. 14. Der Freischütz. (141.) 15. Zwei glückliche Tage. 16. Der Hypochonder. 17. Der Evangelimann. (142.) 18. Der letzte Kreuzer. 19. Der Troubadour. 20. Maria Stuart. (143.) 21. Figaros Hochzeit. 22. Der neue Simson. 23. Leontines Ehemänner. (144.) 24. Rübezahl. 25. Der Krampus. 26. Der Ring des Nibelungen. Siegfried. (145.) 27. Ein toller Einfall. 28. Don Carlos. Infant von Spanien. 29. Der Jourfix. (146.) 30. Orpheus in der Unterwelt. 31. "Ein "braver" Ehemann oder Drah'n ma um und drah'n ma auf". 32. Der Opernball. (147.) 33. Bruder Martin. 34. Zu Befehl, Herr Lieutenant. Zwischen zwei Feuer. Ein Stündchen auf dem Comptoir. 35. Sein Doppelgänger. (148.) 36. Der Ring des Nibelungen. Die Walküre. 37. Im Zeichen des Kreuzes. 38. Czar und Zimmermann. (149.) 39. Der Star. 40. Goldfische. 41. Das süße Mädel. (150.) 42. Cavalleria rusticana. Der Bajazzo. 43. Kean oder Genie und Leidenschaft. (151.) 44. Mignon. (152.) 45. Liselott' 46. Galeotto. (153.) 47. Das süße Mädel. 48. Am Nikolotage. (154.) 49. Die Jüdin. 50. Die Schneeflocke. Liebelei. 51. (155.) 52. Alt-Heidelberg. 53. Der fliegende Holländer. (156.) 54. Marie oder Die Regimentstochter. 55. Die Landstreicher. (157.) 56. Die drei Wünsche. 57. Fra Diavolo. (158.) 58. Hänsel und Gretel. 59. Der Ring des Nibelungen. Das Rheingold. (159.) 60. Carmen. 61. Die Großstadtluft. 62. Die drei Wünsche. (160.) 63. Der Sängerkrieg auf der Wartburg. 64. Der Kaufmann von Venedig. (161.) 65. Der lustige Kuchelbäcker oder Der Mehlspeismacher Zweckerl oder: Ein Freund in der Noth. Hedwig, die Banditenbraut. Der Dorfbarbier. (162.) 66. Große musikalische Akademie. Franz Stelzhamer. Ballet-Vorstellung. Die Zaubergeige. Der Veilchentreffer. Die Feldermaus. Die Walküre. Der Sohn der Wildnis. (163.) 67. Der kleine Lord. Mein neuer Hut. 68. Das Mädel mit Talent. (164.) 69. Der Carneval in Rom. 70. Der kleine Mann. (165.) 71. Der Waldmeister. 72. Das süße Mädel. 73. Johannisfeuer. (166.) 74. Der Feldprediger. 75. Der Obersteiger. 76. Bürgermeister Bojer. (167.) 77. Weh' dem, der lügt! 78. Die goldene Eva. 79. Die schöne Millibäuerin vom Tegernsee. (168.) 80. Der Dorfbader. (169.) 81. Wiener Humor. Ein pensionierter Amstdiener. Vierzehn Tage im Arrest. Linzer Firmlinge. 82. Die Z'widerwurz'n. (170.) 83. Nora oder Ein Puppenheim. 84. Die Schulreiterin. (171.) Oleander und Angelmunde. (uncounted.) VII. Saison 1902 - 1903 (173.) Vom landschaftl. Theater in Linz. 1902. (175.) 1. Die Nibelungen. Der gehörnte Siegfried. Siegfrieds Tod. 2. Die Nibelungen. Kriemhilds Rache. (176.) 3. Die Zwillingsschwester. 4. Der Vogelhändler. 5. Aida. (177.) 6. Das Stiftungsfest. 7. Die Hochzeit von Valeni. 8. Der Freischütz. (178.) 9. Die Schmetterlingsschlacht. 10. Krieg im Frieden. 11. Aida. (179.) 12. Die Hoffnung. 13. Alt-Heidelberg. (180.) 14. Heilmar. 15. Die Ahnfrau. (181.) 16. Der Opernball. 17. Der Probekandidat. 18. Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor. (182.) 19. Boccaccio. 20. Der Kreuzwegstürmer. (183.) 21. Der Burengeneral. 22. Mignon. 23. Im bunten Rock. (184.) 24. Stelzhamer-Feier. 25. Die drei Wünsche. 26. Das süße Mädel. (185.) 27. Im bunten Rock. 28. Martha, oder Der Markt zu Richmond. 29. Philippine Welser. (186.) 30. Madame Sans-Gêne. 31. Das Krippenspiel von der glorreichen Geburt unseres Heilands. (187.) 32. Die Geisha oder die Geschichte eines japanischen Teehauses. 33. Ein Ehrenwort. 34. Das Aschenbrödel. (188.) 35. Die Puppe. 36. Norma. 37. Es lebe das Leben. (189.) 38. Der liebe Schatz. 39. Der Trompeter von Säkkingen. 40. Der Sängerkrieg auf der Wartburg. (190.) 41. Die Logenbücher. 42. Othello. 43. Der Waldmeister. (191.) 44. Die Einquartierung. 45. Othello. 46. Hofgunst. (192.) 47. Francillon. 48. Monna Vanna. 49. Der Gottlose. (193.) 50. Zehn Mädchen und kein Mann. 51. Die Puppenfee. 52. Rigoletto. 53. Der Probepfeil. (194.) 54. Die Afrikanerin. 55. Johannisfeuer. 56. Die versunkene Glocke. 57. Familie Schneck. (195.) 58. Angot, die Tochter der Halle. 59. Der Maskenball. (196.) 60. Hutmacher und Strumpfwirker oder Die Ahnfrau im Gemeindestadel. 61. Cosi fan tutte oder Die Schule der Liebenden. 62. Das große Licht. 63. Alessandro Stradella. (197.) 64. Die Wildente. 65. Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld. 66. Die schöne Galathée. (198.) 67. Anno neun. Feenhände. 68. Stephan Fadinger. (199.) 69. Der Erbförster. 70. Bessere Menschen. Die Tochter. Zweierlei Tuch. 71. Jugend. (200.) 72. Der arme Heinrich. (201.) VIII. Saison 1903 - 1904 (203.) Theaternachricht. (203.) 1. Der blinde Passagier. 2. Der arme Jonathan. (204.) 3. Habsburg. 4. Lutti. 5. Der Rastelbinder. (205.) 6. Margarete. (Faust.) 7. Der Postillon von Lonjumeau. (206.) 8. Egmont. 9. Der Hochtourist. (207.) 10. Die Hugenotten. 11. Nacht und Morgen. (208.) 12. Nacht und Morgen. 13. Das Ewig-Weibliche. 14. Der Rastelbinder. 15. Cavalleria rusticana. Der Bajazzo. (209.) 16. Die Jugend von heute. 17. Der Kellermeister. (210.) 18. Wiener Blut. 19. Der Verschwender. 20. Der Strom. (211.) 21. Der Meineidbauer. 22. Götterdämmerung. (212.) 23. Der Herr Gemeinderat. 24. Die weiße Dame. 25. Die Tragödie des Menschen. (213.) 26. Die Tyrannei der Tränen. 27. Barfüßchen oder Die drei Männlein im Walde. (214.) 28. Der Kaufmann von Venedig. 29. Carmen. 30. Bruder Straubinger. (215.) 31. Queretaro. 32. Festvorstellung (216.) 33. Die Fee Caprice. 34. Robert der Teufel. 35. Sodoms Ende. (217.) 38. Der polnische Jude. 36. Der zündende Funke. (218.) 37. Er und seine Schwester. 39. Boccaccio. 40. Die schöne Helena. (219.) 41. Drei Paar Schuhe. 42. Frühlingslust. 43. Heißes Blut. (220.) 44. Figaros Hochzeit. 45. Zapfenstreich. (221.) 46. Die Einquartierung (Le billet de logement). 47. Die Journalisten. (222.) 48. Unter vier Augen. Der verwunschene Prinz. 49. Der Evangelimann. (223.) 50. Die Heimat. 51. Wiener Frauen. 52. Die Notbrücke. (224.) 53. Tonietta. 54. Bruder Straubinger. 55. Monna Vanna. (225.) 56. Seine Kammerjungfer. 57. Die Jakobsleiter. 58. Der Raub der Sabinerinnen. (226.) 59. Die Landstreicher. 60. Die Freunde. (227.) 61. Die drei Wünsche. 62. Zaza. (228.) 63. Fromont jun. und Risler sen. 64. Comtesse Guckerl. 65. Servus, Brzezina oder Indien in Wien. (229.) 66. Die tote Stadt. (230.) 67. Der Damenkrieg. (231.) Frühlingsluft. (232.) Pater Jakob. (233.) IX. Saison 1904 - 1905 (235.) Die Theaterspielzeit 1904/1905 wird von der Direktion Oskar Schramm und Karl Wallner am Samstag den 24. September mit der Neuheit "Der Meister", Komödie in drei Akten von Hermann Bahr, eröffnet werden. (235.) 1. Der Meister. 2. Der Veilchenfreffer. 3. Fidelio. (236.) 4. König Ottokars Glück und Ende. 5. Rose Bernd. 6. Orpheus in der Unterwelt. (237.) 7. Tannhäuser und der Sängerkrieg auf der Wartburg. 8. Das Veilchenmädel. 9. Wilhelm Tell. (238.) 10. Familie Schimek. 11. Zar und Zimmermann. (239.) 12. Die Glocken von Corneville. 13. Traviata. (240.) 14. Die 300 Tage. 15. s' Franzerl. (241.) 16. Götz von Berlichingen. (242.) 17. In der Sommerfrisch'n. (243.) 18. Cyrano von Bergerac. (243.) 19. Götz von Berlichingen. 20. Madame Sherry. 21. Die Ehre. (244.) 22. Ariel Acosta. 23. Madame Sherry. 24. Rosenmontag. (245.) 25. Fedora. 26. Der Wildschütz. 27. Die drei Tannen. (246.) 28. Rienzi der letzte der Tribunen. 29. Der Familientag. (247.) 30. Doktor Klaus. 31. Der Zigeunerbaron. 32. Bartel Turaser. (248.) 33. Traumulus. 34. Rienzi, der letzte der Tribunen. (249.) 35. Narciß. 36. Jung-Heidelberg. 37. Hänsel und Gretel. (250.) 38. Cavalleria rusticana. Bajazzo. 39. Pater Jakob. 40. Der Schlafwagen-Kontrollor. (251.) 41. Gyges und sein Ring. 42. Die Zauberflöte. 43. Die Herren Söhne. 44. Nachtasyl. (252.) 45. Der Evangelimann. 46. Maskerade. 47. Hoffmanns Erzählungen. (253.) 48. Zwei Wappen. 49. Der selige Toupinel. 50. Carmen. (254.) 51. Der Fremdenführer. 52. Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor. (255.) 53. Im weißen Rößl. 54. Die Gigerln von Wien. 55. Hoffmanns Erzählungen. (256.) 56. Fatinitza. 57. Der Trompeter von Säkkingen. 58. Wilhelm Tell. (257.) 59. Der Bann. 60. Des Teufels Antheil. (258.) 61. Turandot. (259.) 62. Die Zerstörung Trojas. (259.) Prinz Rosenroth und Prinzessin Lilienweiß oder Die bezauberte Lilie. Feenliebe und Ritterdumm oder Die beleidigte Rebelrose. (uncounted.) Ein Lustspiel. Die Dienstboten. (260.) X. Saison 1905 - 1906 (261.) Die Theaterspielzeit 1905/1906 wird von der Direktion Oskar Schramm und Karl Wallner am Samstag den 23. September mit dem Schauspiel "Morituri" von Hermann Sudermann eröffnet werden. (261.) 1. Morituri. 2. Cyprienne. (262.) 3. Ein nasses Abenteuer. 4. Figaros Hochzeit. (263.) 5. Maria Theresia. 6. Der Generalkonsul. 7. Helden. (264.) 8. Der Waffenschmied. 9. Prinz Methusalem. 10. Marie oder die Tochter des Regiments. 11. Ein Sommernachtstraum. (265.) 12. Orpheus in der Unterwelt. 13. Der Kilometerfresser. 14. Das Wäschermädel. (266.) 15. Die Ahnfrau. 16. Margarete (Faust). 17. Wiener Blut. (267.) 18. Die Jungfrau von Orleans. 19. Bruder Straubinger. (268.) 20. Wiener Blut. 21. Klein Dorrit. 22. Nora oder: Ein Puppenheim. (269.) 23. "Pufferl." 24. Die große Leidenschaft. (270.) 15. Pufferl. 26. "Pufferl." 27. Kettenglieder. (271.) 28. Am Tage des Gerichts. 29. Hans Heiling. (272.) 30. Die Brüder von St. Bernhard. 31. Hänsel und Gretel. 32. Die Schützenliesel. (273.) 33. Der Schwur der Treue. 34. Das süße Mädel. 35. Gummiradler. (274.) 36. Ninon von Lenclos. 37. Rigoletto. (275.) 38. Die Hugenotten. 39. Der Privatdozent. 40. Die Hochzeit von Valeni. (276.) 41. Frühlingsluft. 42. Johann Philipp Palm. (277.) 43. Die dritte Eskadron. 44. Der Barbier von Sevilla. 45. Gunther der Minnesänger. (278.) 46. Romeo und Julia. 47. Der Fall Clemenceau. 48. Das verwunschene Schloß. (279.) 49. Die Brüder von St. Bernhard. 50. Die Weber. (280.) 51. Josef und seine Brüder in Egypten. 52. Das Heiratsnest. (281.) 53. Die Logenbrüder. 54. Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor. 55. Mamselle Tourbillon. (282.) 56. Die Sittennote. 57. Die neugierigen Frauen. (283.) 58. Giroflé-Girofla 59. Carmen. (284.) 60. Der Meineidbauer. 61. Moschus. (285.) 62. Der Schätzmeister. 63. Genußmenschen. Die Sirene. Satisfaktion. (286.) 64. Das Käthchen von Heilbronn oder: Die Feuerprobe. 65. Drei Erlebnisse eines englischen Detektivs. (287.) 66. Die Schützenliesel. 67. Flachsmann als Erzieher. (288.) 68. Deutsche Bauern. (289.) Jubiläums-Wohltätigkeitsfest. (289.) Rückblick auf die Opernvorstellungen von 1896 angefangen. (291.) Einband (uncounted.) Einband (uncounted.)

LEIBNIZ UND SEINE SCHULE [2. BAND] Geschichte der neuern Philosophie (-) Leibniz und seine Schule [2. Band] (2,2 / 1867) ( - ) Einband ( - ) Geschichte der neuern Philosophie ([I]) Vorrede zur zweiten Auflage. ([III]) Vorrede zur ersten Auflage. (VI) Inhaltsverzeichniß ([XVII]) Erstes Buch. Leibniz' Leben und Schriften. ([XVII]) Zweites Buch. Leibniz' Lehre. (XXVI) Drittes Buch. Leibniz' Schule. Die Entwicklungsstufen der deutschen Aufklärung. (XXXVI) Erstes Buch. Leibniz' Leben und Schriften. ([1]) Erstes Capitel. Leibniz' Persönlichkeit ([3]) I. Spinoza und Leibniz. ([3]) II. Leibnizens universalistische Aufgabe. (4) 1. Endursachen und wirkende Ursachen (5) 2. Universalphilosophie. (6) 3. Universalreligion. (7) 4. Universalpolitik. (10) 5. Wissenschaftliches Universalgenie. (15) 6. Universum der Wissenschaften. (17) a. Bibliotheken und Akademien. (17) b. Allgemeine Charakteristik (Universalschrift). (19) III. Persönliche Charakterzüge (22) 1. Erfinderische Selbstbelehrung. (22) 2. Der kritische Mangel. Abneigung gegen Polemik. (22) 3. Toleranz. Abneigung gegen den Sectengeist (24) 4. Gemüthsheiterkeit (26) 5. Eigennützige Regungen. (27) 6. Zerstreute und vielgeschäftige Thätigkeit. (28) 7. Heroische Arbeitskraft. (31) IV. Die deutsche Aufklärung. (32) 1. Leibniz und Kant. (32) 2. Leibniz und Lessing. (34) Zweites Capitel. Biographische Quellen. Erstes Lebensalter. Familie, Erziehung, Schule. 1646 - 1661. ([37]) I. Die biographischen Quellen. ([37]) II. Erstes Lebensalter. (41) 1. Abstammung und Familie. (41) 2. Die ersten Eindrücke. (43) 3. Die erste Lectüre des Livius (44) 4. Die väterliche Bibliothek. (46) 5. Selbstbildung. Lectüre der Alten. (47) 6. Poetische Uebungen. (49) 7. Studium der Logik. (50) 8. Das Gedankenalphabet und die Gedankenschrift (53) 9. Scholastik und Theologie. (57) Drittes Capitel. Die akademischen Jahre. 1661 - 1666 ([59]) I. Der akademische Bildungsgang. ([59]) 1. Jacob Thomasius (60) 2. Die neue Philosophie. Descartes. (60) 3. Mathematische Studien. Erhard Weigl. (62) 4. Juristische Studien. (65) 5. Bewerbung in Leipzig um die juristische Doctorwürde. (68) 6. Die Promotion in Altdorf. (70) 7. Nürnberg. Die Rosenkreuzer. (72) II. Die ersten Schriften. (73) 1. De principio individui. (74) 2. Specimen difficultatis in jure. (75) 3. De arte combinatoria. (76) 4. De conditionibus. (77) 5. De casibus perplexis. (78) 6. Nova methodus. (78) Viertes Capitel. Leibniz in Mainz. Amtliche Stellung. Philosophische Schriften. ([80]) I. Johann Christian von Boineburg. ([80]) 1. Boineburgs Laufbahn und Stellung (81) 2. Politische Bedeutung. (82) 3. Sturz und Wiederherstellung. (85) II. Johann Philipp von Schönborn. (87) III. Leibnizens amtliche Stellung. (88) IV. Philosophische Schriften. (90) 1. Standpunkt. (90) 2. Bekenntniß der Natur gegen die Atheisten (92) 3. Brief an Jacob Thomasius (94) 4. Vertheidigung der Trinität gegen Wissowatius (96) 5. Ueber die philosophische Schreibart des Marius Rizolius. (99) 6. Neue physikalische Hypothese (105) Fünftes Capitel. Die politischen Schriften der mainzischen Periode. Die polnische Königswahl. Die Sicherheit des deutschen Reichs. 1669. 1670. ([107]) I. Denkschrift zur polnischen Königswahl. (108) 1. Geschichtlicher Anlaß. (108) 2. Abfassung und Methode der Schrift. (109) 3. Analyse des Inhalts. (110) 4. Das deutsche Interesse. (114) II. Die Sicherheit des deutschen Reichs. (117) 1. Geschichtliche Lage und Zeitpunkt der Denkschrift. (117) 2. Mittel der Sicherstellung. (118) 3. Gesammtunion. (119) 4.Particularunion. (121) 5. Verhältniß zur Tripelallianz. (122) 6. Der neue Rheinbund. (125) 7. Deutschland und Europa. (126) 8. Wegnahme Lothringens. Der neue Krieg. (127) 9. Frankreichs europäische Stellung. (128) 10. Frankreichs schiedsrichterliche Machtstellung. (130) 11. Krieg gegen Holland. (131) 12. Uebergang zur nächsten Denkschrift. (133) Sechtes Capitel. Plan der Französischen Expedition nach Aegypten. Leibniz' Reise nach Paris. 1672. ([135]) I. Enststehung und Geschichte des Plans. ([135]) 1. Die orientalische Frage im 17. Jahrhundert. (136) 2. Der Zeitpunkt des Vorschlags. (138) 3. Die Reise nach Paris. Ungewisse Lage. (139) 4. Die Denkschriften. Fehlschlagen des Plans. (140) 5. Nachheriges Dunkel. (141) 6. Leibniz und Napoleon. (142) 7. Die leibnizischen Denkschriften in England und Frankreich. (143) 8. Berührungspunkte zwischen dem leibnizischen Plan und der napoleonischen Expedition. (144) 9. Neue Irrthümer und Aufklärung. (145) II. Die Denkschrift. (147) Siebentes Capitel. Aufenthalt in Paris und London. 1672-1676. ([154]) I. Geschäfte für Mainz und Boineburg. ([154]) 1. Gesandtschaft nach London. ([154]) 2. Boineburgs Forderungen. (156) 3. Leitung des jungen Boineburg. (157) II. Wissenschaftliche Studien. (159) 1. Französische Sprache und Mathematik. (159) 2. Mechanische Erfindungen. Rechnenmaschine. (160) 3. Differentialrechnung. (161) 4. Streit zwischen Newton und Leipniz. (163) III. Rückkehr nach Deutschland. (168) Achtes Capitel. Leibniz in Hannover. Die Geschichte seiner hannöver'schen Lebensperiode, namentlich in politischer Hinsicht. 1676-1716 ([169]) I. Berufung nach Hannover. ([169]) 1. Habbeus von Lichtenstern. ([169]) 2. Briefwechsel mit dem Herzog. (170) II. Das Welfenhaus. (172) 1. Wolfenbüttel. Hannover. Celle. (172) 2. Johann Friedrich. (173) 3. Ernst August. (175) a. Die Primogenitur. (175) b) Hannover - Celle. (176) c) Genealogische Interessen. (178) d) Hannover - Brandenburg. (178) e) Die Kurwürde. Das Reichsbanner. (179) 4. Emglische Thronfolge. (180) III. Leibnizens Doppelstellungen. (181) 1. Hannover und Wolfenbüttel. (181) 2. Verhältnis zu Peter dem Großen. (182) 3. Hannover und Berlin. Die beiden Kurfürstinnen. (182) IV. Stellung zu Kaiser und Reich. (185) 1. Die europäischen Kriege. (185) 2. Die Kriege mit Ludwig XIV. (186) 3. Leibniz als Gegner der französischen Politik. (187) 4. Der erste Reichskrieg. (188) 5. Das System der französischen Reunion (189) 6. Das Pamphlet gegen Ludwig XIV (190) 7. Der zweite Reichskrieg. Das französiche und kaiserliche Kriegsmanifest. (191) 8. Das neue Jahrhundert. (193) 9. Der spanische Erbfolgekrieg. (196) 10.Leibniz gegen die französisch-spanische Partei. Das Manifest für Karl III. (198) 11. Schrift gegen den Frieden von Utrecht. (199) 12. Schrift gegen den Frieden von Rastadt. (200) 13. Die hannöver'sche Successionsfrage. Ker von Kersland. (201) 14. Die Wiener Pläne. Akademie. Rückkehr nach Hannover. (202) Neuntes Capitel. Politische Schriften der hannöverschen Periode. Geologische und historische Arbeiten. Reise nach Italien. ([204]) I. Caesarinus Furstenerius. (205) 1. Die Streitfrage. (205) 2. Souveränetät. (207) 3. Kurfürsten und Reichsfürsten. (208) 4. Deutsche und italienische Fürsten. (Braunschweig-Este) (209) II. Marschristianissimus (211) 1. Zeitpunkt und Anlaß. (211) 2. Die neufranzösische Politik. (212) 2. [3.] Die göttliche Machtvollkommenheit und Sendung Ludwigs XIV. (213) 4. Der Katholicismus Ludwigs XIV. (216) 5. Die Gallo-Grecs (217) III. Nationalökonomische und geologische Interessen. (220) IV. Geologische und historische Arbeiten. (222) 1. Reise nach Italien. (222) 2. Protogäa. (225) 3. Coder des Völkerrechts. (225) 4. Sammlung mittelalterlicher Geschichtsquellen. (226) 5. Geschichte Braunschweigs. (226) Zehntes Capitel. Die Wiederherstellung der allgemeinen Kirche. Reunionsversuche. ([228]) I. Die Reunionsidee. ([228]) 1. Die mainzischen Pläne. Leibnizens theologische Demonstrationen. ([228]) 2. Politisch-kirchliche Reunionsinteressen. (231) 3. Royas de Spinola. (232) 4. Der hannöversche Hof. Die Herzogin Sophie. (233) 5. Die Abtei von Maubuisson. (234) 6. Bossuet und Pellisson. (236) 7. Maubuisson und Hannover. (237) II. Reunionsverhandlungen. (238) 1. Bossuet's Glaubenslehre. (238) 2. Die hannöversche Conferenz. Molanus und die helmstädter Theologen. (239) 3. Die Jahre der Annäherung. (240) 4. Systema theologicum. (241) 5. Leibniz und der Landgraf von Hessen-Rheinfels. (243) 6. Leibniz und Pellisson. (247) 7. Bossuet und Molanus. (249) 8. Leibniz und Bossuet. (250) Elftes Capitel. Unionsbestrebungen. Societät der Wissenschaften. Die letzten Jahre des Philosophen. Die philosophischen Schriften. ([259]) I. Die Unionsidee. ([259]) 1. Die politische Zeitlage. ([259]) 2. Das Toleranzsystem in Brandenburg. (261) 3. Leibniz' Plan. (263) 4. Jablonski. Leibniz und Molanus. (263) 5. Hannöversche Conferenz. Leibniz und Jablonski. (264) 6. Das collegium irenicum in Berlin. (266) 7. Unionshindernisse. (266) 8. Leibniz' Verhältniß zu den kirchlichen Zeitfragen (Theodicee). (268) II. Societät der Wissenschaften. (270) 1. Veranlassung. (270) 2. Stiftung und Fortgang. (271) III. Die letzten Jahre. (274) 1. Tod der Königin. (274) 2. Letzter Aufenthalt in Berlin. (275) 3. Letzte Zeit in Hannover. Krankheit und Tod. (276) IV. Schilderung seiner Person. (278) Zwölftes Capitel. Die schriftliche Ausbildung der leibnizischen Lehre. ([283]) I. Die philosophischen Hauptschriften. ([283]) 1. Entwicklungsgang des Systems. ([283]) 2. Die Entwicklungsperioden. (286) 3. Vorbereitende Schriften aus der Zeit vor 1690. (287) 4. Grundzüge und Entwürfe (1690-1700). Das neue Natursystem. (288) 5. Ausführung und Zusammenfassung des Systems (1700-1716). Die neuen Versuche. Theodicee. Monadologie. (293) II. Ausgaben. (299) Zweites Buch. Leibniz' Lehre. ([301]) Erstes Capitel. Der neue Begriff der Substanz. ([303]) I. Die Untersuchung des bisherigen Grundbegriffs. ([303]) 1. Der Gegensatz von Denken und Ausdehnung. ([303]) 2. Die Probe der Thatsachen. (304) 3. Die widersprechende Thatsache. (305) II. Der Begriff der Kraft. (307) 1. Die Kraft als metaphysisches Prinzip. (307) 2. Die Kraft als Substanz (Identitätsprincip). (311) 3. Die Vielheit der Kräfte. (314) 4. Die Kraft als thätiges Wesen, als einzelne Substanz. (315) III. Das Princip der Individualität oder Monade. (317) 1. Individuation und Specification. (317) 2. Einheiten. Punkte. Atome. (319) 3. Substantielle Formen. Monaden. (322) Zweites Capitel. Die leibnizische Lehre in ihren Verhältnissen zur früheren Philisophie. ([325]) I. Leibniz und die Systeme der cartesianischen Schule. (327) 1. Spinoza und das Prinzip der All-Einheit. (327) 2. Descartes und die Occasionalisten. (333) II. Die materialistische und formalistische Richtung. (336) 1. Corpuscularphilosophen und Atomisten. (336) 2. Rehabilitation der antiken Philosophie. (337) 3. Die Scholastiker. (339) 4. Aristoteles und Plato. (345) III. Die leibnizische Philosophie als Universalsystem. (346) Drittes Capitel. Die Grundfrage der leibnizischen Philosophie. Die Monade als Princip der Materie und Form. ([350]) I. Die Kräfte der Monade als Bedingung der Natur. ([350]) 1. Das Problem. ([350]) 2. Die Kraft der Ausschließung. (353) 3. Thätige und leidende Kraft. (355) II. Die leidende Kraft als Princip der Materie. (355) 1. Materia prima und secunda. (355) 2. Die bewegte Materie. (362) 3. Maschine. (363) 4. Mechanische Causalität. (364) III. Die thätige Kraft als Princip der Form. (366) 1. Entelechia prima. (366) 2. Die formgebende Kraft. (368) 3. Seele und Leben. (370) 4. Zweckthätige Causalität. (371) IV. Wirkende Ursachen und Endursachen. (371) Viertes Capitel. Die Lösung der Grundfrage. Die Monade als Einheit von Seele und Körper. ([375]) I. Das Verhältnis von Seele und Körper. ([375]) 1. Metapysische Bedeutung der Frage. ([375]) 2. Der richtige Gesichtspunkt. (376) 3. Die Einwürfe. (377) II. Das Verhältnis von Seele und Körper im Widerspruch mit dem Begriff der Monade. (379) 1. Erklärung aus Leibniz' Lehrart (379) 2. Substantia completa. (381) 3. Harmonia praestabilita. (382) 4. Vinculum substantiale. (387) III. Das Verhältnis von Seele und Körper im Einklange mit dem Begriff der Monade. (389) 1. Die Seele als Zweck des Körpers. (390) 2. Der Körper als Mittel der Seele. (393) 3. Die Monade als Entwicklung des Individuums. (395) IV. Das Verhältnis der Endursachen und der wirkenden Ursachen. (398) 1. Vereinigung beider. (398) 2. Die Art der Bereinigung. (399) 3. Die oberste Geltung des Zweckbegriffs. (401) Fünftes Capitel. Die Monade als Entwicklung. ([403]) I. Die ursprünglichen Kräfte. (404) 1. Die Ewigkeit der Naturkräfte. Schöpfung und Vernichtung. (404) 2. Die constante Größe aller bewegenden Kräfte. Das Kräftemaß. (Leibniz und Descartes.) (406) 3. Die allgegenwärtigen Kräfte. Weder Vacuum noch Chaos. (413) II. Das ursprüngliche Leben. (414) 1. Die Individualität des beseelten Körpers. Keine Metempsychose. (414) 2. Der Ursprung der Seelen und Formen. Weder Eduction noch Traduction. (415) 3. Der Ursprung des Lebens. Keine generatio aequivoca. Die Präformation. (417) 4. Die ursprünglichen Individuen oder Samenthiere. (419) III. Der ewige Lebensproceß. (420) 1. Metamorphose. (Präformation und Transformation.) (420) 2. Geburt und Tod. (422) 3. Das unsterbliche Leben. Natürliche und moralische Unsterblichkeit. (424) 4. Leben = Entwicklung. Begriff der Entwicklung. (430) 5. Entwicklung = Vorstellung. (434) Sechstes Capitel. Die Monade als Vorstellung. ([438]) I. Die Vorstellung in den Dingen. (441) 1. Vorstellung (Perception). (441) 2. Streben. (Appetition.) (444) II. Die Vorstellung im Menschen. Analogie der Dinge. (446) III. Die Monade als Mikrokosmus. (450) 1. Individuum und Welt. (450) 2. Der Weltzusammenhang. (452) 3. Die Weltvorstellung. (454) Siebentes Capitel. Die Körperwelt. ([457]) I. Die verschiedenen Mikrokosmen. (458) II. Die Körper als Vorstellung oder "phaenomena bene fundata". (461) 1. Die beschränkte Vorstellung. (461) 2. Der Körper als nothwendige Vorstellung. (463) 3. Die verworrene und deutliche Vorstellung des Körpers. (468) III. Die Unterschiede der Vorstellung. (471) 1. Der Gradunterschied. (471) 2. Die niedern und höhern Monaden. Wachsende und gleichmäßige Vollkommenheit. (474) 3. Die niedern und höhern Organismen. Centralmonaden. (478) 4. Organische und unorganische Körper. (482) Achtes Capitel. Das Stufenreich der DInge oder die Weltharmonie. ([485]) I. Die Hauptstufen der vorstellenden Kräfte. ([485]) 1. Unterschied zwischen Leibniz und Aristoteles. ([485]) 2. Leben, Seele, Geist. (486) 3. Dunkle, klare, deutliche Vorstellung. (489) 4. Dunkles Bewußtsein. (491) II. Das Gesetz der Analogie und Continuität. (493) 1. Die Mittelwesen. (493) 2. Der Mensch als Mittelwesen. (Die Genien.) (496) III. Das Gesetz der Harmonie. (500) 1. Identität und Harmonie. Unterschied zwischen Spinoza und Leibniz. (500) 2. Die Harmonie als Naturgesetz. Einheit der Analogie und Continuität. (505) 3. Die unendlich kleinen Differenzen als Bedingung der Harmonie. (509) Neuntes Kapitel. Der menschliche Geist. ([513]) I. Die Natur des Geistes. ([513]) 1. Seele und Geist. ([513]) 2. Deutliche Vorstellung. Selbstbewußtsein. (517) 3. Persönlichkeit. (520) II. Die thierische und menschliche Seele. (524) 1. Gedächtniß und Erkenntniß. (524) 2. Sinnlichkeit und Vernunft. (527) 3. Das Vermögen der Principien. (529) III. Die Theorie der angebornen Ideen. (530) 1. Die angebornen Ideen als Erkenntnißanlage. (530) 2. Realismus und Idealismus. (531) 3. Leibniz im Unterschiede von Descartes und Kant (Fichte). (533) 4. Gegensatz zwischen Locke und Leibniz. (537) Zehntes Kapitel. Die Entwicklung des Bewußtseins. Die kleinen Vorstellungen. ([549]) I. Die Continuität des Seelenlebens. (551) 1. Die Thatsache bewußtloser Vorstellungen. (551) 2. Die immer thätige Kraft der Vorstellung. (Kein psychisches Vacuum.) (552) II. Zusammenhang des Unbewußten und Bewußten. (555) 1. Die kleinen Vorstellungen als Elemente des Bewußtseins. (555) 2. Die kleinen Vorstellungen als Bedingung des Mikrokosmus. (559) 3. Schlaf und Wachen. (Das Träumen.) (560) 4. Schlaf im Wachen. (561) 5. Die Gewohnheit. (563) Elftes Kapitel. Die Entwicklung des theoretischen Geistes: Aesthetik und Logik. ([568]) I. Die dunkle Vorstellung der Harmonie. ([568]) 1. Die ästhetische Vorstellung. ([568]) 2. Leibniz und Baumgarten. (570) 3. Leibniz und Kant. (572) II. Die deutliche Vorstellung der Harmonie. (574) 1. Vernunft- und Erfahrungswahrheiten. (574) 2. Der Satz der Identität als Princip der Vernunftwahrheiten. (577) 3. Der Satz des zureichenden Grundes als Princip der Erfahrungswahrheiten. (581) Zwöftes Kapitel. Die Entwicklung des praktischen Geistes: Sittenlehre. ([587]) I. Determinismus und Indeterminismus. ([587]) 1. Trieb (Instinct) und Wille. ([587]) 2. Kein leerer Wille (Willkür). (589) 3. Keine Willensindifferenz. (591) 4. Der determinirte Wille. (594) 5. Die innere Determination oder Neigung. (595) II. Prädeterminismus. (599) 1. Die innere Vorherbestimmung. (599) [Gedicht]: Auszug aus "Wallensteins Tod." (600) 2. Kein Fatalismus. (601) III. Die Entstehung des moralischen Willens. (602) 1. Angeborne Instincte und Maximen. (602) 2. Das moralische Naturell. (604) 3. Das praktische Gefühl oder die Unruhe. (606) 4. Die überwiegende Neigung und die Wahl. (607) 5. Das Streben nach Glückseligkeit. (609) 6. Das Streben nach Thätigkeit (Erkenntniß). (610) 7. Der vernunftgemäße Wille oder die Freiheit. (612) 8. Die Menschenliebe oder die sittliche Harmonie. (615) Dreizehntes Capitel. Der künstlerische Geist. ([618]) Die ästhetische Vorstellung und der künstlerische Wille. Natur und Kunst. Kunst und Religion. ([618]) Vierzehntes Capitel. Religion und Theologie. ([624]) I. Offenbarung und Vernunft. ([624]) 1. Ursprung der Religion. ([624]) 2. Das natürliche Gottesbewußtsein. (626) II. Monadologie und Theologie. (627) 1. Angeblicher Widerstreit. (627) 2. Uebereinstimmung beider. (629) 3. Theismus. (631) 4. Nationalismus und Supranaturalismus. (632) 5. Das Ueber- und Widervernünftige. (634) 6. Bayle und Tertullian. (636) 7. Leibniz und die deutsche Aufklärung. (638) Fünfzehntes Capitel. Die natürliche Religion. ([641]) I. Geist und Gott. ([641]) 1. Das sittliche und religiöse Streben. ([641]) 2. Natürliche und geschichtliche Religion. (642) II. Die Wahrheiten der natürlichen Religion. (645) 1. Gott und Unsterblichkeit. (645) 2. Judenthum und Christenthum. (646) 3. Gottesliebe und Menschenliebe. (648) Sechszehntes Capitel. Die natürliche Theologie. ([651]) I. Die Beweise vom Dasein Gottes. ([651]) 1. Die Beweisarten. Die ontologische. ([651]) 2. Die kosmologische (physikotheologische). (653) 3. Der Beweis aus den ewigen Wahrheiten. (654) II. Das Wesen Gottes. (658) 1. Die höchste Kraft. (658) 2. Allmacht, Weisheit, Güte. (660) 3. Die schöpferische Wirksamkeit. (661) 4. Die Nothwendigkeit der Schöpfung. (663) 5. Die moralische Nothwendigkeit. (665) 6. Natürliche und moralische Nothwendigkeit. (668) Siebzehntes Capitel. Die Theodicee. ([671]) I. Physikotheologie. ([671]) 1. Gott als Urgrund und Endzweck der Welt. ([671]) 2. Die Welt als Natur und Schöpfung. (673) II. Deismus. (676) 1. Die Welt als Offenbarung Gottes. (676) 2. Weltordnung und Wunder. (678) 3. Gott als Weltbaumeister und Weltregent. Natur und Gnade. (683) 4. Gott und die Geisterwelt. (684) III. Optimismus. (686) 1. Beweisgründe der besten Welt. (686) 2. Die vorherbestimmte Harmonie. (688) IV. Theodicee. (691) 1. Einwürfe gegen die beste Welt. (Bayle). (691) 2. Die Arten des Uebels. (694) 3. Das Uebel als Mangel. (696) 4. Das Uebel keine Gegenmacht des Guten. (697) 5. Das Uebel als Bedingung des Guten. (701) 6. Das Verhältniß des Uebels zu Gott. (705) 7. Göttliche Vorherbestimmung und menschliche Freiheit. (712) Drittes Buch. Leibniz' Schule. Die Entwicklungsstufen der deutschen Aufklärung. ([717]) Erstes Capitel. Charakteristik und Kritik der leibnizischen Lehre. ([719]) I. Charakteristik. ([719]) 1. Grundzüge des Systems. ([719]) 2. Der ideale Naturalismus. (721) II. Kritik. Die Widersprüche des Systems. (724) 1. Monaden und Monadologie. (724) 2. Die Erkenntniß der fühlenden Seele. (725) 3. Streit zwischen der klaren und dunklen Erkenntniß. (726) 4. Leibniz' neue Versuche. (728) 5. Widerspruch im Begriff Gottes. (730) 6. Widerspruch im Begriffe der Welt. (734) 7. Widerspruch im Begriff der Monade (Seele.) (736 [737]) III. Auflösung der Widersprüche. (738 [739]) 1. Leibniz und Wolf. (738 [739]) 2. Leibniz und Kant. (740) Zweites Capitel. Erste Stufe: Die Verstandesaufklärung. 1. Das Schulsystem: Christian Wolf. ([743]) I. Die Fortbildung der leibnizischen Lehre. ([743]) II. Erste Aufgabe: die formelle Ausbildung. (746) III. Der neue Dualismus. (750) 1. Seele und Körper. (750) 2. Die äußere Zweckmäßigkeit. (752) 3. Gott und Welt. Kritik der Offenbarung. (754) Drittes Capitel. 2. Der reine Deismus: Hermann Samuel Reimarus. ([759]) I. Alleinige Geltung der Vernunftreligion. ([759]) 1. Unmöglichkeit des Wunders. ([759]) 2. Die Offenbarung durch Wunder. (761) II. Vernunftglaube und Bibelglaube. (762) 1. Kriterien der Offenbarung. (762) 2. Kritik der Bibel. (768) Viertes Capitel. 3. Die Gemüthsaufklärung und Popularphilosophie. Moses Mendelssohn. ([773]) I. Die Moral als Wesen der Religion. ([773]) 1. Die Herzensbeweise vom Dasein Gottes. ([773]) 2. Die Religion im Gegensatz zur Kirche. (775) II. Der beschränkte Aufklärungsverstand. (777) 1. Das geschichtswidrige Denken. (777) 2. Mendelssohn und Sokrates. (779) 3. Die Aufklärung im Widerspruch mit dem Begriff der Entwicklung. (782) Fünftes Capitel. Zweite Stufe: die Aufklärung im Einklange mit der Entwicklung. Lessing. ([789]) I. Die congeniale Betrachtungsweise. ([789]) 1. Aufgabe und Standpunkt. ([789]) 2. Winckelmann und die Alten. (791) II. Höhe der Aufklärung: Lessing. (793) 1. Lessing's Denkweise, Schreibart, Kritik. (793) 2. Religion und Bibel. Anti-Goeze. (796) 3. Die Religion als Grund der Bibel. (798) 4. Das Wunder als Grund der Religion. Die "regula fidei". (799) 5. Christliche Religion und Religion Christi. Evangelienkritik. (801) 6. Das Wesen der Religion. Grundwahrheiten des Christenthums. (802) 7. Das Christenthum der Vernunft. Die Trinität. (804) 8. Die Religion unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Entwicklung. (809) a) Geschichte als Entwicklung. (809) b. Offenbarung als Erziehung. (810) c. Theodicee der Geschichte. (812) 9. Lessing im Verhältniß zu Leipniz und Spinoza. (816) Sechstes Capitel. Dritte Stufe: Die Originalitätsphilosophie. 1. Geschichtsphilosophie. Herder. ([819]) I. Standpunkt und Aufgabe. ([819]) II. Johann Gottfried Herder. (823) 1. Verhältniß zu Lessing und der Aufklärung. (823) 2. Herder's Richtung und Geistesart. (824) 3. Herder's Geschichtsphilosophie im Gegensatz gegen die Verstandesaufklärung. (826) Siebentes Capitel. 2. Glaubens- und Geniephilosophie. Hamann und Lavater. ([829]) I. Die Wahrheit und das dunkle Ich. Hamann. ([829]) 1. Standpunkt und Geistesart. ([829]) 2. Die Einheit der Gegensätze. Bruno. (830) 3. Der Mensch als "Pan". (832) 4. Die Erkenntniß als Glaube. Hume. (833) 5. Offenbarungsglaube und Christenthum. (834) 6. Der kindliche Glaube. (835) II. Die Erkenntniß der dunklen Individualität. Lavater. (837) 1. Physiognomik. (837) 2. Die geniale Individualität. (841) Achtes Capitel. 3. Gefühlsphilosophie. Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi. ([843]) I. Aufgabe und Standpunkt. ([843]) 1. Religion und Erkenntniß. ([843]) 2. Kritik der Verstandeserkenntniß. (844) 3. Alle Verstandeserkenntniß gleich Spinozismus. (845) 4. Gespräch mit Lessing. (849) II. Glaube und Wissen. (851) 1. Idealismus und Nihilismus. (851) 2. Die Gewißheit als Glaube. Hume. (852) 3. Die Offenbarung als Grund des Glaubens. (854) 4. Der Glaube als Gefühl (Vernunft). (855) III. Jacobi's Stellung in der Geschichte der Philosophie. (859) 1. Jacobi und Kant. (859) 2. Jacobi und Mendelssohn. (863) 3. Jacobi und Leibniz. (866) Neuntes Capitel. Göthe und Schiller in ihrem Verhältniß zu Leibniz und der Aufklärung. Schluß. ([867]) I. Göthe's philosophische Vorstellungsweise. ([867]) 1. Verhältniß zu Spinoza. ([867]) 2. Verhältniß zu Leibniz. Göthe's leibnizischer Pantheismus. (869) II. Schiller's philosophische Vorstellungsweise. (872) 1. Verhältniß zu Spinoza und Leibniz. Schiller's leibnizischer Pantheismus. (872) [Gedicht]: Auszug aus "Die Freundschaft." (874) 2. Schiller's Hinweisung auf Kant. (874) III. Die poetische Geltung der Individualität. Die prästabilirte Seelenharmonie. (876) IV. Schluß: Auflösung der dogmatischen Philosophie. (877) 1. Widerspruch der Gefühlsphilosophie. (877) 2. Gesammtwiderspruch der dogmatischen Philosophie. (880) 3. Die kritische Philosophie. (881) 4. Kant, Fichte, Schelling in ihrem Verhältniß zu Leibniz. (882) Einband ( - ) Buchrücken ( - )

SITTENGESCHICHTE DES WELTKRIEGES I. BAND Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges (-) Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges I. Band (I. / 1930) ( - ) Einband ( - ) [Abb.]: ( - ) Titelseite ([III]) Impressum ([IV]) Vorwort (V) Einleitung Begriffsbestimmungen - Sitte, Moral und Recht - Sittengeschichtliche Bedeutung der Kriege und des Weltkrieges - Wirtschaftliche Notwendigkeit, Sittlichkeit und Erotik in ihrem Einfluß auf den Krieg (VII) [Abb.]: Der Krieg bei den Amazonen Zeichnung von Kuhn-Régnier, "La Vie Parisienne", 1915 (VII) [Abb.]: Das europäische Gleichgewicht Zeichnung (VIII) [Abb.]: Russische Karikatur auf Rasputin (IX) [Abb.]: Krieg heißt: Diebstahl, Notzucht, Mord Zeichnung von Delannoy in "Assiette au beurre", 1907 (XI) [Abb.]: Unsere Kinder werden ihnen Halt gebieten Zeichnung (XIII) [Abb.]: Wilhelm II. in der Karikatur Französische Postkarte aus der Zeit der Marokkokonfliktes Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (XIV) [Abb.]: Kaiser Franz Joseph als Ballerine Französische Postkarte aus der Vorkriegszeit Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (XV) [Abb.]: "Wo kommt denn diese bewaffnete Bande her? Wir wollen flüchten!" Zeichnung (XVII) [Abb.]: Kamarilla viribus unitis Wiener Diplomatie Zeichnung von Kupka, 1907 (XIX) [Abb.]: Kriegsgrauen (XX) [Abb.]: Italienische Postkarten aus dem Jahre 1916 Wilhelm II. und Franz Joseph I. in der erotischen Karikatur der Entente ( - ) Erstes Kapitel Die Umwälzung der Moral vor und in dem Kriege Sittengeschichtliche Tendenzen der Vorkriegsjahre - Wirtschaftliche, politische und erotische Frauenemanzipation - Die erotischen Typen der Vorkriegsfrau (1) [Abb.]: La belle Otero oder der Zauber des Trikots Ein Beitrag zur Vorkriegserotik Aus Hirschfeld-Spinner, "Geschlecht und Verbrechen" (1) [Abb.]: Nacktkultur in Friedenszeit - zehn Mark Strafe Photographische Aufnahme (2) [Abb.]: Frauensport und Nacktkultur im Kriege Französische karikaturistische Zeichnung von Valdés, 1918 (3) [Abb.]: Die schlafende Unschuld Psychoanalytische Zeichnung aus einem Sonderheft der Zeitschrift "Le Disque Vert" (4) [Abb.]: Die Tänzerin Gaby Deslys, die ihre Schönheit in den Dienst der Kunst und bei Kriegsausbruch in den der englischen Kriegspropaganda stellte Photographische Aufnahme (5) [Abb.]: Das Frauenideal der Vorkriegszeit Die Tänzerin Mata Hari aus Hirschfeld-Spinner, "Geschlecht und Verbrechen" (6) [Abb.]: Der Bürger: "Der nicht arbeitet, soll dafür gut essen!" Zeichnung (7) [Abb.]: Französische Postkarte als Antwort auf den bekannten "Oktoberaufruf der Dreiundneunzig" nach Kriegsausbruch Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (8) [Abb.]: Das Zuhältermotiv in der Karikatur Germania und ihr türkischer Freund, dem sie Geld zusteckt Aus einem russischen Kriegsbilderbogen Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (9) [Abb.]: Französische Frauen am Pflug Photographische Aufnahme (10) [Abb.]: Zum Thema: Krieg und Frauenemanzipation Kriegsbilderbogen "Woche", Berlin (11) [Abb.]: Das Kapital und der Krieg Zeichnung von Boris Jefimoff, Moskau (12) [Lied]: Ein vielgesungenes Pariser Couplet "Elles tiendront" von Jacques Folrey drückt diese Wahrheit auf seine Weise aus, idem es in den ersten Strophen die verschiedenen Formen verulkt, die die Erwerbstätigkeit der Frau im Frankreich der Kriegszeit annahm, um in der letzten Strophe auch gleich die politische Folgerung zu ziehen: (12) [Abb.]: Frauenarbeit im Kriege An der Granatendrehbank einer deutschen Munitionsfabrik Photographische Aufnahme (13) [Abb.]: Massage in der Vorkriegszeit Nach einem Gemälde (15) [Abb.]: Franz Joseph in der englischen Karikatur "Punch", 1916 (16) [Abb.]: Dirne und Zuhälter Rußland und Frankreich im Spiegel der Karikatur, "Muskete", August 1915 Zeichnung ( - ) [Abb.]: Frauenakt Zeichnung (17) [Abb.]: Mädchen (18) [Abb.]: Der Sündenfall Karikatur auf das russisch-französische Bündnis von C. Arnold Flugblatt der "Liller Kriegszeitung", 1916 (19) [Abb.]: Zärtliche Träume Zeichnung von Fabiano, aus "La Vie Parisienne", 1914 (20) [Abb.]: Die Ernte des Jahres 1915 Italienische Kriegskarikatur aus dem Witzblatt "L'Asino" (21) [Abb.]: Bethmann-Hollweg und die Wahrheit Politische Zeichnung (22) [Abb.]: Bad an der Seine Zeichnung von G. Léonnec, aus "La Vie Parisienne", 1914 (23) [Abb.]: Bei der Toilette Üppige Frauenschönheit vor dem Kriege Nach einem Gemälde (25) [Abb.]: "Werden Sie diskret sein?" Zeichnung (26) [Abb.]: Das Gänschen (ein verschwundener Mädchentypus) Zeichnung von A. Vallée aus "La Vie Parisienne", 1913 (27) [2 Abb.]: (1)Jochanaan tragt der Salome seinen Kopf nach Partie aus einem Fries (2)"Du mußt ihn gehen lassen, sonst heißt es gleich, du störst den Burgfrieden." Zeichnung von Th. Th. Heine, aus "Kleine Bilder aus großer Zeit" (28) Zweites Kapitel Erotik und Triebleben bei Kriegsausbruch Die Hurrabegeisterung und ihr libidinöser Hintergrund - Abschwächung oder Steigerung des Geschlechtstriebes bei Kriegsausbruch? - Der Krieg im Lichte der Soziologie und der Psychoanalyse (29) [Abb.]: "Sie müssen schon entschuldigen, seit mein Mann tauglich befunden wurde, läuft er tagsüber nackt herum" Zeichnung von M. Rodiguet in "Le Rire rouge", 1917 (29) [Abb.]: Ausmarsch Zeichnung von B. Wennerberg, aus "Simplicissimus", 1915 (30) [Abb.]: Europa auf dem wilden Stier Zeichnung (31) [Abb.]: Das patriotische Lied Zeichnung von A. Roubille in "Fantasio", 1914 (32) [Abb.]: Das Herz der Dame "Schick' den Kriegskrüppel um Gotteswillen fort. Ist es nicht genug, daß ich die ganze Nacht auf einem Kriegswohltätigkeitsball getanzt habe?" Zeichnung von A. Mazza, Milano ( - ) [Abb.]: Die Pariser Börse am Tage der Kriegserklärung Photographische Aufnahme (33) [Abb.]: Eine englische Reservistenfamilie oder eine Kriegslaokoongruppe mit den "Putties" (Wickelgamaschen) statt Schlangen Zeichnung von Townsend, "Punch", 1915 (34) [2 Abb.]: "Kopflose Maßnahmen des Publikums. - (1)Masseneinkauf von Mehl. - (2)Ansturm von unnötigerweise beunruhigten Sparern auf die Städtischen Sparkasse in Berlin" Zwei Bilder, die knapp nach Kriegsausbruch mit diesem Text in mehreren Blättern erschienen. Aus "Ill. Zeitung", Leipzig. 1914 (35) [Abb.]: Die Freiwilligen Holzschnitt (36) [Abb.]: Gewissen 1917 Holzschnitt von Franz Masereel, aus "Politische Zeichnungen", Erich Reiß-Verlag, Berlin (37) [Abb.]: Kriegsbegeisterung auch in Moskau? Photographische Aufnahme (38) [Abb.]: "Schwören wir, meine Damen, daß wir keinen Mann heiraten, der lebend aus dem Krieg zurückkommt!" "La Baionnette", 1916 (39) [Abb.]: Englisches Phlegma "Du mußt in den Krieg - und das Kind ist auf dem Wege." "Bis es heiratet, hoffe ich zurück zu sein." Zeichnung von R. C. Ventura, aus der italienischen Kriegsmappe "Gli Unni e gli altri" (41) [Abb.]: Die Gesundbeter oder die K. V.-Maschinen Zeichnung (42) [Abb.]: Die Menschen und der Krieg Holzschnitt von Franz Masereel, aus "Politische Zeichnungen", Erich Reiß-Verlag, Berlin (43) [Abb.]: Kriegsfreundliche Massenkundgebung vor dem Schloß in Berlin Photographische Aufnahme (44) [Abb.]: Die Pariser Schauspielerin Mlle. Delysia singt in London in einer Revue die Marseillaise Photo Wrather and Buy (45) [Abb.]: Einerseits um die Mannschaft bei guter Laune zu erhalten, andererseits um die Frauen mehr in den Dienst des Vaterlands zu stellen, wurde in den französischen Kasernen die Besuchszeit über Nacht ausgedehnt. Aus "Der Faun", Wien, 1916 (46) [Abb.]: Der heilige Krieg Holzschnitt von Franz Masereel, aus "Politische Zeichnungen", Erich Reiß-Verlag, Berlin (47) [Abb.]: Hurra, der Krieg ist da! Photographische Aufnahme (48) [Abb.]: Das Gespenst des Krieges Zeichnung (49) [Abb.]: Erschießung eines russischen Kriegsdienstverweigerers Aus "Geschichte der russischen Revolution", Neuer Deutscher Verlag, Berlin (50) Drittes Kapitel Die Dame in der Loge Geht der Kampf um sie? - Ihr Sadismus und ihre Kraftanbetung - Uniformfetischismus - Die Dame als Mittel der Kriegspropaganda, als Kriegshetzerin und Pflegerin - Die Kriegsmode und ihr erotischer Hintergrund (51) [Abb.]: Der hohe Damenstiefel als Fetisch Zeichnung von G. Zórád im ungarischen Witzblatt "Fidibusz", 1918 (51) [Abb.]: Der Brief des Poilu: "Ich sehe Sie vor mir, wie Sie, jeder Zoll eine Frau, in duftiger Mousseline einherschweben." Zeichnung von Ed. Touraine in "La Baionnette", 1915 (52) [Abb.]: Ein frommer Wunsch deutscher Modeschöpfer: Die militarisierte Damenmode Aus "Elegante Welt", 1915 (53) [Abb.]: Die versuchte Militarisierung der Frauentracht Modebild aus "Elegante Welt", 1915 (54) [Abb.]: Die Kraftanbetung der Frau (Bizepsfetischismus) Photographische Aufnahme (55) [Abb.]: Die Dame im Werbedienst Die englische Schauspielerin Miss Lorraine hält im Dienste der englischen Rekrutierung eine Ansprache Photographische Aufnahme (56) [Abb.]: Von allen beneidet, stolziert die Französin am Arm ihres Helden durch die Pariser Straßen Zum Kapitel: Heldenverehrung der Frau Zeichnung von Fabiano in "La Baionnette", 1915 (57) [Abb.]: Stacheldrahtkrinoline 1916 Die Kriegsmode in der englischen Karikatur Aus "London Mail" (58) [Abb.]: Der Frühling kommt schon als Soldat Zeichnung (59) [Abb.]: Die deutsche Sängerin im Spiegel der französischen Karikatur Zeichnung (60) [Abb.]: Die Kriegskrinoline "Lustige Blätter", 1916 (61) [Abb.]: Die Pariser und die Berliner Mode Französische Karikatur (62) [Abb.]: Am Morgen vor dem Abmarsch Zeichnung (63) [Abb.]: Derby braucht Soldaten "Mister Tomson zum Militär? Ausgeschlossen! Bereits von mir assentiert!" Kriegflugblatt der "Liller Kriegszeitung" (64) [Gedicht]: Auch hier wendet sich der Dichter Harold Begbie an den Drückeberger, den es allerdings im eigentlichen Sinne in England damals nicht gab, da der Eintritt in die Armee freiwillig erfolgte: (64) [Abb.]: Marianne empfängt ihren Sieger Zeichnung ( - ) [Abb.]: Beitrag zur Vermännlichung der Frau im Kriege Pariser Theaterreklame aus dem Jahre 1916 Aus der Sammlung des Archives photographiques d'Art et d'histoire, Paris (65) [Abb.]: "Du bist nicht mehr freiwillige Pflegerin?" - "Nein, warum auch? Mein Bild als Rote-Kreuz-Schwester ist ja in der 'Illustrierten' schon erschienen." Zeichnung von E. A. Lamm in "Muskete", 1915 (66) [Abb.]: In allen Ländern träumen junge Mädchen von Uniformen Zeichnung von Fabiano in "La Baionnette", 1915 (67) [Abb.]: "Warum spazierst du im Evakostüm herum?" "Mein Schneider ist eingerückt" Zeichnung von G. Hantot in "Le Rire rouge" (68) [Abb.]: "So verliert man den Krieg daheim" Englische Propagandazeichnung gegen die Putzsucht und Kaufwut der Dame Aus "Punch", 1917 (69) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Ist mein Rock zu kurz? Ist mein Jupon zu lang?" Englische Modekarikatur aus "London Mail", 1916 (2)Politische Karikatur (70) [Abb.]: Die Frau als Werbemittel auf einem amerikanischen Kriegsanleiheplakat Sammlung Wolff, Leipzig (71) [Abb.]: Titelvignette aus der Zeitschrift "La Baionnette" (72) [Abb.]: Sie schreibt an die Front: "Mein lieber Mann, du kannst dir denken, wie sehr ich alle Leiden und Entbehrungen mit dir teile." Zeichnung (73) [Abb.]: Madelaine ohne Pariser Mode "Eigentlich gar nicht so übel, diese neue deutsche Tracht!" Kriegsflugblatt der "Liller Kriegszeitung" (74) [Abb.]: Wie die Mode des Highlanders die der Pariserin beinflußt und umgekehrt Zeichnung von G. Léonnec in "La Vie Parisienne", 1915 (75) [Abb.]: Inserat, das in zahlreichen deutschen Blättern nach Kriegsausbruch erschien "Leipzig Ill. Zeitung", 1914 (76) [Abb.]: Junge Mädchen führen in London Freiwillige zum Rekrutierungsamt Photographische Aufnahme (77) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Die neuen Zeppelinmodelle sind eingetroffen" Französische Karikatur auf die Kriegsmode Aus "La Baionnette", 1914 (2)Was der Schlitzrock verrät Die Dame meint, man brauche den Stoff für die Soldaten Aus den italienischen Witzblatt "L'Asino", 1915 (78) [Abb.]: "Und wenn der Krieg noch so lange dauert, noch weiter und noch kürzer darfst du die Röcke nicht tragen." Zeichnung (79) [Abb.]: Die deutsche Frau in der französischen Kriegskarikatur Zeichnung von Brunner, aus "La Baionnette", 1914 (80) [Abb.]: Feldpostalisches "Ein Fünfkilopaket möchte ich sein und mich per Feldpost als Liebesgabe versenden lassen!" Zeichnung von E. H. Lamm, "Muskete", 1914 ( - ) [Abb.]: "Bitte, erzählen Sie doch, was war also das Schrecklichste, was Sie draußen erlebt haben?" Zeichnung von Th. Th. Heine, aus "Kleine Bilder aus großer Zeit" (81) [Abb.]: Der Urlauber nach der Ankunft in München: "Da sieht man gleich, daß hier fleischloser Tag ist." "Soldatenzeitung im Schützengraben" das bayr. Ers.-I.-R. Nr. 1, 1916 (82) [Abb.]: Zeichnung von Carlègle in "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (Text verdeutscht) (83) [Abb.]: "Ich lese die Blätter und kann mir recht gut vorstellen, wie schrecklich es an der Front zugehen muß." Die auf dem Bilde ersichtlichen Blätter sind Modezeitschriften Zeichnung von Maurice Motet in "La Baionnette", 1914 (84) [Abb.]: In England versuchte man, aus patriotischen Sparsamkeitsgründen eine Einheitstracht für Frauen (standard dress) einzuführen. Mit welchem Erfolge, zeigt diese Karikaturreihe aus "Punch", 1915 (85) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der "Schuhliebhaber" auf Urlaub Französische Karikatur auf den durch die Kriegsmode anscheinend sehr begünstigten Stiefelfetischismus (2)Eine Kriegstrauung Zeichnung von Th. Th. Heine, aus "Kleine Bilder aus großer Zeit" (86) Viertes Kapitel Die Kriegerfrau auf dem Leidenswege Mannesarbeit und Vermännlichung - Kriegstrauungen - Die Unsittlichkeit der Kriegerfrau - Ehebruch, Selbstmord und andere Psychosen - Die Gefangenenliebe - Enthaltsamkeit und ihre Folgen (87) [Abb.]: Gretchen, vom Geist der Pariser Mode verlassen Zeichnung von Georges Pavis in "Fantasio", 1914 (87) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Gnädige Frau, ich muß Ihnen dasselbe sagen, was unserer Armee nachgerühmt wird: Sie sind ungeschwächt aus dem Kriege hervorgegangen." Zeichnung von Jean Plumet in "Le Rire", 1918 (2)"Was tätest du, wenn ich meine beiden Beine verlöre?" "Ich würde dir einen hübschen Wagen mit Kautschukrädern kaufen." Zeichnung von Laforge in "Le canard enchaîné", 1916 (88) [Abb.]: Aus dem täglichen Leben der Kriegerfrau Photographische Aufnahme (89) [Abb.]: 1915: Die Pariserin ist noch Hausfrau Französisches Plakat von A. Willette Aus dem Archiv des französischen Kriegsministeriums (90) [Abb.]: Der Urlauberzug Zeichnung von Louis Icart in "Fantasio", 1917 (91) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Büromädchen im Kriege Der Chef: "Schön, daß Sie endlich doch kommen, wir erwarten Sie schon seit Bürobeginn." "Punch", 1916 (2)Die Damen: "Bitte, wir möchten heute wieder einen Verwundeten spazieren führen, aber einen, dem man auch ansieht, daß er verwundet ist." "Punch", 1915 (92) [Abb.]: Zeichnung von Carlègle in "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (Text verdeutscht) (93) [Abb.]: Humoristische Feldpostkarte (94) [Abb.]: "Andere Zeiten, Kinder, wer von euch erinnert sich eigentlich noch daran, daß man einmal Tango gelernt hat?" Zeichnung von B. Wennerberg in "Simplicissimus", 1914 (95) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Jux-Postkarte aus der Kriegszeit vielleicht zum Beweise der vielgerühmten Verfeinerung des Liebeslebens im Kriege erzeugt Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (2)Der Zivilist Zeichnung von F. Reynolds in "Punch", 1915 (96) [Abb.]: Uniformfetischismus "Zieh dich nicht aus, die Uniform kleidet dich so gut ." Zeichnung ( - ) [2 Abb.]: Der Urlauber (1)Endlich! (2)Schon? Zeichnung von Fabiano in "Fantasio", 1915 (97) [Abb.]: Wiedersehen in Paris Aus "Vie de Garnison" (98) [Abb.]: Arbeiterin in einer französischen Munitionsfabrik Photographische Aufnahme (99) [2 Abb.]: (1)Geteiltes Leid Die Frau des Mannes, der einen Arm verlor, hat sich alle Zähne ziehen lassen Deutschfeindliche Hetzkarikatur aus der französischen Zeitschrift "Fantasio", 1915 (2)"Wohnt hier Fräulein Odette?" "Sie ist nicht mehr hier, aber wenn Sie im zweiten Stock bei Fräulein Clara anläuten, ist es dasselbe." Zeichnung von Forton in "Vie de Garnison", 1915 (100) [Abb.]: Musterung der Fünfzigjährigen Zeichnung (101) [Abb.]: Die "Heldenverehrung" der Französin Titelblatt einer französischen Zeitschrift (102) [Abb.]: Die Beute des Schattens Zeichnung von Zyg. Brunner in "La Vie Parisienne" (103) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der rationierte Kuß Scherzpostkarte der Deutschmeister Witwen- und Waisenstiftung Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (2)Französische "Vorstöße" im Elsaß Zeichnung von Rodiguet in "Le Rire" (104) [Abb.]: Die Briefträgerin Zeichnung von G. Léonnec in "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (105) [Lied]: Verdeutscht lautet die erste Strophe: (106) [Abb.]: Der neue große Freund aus dem wilden Westen und die kleine Pariserin Zeichnung von G. Léonnec in "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (106) [Abb.]: Die Witwen Zeichnung (107) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Melanie, also das ist Ihr Mann, der von der Front kommt? Gestern war er doch noch glattrasiert." Zeichnung von Laforge in der französischen Frontzeitung "Le canard enchaîné, 1916 (2)Die Schamhafte "Sie dürfen mich ausziehen, aber ich verbiete Ihnen, mich mit den Augen zu entkleiden." Aus "Vie de Garnison", 1915 (108) [Abb.]: Einzug österreichisch-ungarischer Kavallerie in Lublin Überall Frauenhuld als Siegerlohn Zeichnung (109) [Abb.]: "Armes Kind! Haben Sie wenigstens den Vater verständigt?" "Ja, ich habe an alle beide geschrieben." Zeichnung von A. Guillaume in "Le Rire rouge", 1917 (110) [Abb.]: Milderungsrund: "Es ist wahr, ich habe dieses Jahr drei Männer ruiniert; aber zwei davon waren Heereslieferanten." Zeichnung von K. A. Wilke in "Muskete", Wien 1915 (111) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Der gnädige Herr hatte nur eine Stunde Ausgang und konnte auf Madame nicht warten - so ist es geschehen." Zeichnung von Laforge in der französischen Frontzeitung "La canard enchaîné", 1916 (2)Hektographierte Postkarte aus den Zeiten der Fleischnot Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (112) [Abb.]: Frohes Erwachen Zeichnung von Georges Barbier, "La vie Parisienne", 1918 ( - ) [Abb.]: Stadt und Land Der Künstler und das Dorfmädchen vor und in dem Kriege Englische Karikatur in "Punch", 1917 (113) [Abb.]: Die Geschlechtsnot der Kriegerfrau in der Karikatur "Erinnerung an seinen Fronturlaub" Zeichnung von H. Gerbault in "Fantasion", 1916 (114) [Abb.]: Die Französin im Kriege Munitionserzeugerin, Feldarbeiterin und Hausfrau Plakat von Capon, aus der Sammlung der Archives Photographiques, Paris (115) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Kellnerin Französische Karikatur (2)In Aktion Zeichnung aus "Drahtverhau", Schützengrabenzeitung des bayr. Landwehr-Inf.-Regiments Nr. 1 (2. Jahrg.) (116) [Abb.]: "Na, Kleener, woll'n wa Briedaschaft trinken?" Zeichnung von F. Jüttner in "Lustige Blätter", 1916 (117) [Abb.]: Straßenbahnschaffnerin in Paris Photographische Aufnahme (118) [Abb.]: Der Liebeshunger der Kriegerfrau Wie es einem "Herrn in den besten Jahren", einem kriegsdienstuntauglichen Friedensveteranen, im Hinterland ergeht Aus "Muskete", Wien 1915 (119) [2 Abb.]: (1)Liebe und Kitsch sind unsterblich Ein typisches Erzeugnis der deutschen Kriegspostkartenindustrie Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (2)Mimi Ponson im Kriege "Ich bin eine alte Baronin und bitte Sie, fünf Francs von mir anzunehmen." Zeichnung von Synave, Paris 1916 (120) [Abb.]: Die Schaffnerin in Paris "Ich wollt', mein Mann wär' schon zu Hause!" "Damit er sie ablöst?" "Nein, damit er auf die Kinder aufpaßt." Zeichnung von Armengol, Paris 1916 (121) [2 Abb.]: Die Kriegsliebe als Anlaß zum Jux Zwei Postkarten aus Kriegszeit Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (122) [Abb.]: Ehrenbezeigung mit Hindernissen Zeichnung von E. Morrow in "Punch", 1916 (123) [Abb.]: Die Frau des Eingerückten zum Schwager: "Massier' mir die Beine, Stefan, sie tun mir weh." Zeichnung (124) [Abb.]: Die Frühmassage der Frau k. u. k. Oberstleutnant Zeichnung (125) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der volkstümliche Kriegskitsch Mit solchen und ähnlichen Postkarten wurde Deutschland im Krieg überschwemmt Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (2)Sie schickt den Feldpostbrief an den Mann ab Zeichnung von G. Zórád in "Fidibusz", Budapest 1916 (126) [Abb.]: Berlin im Kriege: Das Urteil des Paris Zeichnung von Hans Baluschek in "Wieland", 1915 (127) [Abb.]: Die vielseitige Französin zur Kriegszeit als Polizistin, Kellnerin, Chauffeuse, Bürochefin, Minister, Inkassantin, Schaffnerin und sogar als Soldatin Zeichnung von Fabiano in "La Baionnette", 1915 (128) [4 Abb.]: Zweierlei Maß (1)"Mit der Taschen können S' net mitfahr'n mei Liabe." (2)"Aber Fräul'n, Platz gnua, dö Herrn rucken scho a wengerl z'samm." (3)"Komplett! hat's g'sagt?" (4)"Nur einsteig'n, Herr Kop'rol, die Damen werd'n scho a bisserl Platz machen." Zeichnungen von Franz Wacik, "Muskete", 1915 ( - ) [Abb.]: Der Notar eines ungarischen Dorfes zur Kriegerfrau: "Sträuben Sie sich nicht, sonst kriegen Sie keine Unterstützung mehr!" Zeichnung (129) [12 Abb.]: (1)1. Die tugendhafte Gisela wird Krankenschwester (2)2. Ihre leichtfertige Cousine fährt an die Riviera (3)3. Gisela widmet ihre bescheidenen Ersparnisse den Armen und Darbenden (4)4. Sidonie aber tanzt mit Neutralen auf heimlichen Bällen (5)5. Gisela war eine sparsame gute Hausfrau (6)6. Sidonie verbrachte die Zeit in Champagnergelagen mit Drückebergern (7)7. Gisela strickt Strümpfe für die braven Soldaten (8)8. Sidonie verbringt die Nachmittage in Absteigequartieren (9)9. Gisela wird belohnt durch die Heirat mit einem tapferen Offizier (10)10. Sidonie wicht der Versuchung des Geldes und heiratet ohne Liebe einen alten Munitionsfabrikanten . (11)11. Gisela, eine mustergültige Französin, erlebte die Freuden des glücklichen Heimes bei ihrem Gatten, dem sie viele Kinder schenkte (12)12. . der erwischte sie dann in flagranti, noch dazu mit einem Zivilisten, und schickte sie zum Teufel Zeichnung von Georges Barbier in "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (130) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auch die Lebensmittelnot wird verniedlicht Originalpostkarte aus dem Kriegsjahr, 1916 Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (2)Hamstererlebnisse Postkarte aus der großen Zeit Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (132) [Abb.]: Durchhalten auch in Frankreich "Meine Frau kann Ihnen bestätigen, daß ich keinen Augenblick wankend geworden bin." Zeichnung von Hérouard in "La Baionnette", 1915 (133) [Abb.]: Die öffentliche Ruhe in schönen Händen Französische Karikatur aus dem Jahre 1917 (134) [2 Abb.]: (1)Not und Verwahrlosung Kriegspostkarten können mitunter auch die Wahrheit sagen Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (2)Kriegstrauung Farbige Kitschpostkarte aus der Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (135) [Gedicht]: Und so wollen wir dieses Kapitel der Leidensgeschichte der Frau im Kriege mit einer Dichtervision, der "Phantasie für übermorgen" von Erich Kästner, schließen: (136) Fünftes Kapitel Erotik in der Krankenpflege Sexuelle Neugier, Schaulust, Koprolagnie und Sadismus der Pflegerin - der Lazarettdienst als Mittel - Der schlechte Ruf der Pflegerin - Frauenbesuche im Schützengraben (137) [Abb.]: Die Krankenschwester im Offiziersspital Zeichnung (137) [Abb.]: Das Sportgirl als Krankenschwester Zeichnung von Fabiano in "Fantasio", 1915 (138) [6 Abb.]: Pariser Schauspielerinnen als Krankenschwestern (1)Mlle Colibri vom Théátre des Capucines (2)Madame Simone Damanry von der Comédie Française (3)Mlle. Phryne von der Comédie Royale (4)Mlle. Paulette Delbaye von der Olympia (5)Madame Villeroy-Got vom Théâtre de l'Odéon (6)Madame Mars Pearl von der Olympia Die Wohltätigkeit ist überaus kleidsam (139) [Abb.]: Die Sadistin sieht gerne Blut und ist eine ausgezeichnete Operationsschwester Zeichnung (140) [Abb.]: Der schöne Mann ohne Gesicht Karikatur von C. Hérouard in "La Vie Parisienne", 1918 (141) [Abb.]: Französische Pflegerinnen beim Empfang eines Verwundetentransportes Photographische Aufnahme aus "La France Héroique" (142) [Abb.]: Aus dem Lazarett zum Altar Sentimentale Karikatur auf die Heiratslust der Pflegerin Zeichnung von Fournier in "La Baionnette", 1918 (143) [Abb.]: Verwundetenkultus Französische Postkarte, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (144) [Abb.]: 1915 "Mir scheint, ich habe Sie schon irgendwo gesehen." - "Möglich, früher war ich nämlich Tänzerin." Zeichnung ( - ) [Abb.]: Amor im Lazarett Zeichnung von G. Léonnec in "La Vie Parisienne", 1915 (145) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die wohltätige Dame im Lazarett "Also los, erzählen Sie ausführlich alles." "Punch", 1916 (2)Eine österreichische Erzherzogin als Krankenschwester Photographische Aufnahme (146) [Abb.]: Flirt im Etappenlazarett Zeichnung von E. Miarko in "Fantasio", 1915 (147) [Abb.]: Lazarettromantik "Ja, er hat zwei Kugeln in den Kopf bekommen." "Und wie viele Pfeile ins Herz?" Zeichnung von L. Icart in "La Baionnette", 1914 (148) [Abb.]: Der Rekonvaleszent Zeichnung aus der "Ill. Zeitung", Leipzig, 1916 (149) [Abb.]: Das Reservelazarett Karikatur auf die Pflegerinnenspielerei der vornehmen französischen Gesellschaft Zeichnung (150) [Abb.]: "Und da sagt man noch, der Krieg wäre furchtbar." Zeichnung von R. Pallier in "La Baionnette", 1915 (151) [Lied]: In Ungarn war ein im Krieg entstandenes Volkslied über den mehr als zweifelhaften Ruf der Pflegerinnen verbreitet. Es lautet in deutscher Übersetzung etwa: (151) [Abb.]: "Herr Stabsarzt, was machen wir mit der neuen Schwester?" "Geben wir sie zur Wäscheverwaltung, es ist immer besser, ein junges Mädchen hat mit Hemden ohne Männer als mit Männer ohne Hemden zu tun." Aus "Le Rire rouge", 1916 (152) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mode 1914 (2)Mode 1915 Die Pflegerinnentracht für die einzige kleidsame und zeitgemäße zu erklären, lag nahe. Ebenso nahe lag der Mißbrauch, der mit ihr getrieben wurde. Zeichnungen von Charles Rousiel in "Fantasio" 1915 (153) [Abb.]: Die Schwester wird auch angehimmelt, sonst aber gewöhnlich als Heiratsspekulantin oder Dirne hingestellt Englische Postkarte, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (154) [Abb.]: Aufmarsch amerikanischer Pflegerinnen in New York vor dem Präsidenten Wilson Photographische Aufnahme (155) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Du kannst unmöglich zurück an die Front, Sidi - deine Zunge ist ganz weiß" Französische Postkarte, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (2)Wandzeichnung aus einem Wiener Reservespital (156) [Abb.]: Das Leben im Spital. Die einen haben Besuch, an die anderen denkt niemand Zeichnung von A. Miarko in "Fantasio", 1916 (157) [Abb.]: Seine tiefste Wunde Lazarettliebschaften und kein Ende "Fantasio", 1916 (158) [Abb.]: Ruhm, Elend, Eitelkeit, Laus und Uniform werden billig abgegeben Ausverkauf wegen Kriegsschluß Zeichnung von G. Pavis in "Le Rire rouge", 1919 (159) [Abb.]: Englisch-französischer Unterricht in einem Park Zeichnung von Fabiano in "Fantasio", 1915 (160) [2 Abb.]: Der Soldat und das Korsett (1)Einst: eine Festung (2)Jetzt: ein Fähnchen Zeichnung von C. Hérouard, "La vie Parisienne", 1918 ( - ) [Abb.]: Aus einem Plakat für französisches Aspirin (Frankreich hat im Kriege versucht, dieses beliebte Heilmittel deutscher Herkunft durch französische Produkte zu ersetzen) Zeichnung (161) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das russische Kriegslazarett in Paris Originalphoto aus der Sammlung des Archives photographiques d'art et d'histoire, Paris (2)Französische Verwundete auf einem deutschen Verbandplatz Zeichnung von E. Limmer in "Ill. Zeitung", Leipzig 1914 (162) [2 Abb.]: (1)Einst (2)Jetzt Die kleinen Freuden des großen Krieges Zeichnung von A. Guillaume in "Fantasio", 1916 (163) [Abb.]: Französisches Propagandaplakat zur Verherrlichung des amerikanischen Roten Kreuzes (164) [6 Abb.]: Straf- und Lohnsystem beim Frauenregiment (1)Für kleine Verfehlungen: ein Tag Frisurverbot (2)Die Chargen: ein Volant, zwei Volants, drei Volants (3)Bei Insubordination: zwei Tage ohne Spiegel (4)Eine Auszeichnung: Flirtbewilligung (5)Die strengste Strafe: Redeverbot (6)Für besondere Verdienste: einwöchiger Urlaub für den Freund im Feld Zeichnung von Valdès in "La Vie Parisienne", 1916 (165) [Abb.]: Verwundeter (166) [Abb.]: Gratulanten zum Geburtstag des kleinen Leutnants Von wenigen Ausnahmen abgesehen, gefällt sich die Kriegskarikatur in der Verniedlichung der Dinge Zeichnung von A. Aubry in "Fantasio", 1916 (167) [Abb.]: Musterung der allerjüngsten Jahrgänge in Berlin Karikatur von R. Cartier in "Le Rire rouge", 1914 (168) Sechstes Kapitel Schützengrabenerotik Diskussion über die Unschädlichkeit der Abstinenz - Stahlbad der Nerven? - Liebesgaben, Feldpostbriefe und die Sitte der Marrainnen - Die Wege der Ersatzbefriedigung: Onanie, erotische Lieder, obszöne Bilder und Gegenstände, pornographische Lektüre, Träume - Tätowierung - Die Analerotik der Soldaten - Sodomie - Enthaltsamkeitsfolgen: Das Erlöschen des Geschlechtstriebes (169) [Abb.]: Das pornographische Bild im Schützengraben Zeichnung (169) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das dankbare Hinterland Zeichnung von Hérouard in "Fantasio", 1916 (2)Inserat eines Pariser Vergnügungslokales, das sich an das dankbare Publikum der Marrainen und ihrer Patenkinder wendet (170) [Abb.]: Liebe an der Front Phantasie eines französischen Malers. Man beachte die übergroße phallische Darstellung des ganz überflüssig im Bilde stehenden Fesselballons. Ein beliebtes Motiv pornographischer Frontbilder Zeichnung von Louis Icart in "Fantasio" (171) [Abb.]: Urlauber Zeichnung von G. Redon in "Fantasio", 1916 (172) [2 Abb.]: (1)Sexualnot beschmiert die Wände Von Russen verlassene, mit erotischen Bildern bemalte Hausruine in Russisch-Polen Photographische Aufnahme (2)Der Traum des Poilu Erotische Schützengrabenzeichnung eines französischen Soldaten Sammlung Lewandowski, Utrecht (173) [Abb.]: Christnacht im Feld Zeichnung von E. Halonze (174) [Abb.]: "Einst ging ich um diese Zeit auf die Hirschjagd" Zeichnung von G. Pavis aus "Le Rire rouge" (175) [Abb.]: Ehrenwache Zeichnung aus "Vie de Garnison", 1915 (176) [Gedicht]: Aus der "Liller Kriegszeitung" sei hier ein populärer "Stoßseufzer aus dem Schützengraben" und die Antwort darauf wiedergegeben: (176) [Abb.]: Der Traum von Liebe und Vaterland Zeichnung ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Erotische Phantasie Schützengrabenzeichnung eines französischen Soldaten Sammlung Lewandowski, Utrecht (2)"Wenn du von Frauen sprichst, denke an deine Mutter, deine Schwester, deine Braut und du wirst keine Dummheiten reden" Französisch-amerikanisches Plakat gegen die Zoten Archives photographiques d'art et d'histoire, Paris (177) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Menschen und der Krieg Vaterstolz Holzschnitt (178) [Abb.]: Stilleben nach der Marneschlacht Photographische Aufnahme (179) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ankündigung eines Briefstellers für Marrainen und ihre Patenkinder Aus der Zeitschrift "La Baionnette", 1915 (2)Sein erster Abend daheim Zeichnung von Hérouard in "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (180) [Abb.]: Der galante Maler als Patriot Zeichnung von Carlègle in, "La Vie Parisienne" (Text verdeutscht) (181) [Abb.]: Der Stern, der nachts über dem Graben leuchtet Französische Postkarte (182) [Abb.]: Ankunft des Urlaubers Nach einem Gemälde (183) [Abb.]: (1)"Klar zum Gefecht" Zeichnung von G. Pavis in "Fantasio", 1917 (2)Der vom Maschinengewehr: "Was? Du stehst schon auf?" Sie: "Ja, ich erkläre mich kampfunfähig." Zeichnung von Duluard in "Le Rire rouge", 1916 (184) [Abb.]: Die Blume aus dem Feldpostbrief Zeichnung von A. E. Marty in "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (185) [2 Abb.]: (1)Côte d'azur und Kote 304 "Die Jungens gehen ins Bad und wir ins Stahlbad" Zeichnung von R. Jouan in "Le Rire rouge", 1918 (2)"Das zerbrochene Bett" oder "Morgenidyll im Heim des Urlaubers" Zeichnung von J. Mirandes in "Le Rire rouge", 1918 (186) [Abb.]: Geschlechtstaufe vor dem Abmarsch Zeichnung von G. Léonnec in "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (187) [Abb.]: Eine Manikure im Schützengraben Englische photographische Karikatur auf Damen der Gesellschaft, die sich zur Krankenpflege drängen Aus "Puck", 1915 (188) [Lied]: Ein bayrisches Soldatenlied lautet: (188) [2 Lieder]: (1)Ein anderes bekanntes "Schornsteinfegerlied" enthielt folgende zwei Strophen: (2)Im Roman "Infanterist Perhobstler" finden wir einen ebenso beliebten Vierzeiler: (189) [Abb.]: Neuer Schub von "Menschenmaterial" Zeichnung von C. Léandre in "Fantasio" (189) [Abb.]: Liebesgaben Französisches Plakat aus den Archives photographiques d'art et d'histoire, Paris (190) [2 Lieder]: (1)Das Lied bestand aus einer Unmenge Strophen, wie etwa der folgenden: (2)Gleichfalls im Roman von Infanteristen Perhobstler finden wir den Kehrreim einer Lorelei-Parodie: (190) [2 Abb.]: (1)Besuch bei der Marraine "Endlich sind Sie da. Womit könnte ich Ihnen eine Freude machen?" "Hm . mit Ihrem Stubenmädchen, wenn ich Sie bitten dürfte." Zeichnung von Jean Plumet in "Le Rire rouge", 1915 (2)Titelkopf der Speisekarte eines englisch-französischen Restaurants in Paris (191) [2 Abb.]: (1)Anzeige pornographischer und flagellantischer Bücher "für unsere Soldaten" Aus "Le Rire rouge", 1915 (2)"Der Herr muß warten. Sie sind der dreiundsiebzigste Kriegsmündel von Madame." Karikatur auf den Marraineunfug (192) [Abb.]: Freudiges Ereignis, Paris 1915 Zeichnung ( - ) [Abb.]: Der gnädige Herr hat Fronturlaub Zeichnung (193) [Abb.]: Feldpostkarte Sammlung A. Gaspar, Wien (194) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Nur sechs Tage Urlaub, Schatz! Und du möchtest doch Zwillinge haben!" Zeichnung von Djilio in "Le Rire rouge", 1915 (2)Feldpostkarte Sammlung A. Gaspar, Wien (195) [2 Abb.]: (1)Aus der Blütezeit des Preiswuchers "Hast du's gelesen? Jetzt werden auch wir unseren Preistarif sichtbar tragen müssen" Zeichnung von Rodiguet in "Le Rire rouge", 1915 (2)Auch so wird der Poilu gesehen Illustration aus dem Roman "Tout pour ça" von A. Derain (196) [Abb.]: "Sie wagen es, meinen Verwundeten zu berühren? der Marokkaner gehört mir!" Zeichnung aus "La Baionnette", 1914 (197) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Wiedersehen Zeichnung von Fabiano in "Fantasio", 1915 (2)Im Stinkraum ist Gasmaskenprobe - Die Seewehr fühlt sich wie ein Geck. Dumpf brummelt wildes Tiergeschnobe, Nichts ist dagegen Hagenbeck. Bild und Verse aus der Etappenzeitung "An Flanderns Küste", 1915 (198) [Abb.]: Feldlatrinenordnung von der Westfront Aus J. C. Brunner, Illustrierte Sittengeschichte (199) [Abb.]: Die Latrine Tiefste Erniedrigung als Gegenstand humoristischer Darstellung Postkarte aus der Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (200) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Ruhig Blut, Freund! Krieg ist Krieg - wir werden uns eben ein bißchen die Köpfe einschlagen" Zeichnung von R. Pallier in "Le Rire rouge", 1917 (2)Musette lernt Englisch (201) [Abb.]: Der Marsch auf Paris Erotisch-politische Zeichnung eines deutschen Soldaten, im Schützengraben entstanden (Marne 1915) Sammlung Lewandowski, Utrecht (202) [Abb.]: Sexuelle Symbolik im Militärleben Fesselballon, genannt Feldnülle Photograhische Aufnahme, aus der Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (203) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die ersten Äpfel des Jahres Zeichnung von H. Mirande in "Le Rire rouge", 1917 (2)Titelkopf einer Haarfetischistengeschichte in einer französischen Feldzeitung Sammlung Lewandowski, Utrecht (204) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Infanterist träumt Zeichnung (2)Die pikante Lektüre im Schützengraben Zeichnung (205) [Flugblatt]: Organische Bestimmungen über die Aufstellung, Organisation, den Betrieb und militärische Leitung, Unterstellung und Verwaltung von mobilen Feld- und Reserve-Freuden-häusern (Feldbordellen respektive Feldpuffs). (206) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die taktvolle Köchin Zeichnung aus "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (2)Nach achtzehn Monaten Eine der zahllosen Darstellungen des Märchens von Geschlechtshunger der Urlauber. (In Wirklichkeit hat die Frontabstinenz meist lähmend auf die Sexualität gewirkt.) Zeichnung von Léonnec in "Fantasio" (208) [Abb.]: Woran Tommy denkt Aquarell ( - ) [Abb.]: Marraine und Filleul Zeichnung von G. Léonnec in "La Vie Parisienne", 1918 (209) [Abb.]: Wie die Reklame den Krieg verwertet (210) [5 Abb.]: Woran sie immer denken Zeichnung von R. Prézelan in "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (211) [2 Abb.]: (1)Frontpostkarte der Deutschmeister Witwen- und Waisenstiftung Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (2)Zusammenstoß des Luftschiffs "Siegfried" mit dem Vergnügungsluftschiff "Hertha I" Symbolische Illustration einer Schützengrabenzeitung Aus J. C. Brunner, Illustrierte Sittengeschichte (212) [6 Abb.]: Der Urlauber "Sag' mir, wie du deinen Urlaub verbringst, und ich sage dir, wer du bist" (1)Tommy denkt an sein Bad (2)Hermann füllt sich den Magen (3)Pietro spielt Gitarre (4)Ibrahim zeigt seine Trophäen (5)Iwan tanzt (6)Aber der Franzose denkt an Liebe Zeichnung von Zyg. Brunner in "La Vie Parisienne", 1916 (213) [Abb.]: Genrebild aus dem Frontleben Photographische Aufnahme, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (214) [Abb.]: "Eine Sitzung hinter der Front" Krieg veredelt: man sitzt dem Photographen! Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (215) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Da draußen habe ich mir's anders vorgestellt" Zeichnung von H. Baille in "Le Rire rouge", 1917 (2)Poilu auf Urlaub Zeichnung von Carlègle in "La Vie Parisienne" (216) [Abb.]: "Gott, wie dick du an der Front geworden bist!" "Nicht wahr, Schwiegermutter, und man läßt mir nur vier Tage Zeit, um bei dir abzunehmen." Zeichnung von Rodiguet in "La Baionnette", 1915 (217) [Abb.]: Scharmützel zwischen zwei Schlachten "Ja es freut einen zu sehen, daß die Pariserin noch immer lieb und nett ist" Zeichnung von R. Vincent in "La Vie Parisienne", 1918 (218) Siebentes Kapitel Die Geschlechtskrankheiten im Heer Aufklärungsunterricht und Gesundheitsvisite - Bekämpfungsversuch durch Strafen - Die Therapie und das Verschulden übereifriger Ärzte - Ausbreitung in allen Heeren (219) [Abb.]: Zigeunerfamilien in Galizien, die sich durch Kriegsprostitution ernährte Photographische Aufnahme (219) [Tabelle]: Eine kurze Zusammenstellung von Dr. Blaschko gibt uns Aufschluß über die Verbreitung der Geschlechtskrankheiten in den verschiedenen Heeren vor dem Kriege. Die Ziffern stammen zwar aus dem Jahre 1895, doch sind sie bis zum Ausbruch des Weltkrieges nur in absoluter Beziehung zurückgegangen, ihr Verhältnis zueinander ist ziemlich das gleiche geblieben. (220) [Abb.]: Verhältniszahlen über die Ansteckung von Soldaten durch Dirnen, Arbeiterinnen und Bürgerliche (220) [Abb.]: In einem französischen Bordell "Die Sittenpolizei?" - "Nein, der Kommissär möchte ein Glas Wein trinken." Zeichnung von G. Pavis in "Le Rire", 1918 (221) [Gedicht]: A. R. Meyer, der in seinen bekannten "Fünf Mysterien" den Bombenüberfall auf das Krankenhaus in Lousberg dichterisch verwertet, läßt die aus der Haft ausgebrochenen belgischen Dirnen sagen: (221) [Flugblatt]: Aus dem Arsenal des Kampfes gegen Geschlechtskrankheiten im Kriege Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (223) [Gedicht]: Es gab etliche solcher hygienisch-poetischer Produkte, von denen eines hier folgen soll: (224) [Abb.]: Auf Befehl Zeichnung ( - ) [Flugblatt]: Errichtung der Sittenmiliz in Warschau Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (225) [Abb.]: Not kennt kein Gebot Zeichnung aus dem Felde (226) [Abb.]: Scherzpostkarte aus der Kriegszeit Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (227) [Abb.]: Nachtcafé in Konstantinopel "Sag'n Se ma, Herr Kam'rad, haben Se noch mehr solche Angorakätzchen?" Zeichnung (229) [Flugblatt]: Eine vielsagende Bekanntmachung der deutschen Ortskommandantur in Bialystok Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (230) [Flugblatt]: Merkblatt für deutsche Soldaten, herausgegeben von der Sittenpolizei Lodz Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (231) [Abb.]: Die "Gießkannenparade" Zeichnung von L. Gedö, 1916 (233) [Flugblatt]: Die Offensive der Kirche gegen Unsittlichkeit und Hurerei Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (234) [Gedicht]: Wir können es uns nicht versagen, die zwei letzten Strophen des französischen Poems, das den Titel "La saucisse de Strasbourg" (Das Straßburger Würstchen) führt, hier verdeutscht wiederzugeben: (236) [4 Abb.]: Was nach Kriegsrecht verboten ist (1)Auf die weiße Fahne zu schießen (2)Das rote Kreuz nicht zu achten (3)Verträge zu vernichten (4)Die Neutralität zu mißbrauchen Aus "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (237) [Abb.]: Karikatur von Karl Arnold in "Simplicissimus", 1915 (238) [Lied]: So wurde im besetzten Gebiet ein Gassenhauer gesungen: (239) [Abb.]: Liebeszauber in der Etappe Zeichnung (239) [Abb.]: Schützengrabenphantasie eines französischen Soldaten Unterschrift: "On a tué mon ami" (Mein Freund getötet) (Sammlung Lewandowski, Utrecht) ( - ) [Abb.]: Auch eine Musterung Aus dem Leben in der galizischen Etappe Zeichnung (241) [Flugblatt]: Eine Revanche-Kundmachung der französischen Besatzungsbehörden im Rheinland nach Kriegsende Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (242) [Abb.]: Wo sie sich die Seuche holten Zeichnung aus dem Skizzenbuch des Kriegsteilnehmers J. K. (243) [Abb.]: Soldatenliebchen Zeichnung (244) [Abb.]: "Anale" Feldpostkarte aus dem Krieg Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (245) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im Estaminet Aus der deutschen Etappenzeitung "An Flanderns Küste", 1916 (2)Kirchgang in Flandern Zeichnung von P. Meyer in "Kriegsflugblätter der Liller Kriegszeitung" (247) [Abb.]: Französisches Zeitungsinserat mit der Anpreisung von Heilmitteln gegen Geschlechts- und Harnröhrenkrankheiten für Soldaten (248) [Gedicht]: Der ungarische Lyriker Andreas Ady, in dessen Adern luetisches Blut rann, schrieb beim Ausbruch des Krieges: (248) Achtes Kapitel Die Weiblichen Soldaten des Weltkrieges Russische Kriegerinnen - Die Frauenbataillone Kerenskis - Die Serbin im Kriege - Die Kriegshetze der Engländerin - Verkleidete Französinnen - Versuche deutscher Frauen, sich ins Heer einzuschmuggeln - Irrtümliche Geschlechtsbestimmung - Die ukrainische und polnische Frauenlegion - Das Grab der Unbekannten Soldatin (249) [Abb.]: Die ungarische Frontkämpferin E. K. in feldmäßiger Ausrüstung Nach einer photographischen Aufnahme (249) [Abb.]: Weibliche Hilfstruppen Englands Karikaturistische Zeichnung von Fred Hendrich in "Liller Kriegszeitung", 1916 (251) [Abb.]: Bolschewistische Propagandablätter für die deutsche Front 1917/18 (252) [Abb.]: Ein weiblicher Soldat der russischen Roten Armee, nach ausgiebiger Schändung getötet Aus Ernst Friedrich, Krieg dem Kriege! (253) [Abb.]: Fräulein Jarema Kuz, Kadettaspirant der Ukrainer freiwilligen Ulanenschwadron im österreich-ungarischen Heere Photographische Aufnahme (255) [Abb.]: Schützengrabenzeichnung Sammlung A. Gaspar, Wien (256) [Abb.]: Erotik im Proviantdienst Propagandaplakat der amerikanischen Heilsarmee ( - ) [Abb.]: Eine junge Österreicherin, die als Fähnrich in der polnischen Legion kämpfte, in russische Gefangenschaft fiel und ausgetauscht wurde Photographische Aufnahme (257) [Abb.]: Matrosentänzerinnen in einer französischen Etappenkneipe Zeichnung (258) [Abb.]: Wer ist der Stolz der Kompanie? Wer kennt nicht Künstler-Maxen? Er ist ein Allerwelts-Genie Und macht die tollsten Faxen. Ein Hauptspaß ist es jedesmal Als Bertha in zu sehen; Dem "drallen Meechen" kann im Saal Dann keiner widerstehen. Transvestitische Postkarte, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (259) [Abb.]: Soldatinnen der amerikanischen Heilsarmee an der Front Photographische Aufnahme (261) [Abb.]: Ukrainische Legionarinnen in der österreichisch-ungarischen Armee Photographische Aufnahme (264) [Abb.]: Das Ideal des weiblichen Soldaten Französisches Wohltätigkeitsplakat von A. Willette Aus der Sammlung des Archives photographiques d'art et d'histoire, Paris (265) [Abb.]: Das letzte Aufgebot Englands Schimpfsalven der Fischweiber- und Suffragetten-Regimenter zur Abwehr von Zeppelinüberfällen Zeichnung von Blix in "Kriegsblätter des Simplicissimus" (267) [Abb.]: Etappe Gent Zeichnung (269) [Abb.]: Serbische Bäuerinnen lernen schießen Photographische Aufnahme (270) [Abb.]: "Stillgestanden!" beim Amazonenkorps Aus "Punch", 1916 (271) [Abb.]: Musterung für das russische Frauenbataillon Russische Karikatur, Sammlung Lewandowski, Utrecht (272) [Inschrift]: Jetzt steht auf ihrem Grab ein Stein, der folgende Inschrift trägt: (272) Neuntes Kapitel Die Homosexualität im Kriege Die Kriegslust der Urninge - Kameradschaft, Freundespaare, Offizier und Diener - Feminine Urninge und Transvestiten - Damenimitatoren im Felde (273) [Abb.]: La désenchantée Transvestitisch polit. Karikatur auf Wilhelm II. Zeichnung (273) [Abb.]: Französisches Fronttheater mit Damendarsteller Aus "Fantasio", 1916 (274) [Abb.]: Das Urteil des deutschen Paris Karikatur von A. Guillaume, "Fantasio", 1915 (275) [Abb.]: Der Damenimitator im Mannschaftszimmer Zeichnung (277) [Gedicht]: Über denselben Wunsch und Drang, ins Heer zu kommen, berichtet in poetischer Form auch ein Gedicht "Die Zurückgebliebenen", dem wir folgendes entnehmen: (278) [Abb.]: Deutsche Etappe im Spiegel der französischen Karikatur Nach einem Gemälde von A. Guillaume, "Fantasio", 1915 (279) [Abb.]: Wilhelm II. im Harem Transvestitische Karikatur von Jean Veber. Erstmals erschienen in "Rire", 1898, dann in "Fantasio", 1917 neuerlich reproduziert (281) [Abb.]: Admiral von Hintze, kaiserlicher Kabinettkurator Zeichnung von A. Barrère in "Fantasio", 1916 (282) [Abb.]: Feldgraue Urninge bei einer Fronttheatervorstellung Photographische Aufnahme Aus der Sammlung des Instituts für Sexualwissenschaft, Berlin (283) [Abb.]: Szenenbild aus Shakespeares "Was Ihr wollt" in der Aufführung im Deutschen Theater in Lille Kriegsflugblätter der "Liller Kriegszeitung", 1916 (285) [Abb.]: Homosexualität in der Kaserne Zeichnung (287) [Abb.]: Heimkehr des Soldaten Zeichnung ( - ) [Abb.]: Französische Soldaten als Damenimitatoren Nach einem Aquarell Sammlung Lewandowski, Utrecht (289) [Lied]: So finden wir in der "Mitauschen Zeitung" folgendes Totenlied: Mein Leutnant (289) [Abb.]: Theater hinter der Front "Fritz, das hast du großartig gemacht, die ganze Kompagnie hat sich in dich verliebt" Zeichnung von P. Stimmel in "Lustige Blätter", 1916 (291) [Abb.]: Französische Soldaten in Frauenkleidern Die drei Poilus sind in dieser Verkleidung aus der Gefangenschaft entflohen Aus dem Archiv des französischen Kriegsministeriums (293) [Abb.]: Soiree in Berlin Auch eine französische Kriegskarikatur (295) [Abb.]: Hinter den Kulissen des Fronttheaters Der Damendarsteller und seine Garderobière Aus "Fantasio", 1917 (297) [Abb.]: Auch die italienische Karikatur stellt feindliche Offiziere gerne als Homosexuelle dar Zeichnung aus "Gli Unni e gli altri", 1915 (299) [Abb.]: Fräulein Feldwebel Zeichnung (300) [Abb.]: "Hände hoch!" Russisch-polnische Scherzpostkarte Sammlung Lewandowski, Utrecht (301) [Abb.]: Für ein Kommißbrot und einen Franc, Lieben wir stundenlang. Lied aus der flandrischen Etappe Zeichnung (303) [Abb.]: Die hübschen Kameraden Postkarte aus dem Jahre 1915 Sammlung Lewandowski, Utrecht (304) [Abb.]: Amerikanische Gäste in Paris Zeichnung ( - ) Zehntes Kapitel Kriegsbordelle Die bordellierte Prostitution im Felde und in der Etappe - "Schwanzparade" - Das Elend der Mannschaftsdirnen (305) [Abb.]: In einem belgischen Bordell Photographische Aufnahme Aus Friedrich Ernst, Krieg dem Kriege! (305) [Flugblatt]: Angebliche deutsche Verordnung, von den Franzosen nach Kriegsschluß mit zweizeiligem Kommentar als Flugzettel im Rheinland verbreitet Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (306) [Abb.]: Die Bordelle der verbündeten Mittelstaaten waren streng getrennt Photographische Aufnahme ("A.-I.-Z.") (307) [Abb.]: Mobiles Feld-Freudenhaus für Offiziere, in einer Art Zirkuswagen untergebracht Photographische Aufnahme ("A.-I.-Z.") (309) [Abb.]: So stellen sie sich daheim vor dem Lebensmittelgeschäft an . Zeichnung von Th. Th. Heine, aus "Kleine Bilder aus großer Zeit" (310) [Abb.]: . und so in der Etappe vor dem Bordell Holzschnitt (311) [Abb.]: Im polnischen Gouvernementsbordell Photographische Aufnahme (313) [Abb.]: Hochbetrieb im belgischen Etappenbordell Zeichnung von Heinrich Zille Mit freundlicher Genehmigung des Neuen Deutschen Verlages, Berlin, aus dem Buche Heinrich Zilles "Für Alle" (314) [Abb.]: Hochbetrieb im belgischen Etappenbordell Zeichnung von Heinrich Zille Mit freundlicher Genehmigung des Neuen Deutschen Verlages, Berlin aus dem Buche Heinrich Zilles "Für Alle" (315) [Abb.]: Preisverzeichnis eines Kriegsbordells (316) [Abb.]: Verstümmelter und Dirne Lithographie (317) [Lied]: Lille, wo einst Karl der Kühne bei seinem Einzug vom Spalier der nackten Jungfrauen der Stadt empfangen worden war und von dem im Weltkrieg das Liedchen gesungen wurde: (318) [Abb.]: Kriegsbordell in Mitau Photographische Aufnahme (319) [Abb.]: "Um Gottes willen, jetzt sollen nur nicht alle meine Negerin verlangen!" Zeichnung von Laforge, aus der französischen Frontzeitung "Le canard enchaîné" (320) [Abb.]: Im Etappenpuff Zeichnung ( - ) [Flugblatt]: Auch wies er auf eine gedruckte Verfügung der Kommandantur hin, aus der besonders der Punkt V augenfällig hervorleuchtet: (321) [Abb.]: Hotel Stadt Lemberg Zeichnung (321) [Abb.]: Aus Kriegsbordellen Zeichnung von George Grosz Mit freundlicher Genehmigung des Fritz Gurlitt Verlages, Berlin (323) [Flugblatt]: Das Militär im Kampf gegen die Unzucht: Maueranschlag aus Grodno, 1915 Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (324) [Abb.]: Finanzielle Verhandlungen Zeichnung (325) [Abb.]: Abendidyll aus der flandrischen Etappe Schattenriß aus der Etappenzeitung "An Flanderns Küste", 1915 Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (326) [Abb.]: Bei der Feldbraut Frontzeichnung (327) [Abb.]: "Vorwärts, Kinder, alle müssen drankommen!" Zeichnung (329) [Abb.]: "Liebst du mich auch?" - "Ja!" - "Wie?" - "Wie deinen ganzen Jahrgang." Zeichnung von M. Motet in "Le Rire" (330) [Abb.]: "Warum hat sie nicht gewollt? Man hat ja zahlen wollen" Politische Karikatur auf die Vergewaltigung Belgiens (331) [Abb.]: Der siegreiche Ersatzreservist Zeichnung (332) [Abb.]: Sandwich pain noir Französische Etappenkarikatur von Anglay in "Fantasio". 1915 (333) [Abb.]: Der Traum von der Abrüstung Zeichnung (334) Elftes Kapitel Etappenprostitution Feldbräute in Ost und West - Liebe für ein Kommißbrot und einen Franc - Estaminets und Teestuben - Krieg, der große Galeotto (335) [Abb.]: In einer galizischen Teestube Zeichnung (335) [Abb.]: Wie er bei den Französinnen Eroberungen macht Französische Karikatur auf den deutschen Etappenoffizier (Zeichner unbekannt) (336) [Abb.]: Die rationierte Kosmetik Französische Karikatur von G. Léonnec, 1918 ( - ) [Abb.]: "Eine Heldin der Front, die kleine Modewarenhändlerin in X an der Z" Zeichnung von S. Sesboné in "Fantasio", 1916 (337) [Abb.]: Die nordfranzösische Etappe im Spiegel des deutschen Humors (339) [Abb.]: Weiblicher Hilfsdienst in dem von Russen besetzten Ostpreußen, 1914 (340) [Abb.]: Der Held vom amerikanischen Roten Kreuz Karikatur von Charles Michel in "Fantasio", 1916 (341) [Flugblatt]: Im übrigen wurden die deutschen Truppenangehörigen, die in Brüssel ankamen, am Bahnhof von einer Warnungstafel folgenden Inhalts empfangen: (342) [Abb.]: Wein, Liebe und Tabak: der Laden im zerstörten Dorf Front-Zeichnung (343) [Lied]: Henel gibt ein in Brügge entstandenes deutsches Soldatenlied wieder: (343) [Abb.]: Die Zivilarbeiterbataillone in der französischen Karikatur "Himmel, meine Töchter!" - "Bah, sie sind wie alle Französinnen - leicht zu entführen!" Zeichnung von H. Grand-Aigle "La Baionnette", 1916 (344) [Lied]: Immerhin sie hier die erste Strophe eines hübschen Liedchens wiedergegeben, das, von einem deutschen Soldaten gedichtet, in der Kriegszeitung des deutschen Marinekorps in Flandern, "An Flanderns Küste", abgedruckt wurde: (344) [Abb.]: Kriegspatin und Patenkind oder das ungleiche Paar Zeichnung von Reb in "Fantasio", 1917 (345) [Abb.]: Titelblatt einer Justament-Nummer der Geheimzeitung "La libre Belgique", die jahrelang in dem von Deutschen besetzten Belgien erschienen und eine wüste Propaganda gegen die Besetzungsbehörden entfaltete (347) [Abb.]: "Det Gequassel immer! Ick hab' hier nischt Verfiehrerisches gesehen" Aus "Liller Kriegszeitung", 1915 (348) [Abb.]: Etappenhumor Zeichnung von C. Arnold in "Liller Kriegszeitung", 1915 (349) [Abb.]: Das Seepferdchen Zeichnung (351) [Abb.]: Gefängnisstrafe für zwei Einwohner von Noyon (Nordfrankreich), die die Offiziere der Besatzungsarmee nicht grüßten Plakat, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (352) [Abb.]: Die kleine Tänzerin und der große General Bild aus der italienischen Etappe ( - ) [Abb.]: Im Nachtcafé "Hier stelle ich dir meine Milchschwester vor." "Und ich dir meinen Schnapsbruder." Zeichnung von Faye in "Vie de Garnison" (353) [Gedicht]: Nicht ohne Grund klingt im berühmten Vierzeiler der flämischen Dirnen das Lob des deutschen Kommißbrotes mit: (354) [Flugblatt]: Auch ein Beitrag zur Geschichte aller militärischen Besatzungen Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (355) [Abb.]: Im Estaminet Zeichnung eines Kriegsteilnehmers, aus J. C. Brunner, Illustrierte Sittengeschichte (358) [Abb.]: Aus dem Schwarzweißrotblauweißrotbuch: Französinnen flicken die Wäsche der deutschen Krieger Sammlung A. Wolff. Leipzig (359) [Abb.]: "Nu guck mal, also hier darf nichts ruiniert werden!" Aus "Liller Kriegszeitung", 1915 (360) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche zum geknebelten Belgien: "Wir sind die denkbar besten Freunde geworden" Politische Karikatur (361) [Flugblatt]: Dokumentarisches zur Psychologie der militärischen Besetzung Plakat, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (363) [Abb.]: "Mit Gott für Kaiser und Vaterland" Verlag Viva (364) [Abb.]: Auf der Suche nach Quartier "Mein Mann ist nicht zu Hause und ich habe nur ein Bett für mich." "Tut nichts, wir werden Sie nicht inkommodieren - wir werden eben ein wenig zusammenrücken!" Französische Frontzeichnung (365) [Abb.]: Gesicht und Gesichter der Etappe Photographische Aufnahme, Verlag Viva (366) [Abb.]: Etappe Paris Zeichnung von G. Pavis in "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (367) [Abb.]: Rumänische Familie, deren weibliche Mitglieder vom Verkauf ihrer Körper an die Soldaten der Besatzungsarmee lebten Photographische Aufnahme, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (368) [Abb.]: Das Etappenschwein . und sein Pläsierchen Zeichnung ( - ) Zwölftes Kapitel Etappenhengste und Etappenmädel Die Legende vom Front- und Etappenschwein - Die Frauen der besetzten Gebiete und die Eroberer - Belgien unter deutscher Besatzung - Zivilarbeiterbataillone - Die Hilfsdienstdamen - Frauenkrankenhäuser in der Etappe (369) [Abb.]: Aus "Galizien", ill. Beilage der Ostgalizischen Feldzeitung, 1917 (369) [Abb.]: Die Sexualnot in humoristischer Aufmachung Aus "Kriegsflugblätter der Liller Kriegszeitung" (370) [Lied]: Das Etappenschwein (370) [Flugblatt]: Wie leicht man sein Leben verwirkte Plakat aus dem besetzten Rußland Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (371) [Lied]: Nur ist hier der Gegensatz zwischen dem Wohlleben der Offiziere und dem Hundeleben der gemeinen Soldaten krasser herausgearbeitet. Eines diese Lieder lautet in wörtlicher Übersetzung: (372) [Abb.]: Eroberung hinter der Ostfront Photographische Aufnahme (373) [Abb.]: Das Mitglied der Friedenskonferenz: "Ich soll nicht freigebig sein? Soeben habe ich einem völlig Unbekannten den ganzen Libanon, Estland und die östliche Walachei geschenkt!" Zeichnung von A. Faivre in "Le Rire rouge", 1919 (374) [Abb.]: Mehr Dichtung als Wahrheit über das Leben im besetzten Feindesland Postkarte aus der Kriegszeit, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (375) [Abb.]: Hotelhall in Brüssel Wie der französische Zeichner das Leben in der von Deutschen besetzten belgischen Hauptstadt darstellt Aus "Fantasio", 1915 (376) [Abb.]: Der Etappen-Photograph "So . bitte . jetzt! ." Aus "Simplicissimus", 1916 (377) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Schau, zehn Francs ist nicht teuer." "Ich will nicht widersprechen, aber ich habe nur 10 Centimes." Aus "Vie de Garnision", 1915 (2)Deutsche Postkarte aus dem dritten Kriegsjahr Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (378) [Brief]: Wir lassen die geheime Anweisung der Kommandantur in Lille für Suchpatrouillen, die die Aushebung in die Zivilarbeiterbataillone durchzuführen hatten, folgen: (379) [Abb.]: Liebe im französischen Unterstand Aus "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (379) [Abb.]: Kinematographische Aufnahme aus 1001 Nacht in der Lichtstadt Aus "La Vie Parisienne", 1916 (380) [6 Abb.]: Der Krieg im Hinterland (1)Vorbereitung zur Offensive (2)Angriff mit brennbaren Flüssigkeiten (3)Der Kampfwagen (Tank) (4)Kleine Detailoperationen (5)Ein nächtlicher Gegenangriff (6)Die Nacht nach dem Sieg Zeichnung von G. Pavis in "La Vie Parisienne", 1915 (381) [Abb.]: "Was mir an Ihrem Beruf am meisten mißfällt, ist, daß Sie jede Nacht Wache schieben müssen" Zeichnung von H. Gazan in "Le Rire rouge", 1916 (382) [Abb.]: Lille, Hauptstadt der nordfranzösischen Etappe und Hauptsitz der Etappenprostitution, nach Einzug der Deutschen Photographische Aufnahme (383) [Abb.]: Flandrische Etappe in Bild und Schrift . Jedoch des Tages höchster Glanz Naht abends, wenn sie geht zum Tanz. Im "Eldorado" Walzer klingen, Matros' und Meisje Tanzbein schwingen. Aus der Etappenzeitung "An Flanderns Küste", 1916 (384) [Abb.]: Der Leichenzug aus Belgien Eine sehr verbreitete Propagandazeichnung ( - ) [Abb.]: Flandrische Etappe in Bild und Schrift . Und bist du gar ein Kavalier, Bringst du die Maid vor ihre Tür, Gibst einige "Totjes" deiner Braut, Sie ist "beschaamd en stief benouwd." Aus der Etappenzeitung "An Flanderns Küste", 1916 (385) [Abb.]: Italienische Postkarte zur Warnung vor Spionen Sammlung A. Wolf, Leipzig (386) [Abb.]: Aus dem Leben eines Fernsprechers Feldgrauer Humor aus "Scheinwerfer", Beilage zur Zeitung der 10. Armee (Wilna) Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (387) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kaffeehaus hinter der alliierten Front Zeichnung von R. Jouenne in "Fantasio", 1918 (2)"Das tut gut, für die kleine Französin zu kämpfen" Zeichnung von Marcel Bloch in "La Baionnette", 1915 (388) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kaffeehaus hinter der alliierten Front Zeichnung von R. Jouenne in "Fantasio", 1918 (2)"Das tut gut, für die kleine Französin zu kämpfen" Zeichnung von Marcel Bloch in "La Baionnette", 1915 (389) [Abb.]: Kriegscafé in einem ungarischen Grenzstädtchen Zeichnung (390) [Abb.]: Eine zusammenfassende Darstellung aller zu Propagandazwecken von der Entente reichlich ausgeschroteten "deutschen Greueltaten" Zeichnung von Townsend in "Punch", 1915 (391) [Abb.]: Friedliche Eroberungen in Feindesland mit Hilfe des allbeliebten Kommißbrotes Szene aus dem Film der Deutschen Universal Film A.-G. nach Remarques "Im Westen nichts Neues" (392) [Abb.]: Fest deutscher Soldaten in Flandern Das Auftreten der Schuhplattler Photographische Aufnahme (393) [Abb.]: "Mein Mann macht mir fürchterliche Szenen, obwohl ich ihm gedroht habe wegzugehen." "Droh' ihm, daß du bleibst." Zeichnung von Haye in "Vie de Garnison" (394) [Abb.]: Auskundschaftung des Terrains Zeichnung von Martin in "La Vie Parisienne", 1918 (395) [Abb.]: Das Spiel im Frauenherzen "Man nehme mehr als vier!" Französische Postkarte (396) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten an einem dienstfreien Sonntag mit ihren russischen Quartierswirtinnen Photographische Aufnahme (397) [Gedicht]: so wollen wir uns von diesen Kriegsopfern mit den Worten verabschieden, die Karl Kraus ihnen in seinem grandiosen Kriegsdrama in den Mund legt: (397) [Abb.]: Soldat und Dirne Federzeichnung von Alfred Kubin Fritz Gurlitt-Verlag, Berlin (398) [Abb.]: Der Hunger zieht durch die Straßen Zeichnung aus dem besetzten Nordfrankreich (399) [Abb.]: Im Wintergarten in Berlin werden Tänzerinnen engagiert Zeichnung von A. Miarko in "Fantasio", 1915 (400) [Abb.]: Der rote Dämon der Etappe Zeichnung ( - ) [Abb.]: Ut J'hann Stuewen sin Franzosentid "Na, Madam, kokt de Kartuffel ok?" "Merci, Monsieur, je ne suis pas très bien portant." "Kick mol, dat Flesch is ok all moeer?" "Oui, oui, Monsieur, c'est la guerre, c'est un malheur." "Dat is schön, denn könn' wi ja bald wat eten." Aus "Liller Kriegszeitung", 1915 (401) [Abb.]: Die Eroberer und die Bevölkerung von Russisch-Polen Photographische Aufnahme (402) [Flugblatt]: Ein Plakat der Besatzungsbehörden in Russisch-Polen Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (403) [Abb.]: Etappe Gent Zeichnung von George Grosz in "Gesicht der herrschenden Klasse", Malik-Verlag (404) [Abb.]: Englische Hilfstruppe im Nahkampf Aus einem lithographierten Heft "War and Women" (405) [Lied]: Trotzdem spricht man oft von der Flucht und neckisch singen die Frauen ein Lied, das im Krankenhaus entstanden ist: (405) [Abb.]: Kriegsromantik im Estaminet Aus der deutschen Etappenzeitung "An Flanderns Küste", 1916 (406) [Lied]: Eine Strophe einer im Hause entstandenen Chanson sagt unverblümt: (406) [Abb.]: Nachtleben in der flandrischen Etappe Nach einem Aquarell (407) [Abb.]: Gruss von der Leipziger Messe! Die grosse Mode 1919 "8 Monate nach Krieger's Heimkehr" (408) Literaturangaben (409) Einleitung, Erstes Kapitel, Zweites Kapitel (409) Drittes Kapitel (409) Viertes Kapitel (410) Fünftes Kapitel, Sechstes Kapitel (411) Siebentes Kapitel (411) Achtes Kapitel (412) Neuntes Kapitel (413) Zehntes Kapitel (413) Elftes Kapitel, Zwölftes Kapitel (414) Inhalt des ersten Bandes (415) Werbung ( - ) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )

Issue 35.6 of the Review for Religious, 1976. ; ,,,,llllili,,,~,iililli REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is edited by faculty members of St. Louis University, the editorial offices being located at 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boule-vard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. It is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute; St. Louis, Missouri. Published bimonthly and copyright © 1976 by REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Composed, printed, and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri. Single copies: $2.00. Subscription U.S.A. and Canada: $7.00 a year; $13.00 for two years; other countries, $8.00 a year, $15.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be accompanied by check or money order payable to. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Change of address requests should include former address. Daniel F. X. Meenan, S.J. Robert Williams, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Jean Read Editor Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor Assistant Editor November 1976 Volume 35 Number 6 Renewals, new subscriptions, and changes of address should be sent to REVXEW yon RELIGIOUS; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Correspondence with the editor and the associate editor together with manuscripts and books for review should be sent to REvmw voa RELICIOUS; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boule-yard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, SJ.; St. Joseph's College; City Avenue at $4th Street; Philadelphia, Pennsyl-vania 19131. Catholic Schools in a Declining Church: A Theological Reflection Donald J. Keefe, S.J. Father Keefe, on the faculty of the Department of Theological Studies; St. Louis University; St. Louis, MO 63103, has been a frequent reviewer in these pages. Presently he is on sabbatical leave and is residing in the Jesuit Community; Fordham Univer-sity; Bronx, NY 10458. Catholic Schools in a Declining Church, co-authored by Andrew Greeley, William McCready and Kathleen McCourt (Sheed and Ward, 1976) has attained a prominence in religious publication ,which is perhaps comparable to that of Hans~ Kiing's In[allible? An Inquiry. Their common success fol-lows a common formula: each purports to present a scholarly basis for a radical criticism of the institutional Church. Each is underwritten by a prominent figure in the Catholic world, Consequently, each has~a political significance which is independent of the intrinsic merits of its critique. Each has been given instant notoriety in th.e popular press and each, in its fashion, is symptomatic of what seems to be a pervasive dissatisfaction within Cath-olic academic circles regarding what are felt to be inappropriate responses of the Church to the contemporary world. Finally, each reflects a similar impatience with the "official" ecclesiology, one which understands the Church as "the sacramental sign of the Kingdom of God: KiJng's rejection of this ecclesiology, long since explicitl does not concern us here. Rather we are coficerned with the ecclesiology implicit in Catholic Schools in a De- ,clining Church, particularly insofar as this bears upon Greeley's judgment that the encyclical,.Humanae Vitae, is simply a disaster. Greeley's salient theological conclusion is that, by reason of a funda-mental failure in communication, the official Church, though, revivified by the reforms of Vatican II, has, in the publication of Humanae Vitae, entered 801 802 / Review ]or Religious,: Volume 35, 1976/6 upon a suicidal rejection of 'its own reality-in-history by rejecting the morality of artificial contraception; and this despite the fact that~ the greater part of the Catholi6 people find no impropriety in such practices. Certain normative presuppositions undergird Greeley's conclusion: .1 ) The Catholic Church is as fit a subject for sociological analysis as any other social .entity. It is quite as permeable to this kind of scrutiny'as, for example, would be the Democratic Party. 2) The actual meaning of events, as these occur in the history of the Church, is that meaning which this kind of investigation reveals. Thus, for example, an event is "disastrous" when its effects, as measured by sociolog-ical criteria, are found to be destructive. These presuppositions are merely expressions of the demand for auton-omy which every intellectual inquiry, regardless of its object, makes as a matter of course. Every science is in search of the unity of truth. The syn-thetic or conclusion-reaching aspect of any science is no more than an expression of confidence in the power of its own method to integrate into a comprehensive understanding all the scattered data which its inquiry un-covers. There.is a kind of arrogance associated with any disciplined attempt to understand, for it supposes an ability to transcend, to dominate, ultimately to comprehend its object. Such intellectual self-sufficiency at a naive level raises no particular theological difficulties. But when it is given sophisticated expression as a method O[ knowledge, it can become an ideology, one which would pretend to offer a comprehensive criterion of truth and reality that would be analogous to, and necessarily competitive with the Christian faith itself. Such methodologies in fact become ideological when they refuse to admit the existence of any truth, of any reality beyond their grasp. They become ideological when they place prior limits upon-what can be "known," upon what can be "true." Over the centuries of the Church's history, such ideological convictions have continually troubled the faith of its community. Such convictions have been woven out of the tangled threads of rabbinical Judaism, of the Medi-terranean mystery religions, of the He~llenistic philogophies which were contemporaneous with the early Church. With the dawn of the Middle Ages, the first introduction of Aristotle)~ logic prbvided a new challenge to the faith. In the late Renaissance, there was a c~omparableenthu~iasm for yet another powerful intellectual resource: "scientific method," with its ac-companying mathematics, began to be exalted as the ~nique mode of .access to certitude. By the end o~ the eighteenth century, this confidence had waned. The Romantic period then found in the humanistic study of history and in nascent sociology a new key to the human enigma. Truth is no longer to be r~garded as something "out there." Rather it is seen as the proper Catholic Schools in a Declining Church: A Reflection / 1~03 achievement of human societies in history--a history which is fundamentally in human hands, open to human analysis and exhaustive comprehension. This, too, fed the formation of ideologies. Common to all such ways of knowing iS the problem of their "conver-sion." The value ofthese works of human intelligence is enormous, in-dispensable. How can they be conformed to the Catholic faith, enter into a Catholic intellectuality? The claim that they cannot be. so conformed is still heard, both from those who too much love and from those who too much fear the new learning. For those who love too much, such a conversion would put an end to the "autonomy of science." For those who "too much fear," such a conVersion would end by relativizing the faith. Perhaps the simplest reply to such claims is to point out their futility. The objection that the "conversion" of an otherwise autonomous method of scientific inquiry would write finis to its independence rests upon an outdated notion of scientific method, the philosophical roots of which were undercut by Kant.~The intrinsic dilemmas of this method were demon-strated half a century ago by Heisenberg's0principle of indetermination. In point of fact, Descartes' dream of a universal science remains a dream, a dream tied to a time now remote. In our day, it survives only as an ideology of a peculiarly old-fashioned sort, kept alive' largely by social engineers' such as B. F. Skinner with his form of determinism. In such hands, this ideology becomes a kind of salvation, scheme by which the unpredictability, the enigmatic character of historical humanity is remedied by the elimina-tion of those human attributes which permit the emergence of historical' novelty: freedom and personal responsibility. The reduction of humanity to fungible integers thus finally makes possible a mathematically accurate calculus and control of the human. Such an ideology is really nothing more than eighteenth-century,Enlight-enment optimism, which wasn't even taken seriously by its own proponents. They wouldn't dream of submitting themselves to this~kind of salvation-scheme. Yet it is precisely in the. proliferation of ~such salvation-schemes that there comes,to be most clearly evident scientific method's need for a radication in a faith which transcends it. On the other hand, the point of view we indicated above as that which fears the relativizing of faith by any application to it of a free inquiry has its exemplars in the long line of rigofists who have always been present in the,Church. First there were the Judaizers of whom Paul complains. There was Marcion in the next century, Tertullian in the third. There have been the ever-present battalions of "hypertraditionalists," those who fear that a free future must :be open to~ sin and corruption, and would, on that account, foreclose the.History of Salvation in the name of salvation itself, 'quite as would their counterparts, the social, engineers. But their historical pessimism is the less excusable because the faith they are zealous to defend 804 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 is precisely a faith in the Lord of History whose creation is good and whose presence in. the world makes its history to be salvific. It is then as illusory for the scientist to fear the conversion of his methodology to the service of the Catholic faith as it is perverse for the committed Cathblic unduly to°fear the scientific inquiry which such a .con-version would unleash. Still, the mutuality of science and. of the Catholic faith is easier to envisage than it is to achieve. While the sunny confidence in a salvation-to- be-wrought-by-reason has waned somewhat since the age of optimism that was' ended in the blo~d,soaked fields at Verdun and. the Somme in World War ~, the practitioners of the social sciences, however mindful they ¯ be of the oft-cited perils of "Helleriization," still tend, to be less than troubled by the demonic potential of~their own saeculum, by the resistance of their own cultural commonplace--scientific method t6 conVersion. Not a little of this resistance is the fruit of the recognition by Vatican II that the world is not alienated from the concerns of the Church. Indeed, the autonomy of the secular in its own realm is there explicitly stated, bring-ing with it the enfranchisement of the scholar to do his work without con-cern for received opinions among churchme.n in regard to matters which are properly within his province. In Vatican II, historical and social re-search were liberated from all pious dishonesty. Catholic confidence in the ultimate goodness of fallen historicity required no less. " Since that time, Catholics have become accustomed, as they were not before the Council, to a view of an historical Church "with warts on." For many, perhaps for most,~ this new outlook was traumatic. Accustomed hitherto to think of the Church in terms of such attributes as militancy, witness, inerrancy, historical unity and the like, they were suddenly con-fronted by the countering of these commonplaces with other assertions of the Church's' documented cowardliness, conformism, error, division and so on. Indeed, these wer, e not seldom presented as conclusive refutations of the traditional faith in the one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church: More, and worse, these charges had a kind of ecclesial warrant--the "spirit of Vatican II." This spirit more and more often found expression in terms, of an active antagonism to the Catholic past. In particular, the validity of tradition and of the authority of the Church were challenged in the heretofore sacrosanct realm of sexuality. In this realm scarcely any element of the Church's faith or practice was without its learned opposition. In its opposition, argument rested not on historical research--for the.con-stancy of the moral tradition was quite clear--but upon what was con-sidered to be "the religious insignificance" of sexuality. From the vantage point of modern psychology and sociology, Catholic emphasis upon the sacramentality of sex, which found expression in the condemnation of certain sexual practices as being immoral, in the prohibition of clerical marriage, Catholic Schools in a Declining Church." A Reflection / 805 and of the ordination of women, was viewed as simply mistaken. Sociology and psychology were thought to provide a sufficient explanation for the origin of these, rules and 'condemmitions, while at the same time, these same disciplines,seemedzunable to find any present justification for con-tinuing such norms. Underlying such. conclusions was the presupposition that "whatever can be given a secular explanation must be so explained." Of course, this is a denial of the sacramental'significance of historical humanity. It represents a retrogression to thht .primitive mentality which .identifies religion~ with magic. In this' way,~, all holiness, all religious value~in the everyday, non-marvelous, commonplace human life in the world comes to be ignored. In such a circumstance, the Church has nothing to say to this~world; for the Church is seen to exist ,only~to provide :illusion for a dwindling clientele. Whoever would challenge the Churchqn such terms really cannot expect a heating' .The Church must~refuse the postulates of.iany science-become-idei~ logy. (3riticis .ms of the Church based on the validity-of such postulates do not bear upon reality. ,They leave .no common ground fore discussion. The authenticity of the Church's teaching and practice does not--and can~ notqwait upon certification from any secular tribunal. Greeley, oin his critique, like Kting, fo~-gets ,this, ~though not to, the point of the latter's explicit denial of the Church's sacramental and causal' relationship to the fulfilled Kingdom of God., Rather, Greeley~ simply does not advert to it. Still, the net effect'is the same.~When the Church is treated for purposes of the laboratory as' merely*an empirical datum, its sacramental character is ignored. The laboratory is not concerned with the truth and effectiveness of a sacramental sign. Yet the Chur~h,~can be understooddn her reality only insofar as he'r history is aqknowledged to, be the~uniquely effective sacra-mental instrument through which humanity, regardless of its historical di-versity, its contention and sin, is~ ultimately redeemed from its fallenness and raised to fulfillment by the.Lord of History.°tf this sacramental reality is not admitted at the outset, the,~Church becomes something debatable, a matter for dispute,, bringing us back to the format of what is, .after all, an obsolete apologetic: a profitless debate over the Church"s worthiness and/or unworthiness. In Catholic'. Schools in a De'clining Church, the worthiness/ finworthiness preoccupation is' mdni[est: the-Church-as-worthy is~,seen to be the-Church-as-popular. ,: ¯ ~- And yet, if it qs right to be wary of an ecclesiology which w~ould, sub-mit the Church to some .sup'erior academic wisdom, it would be quite an-other thing to conclude that the., Church need not respond .to criticisms which the academy cannot but, offer it. Conversation _between the two, however, can take place only where there is a foreswearing of,funda-mentalism On the one hand_and of doctrinaire scientism on the other. Only thus could there, come" into being a common universe of discourse. Necessarily~,ifivolved in this is a recognition by the Church that its doc- 806 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 trine is given historical utterance for the sake of beginning new discussion quite as much as for the sake of punctuating an antecedent one. Necessarily involved is a recognition by the scientist that, when .all his data are collated, the inferences they support must be_ framed as questions, and as problems, not as doctrine in competition with the faith. It is by no means easy to preserve the conditions for such an exchange. Good will is, only the first of these. Ultimately the demand of such condi-tions is met by the recognition of what is actually taking place in such_a conversatibn. It represents an interchange between the faith of the Church and the questing reason of its members '(,which is called theology). It repre-sents the transformation of an otherwise purely secular scientific interest, a transformation imperated by its application to the Revelation.which is given in Christ.In this application, a given discipline accepts as the object of its inquiry a reality whose truth cannot be utterly controlled by its methodology, which it can only approach in a posture which is fundamentally one of worship. When .this attitude of worship fails, the exaggerated claim bf autonomy is thereby taken up again, and the transcendence~ of the Church's truth, of its faith, is rejected out of hand for the sake of "truly scientific objectivity." When such a rejection is misunderstood by'th~ Catholic faithful, when it is presumed to be normative for the scholarly enterprise, the opposite extreme becomes unavoidable: the sacramental holiness of the world and the historical character of the worship of the Church are equally sup: pressed. And the conversation which was originally ambitioned disintegrates into mutual recrimination. The changes rung on this theme are indefinitely numerous. In sum,. they preface and. finally constitute an aversion for the historical faith of the Catholic community in favor of those alternatives whose name is legion. All of this has been remarked sufficiently over the centuries. In the abstract, it is easy enough to see the need for a mutuality between Church and academy, but the realization of such a mutuality is continually im-peded byo the fallenness which mars us all. We are, all and. always in the sway of the~emptation to revert to a pessimistic status quo ante in terms of which the revealed compatibility of God and man, of the Church and the world; of faith and reason can be shown to be absurd, a fiction that is unworthy of man and derisory of God. Thisois a universal failing: It is no more characteristic of the academy than 'of the cloister, of the chancery than of the market. In either case, reductively we are seeking to denature God's good creation by rationalizing and objectifying its sacramental truth and unity.~By such devices we frag-ment our world: We trivialize and compartmentalize our world into isolated bits. And this becomes prelude for dismissing from our lives~ actual his-torical meaning, its sacramentality, the holiness of its totality. Whether done in the name of an ecclesial or a secular piety, what is Catholic Schools in a Declining Church: A Reflection / 807 achieved is a flight from the threatening mystery of our historical existence, from our need to be sustained in it by the Lord of History, and from our share in the crucifixion by which it is redeemed. Thus is worked out some very bad theolggy--and not only by theologians, but by anyone who pre-scinds, from the sacramental structure of reality for the sake of judging reality. A sociological examination 6f the Church simply cannot avoid at least an implicit theological component. If, .supposing it to have been clearly affirmed, an equation were to be drawn between the Catholic Church and the Aristotelian "perfect society," an explicit ecclesiology--however wrong-headed--- necessarily follows. If, on the other hand, one omits any definition of the Church, but then proceeds to analyze it precisely in the same way as one would analyze the United Mine Workers or ,the Democratic Party or the Marine Corps, in other words as an empirical organization of people, a group adequately understood as responsive to the laws which govern all social organization-- then the ecclesiology involved is. perhaps less explicit, but no less operative. In either case, the Church is measured by categories which are quite extrinsic to the worship which gives it its structure. The result for that older theology was a Church whose "perfection" was in contradiction to its involvement in the fallenness of history resulting in an antiseptic notion of a Church apparently immune to history. Comparable (if inverted) distortions in our own time profess to find the Church's patent~involvement in sin a fact entirely incompatible with its claim to transcendent sacramental stature. The contemporary excesses of this "low" ecclesiology are quite as responsive to the'preoccupations of its own day as had been the earlier baroque triumphalism--and with as little profit. The living Church cannot be understood by the use of devices which would separate its history from its meaning thiough a denial of either part of its reality. It is of course possible to concede these truisms and still resist their corollary: that the Church of .our daily encounter, with its monumental confusion, cowardice, ignorance and complacency--in sum, with all the ills the spirit is heir :to--can be and is the earthly community in which the risen Christ is present and active in the outpouring of his Spirit. Surely one may attend with sympathy Dr. Robinson's "but I can't be-lieve that!" Particularly is.it hard to give to such a.Church a cash value by admitting, even demanding, an infallible Magisterium'. Such notions, it may seem, were perhaps credible before the dawn of historical consciousness. But they can hardly survive our contemporary understanding of the social and historical conditioning of the Church. This~is indeed a very possible conclusion--especially if we forget that it is precisely from this kind of despair of the temporal and human as being the medium bf God's presence that humanity was lifted by the faith, first Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 of the Jews, and then of ourselves who are their heirs, in theJdord of History who is present to hiss, people. He is present to his people not as a timeless and universal principle,, but in his Covenant, by which alone time has unity and significance, and thus is history: sacramental time. The salvific content of the events of which we are a part is quite as hard to accept today as it was at Meribah. It is indeed hard to believe that the concrete deeds and words of the Church across the .ages constitute the unique mediation of the risen Lord, for the Church is so obviously trapped, blinded, sullied and fragmented by its own historicity, by its own involve-ment in Sin. But precisely such a belief is integral with the Catholic faith. It is simply not negotiable. It is no news that there has been a developing reluctance within Catholic academic circles to give full value to the ecclesial-historical character of our redemption in Christ. This hesitation on the part of the acaderhy had focused on the Church's assertion of ,doctrinal unity and authority. But it has since broadened its front to the. extent that tradition itself is held to be discon~ tinuous within its own history, whether we are dealing with the. historical unity of the Church's doctrine or its moral or liturgical tradition. Thus it is deemed to be discontinuous within its own history, intrinsically incoherent, without value or~significance~ for the present time. In,sum, the unity of the Church has no historical expression, according to this view. Consequently the historical record, whether doctrinal, moral 'or liturgical~ is of purely academic interest. It lacks the necessary unity to support its claim to sacra-mental significance. The heart of this argument, of course, is the ancient conviction of the incompatibil.ity of'~God and man, heaven and earth, the present time and the egchatological golden age of fulfillment. Its pseudo-Christian version, Gnostic in its roots, denies that the community Of sinners; which constitutes the Church, can be the effedtive symbol, the sacrament of the fulfilled King-dom of God. This denial relies upon the perceived incongruity between the sacramental sign, whichLis ~the historical Church, .,and the effect claimed for it: the completed and fulfilled redemption of humanity in Christ. It was the mistake of' the Counter-Reformation apologetic to contest this visible incongruity, even though it is simply indisputable. To pretend the contrary leaves the apologete open to all the sacred dishonesty which characterizes a triumphalist reading of Church history. It is .not.because the Church is Worthy that she is "the sacrament of our encounter with God." It is by virtue of the presence of the risen Christ in her historical worship that the Church has her reality and her mission, not by virtue of her own probity, nor by any "works" of her own devising. It is this insight, fundamental to any valid ecclesiology, which demands Of the Catholic scholar a subordination, of his critical method to~the prior truth of his faith together with~ a surrender o of an~y delusory intellectual Catholic Sch~ools in a Declining Church." ,4 Reflection / 809, autonomy. In this 'way, while maintaining as its object, the full sacramental reality of the historical Church, the scholar's inquiry also retains intact its full integrity. The radical consequence of a refusal or of a failure in this subordina~ tion of method is the equivalent methodological reduction of the ev~nt~ of the Church's history to merely empirical significance, and the: dissolu-tion of ~the sacramental value of these events. ,At such a point, any. re, sistance to this dissolution ~must then be accounted unscientific, irrational, unrealistic, benighted. Such resistance fails to justify itself before the court of scientific reason whose writ runs as ,.far as the mind may range. In such a context, when the Church, as the object of this kind of "scien-tific" scrutiny, claims, e.g., for its traditional sexual morality a trans-empirical and sacramental value, it is challenged to make manifest the .worthiness of its doctrine for the salvific role asserted for it~and,.of course, cannot do so. Its claim is then held .to be out of court, and. if it.is a~cepted at all, this is deemed a matter of private idiosyncracy, an affair de gustibus, not "really" true . ° In the criticism ,of Humanae l/itae presented in .:Catholic Schools in a Declining Church there is more thana little of this rationalist obscurantism. ~Instead of attempting to construct the sociological o theology which ,only Catholic.-sociologists 'are equipped to' offers,, this book provides merely a secular object of sociological investigation, a pseudo-church, one with which a secular methodology,~:may be entirely comfortable~ ~i~ This pseudo-church is' fashioned from., atoms oLempirical information gathered according to the canons of .that secular methodology. The struc-ture w~hich emerges from these atrms in their collectivity is entirely em-pirical. The resulting picture of the "church" is found, to no one's amaze-ment, to Square rather badly with the Church of Catholic tradition ~enunci-ated,, for example, in Lumen Gentium or Gaudium et Spes, and particularly with thb tradition repeated affew years later in Humanae Vitae. Among the particularly prominent discrepancies between the official Church of these documents~.and the empirical "c~hurch;' described by Greeley's team is the disrrgard on the part of.the latter of the sexual, moral, ity .~which was recently reatiirmed by Rome,. to which the Catholic hierarchy has subscribed. This, in its turn, must lead to; a dilution of that respect in which the teaching authority of the Church must'be held. ~ Greeley considers this .situation to be the result of a massive failure in communication in the. institutional Church. By reason of this, a badly informed pope came to insist, disastrously, upon a morality long since abandoned by his subjects. ~ . ~ Doubtless experts in the~fieid of his methodology will find reason to contest the adequacy of Greeiey's sampling~and analytical techniques. Per-haps they will reject the evidence of "decline" which this book infers. Review tor Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 Whether or not such deficiencies exist is not finally very important. No doubt a further examination of the data will contribute to the clarification of the structure revealed by the study and perhaps even require a recasting of previous inferences, thereby contributing to the accuracy of Greeley's findings. But no refinement of this methodology can bring it to bear upon more than an empirical entity. And when that entity is identified with the visible Church, a fundamental mistake has been made. If this mistake is insisted upon, it must lead to a rejection of the Catholic doctrine that the Church is a sacramental sign, having a significance which entirely transcends the empirical. This sign-visibility is the visibility of worship; ultimately, it is Eucharistic, the concrete historical actuality of the Eucharistic community, the visible structure of which is constituted by the sacraments of its worship. This c~mmunity, the Church, can no more be identified with the "church"~ discovered in Greeley's research than can th6 Eucharistic Lord be identified with the merely surface phenomena of the Eucharistic celebration. Such a refusal of this Catholic dbctrine of Church need be neither ex-plicit nor deliberate. In fact, this kind of rejection most frequently occurs inadvertently, when, for instance, a powerful new intellectual tool permits the achievement of results so impressive that its adepts forget that the faith transcends it, that the faith cannot be contained within it or be controlled by it. In the controversy which is bound to follow, a similar forgetfulness just as frequently afflicts their theological opponents. These, in rejecting the dominion of the new learning, tend also to ignore the possibility of its con-version, and so they, in their turn, underwrite the isolation of the Church from history. For a clear example of this, one need only recall the dispute between, the "old" theology and the "new" logic in the early Middle Ages. Such mistakes find their corrective in the conversion of the new device to the perennial task of theology, a process which, like all conversions, is always incomplete. While the sociological construct which emerges in Catholic Schools in a Declining Church' cannot be identified with the Church, it remains ~true that the people who responded to the questions of the study did so in the con-text of their actual involvement with Catholicism. If their response is to be given the kind of theological value and weight that Greeley suggests, it mtist be because the attitudes and opinions which~this survey reveals are under-stood as entering into the sign-which-is-the-Church, and therefore as an element of the visibility of the Eucharistic community and of its worship. In this c~ntext of Eucharistic worship, the reaction which Catholic Schools in a Declining Church has registered, whether .in regard to the value of°Catholic schools, to the changes introduced by Vatican II, or to Humanae Vitae, cannot be identified simply as the kind of Church consensus that Catholic Schools in a Declining Church: A Reflection constitutes the sensus fidelium, the living faith of the People of God. This is because the sacramental Church is a s.ign which is contradicted. Our living of the faith is not a clear and obvious thing, but rather is rendered obscure and enigmatic by the fallenness of humanity and of the world. We daily refuse the truth of the "good" creation; and that refusal continually finds its historical expression in the community of the Church in a failure of Worship. The Church's worship has its prior antecedent structure in the sacra7 ments. These are the form of authentic human existence in fallen history, and in their unity they constitute the sole criteria of visible membership in the Church. Their truth is that of mystery, i.e., it can be appropriated only through worship. ~But by this worship it is appropriated. And over the centuries, this appropriation emerges historically in the doctrinal, moral and liturgical tradition of the Church. This appropriation is also a continual conversion and enfranchisement of the People of God. That it does not fail is due to no excellence of the Church's members, but only to the promise and presence of Christ among them, by which they continue to be the Body of Christ, one flesh with their risen Lord~ That this union does not fail is therefore a matter of faith: neither its existence, its quality, or its extension can be verified empirically. Its worship is that of a community of sinners. Essential to it is that sacra-ment of repentance and reconciliation by which sin, as a personal concrete failure of worship, is acknowledged in an~act of worship by which 'personal solidarity with the Eucharistic community is given again. ~ The fortunes of this sacrament of reconciliation over the nearly two millennia of its history record the enormous resistance offered the Christian notion of personal moral responsibility. The primitive identification of "sin" and "crime" required centuries to reform.~The subsequent' privatizing of confession and penance began so to obscure the public aspect of sin as to reduce public morality once more to a mere obedience to law. In some Catholic circles, this tendency is now .so far advanced as to include the despotic proposition that "the law to be obeyed" is simply the public law of the civil society. In this view, the Church has nothing to say in re morali beyond a loving endorsement of ~the reigning pluralistic consensus. ~ Yet it is only through an existential familarity with the antecedent, mean-ing of-the holy that sin is recognized and acknowledged to be a violation of the human, of the sacramental existence which is structured by the Church's worship. This holiness, this human integrity is sustained and measured by this worship, and 'not otherwise. Only here does a valid consensus emerge as to the meaning of good and evil. This consensus, this discovery, keeps pace with the slow, reluctant response of the People of God, of the Church in its members, to its Lord and his Gift--which is to live in Christ, in light rather than in an undemanding darkness, in freedom rather than in a comfortable 1112 / R'eview ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 conformity, in history rather than without. significance. And finally, it is to live responsibly, rather than to abdicate that honor and burden in favor of a false transcendence which knows no .crucifixion and offers rio redemption. The pace of this pilgrimage is impeded by our straggling, by our desertion, our defection toward one or other mirage.~ This history of Exodus is our history--together with its' pain. All of us who think ourselves Catholic must hope to be within that his-tory, undergoing that reformation and salvation. But we cannot guarantee ourselves to be so, whether as individualS'or as representatives of the whole. We cannot suppose our personal assessm6nt of moral right and wrong to be definitive and assured. Particularly is this the case when.the mass of Catholic Christians have not yet come to terms with the Christian meaning of free-dom; when they tend still to'suppose that whatever is not forbidden by Church law or tradition is thereby moral, or at least morally indifferent. It is only when adult Catholics recognize, their responsibility for the realization into history of the truth of Christ and consequently acknowledge in prayer the possibility of their own wilfull violation of their own human symbolism, their own sacramental and historical reality, their~own inescapably sexual existence--it is only in this circumstance that they can form a Eucharistic_ consensus on this now excruciating question of' the consistency of the sacra-mental symbolism of marriage with that symbolism which is inseparable from artificial contraception, and upon a complexus of other questions of only lesser urgency which bear upon the sacramental truth~of human sex-uality. This condition is not now met. Only when it is met can the Church speak confidently 'upon these newly disputed points. The obstacle to such utterance .now is not that the twenty years since the discovery of "the pill'-', is insufficient for mature judgment, but that even now the basis for making the judgment is not clear--as Catholic Schools in a Declining Church makes very evident~ The Second Vatican Council indeed introduced changes in the Church. But the greatest of these is the most ignored: the quiet dropping of .the obediential "morality which was typical of Catholic moralists before the Council--and which, unfortunately, remains typical~ for many of them to this day~ Conformi~, rather than responsible personal participation in the worship of the Church, is still proposed as the basis for moral decision. The book under consideration~only joins a chorus long since formed. But it is still from the authentic experience of free Eucharistic worship and its achievement of ~free historical.truth that the Church must teach; the truth of Christ is available, on no other basis. This is the only information system there is. It falters always~ but it does not fail. ~ The Small Group in Religious Life William Barber, Ph.D. Dr. Barber is Professor of. Psychology at Eastern. Washington State College in Cheney, WA 99004. He also is a consulting psychologist with ot~ces in Spokane. Earlier drafts of this article were helpfully reviewed by Paul Fitter, S.J.~ Ellen Monsees, R.S.C.J., Henri Nouwen and Leo Rock, S.J. Introduction This paper analyzes religious community groups from a behavioral science perspective. "Commu.nity" here refers to a face-to-face living group, usually comprised of fewer than a dozen persons, whose members may ormay not include co-workers in one,s ministry: The attempt is to show how a group's psychological developmeiat, as a community relates to and interacts with the work of members in their apostolic ministries. There exists a ~vell-established theological basis for "church as com-munity,".~ much of which has. developed since Vatican 11,1 and a detailed historical and sociologi.cal rationale calling for intensive, committed com-munity group relationships has been presented recently by Fitz and Cada.z Leaders of. religious communities know about and agree attitudinally with the need for establishing strong and deep group relationships. . o It is the experience of the writer in providing consultation to leaders of religious orders and to particular groups of religious, that what is not known is how to integrate into religious life the concepts and skills needed to est~ib-lish strong, dynamic groups of religious. It is hoped that What follows~offers some goidelines, drawn from the be-havioral sciences, for bridging the gap between the theoretical and "the practical aspects of group development in religious life. 1Dulles, A., Models oi the Church (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1974). -"Fitz, R. L., & Cada, L. J., "The Recovery of Religious Life," REVIEW FOR RELI~OUS, 34, September, 1975. 813 814 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 The approach will be to describe ways in which groups differ from col-lections of individual persons, to distinguish religious communities from other kinds of groups, and to show how a religious community becomes an organi-zation for meeting the personal needs and at the same time the apostolic purposes of its members. A psychological rationale for community life is offered along with concrete suggestions for effective religious community life. Assumptions A group becomes more than a collection of individuals when all mem-bers need one another to accomplish a common task or goal. A dozen persons sunbathing near each other on a sunny beach are not a group in this sense; but if together they respond to a cry for help from a sinking swimmer they become a group as they work together on their shared.task of rescue. Once their task is completed, the group ceases to exist as a group, unless the members should decide to form an association to provide beach safety, in which case they would continue to be a group. Thus, being together doesn't define a group, even though all members have the same objective (in° this example to acquire suntans). It is when members need each other for some collective purpose; it is when they become interdependent, that they become a group? A community, such as a religious community is a special kind of: group in that it attempts to provide for more than support for the accomplishment of external tasks. A community~ is a group which attempts to meet the human and personal needs of its members as well: physical needs for food and shelter, social needs for recognition and friendship, and what Maslow calls the "ego needs''~ for meaning, and self-actualization as persons? Thus, a collectivity of individuals may become a group: a group may become a community for meeting physical, social and ego needs of members. At this highest level of motivation--the ego needs for actualization and fulfillment~it seems a religious community as a group attempts to meet another nee.d, the idiosyncratic need to develop its own "identity." And a re-ligious community's identity must be considered in relation to its ministry. Identity and ministry are like horizontal and vertical aspects of a group's religious life. The Vertical Dimension As a person needs to grow in self-knowledge, so a group becoming a community is drawn towards a deeper, more complete sense of identity. This is like a "vertical" dimension of growth--reaching down inside to ex-plore, to observe and to reflect upon the sense of '"~who we .are," and then aBass, B. M., & Nord, W., Leadership, Psychology and Organizational Behavior (New York: Harper & Row, 1960), p. 39. ¯ ~Maslow, A. H., Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1954). The, Small Group in Religious LiIe / 815 to come back up to the surface to test and to listen to what is being said in response. What do we mean by the discovery of identity? We mean finding out., real desires and characteristics . . . and being able to live in a way that expresses them. You learn to be authentic, to be honest in the sense of allowing your behavior and your speech to be the true and spontaneous expression of your inner feelings.~ Community identity then becomes established through sharing informa-tio~ n" in response to the question 'Who are we'?" More specifically this means generating information from the senses, the emotions, the intellect, and from the spirit for those who believe in a faith dimension to life. Transactions that provide such information for a community have to do with interper-sonal exchange: Who are we for each other? What do we want from each other? What will we offer to each other? These questions are continually asked and responded to, as persons tyy to moye from being a "group" to becoming a "community." As these questions are asked and responded to, "data"--i.e., information about thoughts, feelings, wishes are made avail-able for sharing, and thereby become integrated into the processes of decision and choice. Research indicates that more data from members produce higher quality decisions and greater member commitment to carrying them out.~ The Horizontal Dimension Identity needs to be expressed in life outside the community group; it needs to be expressed in apostolic ministry. This is like a horizontal dimen-sion of growth reaching out, listening openly and reflectively and respond-ing to what one is called upon to do and be with others. In the words of Maslow: Part of le~arning who you are, part of being able to hear your inner voices, is discovering what it is you want to do with your life. Finding one's identity is almost synonymous with finding one's career, revealing the altar on which one will sacrifice oneself,r As there are points of diminishing return in gains from individual per-sonal growth experiences s.uch as psychotherapy or encounter groups, so too are there limits to the gains to be expected from a religious community's developmental experiences--those aimed at developing a group's identity dimension. Community relationships and activities have as their raison d'6tre the support of tasks that further the work of apostolic ministry. It is analogous " to a couple's love for on'e another, in that their relationship, their "com- ¯ ~Maslow, A. H., The Farther Reaches o] Human Nature (New York: Viking Press, 1971), p. 183. GKelIy, H. H., & Thibault, J. W., ',Group Problem Solving," in Lindzey, G. & Aron-son, E. (eds.), Handbook o] Social Psychology (Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1969), pp. 61-88. rThe Farther Reaches, p. 185. 816 / Review [or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 munity" in a sense, requires expression in accomplishing goals-~having and raising children, for example--in addition to developing the affective rela-tionship that draws and keeps them together. Such a relationship needs manifest expression in order to continue to grow. This does not mean each aspect of community life requires direct con-nection to members' ministries. On the contrary, support is often drawn from interludes from "tasks": activities of recreation, distraction and apparent irrele(,ance. It is important to remember the purpose for which the support is given: that is, the rationale and the dyna.mic force for religious community comes from the shared commitment of members to thee values and goals underlying their collective ministries. As such, community identity is incom-plete without outward expression; small group religious life is incomplete without being related to apostolic ministry for purpose and direction. Similarly, ministry needs cbmmunity. Ministry needs community: (1) to provi~le a support system for sharing, helping, caring; i.e., for providing "maintenance" for the work of ministry, and (2) to provide for the personal development of members for their own sake, apart ~'rom apostolic work roles. "For their own sake" must not be taken lightly. The intrinsic dignity and value of each person's humanity calls for emotional connection to sig-nificant others. This need, this expectation, can be responded to by persons who commit themselves to one another in community life In summary, it seems that religious community groups work on two "agendas"---one vertical, the 6ther horizontal--and these become interde-pendent. Work on the vertical (e.g., listening, sharing; and more systematic-ally at times, team building or role clarification interventions)~ allows the group and each member more to offer on the horizofftal, in ministries. ' Work on the horizontal, the ministries, enables the con~munity to insert it-self into the world. It brings the world through members' experience into the community in order (l) to infuse ndw life, (2) to offer new direction, and (3) to provide standards for evaluating effectiveness of effort. The result is a dynamic system in which energy and creative r~sources increase. The sy~stem is dynamic in that it generates energy, and it is self-renewing because of the interdependent, reciprocal', exchanging relationship between vertical "and horizontal dimensions. The Goal of Community: Synergy One cannot explore for very long questions Such as we have asked about the dynamics of community life and ministry without confronting the larger question: What should community experience be like? What is it we are searching for by our attempt to integrate identity needs with apostolic min-istry? Maslow was a student of the anthropologist Ruth Benedict and he draws upon her concept of synergy to describe activities within a group w,hich benefit both individuals and the group as a whole. Quoting Benedict, Maslow writes: The Small Group in Religious Lile / 817 I shall speak,.of cultures with low synergy where the social structure pro- ¯ vides for acts which are mutually opposed and counteractive, and cultures with high synergy where it provides for acts which are mutually reinforcing, ¯ . . I spoke o] societies with high social' synergy where their institution insures mutual advantage ]rom their understandings, and societies with" low social synergy where tile advantage o] one individual becomes a victory over an-other, and the majority who are not victorious must shi]t as tliey call. (Italics by Maslow).8 Note the images that portray sources of energy and strength in Bene-dict's synergistic group and that we strive for in the small community group: " . . . acts which are mutually reinforcing . " " . . . mutual .advantage frrm their understandings"; opposing activities whereby "the advantage of one individual becomes a victory over another. " (italics mine). The goal of small group religious community life from a psychological viewpoint is to tap and direct this energy to provide driving force toward purposeful objectives. And the content of Benedict's message i~ the syner-gistic communities offer understanding, support °and action and oppose win/ lose relationships among members. Criteria for Synergistic Community ~ One way to test the thesis offered: here is to observe and reflect" upon experience with alternate life styles among priests and religious. Certainly no single organizational structure' promises to bypass the struggles required to enable a synei~gistic community to grow. Comprehensive discussion is beyond the scope of this paper, but we wish to poi~nt to certain mechanisms that have been found helpful by some rdligious communities in developing open, prbblem-solving climates. Most of the traits mentioned require organi-zational consultation and experience-based learning methods to become operational.9 The starting point is the vertical dimension--to expand the experience of c~mmunity identity. Desirable characteristics and mechanisms have to do with group size, group norms, communication skills, information about members' ministries, shared prayer' and sacraments, and explicit contracts regarding time, tasks, territory'and role of members. A' small group of from four to twelve members enables differences in re-sources to be present and the opportunity for each person to become well known to the others¯ Norms--implicit rules governing behavior--must be developed to support the expression'of affection a~d warmth, confronta, lion and conflict, and to support bringing-in input and help for the group. Basic communication skills in paraphrasing, describing behavior, describing Sop, cit., p. 202. 'aBarber, W. H., & Nord, W., Healer RoleJ o[ Consultants and Need Orientations o] Clients (Spokane: Eastern Washington State College,~mimeo, 1975). Barber, W. H., and Lurie, H. J., "Designing an Experience Based Continuing Education Program," American .tournal o[ Psychiatry, 130, 10, 1973. 818 / Review [or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 feelings and giving and receiving personal feedback, facilitate interpersonal communication. Some initial didactic experience is useful, and the develop-ment of norms to support the use of communication skills in day-to-day practice is crucial. Since feelings about s'elf are strongly influenced by feelings about work, members who strive for interdependence need to have direct, first-hand in-formation about each other's apostolates. The group has the benefit of dif-ferent experiences and resources when it is comprised of members from different ministries. As there should be shared expression at an interpersonal level of posi-tive feelings and confrontation, as noted above, so there should be shared expression at a spiritual level through prayer, liturgical celebration.and other faith experiences. This serves the purpose of enabling persons who have a commitment to each other to share this special part of their lives. Keeping spiritual sharing separate from other community activities and allowing for differences in member participation is also important because these are valuable means of legitimizing the individuality of personal experience and expression. To be clear about and in control of boundaries the points of separa-tion- for the community in regard to time--when things happen; tasks-- what occurs; territo.ry--appropriate physical spaces for the separate and shared parts of members' lives; and role,delineation of special roles within the group (e.g., management, coordination, various maintenance roles). Summary: Culture and Open System Two ideas may help to summarize the characteristics of effective com-munity: they are "culture" and "open system." It is the hope of those estab-lishing a small group community to enable a particular culture to emerge, one that is unique and meets special needs for that group. A culture is characterized by its social organization--especially norms, roles and ex-pectations for member behavior--and by its "expressions," i.e., what is shared with the outside world by the group. We have said here that the culture of the religious community needs to develop through Particular norms, patterns and values regarding communication and the organization of tasks and roles and religious expression. An open system like a biological organism, is one characterized by in-take, transformation and export processes.1° Transactions occur with the environment: intake of new members, materials and information; and export of the "products" of members' work, and members who leave the system. It is through evaluating differences between intake and export that the quality of the group's efforts, its internal processes can be judged. To be. effective as an open system, a religious community requires management of its intake, export and internal transformation processes, in the latter case 10Rice, A. K., Learning ]or Leadership (London: Tavistock Publications LTD., 1971). The Small Group in Religious Li]e / 819 procedures for meeting individual and group needs for' control of boundaries of time, task, territory and role. Growth of the v~rtical dimension occurs as the culture develops; this growth can be measured by the quality of interaction among members. Open relationships occur as members share ideas, feelings and perceptions that have to do-with their purposes in being together. Trust develops enabling openness and personal sharing to occur appropriately (in contrast with some coercive group norms toward "confiding" or "revealing"). Norms support-ing individual differences in sharing grow and become explicit. When both openness and personal sharing occur and yet individual differences are en-couraged, a climate of genuine intimacy develops. Conclusions Openness, trust and intimacy are important because as human beings we are drawn toward becoming "the persons who we are" and toward being "in relationship.''~ But as a priest or religious one is committed to apostolic ministry--horizontal dimension. Community exists "in the service of min-istry"-~ and this is primary. But since vertical and horizontal dimensions are interdependent, the work of ministry will suffer unless it is anchored in re-ligious community experience that meets social and psychological needs of member~ along with spiritual and apoStolic objectives. One implication is that persons living in religious community may use-fully explore ways in which they are and are not, like the sunbathers men-tioned above, (1) a number of separate individuals in physical proximity to one another, (2) a group brought together because of an immediate, com-mon task, or (3) a special kind of institution, formed to support the work of members' apostolates and simultaneously to facilitate members' personal development. This paper has tried to distinguish among such groups in order to enable members to better cfioose the type of community to which they wish to be committed. The small group as religious community is a collectivity of persons unified by the overarching mission of faith--to facilitate the experience of Christ among persons. This paper attempts to describe how synergy develops and is maintained in the service of ministry thi'ough integrating, in a dynamic way, community needs and apostolic objectives of inembers.1~ XlBuber, M., I and Thou (New York: Scribners, 1970). tZThe ideas in the paper were presented at an assembly of provincial leaders of the Society of the Sacred Heart from North America, Australia, and New Zealand in September, 1975. Provincial teams of three to five persons worked for ten days at various experiential activities aimed at internalizing, in their own behavior, the char-acteristics which are noted in this paper. Their purposes were to strengthen their team relationships, to increase their own experience of Community and to apply the ideas in this paper to 'their concrete work tasks and roles. The women reported, and assembly observers documented~ significant movement toward integrating the concepts with be-havior and action. A paper summarizing behavioral science aspects of the assembly and follow-up data may be requested from the author. The Contemplative Attitude in Spiritual Direction William A. Barry, S.J. Father Barry, Director of the Center for Religious DevelopmeJat, has written on the subject of spiritual direction for our pages before. His last article for RfR was pub-lished in March, .1973. He continues to reside at 42 Kirkland St.; Cambri~lge, MA 02138. In a number of articles both William J. Connolly, S.J. and I have referred to contemplation and the contemplativ~ attitude as the kind of prayerful attitude which spiritual directors try to encourage in those who seek spiritual direction.1 We have tried to describe what we mean by these words. Suffice it here to say that we use the word contemplation in itsoetymological sense; we mean to refer to the act of looking at or listening to something. Webster's first definition of "contemplate" says some of what we mean: "to view or consider with continued attention." In our earlier articles, I believe, we have not been sufficiently precise in our use of the word co.ntemplation and contemplative attitude. We have spoken of contemplating .the Lord in Scripture and in nature and have not sufficiently distinguished between the contemplation of Scripture and nature 1Barry, W. A., "The Experience of the First and Second Weeks of the Spiritual Exer-cises," REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, Vol. 32, No. 1 (1973), pp. 102-109. Bai'r~;, W. A., "The Necessity of Contemplative Prayer for the Teaching and Stu~ly of Theology in a Ministerial School," Church Society ]or College Work, Vol. XXXIII, No. I (1975), pp. 6-10. Connolly, W. J., "Contemplation and Social Consciousness in the Context of the Directed° Retreat: An Experiential Approach." An address at the 8th National Workshop on the Spiritual Exercises, Cincinnati, August 25-28, 1974, and published by The Program to Adapt the Spiritual Exercises, Jersey° City, New Jersey 07302. Connolly,.W.J., "Contemporary Spiritual Direction: Scope and Principles, An Intro-ductory Essay." Studies in the Spirituality o] Jesuits, VII, (1975), pp. 95-124. 820 The Contemplative Attitude in Direction / 8:21 and the contemplation of the Lord. Perhaps we have also not sufficiently attended to the nuance that one can have a. contemplative attitude and yet noi be contemplating the LordsIt is the purpose of these notes' to attempt some clarification of the meaning of and use of contemplation in spiritual direction. The Contemplative Attitude and Its Relation to "Transcendence" Have you ever been so absorbed in watching a game or reading a book or listening to music that you have been surprised at the end of the passage of time, by how cold or hot you are, by the anger of a friend (who has been asking 'you something for ten minutes)? Then you know the power of paying attention to something, and you have a personal example of the contemplative attitude. The most telling examples come from reports of how parents 'have been so concentrated on their children's safety in a fire or accident that they have only at the end felt the pain of their own wounds. Thus, one effect of the contemplation of something outside ourselves is that it can make us forget ourselves and our other suroundings. Contempla-tion leads to, or rather, is an experience of transcendence, of self-forgetful-ness of everyone and everything else except the contemplated object. '. Conversely, we find that self-absorption makes the contemplation of any-thing or an~yone else very difficult, if not impossible. Thus,. a starving man may well be unable to enjoy a sunset. One of the key elements to ministry in a hospital is the atte~apt to help the sick to become interested in others around them and in the outside world, that is, to help them todo something that will enable them to forget their own pain and suffering or to put it in another perspective. , . : Another aspect of the examples we began with should' catch our atten-tion, namely that the responses of absorption, joy, pain,: sympathy, love, gratitude which are associated with contemplation are not willed acts or willed emotions~ They are elicited from us by what we see and hear and comprehend.,~ (Of course; these responses~, do not arise qrom a blank tablet, but are conttitioned by our own past experiences~) Herewe have an impor-tant element to consider in all spiritual direction. Responses that are elicited by contemplation are not experienced in the first instance as willed acts. The clearest example, perhaps, is the response of love when one looks at the beloved; it seems to be a gift, something that arises because of the other, not because one has decided to love or fall in love. What one can do is to look it and to try to pay attention to the other, but ore cannot will one's response. At most one can hope that one will respond a certain way, This last point leads us to a further consideration. The person who con-templates in the way we are describing has to have an attitude of reverence and wonder before the other, especially if what he/she ~vants to see or hear is within the power of the other to grant 9r~withhold. In this case all one can do is to ask the other to reveal himself or herself and wait for it to Review 1or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 happen. This insight is behind the prayer for what one desires which Ignatius of Loyola puts at the begifining of every one of the exercises of the Spiritual Exercises. For example, in the Exercises I pray that the Lord will reveal to me my sinfulness, that I may have shame and confusion, that the Lord make himself known to me in order that I may love him and follow him. Here we see even more clearly the relation between contemplation and transcendence. When we are dealing with another person, we are not in the same position as we are when we are dealing with an object. Saint Exuprry's Little Prince on his small asteroid only needs to move his chair a bit in order to see another sunset, but he is powerless to see the reality and unique-ness of his flower until she chooses to reveal herself to him.2 But when the free other chooses to reveal him or herself, then the genie is out of the bot-tle, as T. S. Eliot said,~ and the mystery of the other is upon us. Thus we have a further observation on the relation of contemplation to transcendence. We try to control our perceptions. We are threatened by new-hess and strangeness, msa result we often see only what we "want" to see or what our perceptual and cognitive structures let us see. To try to contemplate means to try to let the other be himself or herself or itself, to try to be open to surprise and newness. To begin this process means to open oneself to mystery, ultimately to the Lordship of the Other. It is to let oneself be controlled by the other; paradoxically, one finds oneself free. The upshot most often is that one becomes less incapacitated by fear from accepting the mystery of life/ The experience of transcendence is, I believe, one of a continuum from total self-absorption to total absorption in the other--with the two ends of the continuum being ideal .states not found in nature. In any human experi-ence there is bound to be an.admiXture of both self-consciousness and. aware-ness of the outside world. The boundaries of the continuum might well be circumscribed by referring to the narcissistic person on the one hand and the enraptured mystic on the other. It might also be a help to those who are praying to realize that the contemplation of the Lord is no different from the contemplation of any other person in this regard, namely that one can be in the intimate presenc~e of a very dear friend'and still be'or become aware of the ache in one's feet, of wondering whether one put out the lights in the car, of the work still to be done for school tomorrow, and so forth. ZAntoin"e de Saint-Exuprry, Le Petit Prince, New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1943. " :~"But let me tell y~u, that to approach the stranger ls to invite the unexpected, release a new force, Or let the genie out of the bottle. It is to start a train of events Beyond your control ." T. S. Eliot, The Cocktail Party 4See W. J. Connolly, "Freedom and Prayer in Directed Retreats," REVIEW ]FOR REr LIGIOtJS, Vol. 32, No. 6, (1973), pp. 1358-1364. The Contemplative Attitude in Direction "/ 823 "Distractions," in other words, are a part of even the most intimate rela-tionships and should be expected in prayer too. Finally, in an intimate conversation reflection on what is happening or. on how well one is doing, especially with the idea of writing about it in one's journal or using it as an example for an article like this, can disturb the communication and be an instance of self-absorption. It happens, but it is better not to program it this way. Thus, the wisdom of. the tradition in spiritual direction of advising the person praying to do the reflecting after the period of prayer is over. Contemplation ~f the Lord in Nature and in Scripture Perhaps now we can clarify what we mean by contemplation of the Lord in nature and in Scripture. The Lord is invisible, and so hard to look at; he also seems pretty silent, and so hard to listen to~ Often enough, therefore, we try too hard to pray, :try too hard to listen and look. Too often prayer is seen as self-absorbing; our natural reaction when someone says, "Let us pray," is to bow our heads, close our eyes, and get serious--all of which is proper in its place. But we rarely get the impression that prayer can be an enjoyable experience, :that it can be a conversation, a dialogue, a relation- .ship. The spiritual director is confronted with the problem of,helping people to the enjoyment of God when much Of their past experience of prayer is one of labor, seriousness, brooding, and self-absorption. Many of us .who do spiritual direction have hit upon the idea of helping people to forget themselves for a while. We ask them what they like todo, what he!ps them just to forget their problems (besides going to sleep), and we try to help them to see that 0ihey already do contemplate in the way de- Scribed in the first note. We suggest that they spend a certain amount of time-~each.day, if possible-~-, doing whateVer it is that they like doing that is contemplative, and that they :consider this time as time with the Lord (i.e: prayer) in much the same way that they might want to share the same ex-perience with a close friend. We also suggest that they ask the Lord to make his presence known, to reveal himself. Then they look at and/or listen to whatever it is 'they enj'oy. After e~ch period of doing this we ask them to reflect on the experience: What happened?'What did they experience? Did the Lord make himself known? It is surprising what .happens wl~en people begin to do something like this. They often have objections at first: they.f.eel it cannot be prayer. More-over, being so conditioned to think that brooding and insights and resolu-tions are what prayer is all about they often need time and patience to get the hang of it and to find out that the director really means what he says. But then they begin to find such "prayer" times enjoyable and relaxing; they find themselves surprised by feelings of joy and gratitude and a real sense that Someone is present who loves and cares for them. They find that th~ey can 824 / Review ]dr Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 admit things to themselves that they were always afraid or ashamed to look at--and they feel better for it; they feel freed, healed. Agnes Sanford in her book The Healing Gilts ol the Spirit gives very similar advice. To people whosay "I can't find God," she suggests doing some simple things, especially things they like to do, that will put them in the way of God, as she says,0so "that he can find you.''~ That is the point, of course; as we saw in the first.section, ~the only thing we can do when we want to get 'to know another person is to put ourselves near and askthe person to reveal himself or herself. These reflections bring us to the question: Are there any privileged places or privileged events where we can go to put ourselves in the Lord's way? The traditional answer has been that there are, and. that these places and events include the sacraments, especially the Eucharist, the church teaching, the Scriptures, and the works of the Lord, especially nature, I will say something later about additions to this list, but now I would like to take up nature and' the Scriptures, Traditionally people have found peace and refreshment in the beauties of nature: The fact that most retreat houses, houses of prayer and monas-teries have been located in or near scenes of natural beauty testify to the belief that God is found more easily in nature and in solitude than, say, in cities. Traditionally, too, we have spoken of God revealing himself in the things he has made, "in plants and animals and in men, the wonders of Your hand," as the canon written ~by John L'Heureux puts it,~ I do not want to counter this tradition although I do believe that the Lord can be as present in the city; rather, I want to examine how the Lord is met and how we can help people to meet him in natt~re. First of all directors should suggest~ looking ~nd listening, not give ideas about God's continual creation, his indwelling, and so forth. We have to remember that most of us are conditioned by catechism, philosophy and the-ology classes to have beautiful thoughts about how. God is in all things, but that few of us have ever looked long.enough at a flower to let God reveal himself as the maker of that flower for me. Before a tree can become a symbol of God, it must first be seen and touched and smelled as a tree. The first suggestion, then is that people look at and listen to what.is around them. The second suggestion is that looking at natural beauty can in itself be a way of relat!ng to the Lord without any words~being said. Just as I relate to an artist by taking interest in what he has made, by taking time to look at it or listen to it, so too I can relate to God if I take time to contemplate what he has made. Creators lik~ to have people show interest in what they have done. All the better if I like" what I ~see and smile or sigh or express ~Sanford, Agnes~ The Healing Gilts 0! the Spirit (New York: Lippincott, 1966), esp. pp. 25-32. ~In Hoey, R. F. (ed.), The Experimental Liturgy Book (N,Y.: Herder and Herder, 1969), p. 97. ' The Contemplative Attitude in Direction delight in the presence of the artist. Such responses are elicited by what I contemplate, not willed by me, and they are communications to'the artist; in the case of God they are then called prayers of praise. Tfiey do not have to be couched in "prayer language." Indeed, the prayer is often made before a word is formed. The spiritual director might then be able to point out that the responses of the directee are similar to the responses that the poet who wrote Psalm 104 must have had and then tried to express in poetry. Not everyone is a poet, but almost everyone can be thrilled by a dazzling sunset or sunrise, the sun's light on fall leaves, and so forth, and feel a. deep sense of wonder. , Thus far we have been stressing the need to look and listen, the con-templative attitude. As I contemplate, I can also have desires, one of which is that the Lord reveal himself to me while I am looking at his works. If I begin my period of contemplation with a prayer that this desire be grant.ed, then.it is liable to happgn. I do not want to rule out high mystical experi-ences--~ because they do happen and more frequently than we tend to think --but here I would rather concentrate on the more ordinary ways the Lord reveals himself in,answer to this prayer. One can be walking along the beach at night and see a touch of silver from the moon on the crest of a wave and besides delighting in it suddenly feel at peace and in someone's presence who .himself delights in such things. Unaccountably one may feel that one is still loved, even though one does drink o'r eat too much or get angry with one's community members too often or even though one has just lost one's best friend or has just been turned down for graduate school or was not elected superior or whatever, and one may feel free to face ~oneself more honestly and with less self-pity. Or a person may sense her insignificance under the stars, and yet feel her own importance in the ~whole scheme of things, Or another may Sense a call deep inside himself to change his life style. In all these instances the person may be hearing or sensing the voice of the Lord revealing himself. When these kinds of experiences are real and exciting.and challenging as well as com-forting, then the Lord has begun to take on a new reality for the person. Perhaps now he or~.she can also pay attention to him and not just to his creatures. And here may lie the dividing line between contemplating the Lord and contemplating his works. The work of the spiritual director now becomes one of helping the per-son praying to discern, that is, to figure out what is going on, what is God's voice, what not. The discernment of spirits, begins when there are inner movements and the question is: Is the Lord revealing himself, and if so, what is he saying? The genie is out of the bottle, and now it is important to follow the genie's movements. We can look at the contemplation of Scripture in a similar way. Scrip-ture is not the Lord, but a privileged place to meet him. However, one must pay attention to the Scripture itself just as one has to pay attention to trees 1126 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 or sunsets or mountains. That is,"it is necessary to have a contemplative at-titude toward Scripture, to let the Scriptures be themselves and to listen to them and to ask that the Lord reveal himself while we are listening to these words. I do not intend ~here to delve into the arguments as to whether any other religious texts might be privileged places for meeting God; they could be and indeed people have met God while paying attention to St. Augustine's Confessions, to the prayer of St. Francis, to many other works of religious .literature, and even to secular literature. I am accepting as a given that Sgripture has primacy of place over all other literature as the Word of God. But we must listen to the Scriptures themselves, and not our projections onto them. One sometimes hears that modern scripture ,.scholarship with its de-mythologizing and its form criticism has been a blow to piety and has made it more difficult to use Scripture for prayer. Scripture scholars, it is some-times charged, have taken the mystery out of the infancy narratives of the gospels and other stories. We are not sure what Jesus actually said, or whether he actually did everything the gospels say he did. "How can we ever know him then?", people wonder. Those of us who take scripture studies and spiritual direction seriously have had to ponder these questions and charges as well as to take seriously our own and others' experiences in praying with the Scriptures. I think that we have not always been careful in our way of speaking, and it is my hope that this note will contribute to the clarification of our thought and ex-pression. , ,I want to focus on. the contemplation of the gospels and hope that the principles enunciated here can be analogously translated to the use of other scripture texts~ The first point is obvious: It does little good for prayer or Christian living to base both on a delusion. Hence, it is important to see the gospels for what they are. They are not biographies of J.esus, but four differ-ent expressions of the faith of the early Church and what it remembered in faith about Jesus. Each gospel has its own point of view, its own theo-logical focus, its own Sitz im Leben. Contemplation of°Mark's gospel, for example, means taking Mark's work on its own terms and trying to listen to his work of art. Secondly, it should be said that one need not be a Scripture scholar in order to be able to use the gospels for prayer. The Lord can still reveal him-self to someone who believes that angels actually did sing "Glory to God in the highest" at Bethlehem as long as one is open to having the living Lord reveal himself. But I do believe that the more one knows about the gospel, the better one can look at and listen to it and not to one's own cultural and personal projections of it. Thus, I believe that scripture study can be a help to contemplation. In other words, it helps, I think, to be able to con-template Mark's Jesus and know that it is Mark's Jesus and not necessarily The Contemplative Attitude in Direction / 827 the "real article" in all his historical reality. For one thing, one is not going to be thrown so much out of kilter by new discoveries of scripture scholars. More importantly, one is more likely to realize that the person one wants to meet' is not the Jesus of the past, but the present living Lord (who, of course,'is continuous with Jesus of Nazareth). Here we are at the heart of the matter. The purpose of contemplating the gospels .is to come to know the living Lord Jesus. Here again we can see the wisdom of Ignatius of Loyola. Before every contemplation of events from the gospels Ignatius has the retreatant pray for what he desires, namely "an intimate knowledge of our Lord, who has become man for me, that I may .love him more and follow him more closely.''~ Then I listen to the gospel text and treat it for what it is, as imaginative literature. I try to take the text ~seriously, and try to let it inspire my imagination, as it was written to do (as well. as to enkindle my faith). But my desire is not to know the scripture text better, but to know the risen Jesus better. I want him to reveal himself to me. And when he takes on reality and shape for me (not neces-sarily in a picture, by the way), then I talk to him, not to the text, and I listen to him, not the text. Those-who have not had this experience will not know what I am talking about, but hopefully they will be open enough to listen to the experience of those who have. The purpose of contemplation of Scripture is not to see Jesus. walking on water or to see him in Galilee or hear him say to Peter "Feed my lambs.~ The purpose is to hear the risen Jesus say to me: "Your sihs are~ forgiven,~you" and to know he means me; to hear him say to me." "Come,,follow~me.and be my friend" and.know that it is the Lord and that he is talking to me. Once again, discernment be-comes a necessity when I begin to feel moved by the Lord himself. I hope that by now it is clear that contemplation of nature or of Scrip~ ture is not in itself contemplation of the Lord, but that the former is a privileged way to the latter. Indeed, one can say that contemplation in the first sense is a technique or method, where contemplation in the second sense is relationship itself and no methods ~are needed. Finally as to the list of privileged places, it may be well to indicate that those mentioned earlier are still privileged places and also that different eras and different people may prefer one of the privileged places to others. It may also be that new privileged places may come into prominence. I am thinking especially of a shift from nature to man-made works of art or technique, a suggestion made by Josef Sudbrack, S.J? In our modern urban culture we may well find that human artifacts as well as human persons themselves may be more privileged than natural beauty. "l~here should be no difficulty here since the works of humans are ultimately God's handiwork. ~Spiritual Exercises (Puhl Translation), No. 104, p. 49. 8Sudbrack, Josef, Beten ist Menschlich: Aus der Er]ahrung Unseres Lebens mit Gott Sprechen (Freiburg in Breisgau: Herder, 1973). 828 / Review jor Religious, Volume 35~ 1976/6 On the Question of the Utility of Contemplation Recently in a discussion of contemplation someone mentioned that many people were advocating the 'techniques I have labelled contemplative for problem solving in management, for conflict resolution and that they worked without reference to God or the transcendent. That is, the contemplative techniques we mentioned in the,.earlier notes, were being used for secular purposes,, and people were feeling better, were more creative, more integral, and so forth. There is no question that the technique of contemplation by itself is very salutary. We need~ not bemoan that fact. But then what is the need to bring in God and prayer? ~ Here the only reply is to ask oneself to what end one uses contempla-tive techniques. If the answer is to solve problems, to feel better, to be more creative, then perhaps there is no need t~ refer to God and prayer. But for those for whom contact with the living Lord and the relationship itself with him are the goals, the question loses significance. It is like asking someone what he gets ,out of time spent with his wife that he could not get from others just as well. For those who seek the Lord, these techniques would be worthless no matter how good they. made them feel if in the process they did not find their Lord. Throughout.~these notes I have stressed that the purpose of contemplating nature, Scripture, or anything else is to meet the living Lord. When he is engaged, or rather when he engages me, there is no need of techniques or even of asking what the utility of prayer is. I want to be with him, and ttiat is enough. Without effort utility comes; one be-comes a better person and Christian. But relationship,is what is sought: In a Rut To get out of a rut a seed digs deeper. Edward A. Gloeggler P.O. Box 486 Far Rockaway, NY 11691 Individual Apostolates and Pluralism Community Identity in John T~I Ford, C.S.C. Fr. Fo~:d is Associate Professor of' Theology and Coordinator of Ministerial Studies in the School of Religious Studies at the Catholic University of America, WA 20064. Not too long ago, as our history is measured, the apostolic endeavors of American religious communities almost' invariably took a corporate or insti-tutional form. A typical example is the religious house all of whose members work in an adjacent school. Though there may be considerable variety in the occupations of individual religious (e.g~, ,~administration, teaching, coun-seling, maintenance, etc.), the work of;each is seen as contributing to the overall~ofunctioning of the institution. This corporate pattern is frequently paralleled in hospitals,~parishes, and other works religious communities un-dertake. ~ An.~important.consequence of this familiar pattern is aopervasive identi-fication, of religious community .with its institutions:' For example, this iden-tification is commohly reinforced through° a schedule that melds communal and institutional activities: if religious aren't working~in the institution, then they usua.!ly can be found together at some communal, activity in the near-bmyo rree sciydneinccale .h Tavhee c roemsuplatr iesd p wraitcht iicmapllryis ao n"mtoetnatl; .i nhsotwituetvieorn;.aalsi zwatiillo bne" nthoatet dthe later, a more apt.' comparison is with the communal life of the "family farm" or the "cottage industry" in agrarian societies. In brief, then, an "institutional apostolate" is a particular activity that members= of a religious community undertake as a corporate: effort; it is both a means of livelihood and a means of realizing the goals of the community. The melding of communal and institutional activities also affords a means ~f self-identity for religious. For example, the fact that religious (with 829 a30 / Review Jot Religioux, Volume 35, 1976/6 appropriate humility) speak of"'our school" is but one indication of the in-fluence of merged communal-institutional life on individual religious. Re-cently, when it has become necessary to close "our school," this identifica-tion has sometimes become painfully apparent. In other terms, the American tendency to identify a person with his occupation (e.g., John Smith is a carpenter, Mary Doe is a teacher) reached sort of a zenith in the case of religious; indeed, religious may be so identified with a particular institution that "outsiders" may not even know the proper name of the community whose members work there (e.g., "the sisters who teach at St. Mary's"). The liabilities of institutional apostolates are all too familiar. Perhaps the most burdensome is the tendency to subordinate the personal life of religious to the consuming demands of the institution. Illustrations are legion: fre-quently requests of a personal nature are refused if they are seen as inter-fering with the work of the institution (rather than as being alien to com-munity life). Another burden is an unrealistic subordination of communal life to institutional demands. While the acceptance of an institutional apos- ,tolate necessarily demands coordination with the life of the community, sometimes this is done by an additive process, as in the case of a com-munity that fulfilled its quota of religious exercises, one rapidly following another, after closing school for the day. Occasionally, the reverse happens: the requirements of an institutional apostolate are over-ruled by community procedures. An obvious, instance is the appointment of religious to in-stitutional positions for which their major qualification is membership in the sponsoring community. While post-conciliar renewal has (presumably?)caused the disappear-ance of the more conspicuous malpractices, still an inherent and recurring problem in institutional, apostolates is to maintain an appropriate balance between institutional work, living in community; and personal life. Any notable imbalance in these relationships is likely to occasion friction or dissatisfaction within a community. In addition to this perennial problem, there are other factors that have brought added pressures on institutional apostolates in recent years. For example, as a result of the post-conciliar decrease in the number of active religious, many communities have been. unable to staff their institutions in the same measure as formerly. Maintaining institutional 'commitments is seemingly so burdensome that some religious doubt the wisdom of institu-tional apostolates at all---even if their community would have sufficient personnel in the future. This feeling is frequently shared by those younger religious who are disenchanted with institutions in general and have entered religious life in view of a more personalized type of service. While this anti-institutionalism is~sometimes naively ex.aggerated, the fact remains that some communities have accepted members who simply do not identify with in-stitutional apostolates. Simultaneously new options have become available. For example, ~the Individual Apostolates and Pluralism / 831 closing of some schools has made it possible or necessary for religious to seek positions outside the educational institutions conducted by their own community. Again, recent developments in the °Church, have led to the creation of new positions that ~previously didn't exist--directors of religious education representing a common instance. And in some cases, religious have found employment in government agencies or public interest firms. An interesting relationship has emerged in many institutions of higher education. In order to qualify for governmental assistance, a legal separation has been effected between institution and sponsoring community. While the same religious may continue their apostolate within the institution, legal separation makes it incongruous for a community to continue to consider the institution "ours." The legal status of religious working in the institu-tion is also changed; for example, many religious now have contracts with institutions that were formerly controlled by theircommunities. Apparently, institutional apostolates are being "individualized." Individual Apostolates Such recent developments have led to the emergence of'a variety of "individual apostolates.''1 Here an "individual apostolate" is :taken to mean a particular occupation that a religious undertakes as a personal effort and responsibility; it is to some degree independent of the administration of the community as such; it depends more on the particular personal qualifications of the religious, not on membership in this or that community. The degree of individuality, however, may ~vary considerably: religious who continue to'work in what were formerly their community's institutions may find that legal separation is a more or less nominal change; other religious, however, may find that they have to qualify competitively for their positions. In the latter case, when a particular religious leaves an individual apostolate, the community can not expect and is not expected to furnish a replacement (as is frequently the case in institutional apostolates). An im-portant icharacteristic of individual apostolates is that the religious com-munity as such can not determine whether its members will be able to ob-tain specific positions. Speaking.of an: apostolate as "individual" does not imply that it~is in-dependent of church or community; rather (if it is to be considered an apostolate) it must be conceived in'some way as a service that witnesses to Christ and reflects the spirit of a particularjcommunity. Moreover, there is a sense in which every apostolate is "individual,". insofar as religious are individually responsible for "personifying" the Gospel in their particular occupations. l Just as some may prefer terms such as '!mission" or "ministry" in place of "aposto-late," some may prefer terms such as "special" or "experimental" to "individual." Whatever the merits of one or other term, the concern here is with the implications of the individuality of these occupations in relation to community life. 1132 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 However, one must admits, the arbitrariness of classifying practically any occupation as an "apostolate." For example, practically any occupa-tion- from farming to fine arts, from physical education to theoretical physics--has been placed under the generic umbrella of "apostolate" in various institutions conducted by religious. Given this precedent, it seems rather arbitrary to attempt to restrict "individual apostolates" along rigid lines.: In addition, individual apostolates have long-standing precedents in most active communities: the missionary stationed alone, the student i'e-ligious living outside a community residence, the traveling .retreat-master or fund-raiser, etc. Again on the'basis of precedents, it is hard to disqualify individual apostolates on .'the ground of separation from daily community life. Or is it justifiable to consider these instances "temporary," when in fact they last for years? Or is it realistic to consider these cases .exceptions or experiments, if they involve a relatively large percentage of a com-munity? The point in raising these questions is not to object to the legitimacy of individual° apostolates in active communities? Insofar as religious rules are guidelines~ not~ absolutes,, exceptions are allowable or, at times,.nece~sary; there does not seem to be any.a priori reason why individual apostolates can not be a justifiable exception. Likewise, communities have always had to experiment in their apostolates; accordingly, individual apostolates can be seen as a new type of apostolic venture attempting to respond to con-temporary needs. Still, it is hardly adequate to treat individual apostolates merely as exceptions or experiments~ First of all, a more positive view is necessary. Individual apostolates should be seen as a development that is appropriate, perhaps necessary, if the Church is to witness to Christ in the contemporary world? Indeed', individual apostolates have already proved beneficial in some communities; for example, their existence has occasioned a much needed delineation of lines of community responsibility in relation to all apostolates. Moreover, individu~il apostolates are a means whereby com-munities, instead of being constrained to fill various slots, can utilize their personnel in more creative ways. Perhaps the most attractive aspect of indi-vidual apostolates is their challenge to religious to develop fully their talents in the service of Christ. 2The question of what constitutes app(opriat~e occupations for r.eligious parallels that of appropriate occupatior~s for priests; cf. G. Murray, "The Hyphenated Priest," R]R (~'REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS) 25 (1966), 693-702; D. Hassel, "The Priest-Expert," Chicago Studies 3 (1964), 201-225. .~Whether individual apostolates can be defended in contemplative communities is a different question; the example of Thomas Merton suggests that the possibility should not be peremptorily rejected. :*Cf. M. Rondet, ',Choices of Religious Life in a Secularized Worldi" R]R 34 (1975), 574-579. ~Individual Apostolates and Pluralism / 833 On the other hand, since individual apostolates have seemingly arisen more by indirection than by intention~ it is easy to continue the pattern of temporary expedients ~ or ad hoc experiments"without facing broader issues. For example, it may be tempting to presume that individual apos-tolates are only a passing fad that will eventually go away; yet ~what if they are really introducing a new. and, distinct.form of religious,life?~ Again, it is tempting to assume that ,there is little difference.,~between religious, life for those in individual apostolates and those in institutional, apostolates; accordingly, the ~same mo~lel of religious' 'life should prevail in both. But what if there ,is-need for a new type of balance between occupation, re-ligiouslife, and personal life-style in individual apostolates? " The impl!cations of individual apostolates for religious life have been emerging, ,.like ~the apostolates themselves, only piecemeal. Though only partially apparent, these~implications need to be examined, for they poten- .tially constitute the raw material for either crisis or creativity---~r more ljk61y, a bit,of both. In other words,, a pattern is being established that affects,not only'the individual religious involved,,but the commumty as a whole~ For example, a relatively high proportion'of members in some communities is currently engaged in individual apostolates; even were it desirable to withdraw mem- .bets' from individual apostolates,.,it may no longer be feasible to do so without serious disruption (viz. problems in re-assignment, budget, resi-dence, etc.). Somewhat incongruously~ individual apostolates seem to have reached a point of institutionalization! On .the theoretical level, v~hat is at issue is a community's self-vision and self-identity. On the practical level is a complex of questions relating to the implementation of thi~ vision and the fostering of community identity Theoretical Level: A New Vision? Whatever the imbalances in institutional apostolates, they offer religious a sense of identity: "our community working in our restitution:" Quite commonly this sense of corporate identity ~s reinforced by a vision of religious life as a continual harmony of prfiyer ~nd Work, of w~or.k and prayer. Indeed, the identification of community and° institution, suggests something of an equation of,communal prayei and institutional work. If this'vision of religious~life was on~ convincingly painted in the novi-ti~ ite, such an interlocking matrix of p~ra~,er and work seems' alien 'to many religiohs today. The loss c~f this vision may'6ccasi6n feelings of ~talgia for a vision now blurred and a rhythm of. activity now. disjointed. Yet before ~Cf. R. Faricy, "Change in the Apostolic Religious Life," RIR" 34 (1975), 413-414. for a description of the "demonasticization of,apostolates." Should individual aposto-lates be seen as the cutting edge of this centrifug~al movement away from monasti-cism? o ' 834 / Review ]or Religious, l/olume~ 35, 1976/6 indulging guilt4eelings ab'rut, visions lost, it would be well to ask whether the vision is worth recapturing at all . . The vision of religious life as harmonious integration of prayer and work seems to presuppose a double model: a sociological model of an agrarian society coupled with a theological model of a divinely regulated universe.6 While an agrarian model may seem medieval, perhaps the. proximate in-fluence is the American frontier ideal of the self-sufficient family farm. Questions of historical origin aside, an agrarian model seems more influen~- tial in religious.life than is commonly acknowledged. For example, most religious communities were originally founded within agrarian societies; more importantly, an agrarian ideal of .community seems to survive in the expectations, of many religious. Indeed, one may suspect that efforts to "return to the spirit of the founder" may on occasion be similar to the flight from urban life and its mounting frustrations: a yearning for :a simpler life may be nostalgia for the benefits of an agrarian society. Or again, the once common practice of establishing houses of frrmation in rural settings ("where religious life could be lived at its ideal"), reflects something of the ideal of a self,sufficient family farm. Examples could be multiplied; varia-tions on the agrarian model could be added (e.g., religious~ community as "cottage industry" or "ethnic village," etc.). It seems worth noting the similar melding ~of work and communal life that characterizes both agrarian societies and institutional apostolates. Fitting: neatly with an agrarian model of religious :communityqs a the-ological :model Of a well regulated universe: iu~t as the universe is har-moniously ordered in every detail by an inherent set.of laws enacted by a provident God, so too is the religious community harmoniously regulated in every detail by a set of rules provided by ~a diyinely guided founder and subsequently administered, by omniscient superiors.7 While this is blatant caricature, it should be-remembered that every caricature hits uncomfortably close to life¯ ¯ Both models have become theoretically untenable. The~ agrarian model ~;Many different models have been used to explain the transition from one vision or world-view to another: for example, T. Nuij, "New Forms of Community Life," R]R 32 (1973), 59-64, coniraSts commtlnity in primitive, rural or pre-technological, and technological or industrial cultures. Among the abundant literature on this transition, cf. T. O'Meara, Holiness and Radicalism in Religious Lile (New York~ 1972); G. Moran, The. New Community (New York, 1970); L. Schaller, hnpact o[ the Future and The Change Agent (Nashville-Ne~ Yo.rk, 1969 and 1972, respectively); R. Weg-mann, "The Catholic Clergy and Change," Cross Currents i9 (1969), i78-197. The well-known works of C. Reich, The Greet,ing o! America (New York, 1971) and A. Toffler, Future Shock (New York, 1970) offer additional models and numerous illustrations. rThe influence of another model, the church as institution; is also evident; on the advantages~ and.~ limitations of 'this and. other ecclesiological models, cf. A. Dulles, Models o[ the Church (Garden City, New York, 1974). !t would be helpful to have a similar analysis of models of religious life. ~ Individual A,postolates and Pluralism / 835 is_Ansufficient in view of the complexity of urban, technological soCiety, while the theological model of-a s~,stematically directed universe is inade- - quate in the face of historical consciousness and philosophical pluralism. Accordingly, neither of these models .provides a suitable framework for a vision, of religious life. Nbnetheless, there is one reason ~for their tengcious survival:¢ they undoubtedly furnish a sense of security. It is ~spiritually reassuring to devote one's entire day in a harmonious blend of prayer and work dedicated to God: could a fervent religious want more? For some religious, then, the h'armonious vision is quite satisfying. For others, othe ~vision may~be~ feeble, but they are willing to live with;incon-sistency, because they are unable or unwilling to search for a new vision. If~a few havediscovered a new vision, many others are still searching. Aside from the fact that it is far easier to criticize a vision-become-problematic than to construct a replacement, visions are elusive and difficult to verbal-ize. More than likely, discussions within a community do notdebate visions but center on practical issues: traditional procedures versus new approaches. It is tempting, for example; to treat individual apostolates merely as another practical problem. Yet touch'more is at stake: competing visions of com-munity and apostolate that stand at the heart of personal and corporate self-identity. Not surprisingly, the .response to new visions has been varied. First of all, some would prefer to re-upholster the traditional vision by discard-ing out-dated elements" and .super-imposing sundry modern touches. Change is then cosmetic: the superficial appearance is different, but the funda-mental vision remains the same. Nevertheless, there are definite ad-vantages to this approach: it affords cor~tinuity with the past--a matter of concern to older members; it accommodates itself to new circumstances.--- a mattef of importance for younger members; and it introduces, ch~inges gradually sb that there is sufficient time to become accustomed to one set of changes before more_ are introduced--a matter of expediency in all social changes. Yet such an option Carries with it a'notable liability: it relies on a vision that is basically unattractive and unacceptable to many. ~ ~ ¯ Nonetheless-, the right of a community to take this option must be respected, for it may be the only option that a particular community can really live with.8 To follow an out-dated vision may not be wise, but it need not be wrong.dn fact, the attempt to .jerk away an apparent Linus blanket from those committed to a traditional vision is likely to be disrup-tive of both community and apostolate? .Without arbitrarily precluding the o sit might be well to develop a declaration of rights for religious similar to Vatican II's Declaration on Religious Freedom. '~Th6 hazards of adopti0g a new vision are forcefully, though stridently, indicated by J. Hitchcock, The.Decline and Fall o~ Radical:~Cbtholicism (New York, 1971); with-out accepting his viewpoint, one can still~adna!t the need for facing straightforwardly his criticisms. 83b / Review for Religious, Vrlume 33, 1976/6 possibility of future change, a community may.decide very realistically and very,' honestly that its capacity for renewal can only accomplish so much at~a ~iven moment of its history. Communities that decide to retain a traditional vision of community and'apostolate would be well advised not to"eng~ge any of their members in,individual, apostolates that require a life-styl~ that'is basically incompatible with the community,s traditional, vision and thus 'threaten its ~corporate identity. The predictable resulr~'would be serious dissension that.:the, com~ mfihity .may not be prepared to bear:~Yet this need not imply that such communities need to exclude ever~ type of individual.apostolate; what is implied is that~each proposed individual apostolate must be carefully ex-amined for its concordance.with the community's self-vision and self-identity. ,, The Problem, of Pluralism : If the traditional vision is~unattractiw or untenable, what is the new vision of ~community and apostolate? The ~option would be simple~ if a compelling new vision were~ at hand;'then at least-the choice would be.~ clear-cut: traditional or new. Unfortunately there is no one unifying vision that demands acceptance. If it is quite clear that modern life is techno-logical not agrarian, pluralistic not uniform, it is not clear how such aspr'cts .can be synthesized in a new vision. Instead of one new vision, there are~ any number of competing visions--each with advantages~ all'with their respective liabilities. The way to the future seems tobe: may. the best vision win! It is then quite understandable why many religious prefer to hold on to the~ vision they have, whatever.its deficiencies, rather than risk'the vague uncertainties of some apparently more problematic replacement. It is equally understandable why many other religious tend to hedge their op-tions ,by tentatively exploring new possibilities, while keeping a firm'grasp on,a traditional vision. Still., just as a diversity of liturgical practices and theological viewpoints has emerged in. the post-conciliar Church, so a similar diversity in life-styles and visions of community and apostolate has emerged in post-conciliar religious life. This ~variety is rooted in a greater theological awareness of the diversity in the mystery of Christ, the uniqueness of each person, and the temporal and cultural plurality of mankind.~° Where formerly uniformity was prized,as exemplifying the uhity of the Church, now pliJralism is seen as reflecting the Church's catholicity. Yet if it is easy~to pay lip-service to pluralism, it is much more difficult ~°Cf. E. Carter, "Pluralism in Christian Life," R[R 31 .(1972), 22~26; K. Rahner~ "Pluralism in Theology and the Oneness of the Churchs' Professiono o~ Faith," Con~ cilium 46: 103.123; A. Dulles', "Dogma as an Ecumenical Problem,'" 'Theological S~udies 29 (1968),~ 397-416 (reprinted in Dulles! The~'Survival ot Dogma [Garden City, New York, 1971], pp. 152-170). ,Individual Apostolates and Pluralism / 837~ to cope consistently with its implications. For example, some religious have adopted new life-styles, but have not related these to a new vision; and vice versa, new visions 'have been officially adopted in constitutions and rules without subsequent implementation in a community. ~ More importantly, the transition from uniformity to pluralism is both threatening~and enticing. Those who were trained for, or are congenitally inclined to, a life of uniformity and regularity can be severely confused by a,superabundan~e of choices and°the burden of responsibility inherent in a pluralistic situation:~°For example, obedience seems to furnish an excuse for some religious to become over-dependent on their superiors; or vice versa, obedience seems to allow some superiors to pre-empt most decision-making from their subordinates. If some r~ligious pale at pluralism~ it may be the threat of responsibilities that they are unwilling or unable to, bear; similarly, if some ~superiors resent pluralism, it may be through unwilling-ness to share their authority with former subordinates. Another dismaying aspect of pluralism is the potential loss, of com-munity support-systems; when familiar practices vanish, religious ma~' feel themselves ostracized from the group or isolated in their work. Change ih any form is unsettling to creatures of habit, but clinging to a traditional pattern may result in isolation. Since the prospect of losing the respect and understanding of one's companions is~unnervihg, pluralism can prove to be just as formidable to younger religious as to older. In the case of the younger, ,it can be the refusal to adopt the ~vision currently in vogue among their peers. Yet if pluralism ig threatening; it is also attractive. In place of the enervating burden of predictable routine there is the prospect of flexibility and variety in both communal and ~ apostolic life. Religious life is more easily seen as a challenging opportunity for'personal initiative and creativity in the service of Christ. For example, obedience may be seen~ as a commit-ment to Christ that takes the form of submitting one's proposed activities tO the critical encouragement and the charismatic~ evaluation of one's col-leagues; authority is pr!marily that of competent advice; ultimate responsi-bility is one's own before Christ and community. But such a revised view of~ obedience has to be accepted, not ~ofily by the individual but by the community, which may have fo ask whether it can function with a number of different and divergent views of obedience. Another attractive aspect of pluralism is the atmosphere which~ the community provi~tes religious for developing their self-potefitial both in their lives as Christians and in ~their apostolates; this implies a willingness and openness in sharing insights and successes, failures and feelings; in-deed, the diversity of apostolates undertaken by their colleagues can be-c~ me an incentive for religious to Work at~maximum capacity. The preceding contrast exemplifies some of the positive and negative aspects of pluralism. The examples may also help explain why individuals 838 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 react quite differently to the prospect of pluralism: some feel threatened; others are attracted; still others would like to have the advantages of both uniformity and pluralism without the liabilities of either.11 Insofar as pluralism seems to have emerged within religious life more as the result of a series of individual decisions and external trends than through precise planning for pluralism, its implications need attention. Earlier, pluralism in religious life tended to exist more as a collective phe-nomenon: different communities constituted a diversified spectrum of "catholic" religious life, but any one community tended to occupy only a section of this spectrum; each community enjoyed a fairly well specified corporate apostolic identity. The importance attached to this identity-via-apostolate is illustrated by the fact that some communities (even when personnel was available) refused to undertake certain apostolates, as incompatible with their constitutions; as a result, some communities originated as off-shoots of others, when a new apostolate was needed which the parent community felt unable to enter. "Of course, some communities have always allowed greater internal diversity than others. For example, if some communities have restricted their endeavors to one or two specific apostolates, others have undertaken a variety. At first sight, individual apostolates appear to be simply an exten-sion of this variety. And in fact, this seems to be the way most individual apostolates have come about: superiors have allowed individual religious to accept experimental apostolates as exceptions to accustomed practices. In fact, these exceptions have gradually reached the point in some com-munities- where a comparatively high percentage of members is involved; in some instances, proportionately more members are now in individual apostolates than are in some traditional ones. In effect, the exceptions appear to be constituting a new rule, though there is not always a new vision to accompany it. Thus, the introduction of individual .apostolates may precipitate a re-orientation of a community's self-vision and self-identity. In other words, individual apostolates seem to imply the acceptance of a plurality of visions, only some of which are com-patible with traditional vision(s). The basic question then is: to what extent is a community really willing to accept the implications of pluralism? Practical Options A community's Vision of its apostolate(s) is a vital element in its cor-por. ate identity; presumably its apostolic vision is an important factor in attracting, applicants ,and in training younger membersi presumably too, 11The reaction of any person to pluralism seems to involve a number of intertwined factors--personality, intelligence, education, age, occupation, etc.--so that it is im-possible to predict an individual's receptivity.to pluralism. Nor is receptivity~ merely a matter of age; the contrast "traditional-pliJralistic" is not identical with older versus younger~ Also, one may doubt whether it is possibl6 'to foster pluralism simply through instruction~ Individual Apostolates and Pluralism /839 apostolic vision is an essential motivation for the special spirit and dy-nainism of a community. Moreover, apostolic vision is necessary if a community is to avoid being victimized by the needs of the moment and to pla.n its activities on a long range basis. It is crucial, then, for a com- ~iinity to delineate its apostolic vision as clearly as possible, while recog-nizing that every option involves risk.1~ ,~ first option is for a community to continue its institutional aposto-late( s) as~ its primary and (probably) exclusive commitment. Presuming of course that its institutions are really viable, the most-compelling motive for this option can be found in the fact that this is what the membership recognizes as its proper charism and commits itself to do. The evident risk is that this option is not particularly appealing to those who want to work in a more personalized setting; thus, recruitment of new members and dis-satisfaction among present members could well be problems. Moreover, this option may yield to the temptation to abandon the struggle to live a religious life in the modern pluralistic world. The polar-oppbsite' is the option to make individual apostolates the primary and presumably exclusive emphasis in a community.~As a means of responding to challenges facing the Church in the modern world, thisop-tion presupposes considerable flexibility in community structures as well as Considerable self-reliance on the~part of individual religious. These pre-sumed strengths may be dissipated through excessive individualism on the one hand or through lack of traditional support-systems on. the other. While a few commuriities," or at least some segments .of communities, appear to be headed in the direction of this option, what may really be at stake is the creation of new communities (even though the present may not seem a particularly auspicious moment for new found~tiofis). L oA compromise between these two options is the attempt to. juxtapose ¯ institutional and individual apostolates. In greater or less degree, this is theo~present option of many active communities in the United States. In-deeid, it seems to be a typical bit of American pragmatism for a community to allow its members to dream different visions, to work in diffe~rent settings, oani:l, yet to unite, together as members of one family. If such diversity defies theoretical alignment, American religious will presumably be content, as long as their community lives and works harmoniously, however diversely. Compromise will tend to succeed as long .as religious are genuinely tolerant of the inevitable tensions that diversity introduces. The unavoidable risk is that s'uch a compromise will become unglued for example, through a wide-spread failure to fulfill responsibilities both in apostolates and in religious life, through favoritism or factionalism introduced when one group attempts to impose its views on others, or through the difficulty of attracting new members to a pluralistic life. r-'Cf, the interesting interview with a superior,general, C. Buttimer, "Is Religious Life Viable Today?" America 128/4 (February 3, 1973), 86-90. 840 / Review Ior Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 If compromise is to be successful, it is important for the members of a community~ explicitly to recognize the terms of the compromise. In other words, if the tensions arising from diversity in visions and a variety of life-styles are not to. be divisive, a community needs to recognize and to ,accept a spectrum of variant models of apostolic endeavor and of, community life. A community should specify the extent of pluralism that it is capable of tolerating. For example, some communities may be ,open to any type of individual apostolate; others may wish to restrict themselves~ tO select types. Without prior specification or evaluation, .there is potential for arbitrary decision-making, either real or imagined; there is also the likelihood of disillusionment among members if their expectations, ,whether realistic or idealistic, are :not met. (Disillusionment can affect both those who expect the traditional apostolates to be maintained, as well as~ those who, want ind~ividual apostolates to be introduced.) . ~ ~ The acceptance of pluralism should eventually. 'be expressed in bbth the constitutionS, which describe a community's aprstolic vision, and in the rules,~which attempt to concretize this vision in the life.of a community. Such, formulation is .a difficult endeavor, as the revisions undertaken after Vatican II amply confirm.13 Moreover, the emergence of individual aposto-lates adds to the.complexity: first, since the vision is pluralistic and personal, constitutions apparently can do little more than generalize about the limit-points of the pluralism that is acknowledged in principle~ secondly, if rules presumably reflect the lived experience of a community over a period of ¯ time, individual apostolates, in their present form, ar~ both recent and .still .experimental. Accordingly, .different communities may choose .to accept individual apostolates .in rather different ways. Some communities may find it feasible to consider tliem as extensions of existing apostolates; for example, a com-munity., whose apostolate is in education may decide to restrict the ac-ceptance of individual apostolates to educational endeavors. Other com-munities, which have defined their apostolates in terms of specific groups (e.g., poor,~ unevangelized, ethnic, etc.) may allow individual apostolates as a broadening of their ministry to these groups. Still other communities may encourage any~,type of new individual apostolate that displays some relation to witnessing Christ in the modern world.' At least as crucial as express recognitio,n of individual apostolates~ in :constitutions and rules is the way religious regard such formulations. For some, rules are principles that must be uniformly applied in partiCular in-stance. s; others would view rules as determinations that are to be supple-mented and emended according to actual experience. This contrast is given visual form,,in the first case, by those rules that are published in leather-l'~ Cf. J.l_~zano, "Revision of the Constitutions: Meaning, Criteria, and Problems," R]R 34 (1975), 525-534. Individual Apostolates and Pluralism / 841 bound, red-edged volumes resembling miniature Bibles; in the second.case, rtiIes migtit well be mimeographed on loose-leaf sheets and placed in folders to facilitate periodic revision and up-dating. At least this illustration may indicate tha~t attempting to specify'rules for a diversity of individual aposto-lates is a ~tenuous enterprise. In addition, it suggests that traditional rules; however well suited to institutional apostol~ites, should not simply be used as .an umbrella to cover the new situations encountered in individual aposto-lates. Since uniform rules for individual apostolates tend to be anomalous in theory and impractical in"fact, it seems necessary for commuifities whose members are engaged in individual apostolates to develop new approaches: It may well bethat'a community may decide to'formulate guidelines for community or .procedures~for administration or standards .for~professional life for those members in individual apostolates. In so doing, a community will need to face squarely both the advantages and the draffbacks that are encountered in attempting to live and work with quite different 'types of apostolates and life-styles within tile same community. o In any pluralistic situation, it is obviously impossible to lis't all the variables; yet it may be helpful to saml~le a few problem areas: administra-tive procedures, community life, and personal freedom. Administrative Procedures In the halcyon days of institutional apostolates, administration .may have been tedious, but it f~equently had the advantage of following a,stan-dard pattern of applying general norms to particular cases. This '.view. of administration is inadequate for dealing with individual apostolates (and, it should be added, With most institutional apostolates as-well). On the one"hand, individual apostolates tend to elude uniform norms, unless these a~'e~,extremely general; on the other hand, individual apostolates necessarily change the roles of and relationship between superiors and subordinates; This change in, roles" is graphically illustrated by the religious who occa-sionally employed the provincial' superior on a part-time basis. A prime factor in the:reorientation of roles is the fact that in most indi- .vidual apostolates, religious .need a fair amount of latitude to negotiate with prospective employeis and that, ~once employed, their work is not under, the direct supervision of community superiors. As a result; a superior's role tends to be narrowed to antecedent approval (for it is frequently unfeasible, if not counterproductive, for a superior to become involved in negotiations) ¯ and subsequent ratification, which may,be tantamount to rubber-stamping a iait accompli. Some superiors may find this process quite congenial; they have plenty of other problems and are quite relieved if some religious can successfully pursue their individu~ apostolates without supervision. Other superiors may feel more or less frustrated at wanting .to be helpful yet not being needed or at wanting to give daily directives yet being powerless; they may subcon- Review Ior Religious, Volume 35, 1976/6 sciously resent the apparent diminution of their authority. All of these reactions manifest, a lack of appreciation of the change in roles in the superior-subordinate relationship. If it is unrealistic to expect to transfer a set of relationships en masse from institutional to individual apostolates, what then is the role of the superior in relation to religious in this context? First of all, a superior has to take seriously the individuality of each apostolate as well as the personality of each religious; in effect, each apos-tolate must be considered as a separate and somewhat unique case, just as each religious ~is a unique individual. Instead of applying general norms to individual cases, a reverse process is needed: whether and how general principles apply needs to be discovered through an evaluation of each apostolate. The latter task can only be carried out as a joint effort of supe-rior and subordinate, acting as colleagues. . Accordingly, the role of the superior is less a matter of issuing com-mands and more a matter of fostering dialogue, discernment, and discre-tion. 14 Dialogue is necessary if the superior is to understand different apos-tolates from the viewpoint of participant religious; though this does not necessarily imply that a participant's view is always the best, still it should at least be the point of departure for productive discussion. Discernment, in the sense of raising appropriate questions to evaluate the potential, and performance for an individual apostolate, must also be a joint endeavor if the merits and disadvantages of a particular apostolate are to be appreci-ated. Discretion, which aims at deciding on an appropriate course of action among a number of alternatives, should also be shared; it is pointless to impose a decision that one cannot or will not be implemented. Obviously, such an approach to community administration requires a more personal type of communication than may have been customary in the supervision of institutional apostolates. Where a large number of indi-vidual apostolates are involved, such an approach may require that super-visory responsibilities be divided among more than one superior. Effective use of such an approach demands that superiors be skilled in interpersonal communication; in practice, this may mean that other administrative tasks, such as financial management, may have to be delegated to others. If a new administrative approach is required for individual apostolates, no approach is a panacea. While a more personal approach may be more human and hopefully more productive, both superiors and subordinates should realize that there is no advance assurance that their discussion will prove fruitful: if ~dialogue can result in agreement, it also may make any disagreement painfully evident; if discernment can raise crucial questions, l~One of the reasons-that dialogue, discernment, and discretion have become m~ajor concerns in post-conciliar renewal is linked to increased recognition of religious as persons; an added reason for the importance of these means here is the individuality of apostolates. Individual Apostolates and Pluralism / 843 it may also end in self-contented deception; if discretion can aid in deter-mining appropriate action, it is also an arbitrary selection among alterna-tives. There is no method that as such will guarantee success. For example, one question that dispels any roseate vie

Issue 24.6 of the Review for Religious, 1965. ; Sanctification. thrgugh Virginity by Charles~A. Schleck, C.S.C. 829 The Church~s ~Holiness and Religious Life by Gustave Martelet, S.J. 882 Renewal in the Ex~rcise Of Authority by Thomas Dubay, S.M. 914 The Priesthgod and Celibacy by Jean Galot, S.J. 930 .The Religious Peter Pan by James D~I, Mahoney, M.D. 957 Communication: in ;Religious Life by Richard:.M~ M~Keon, S.J. 962 ~ Survey of Roman" Documents 967 rows, News, Previews 974 Questions and Answers 979 Book Reviews 982 . Indices for Volume 24, 1965 995 VOLUME 24 NUMBER 6 November 1965 CHARLES A. SCHLECK, c.S.C. Sanctification through Virginity Doctrinally speaking,* the objective excellence of virginity over marriage cannot be called into question. It is a truth dogmatically defined by the Church and is quite explicitly taught in Sacred Scripture.x Moreover, the esteem and veneration, the maternal solicitude and affection which the Church has always shown for the "choicest portion of the flock of Christ" ~ is evident to anyone who would examine her docnmentation in re-gard to this manner of living,s Nor is this any matter for wonder. From the very beginning the first Christians had a very vivid awareness of the gospel demands not only in the realm of dogma but also in that of the following of Christ. Rather quickly the better Christians voluntarily embraced the condition of ascetics or of the continent.4 These, actuated by love and disdaining the cares of the world, overcame that division of heart which is so easy and yet which is so full of danger, and dedicated or con-secrated themselves wholly to Christ. In so doing they made a perpetual transfer of their entire life to Christ and to the Church and the Christian community, in ¯ This is the third of a series of six lectures that Father Schleck gave in 1962 to the Conference of Major Superiors of Women Re-ligious of the United States. The first of the series, "The Major Su-perior and the Meaning of Her Subjects' Vocation," was printed in REvmw FOR RELIGIOUS, V. 24 (1965), pp. 161-87; the second, "Poverty and Sanctification," appeared in the REVIEW, V. 24 (1965), pp. 548- 88. 1See Denzinger-Sch6nmetzer, Enchiridion symbolorum, n. 1810 (English trs. in The Church Teaches, n.866); Mt 19:11 ft.; 1 Cot 7:25 ft., 38, 40. This truth is recalled in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Chapter 5, paragraphs 39-40 (English translation in REVIEW FOR RELm~OUS, V. 24 [1965], pp. 707--8). 2 St. Cyprian, De habitu virginum, 3 (P.L., v. 4, col. 455). s See my The Theology of Vocations (Milwaukee: Bruce, pp. 315-21. ~ See F. Vandenbroucke, O.S.B., "La vie religieuse au cours des si~cles," La vie religieuse dam l'Eglise du Christ (Bruges: Descl~e de Brouwer, 1964), p. 19. Father Charles A. Schleck, C.S.C., is a faculty member of Holy Cross College; 4001 Harewood Road, N.E.; Wash-ington, D. C, 10017. VOLUME 24, 1965 829 4. 4. 4. C. A. Schleck~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 830 which they made their Lord present through the special engagement they assumed. This mystical marriage to Christ and this gift of them-selves to the Christian community was at first enacted spontaneously and was accomplished more by their ac-tual existence and manner of life than by any express rite or within any well-defined structure or framework. Soon, however, they began to constitute a state and a rank set apart and recognized by the Church, such that profession of virginity began to be made publicly and was recognized and strengthened by a bond that gradu-ally grew more and more firm and stable. It was then that the Church in accepting the virgin's desire to lead this way of life in her midst publicly consecrated her as a person inviolably united to Christ and the Church. This was done by means of a rite that borrowed all of its em-phasis from the nuptial rite and was rightly regarded as one of the most beautiful ceremonies existing in the whole of the ancient liturgy. It was in and through this action that the Church clearly distinguished these public virgins from all others who had bound themselves to God and the life of the Church by merely private obliga-tions. This profession of the life of virginity was soon sur-rounded by a rather vigilant and rigorous asceticism and was at the same time nourished by definite practices of piety and of the various Christian virtues, both for the edification of the people of God and also because of the inevitable weaknesses of the majority of men. All this development of the life of virginity has been most won-derfully placed before us by the early fathers of the Church who present us with a picture or image of the virgin dedicated to Christ and the Church that has per-haps never been surpassed and perhaps not even equaled. It is in their writings that we shall find most clearly and vividly depicted everything either interior or exterior that could in any way concern virginal sanctity and perfection. After peace came to the Church in the time of Con-stantine, it gradually became the practice of the con-secrated virgins to add to this consecration the express profession of poverty and obedience. Moreover, they began to live together in common as much for the love of solitude and mutual assistance and edification as well as for protection against the rather grave dangers then extant in Roman society. This practice the Church herself generally commended, even though she did not actually impose it until some time later on when she forbade liturgically consecrated virgins to live in their own homes or in a rather loose sort of community life. This discipline of the Church gradually led to tha~ form of religious life which we call strict enclosure. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries congrega-tions of women sprang up who professed virginity as well as the other evangelical counsels and yet- who were not considered "religious" in the strict sense of this word because their vows were not publicly and officially ap-proved by the Church. Indeed, even after they had re-ceived provisory legislation through the Conditae a Christo of Leo XIII in 1900 they were not considered as "religious" or "regulars" in the strict sense and in the law of the Church. This status was granted t6 them only with the promulgation of the Code of Canon Law. Yet for all this development of the life and profession of virginity and for all the solicitude and love which the Church has shown towards those who have embraced this way of life, the excellence and the superiority of it have not always seemed to remain clearly impressed on the minds of those inside and outside the Church. And the argument: "To what good is all this loss of woman-hood and this voluntary practice of barrenness?" has perdured. I suppose that there are basically two reasons for this. The first is the ever growing understanding and appreciation and depth insight into the beauty and sanctity of married life, with its contemporary expres-sion as the full development of the woman's personality and feminine powers and of her reflection of the image of the Church as the Spouse of Christ. The other reason perhaps has been the absence, up until quite recently, of a more positive approach to virginity, due to the in-fluence of a more or less puritanical or Manichaean understanding of the whole concept of sexuality. In fact, it became so delicate a subject that it was considered almost dangerous to speak about, especially when the audience happened to be those who had dedicated their lives to Christ or were thinking of doing so. As a result of this, the true splendor and beauty and richness of virginity dedicated to Christ or marriage to Christ be-came more and more obscured, less attractive, and fi-nally, in the minds of some, inferior or less excellent or only equal, even objectively speaking, to the way of life which is marriage in Christ. The importance of a more positive approach and un-derstanding of virginity is therefore quite evident, and this for two reasons. First, there is the need to reinstate it in its God-given place in the plan of salvation, in the eyes of both those inside the Church as well as outside. The second lies in the fact that often in the case of the woman virginity is the real determining factor of her vocation to a state of perfection. Sometimes by a kind of ÷ ÷ ÷ Virginity VOLUME 24/ 1965. 83] ÷ ÷ ÷ REVIEW~FOR RELIGIOUS 832 intuition given or communicated to her with the grace of vocation she realizes that the values offered her in mere human love are obstacles or could easily become obstacles to her wish and intent to achieve the fullness of Christian love and perfection. In order to arrive at some understanding of the prac-tice of virginity, it would be well for us to analyze it right from its origins so to speak, to hold it up to the light of faith so that the full richness of its content, its beauty and splendor might be the more evident so that you might know it yourselves and pass it on to those whom God has entrusted to your guidance and care. To do this adequately I would like to follow a plan similar to that used when treating the practice of evangelical poverty, We will, therefore, consider (1) the practice of chastity in general; (2) what religious chastity adds to the practice of chastity in general; (3) what its aims are; (4) what its fruits are; and (5) some practical suggestions to be used in the training of your religious along these lines. Chastity in General If we were to attempt to define the virtue of chastity we would arrive at something like the following: It is a part of the cardinal virtue of temperance that moderates the use of venereal or sexual pleasures. It receives its name from the Latin word "castigare" which means to curb because this is one of its functions, perhaps the one that is most experiential among us. It is a virtue or dy-namism or spiritual force, a perfectant of our capacities for life, including and bringing our liberty into play. This force resides not only in the soul but also in the body, at least to a certain extent, since the soul impresses its own controlling and directive force over the body. It is precisely th.is, its belonging primarily to the soul, that led St. Augustine to point out that so long as the mind holds to its observance one can never sin against the vir-tue of chastity regardless of what might happen within one's physical or emotional affective make-up. It is a virtue which every human being stands in the greatest need of since it centers around those pleasures which are very quickly aroused and which are more impetuous and which can so easily lead us away from the path of virtue and holiness. And whatever consent is given to them has a way of increasing their attraction and weak-ening the mind and the heart, casting it down from the heights of one's calling. In a sense, nothing so narrows the heart as impurity; and nothing so expands it as chastity practiced in obedience to the law of Christ which is love. Like every other virtue chastity has both a negative aspect about it and a positive one. Negatively speaking it is the absence of impurity, an absence that is not merely the result of temperament or of lethargy, but an absence that is brought about or is due to the directive and con-trolling force which the virtue and disposition of chastity places on one's affective make-up. Thus we mnst dis-tinguish between the spontaneous reaction to movements of the sexual powers and the consent of the will to them. The spontaneous reaction is natural and morally in-different. Without being in any way evil it is rather the sign of a healthy and normal and robust temperament. That is why in speaking of chastity as an angelic virtue we must be very cautious. We are. not to understand that the sexual powers, both genital and emotional, are not felt. This would be to confuse virtue with what might be definitely a deficiency or weakness or mere lethargy. No, a pure person is one who has come to master the attrac-tions of the flesh; he is not at all to be confused with one who is insensible to them.5 It also has a positive aspect about it, one which gives a person a positive orientation toward the whole notion of sex or of femininity and mas-culinity. So understood, the final end of the virtue or perfectant which we call chastity is the integration or harmonization of the passional dynamism or of the geni-tal and emotional spheres with the directives of the mind adhering to the law of the Lord. Its function is not to kill or suppress these areas of human personality but to make them live and function in a way fitting to one's state of life. Thus the upshot of the activity of the virtue of chastity is not the bringing about of insensibility (which would only serve to give rise to traumatic ex-periences later on) but rather integration or habitual sexual balance on all levels of human personality, geni-tal, emotional, and spiritual. The pure person is one who perceives the mystery of sex, its depth, its serious-n We should remember that the virtue of chastity is different from what St. Thomas calls the force of continence. The latter is only an imperfect virtue. Its seat is not in the concupiscible area of man's passionality, but in the will or the area of the voluntarium. The con-tinent person (as opposed to the chaste person) has an understand-ing and a spiritual love of chastity, but his passions are not yet moderated; they continue to have their desires independent of the ra-tional order. They are ordered from within to the desires of the mind. Continence exercises over the passions what we would call a "police action" or a repression that almost forces them to revolt, whereas the real virtue of chastity grows something like a democratic regime in which the opposition collaborates for the common good. Briefly, only the virtue of chastity realizes the successful harmonization and there-fore humanization of the passions and the sexual under the inspira-tion of the mind and will. All sexual education must aim at this Christian humanization and harmonization (See A. PI,~, O.P., "In the Light of St. Thomas," Religious Chastity: Its Conditions [Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Religious Conference, 1963], p. 168). Virginity VOLUME 24, 1965 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ness, its intimacy. A chaste person is one who under-stands the sublime purpose and fundamental significance of sex and" the consequent fearful profanation which its abuse represents. And this is as it should be. For from the very beginning the Scriptures make of human sexual-ity something sacred, something associated with the divine, with the image of God in man. This is by no means the whole story, but it does form the basis of the entire story. Thus the production of human life through the "knowledge" of woman by man, as the Scriptures have it, seems to have been the best image we had to describe creation at this time, since in this production we have creation itself, the womb of the mother being the scene of a direct and special intervention of God Himself. This is the first reason why we believe that human sexuality is especially sacred. Thus femininity and masculinity for the Christian is something that is sacred in a very technical sense; and'when we find it or picture it in Christian marriage it is more sacred still, since it contains and shows forth the redeeming love of God--the love of Christ for the Church and the answer-ing love of the Church for Christ. But to be sacred means first of all to be dangerous, even though it means much more than this. If we profane the sacred we know that we shall be destroyed by it. I think it is safe to say that this is why we have taboos and restrictions in every society surrounding sexuality. These are expressions, or at least they begin as expressions, df the reverence and fear which is proper in the presence of something ~hat is truly sacred. Thus there would be something definitely wrong with a societ~ which did not have some restrictions or taboos placed on se~. It is dangerous not because it is evil; it is dangerous because it is sacred, because it is powerful, capable of destroying the personality of an individual if it is divorced from the world of love and marriage; and equally capable of bring-ing one through the power of grace and the paschal myster.y of Christ to eternal union with God when em-ployed in.the service of love and marriage.6 Thus the pleasures of sex, like those of eating and drinking are good, no matter what their intensity is, if the), are well ordered by the per[ectant of chastity. For it is this which assures that the capacity for love be properly used on all of its various human levels. It is for these reasons that the chaste person is one who does not consider that there is anything base about sexuality, nor does he fear sexual realities unless there is an objectively real danger involved. But he is one who remains at a distance from it and its use in marriage so long as he is not called by God to enter into this way See Hubert McCabe, O.P., "Sex and the Sacred," Lile oI the Spirit, 16 (196l), pp. 70-80. of life. Reverence, then, and acceptance o] sexuality, not disgust or fear or shame, are the fundamental results which the virtue of chastity gives to an individual with regard to the divine orientation of sex indicated to us in the opening book of revelation and developed so mar-velously in the Christ-Church image of St. Paul.7 There is, however, one thing which the Christian attitude toward sex never forgets--that it is possessed by persons who labor under the economy of sin; and that means that a greater caution must be exercised in this matter than would otherwise have been necessary. And it is perhaps this aspect which the modern world in its attempt to bring out its beauty and sublimity has at times overlooked as the problems we are faced with today clearly indicate.8 Virginity or Religious Chastity and What It Adds to Chastity in General When we come to consider this virtue as it affects religious or those who have consecrated their chastity to God, we are presented with certain nuances which clearly 7 Eph 5:22 ft. 8i am not inveighing against current writing on chastity which tends to be entirely positive. This is all to the good. What I have in mind here is the "stress" character of much of this writing; that is, an emphasis placed on one or other elements or ingredient of what is really a very complex or polygoned reality. When this is not understood by the reader of such articles, it is quite possible for rather one-sided views or positions or attitudes or stances to be formed---ones which are not necessarily intended by the author. For example, present-day stress on the need for religious to be immanent, or incarnational, or present in the world, while to a certain extent correct and necessary, has caused a forgetfulness of the transcendent mission and apostolate the religious is called upon to exercise in the Church. Separation from the world is a necessary part of the complex reality of religious consecration just as much as is immanence. This visible renunciation of the world and of some of its values is done not out of lack of esteem for them but in fulfillment of service to the Body of Christ. This is quite clearly indicated in the recent Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Chapter 6, paragraph 46 (English trans-lation in REvmw fOR REL~e~OUS, V. 24 [1965], pp. 716--7). AS Father Congar notes, the religious profession engages the one who makes it to renounce the world as a plan of life to belong more entirely and more definitively to God and His work. The world is a milieu of anrbiguity, filled with occasions of evil, filled with hin-drances that prevent us from being all to God and with seductions that can turn us away from Him. That is why it is essential to the religious life not only to disengage one from the terrestrial and con-secrate oneself to God by the vows but also to separate oneself from the conditions of the life of the world by embracing the rule. I am sure that Father Congar is not limiting his remarks to cloistered communities. See "Les lemons de la thdologie," in Le rdle de la re-ligieuse clans l'Eglise (Paris: Cerf, 1960), pp. 34--5. As he remarks: "A religious is a Christian who in the desire to belong to God with-out reserve, and without going back, goes out of the world and en-ters a structure of life organized for the service of God--which the world is not" (p. 36). The amount of separation will, of course, de-pend on the particular nature of each religious institute. ÷ ÷ ÷ Firginity VOLUME 24, 1965 ~. A. $chleck, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 836 distinguish it from the virtue of chastity as practiced by other Christians and which establish its peculiar pre-eminence or excellence. The first modification which the practice of chastity by a religious implies is that it provides one with a more ample field or area in which to practice it. For it demands that she abstain from all, even legitimate and virtuous or sanctifying, use of her procreative powers given to her by God. Such an ampli-fication of the exercise of the virtue might involve greater and more protracted difficulties to be sure, but it also in-volves the reception of more grace and supernatural aids. Again, religious chastity differs from the chastity of those living in the world, whether single or married, by its being embraced or ratified by vow. It is especially this nuance which clearly and unmistakably distinguishes the practice of chastity proper to religious or those in the states of perfection from all other forms or types of chastity. Indeed, it is this modification which makes the observance of chastity in the case of a religious pass into the exercise of another virtue distinct from that of chastity. It is St. Thomas who points this out so succinctly in his treat-ment of this virtue. There are two factors which make the chastity of religious a distinct virtue, namely virgin-ity: (1) the resolution to abstain forever from all sexual pleasure proper to the married state; and (2) that this promise be made to God for the specific purpose of de-voting oneself to the contemplation and service of the divine. As he says: "Virginity as a virtue denotes the purpose confirmed by vow of observing perpetual in-tegrity . Now the end which renders virginity praise-worthy is that one may have leisure for divine things." ~ Thus the essential work of virginity is not at all some-thing selfish. It is not a way of protecting one's freedom for the sake of some temporal or earthly career. It is rather the contemplation of the divine. It is embraced precisely in order to make one free for God, for commu-nity and for humanity. If it were not undertaken for these purposes it would very likely lead to self-preoccupation, self-indulgence, and egotistic involvement in one's own problems, terminating in one or other form of psycholog-ical maladjustment. Thus the work of chastity in the case of the religious is the communion with the Word of God either in Himself or as we see Him in our brethren; and this work has been chosen for virgins by God Him-self. This truth was very clearly indicated by Pius XII in his encyclical Sacra virginitas: Here also it must be added as the Fathers and Doctors have clearly taught, that virginity is not a Christian virtue unless it is embraced for the sake of the kingdom of heaven, that is, unless ~2-2, q.152, aa.3-4. we take up this way of life precisely in order to be able to de-vote ourselves more freely to divine things, to attain heaven more surely, and with skillful efforts to lead others more readily thereto. Those, therefore, who do not marry because of exag-gerated self-interest, or because they shun the burdens of mar-r! ag.e .cannot claim for themselves the honor of Christian virginity. In this of course, the Sovereign Pontiff was merely re-echoing the teaching of bofh our Lord and St. Paul: "There are other eunuchs who have made themselves so for the sake of the kingdom of heaven"; "A virgin is free to think about the things of the Lord, that she may be holy in body and spirit." 10 10 Mt 19:11-2; 1 Cor 7:34. Here it might be wise for us to mention the difference between chastity and virginity and the implica-tions which the latter adds to the former. Chastity is a virtue, as we have seen, which excludes or moderates the indulgence of the sexual appetite according to the norms proper to one's state of life. If voluntary chastity excludes indulgence in carnal pleasure for life, it is said to be perfect. If not, then it is said to be imperfect. There are several groups of persons who would fall into this second cate-gory: (1) those not married but who have not renounced the inten-tion of doing so; (2) those who are married when they use their sexual faculties within marriage; and (3) the widowed. (The words "perfect" and "impcrfect" leave much to be desired since they could easily imply unfavorable nuances of meaning; but, at any rate, the distinction is clear.) Chastity is distinguished from virginity in that the latter implies bodily integrity or at least the absence of any voluntary and complete exercise of sexuality. Virginity is a virtue when it is preserved for a praiseworthy motive; for example, for the sake of the kingdom of God. Thus understood, virginity is irrepffrably lost by sexual pleasure voluntarily and completely experienced whether legitimately (within marriage) or illegitimately. It is not lost by the rupture of the virginal membrane (hymen)--this can happen in many different ways (for example, surgical operation, hormonal treatment, horseback riding, and so forth); nor by sexual pleasure involuntarily experienced (for example, involuntary orgasm); nor even by bodily violation un-dergone against one's will even if this should result in pregnancy and the birth of a child. The sole criterion of virginity's presence or absence in an individual lies in the presence or absence of sexual pleasure voluntarily and completely experienced. Consequently, when we equate virginity and religious chastity we are speaking in an ideal rather than in the technical sense, at least usually. Virginity in the strict sense is not required for religious profession. The widowed are eligible for profession as well as those who have had sexual experience outside of marriage whether volun-tarily or involuntarily. It is sufficient that one who has had sexual experience give assurance of being able to abstain from every moral act contrary to consecrated chastity in the present and the future and without any extremely great tensions or disturbances. She must give evidence of being able to live a chaste life not only in deed but in thought and desire, for life, and with a basic calm and peace of soul. It is very important that these ideas be made clear to novices, that is, candidates who have not yet made profession of vows. It is possible that some may have had the habit of masturbation before coming to the convent. This should have been overcome for a suf-ficient period of time prior to admission. It is a sound psychological + + + Virginity VOLUME 24, 1965 837 C. A. $chleck, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 838 It is because of this--that a person vows to preserve chastity perpetually, at least intentionally, when she sets out on the path of the religious life--that her practice of chastity is not just an amplification of the or.dinary virtue as would be true, for example, in regard to religious obedience as distinguished from ordinary obe-dience; no, it passes into the exercise and practice of another virtue, distinct from that of chastity, namely, virginity. Consequently, every act on the part of such a person whether this be positive--using one's womanly make-up, or affective faculties for God, or whether it be negative--rejecting the temptations of the flesh or re-principle that the habit should have been overcome in the same circumstances under which it was contracted and practiced. If the motivation to enter the convent has not been sufficiently strong to enable her to overcome her habit prior to entrance she has not dem-onstrated positive fitness. It is possible for it to disappear for a time only to reoccur later. See my The Theology of Vocations, p. 236, foot-note 329, for further discussion of this case. It is also possible that a candidate may have been guilty of sin with another at some time previous to entrance. If she has repented and emotionally adjusted, there is no reason for her not continuing on in her vocation. If the effect has been negative, however, the answer would be much different. A single experience of this nature could leave a lasting mark on her personality and fill her with feelings of guilt and unworthiness which an entire lifetime could not expiate. She may be entering the convent with the expiation of her fault as the predominant motive for coming. If she does enter, she will be constantly reminded in unintentional ways that she is not a virgin; and every exhortation concerning the spiritual beauties of virginal union with Christ will only serve as a fresh reproach to her. It is possible that she would continually feel inferior to her fellow re-ligious, no matter what her other talents and contributions would be; and she might ultimately come to feel that she does not belong in religion at all, especially when she experiences the crises which we mentioned above. Her sin will ever stand between herself and Christ. If this were the case, or if this would seem to be the likely eventuality, then she should not attempt religion--not because of her initial fail-ure, but because of the effect of this experience on her personality. Finally, if her chastity were violated against her will, it is possible that this could have caused such a traumatic experience as to leave a lasting mark on the girl's personality. This could very easily inter-fere with an easy and calm living of the religious life. It is because of all this that it seems most desirable that the person entrusted with the formation of the novices and postulants, while avoiding any undue curiosity or scrutinizing questions or demand-ing any manifestation of conscience, be able to know the position of the candidates in regard to chastity. This refers not only to moral lapses and temptations but to the whole mass of attitudes, memories, thoughts, imagination patterns, and so forth so that she may be able to help the novice make a correct judgment regarding her sexual maturity in reference to the vow of chastity. If this information is made in confidence, and it usually is, obviously this could not be used in making a decision for or against admitting to profession. But the novice mistress would be able by working with the girl to bring her to see that she does not have the proper qualities for this voca-tion and that she would be much happier in following another walk of life in seeking Christian perfection. The girl herself would then withdraw of her own accord. nouncing certain pleasures (genital,. emotional, and spirit-ual proper to wifehood and motherhood)---has a special excellence about it which it does not have (objectively, at least) ~nd cannot have in one who has not vowed her chastity completely and perpetually (at lea~t inten-tionally) to God. It is for this reason, perhaps, that St. Bernard remarked there, could be no more evident mark of the celestial origin of this vocation; for by it one re-tains while here on earth a resemblance to a purbly spiritual creature in a material world. The Aims of Virginity Proceeding to the aims or goals of virginity, it would seem that any analysis or study would point up the following: (1) it brings about a more perfect freedom of spirit; (2) it enables one to arrive at the closest possible union with Christ; (3) it introduces one into the eschato-logical life of eternity; (4) it effects a perfect holocaust of a human being to God; and (5) it brings about the pey-fection of fruitfulness or motherhood in the case of the religious woman. Freedom of Spirit One of the aims of virginity is to create an independ-ence of spirit from those things which render the per-fect and total service of God difficult. This was clearly pointed out by St. Paul in the famous passage to the Corinthians where the subject of virginity is treated along with marriage.~1 For if one desires to practice virginity, it is so that her heart will not be divided. On this score, of course, we must be cautious. We are not to understand that the whole married life cannot pos-sibly be sanctified. No, marriage between Christians has the power of sanctifying all that is corporal, and, in a sense, to transform the whole of the two persons thus related as Christ to the Church even to the very depth of their life of the flesh. It is a profound form of earthly sanctification such that even the most instinctive and spontaneous bodily reactions of man and woman are sanctified and can become, are meant to become, a com-munion of charity between them. Thus, conjugal love is not at all a stranger to Christian perfection or love, nor does it contradict it. Quite the contrary. Marriage is ordained to manifest or express and realize on the body level both the gift of self demanded by true love and the union of souls already expressed and begun by the physical union. In surrendering her body to her husband the wife realizes an abandonment of her whole being that has no equivalent in the realm of corporal realities. 11 1 Cor 7. ÷ + + Virginity VOLUME 24; 1965 839 4. 4. 4. . A. $chleck, C.$.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 840 The domain of sexuality constitutes the physical center as well as the corporal sign of what is most intimate, most secret in the person. On account of its purpose as the source of life and as a result of its determinant action on the whole person with whose organism and psychism it is imbued, sexuality occupies a unique position which makes it penetrate to the heart of the mystery of the human person where the meeting of the carnal and spiritual spheres is accomplished. Thus, in surrendering to her husband the right over her own body on the level of sexuality, the wife recognizes an analogous right over her soul. She reveals and gives to him her most profound and personal possession, what constitutes her a different and distinct person from any other. She shows and en-trusts to him the secret of her being that modesty makes her up to this time and will continue to make her hide from all others. Thus the gift of her body signifies and realizes the gift of her soul or rather the gift of her entire person. Among human beings there can be no more total gift; for even the greatest friendship between non-married persons abstains from all communication on the level of marital sexuality and leaves intact this re-served domain whose sharing would perfectly complete the great intimacy already created.12 Enjoying full satisfaction on the genital and emotional levels, the wife does not stop at the lower pleasures and joys but tends with all her strength toward the highest spiritual pleasures and joys. This expansiveness is the fruit of the mutual love that husband and wife bear to each other. The woman finds an answer to the needs of complementarity that she feels within herself, for she finds in her husband the virile qualities that she sought in order to favor the full development of her specifically feminine qualities. At the same time she enjoys the satisfying consolation of bringing to her husband the feminine part that is lacking in his manly qualities. This is the ideal, of course. But because we are crea-tures existing under the economy of sin and redemption, a redemption which is not complete while we make our exodus to the Father, a redemption which still leaves certain weaknesses within our composite of body-soul, a most intense kind of asceticism is necessary to bring into the pattern of holiness and virtue proper to Christ and the Church all the details of the activity of the flesh that is proper to marriage. The soul has to be possessed of as great a depth of intensity as the body, if the freedom and joy and the constant growth in holiness which is meant to characterize Christian marriage are actually to ~ See A. Perreault, "A Factor in Natural and Spiritual Progress," Religious Chastity: Its Conditions (Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Re-ligious Conference, 1963), p. 65. be experienced. The division which is felt and which exists within the human composite and person as a result of the existence of concupiscence or the law of sin within our members is profoundly felt even in Christian marriage where the life of the flesh is lived to its human completion and usually with the greatest intensity. Thus, while it is true that Christian spouses can see the beauty of their union of life and love as a gift from God and while they may vie with each other in seeking Him through each other, desirous of rising above the genital and emotional spheres by integrating them in order to see God in the development of their spiritual life, very small is the number of those who actually attain the full realization of their marriage as blessed by God. No matter how much the will of one who is married be-longs to God, still the heart is no longer His alone. This has been rather clearly indicated by the late Pius XII in an address given a year before his death: Even though marriage is a true sacrament, one of the seven sources of grace instituted by Christ Himself, and even though it involves a mutual offering of one spouse to the other and cements a real union of lives and destinies, still there remains something that is held back, something that is not actually given, or at least, not wholly given. Only virgin souls can make that offering of self that for other souls is an unattainable goal. For these (virgin souls) the first step of their ascent to God is their last step (that is, definitive) and the end of their ascent is at once a lofty peak and a profound abyss.1~ Because the unity of aims is difficult in the married state, virginity acts as a reraovens prohibens or a condi-tion or climate of life that removes obstacles to greater nnion with God and to a greater service of humanity. It is the vow of virginity that establishes one in heart and soul, or in one's whole person, and definitively, in what might be termed supra-human solitude, such that perfect purity and liberty of heart is brought about enabling one to give oneself entirely to the love of God and the consid-eration of divine things and to the service of the com-munity of man. Consecrated virginity is the concern of the human soul that is illuminated by a special grace. For the virgin of Christ is not only obliged to preserve her virginity of heart and body until she marries, but forever, and this by a ~ompletely free and irrevocable decision consciously and joyfully embracing all that this entails on all levels of her being. It is because of this free and irrevocable decision that the consecrated vir-gin is set apart from all other women who though they may be virgins, still have not ratified or confirmed as Pius XII, Address to Nursing Sisters, April 24, 1957; English translation, The States o[ PerIection, ed. G. Courtois (Westminster: Newman, 1962), p. 288. + ÷ + Virginity VOLUME 24, 1965 841 C. A. Schleck, C.S.C. R~VIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 842 this status by vow, which implies a permanent proposal (at .least as far as one's present intentions are concerned) to belong wholly ~nd entirely to God. Only faith, of course, can accept the fact that the grace of vocation, the grace of virginal love, includes the grace .necessary to sublimate all the energies o{ nature. It is this grace of virginal love that must make present in the woman consecrating her life to God a balance .similar to that which is given man and woman through conjugal love raised by the grace of matrimony. Perhaps without entirely nnderstanding how this grace succeeds in bring-ing about this balance of nature and its secret inherent powers in the consecrated virgin, we have to admit that her special grace by an action different from that of the gr.ace of marriage makes it possible for her .to reach a development of her person, even human, that is even more profound than that realized in and through the activity of marriage.14 It is in this way that virginity transcends the division o{ our human personality which is necessarily implied in marriage, even though this be sacramental. Here we must be cautious, of course. We do not mean to say that concupiscence and the difficulties of the flesh, the spon-taneous movements and impulses .of the genital and emotional spheres of sexuality are not felt or experienced by one who has t~ken or made the vow of' virginity. What we mean to say is that these things are objectively transcended even though they may be subjectively felt. For virginity implies objectively or by way of a firm and irrevocable decision the renouncement of the sources from which this division within the human, person and the human heart normally proceeds, that is, the con-cupiscence of the flesh. What the married person and her husband must gradually attain through the grace Of marriage--the spiritualization of the flesh--the virgin accomplishes once and for all by entering upon her state of life.1~ Virginity, then, must be seen as a pref-erence of love for a person. It is the turning away from one form of charity only to assume a higher one. Thus it is without any real meaning if it does not denote a _deeply personal love, the decision, firm and stable, to remove from all men the personal mystery of oneself and to open this only to Christ.4n a* See my The Theology o] Vocations, pp. 340-3; and the ~ppendix of my The Sacrament o] Matrimony: d Dogmatic Study (Milwaukee: Bruce, 1964). ~ R. Gleason, s.J., To Live Is Christ (New York: Shecd and Ward, 1962), pp. 126-7. ~o Here we should note that ~narriage also has a way of leading people to a deeper understanding of the excellence of virginity. The disappointment that is inevitable in all human relationships and encoutaters, the apparent or even real inability of the other to return The Closest Possible Union with Christ A second aim of virginity is that it serve to bring about the closest possible union with Christ. This aim, I think, is much more evident and visibly manifest in the case of the virgin vowed to Christ than in the case of the man. We know that the union of the soul with God, both as described in the Old Testament and in the New, has been often and most strikingly proposed as like that which exists between man and wife, such that a human person is likened to the Spouse or Bride of Yahweh or Christ.17 It is obvious that though every person is spiritually able to become the bride of Christ, yet only the woman is able to signify externally and visibly this bridal theme of man's union with God or this marriage which every Christian contracts in the depths of his person by his introduction into the life of grace. Only the woman can be naturally a bride. It is because of this that the reception ceremony of the man and woman is pictured under different external rites. The man is said to die to the world and to rise with Christ; he is said to become a new man in Christ. The woman on the other hand, even though she enjoys the application of this same paschal the love that has been given, leads one to look beyond human love and beyond the human lover for the perfect lover who is Christ. When one falls in love, he or she soon learns through the comparative fail-ure of the other person to provide perfect happiness that this can only be had in Christ. There is a time in all human love when one feels that everything, the whole glory of creation, is summed up in one person. But there comes a time when this feeling passes; and its passing can be a danger unless the individual has learned that the whole of creation, even the person who at one time or another seemed to sum up all its glory, is merely the expression of Him who made these things. Not all marriages are perfect; and the half-returned love, real or apparent, that is only too often the case in marriage is one of the keenest forms of participation in Christ's passion and cross. No human creature can satisfy us, but only God. This does not mean that love in marriage can never bring us peace. It means that there is no peace in love in marriage unless it is the love of God in the other. It means admitting that love can never be completely peace-ful because we never completely love the other in God. Consequently, marriage also has a way of leading one to the intuition which is often given to the one called to virginity: the values offered in human love, when this is supernaturalized, are still inferior to those which are offered to one who gives herself to an immediate union with the Lord. This latter is the anticipation of the life to which every human being will one day be called. Even marriage requires the spirit of virginity; this consists in an interior attitude of attachment and love for Christ which must penetrate into one's entire life. This is diffi-cult in marriage. It takes a long time even for the virgin consecrated to God. And it is acquired by her renouncement of natural affections so that Christ can become her unique love. 1~ For example: Hos 2:19 ft.; 3:1 ft.; Is 49:14-5,18,21; 50:1 ft.; 51:17 ft.; 52:1 ft.; 54:1-10; 60:1 ft.; 61:10 ft.; 62:2-4, 10-2; the entire Canticle of Canticles; 2 Cur 11:1-3; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 5:21-32; Mk 2:18-20; Mt 22:11-4; 25:1-13; Jn 3:22-30; 2:1-11; Ap 6:1-17; 19:6-10; 21:2-27; 22:17. + + ÷ Vlrgln~ty VOLUME 24, 1965 843 ÷ ÷ ÷ C. A. $chleck, C.S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS theme, is usually said to become the bride of Christ. It is for this very reason that the ceremony of reception and/or profession is couched in terms of a nuptial or marriage ceremony. It is this very fact which shows the true sublimity of the virgin's decision. The veil which she receives at that time is not merely nor even primarily meant to conceal her from the indiscreet gaze of the world or tO hide her with Christ in God. No, it would seem to be primarily a sign of her innocence, of her virginity, of her belonging exclusively and perpetually in a virginal marriage relationship with Christ. For a girl wears a veil only at a time which has some relationship with union--such as first communion, marriage, or death. Of all w6men only the consecrated virgin has tradition-ally from the very beginnings of Christianity worn a veil so that the remembrance of what she has done by her consecration might never leave her mind or heart, that she as well as all others might find in her something sensible and visible, tangible or perhaps better, sacra-mental, to remind them of the spiritual reality which takes place deep within her at the moment of her dedication to the Lord. While all religious of both sexes are obliged to give themselves entirely to Christ, still the sacramentalism of their surrender is not exactly the same. They do not and cannot evoke the same image-symbol. Man evokes the death-resurrection symbol of the paschal mystery or baptism. Woman evokes the bride-symbol mentioned by St. Paul: "He would hallow i.t, purify it by bathing it in the water to which His word gave life, he would summon it into his own presence, the Church in all its beauty, no stain, no wrinkle, no such disfigurement; it was to be holy, it was to be spotless . " "I have betrothed you to Christ, so that no other but He should claim you, His bride without spot." is Thus the woman's role is one of willing submission to man. And the virgin's mission in the Church is to be given up wholly and entirely to Christ, to play the way of the interior life of union with Christ. To sacramentalize what is hidden is a kind of paradox; but it is the paradox of the vocation to vir-ginity dedicated to Christ. All must give themselves to Christ and must belong to Him as Holy Chnrch belongs to Him. But only the virgin, because she is a woman, because she can be naturally a bride, is able to evoke the image of perfect surrender to life in and for Christ and to make it something lovable and attractive. It is in this way that the virgin attempts to live out her own baptis-mal consecration in all of its visibility; for virginity is seen as a sign of liberation from possession by the tem-poral and of consecration to what is eternal or what is ~s2 Cor "11:2; Eph 5:26-7. above. And the virgin is a living, existential sign or sacrament of what Christ has done for us (liberation and consecration) and what humanity must do in return-- voluntary and spontaneous surrender by way of eternal faith and fidelity and love to Christ. The undividedness or singleness of purpose which we find in religious women goes far beyond that which is proper to creature and Creator and even beyond that which is proper to son and Father. It is one that re-sembles the union existing between lover and beloved; virginity is meant to bring about an intense community of life and love, of interests and desires such as is effected by marriage. It is for this reason that the vow of virginity for the fathers and scholastic theologians was equivalent to the .promise to seek perpetually the perfection of the spiritual marriage which is signified in the reception cere-mony or in religious profession when made by .a woman. Like marriage itself, the promise or vow of virginity is meant to have a permanence about it, one that is even greater and more sublime than that signified by an earthly marriage, since it perdures not only in this life but also in the next where it reaches or achieves its fullest realization. In a sense, of itself, virginity is indissoluble--because it is marriage with God. If it is soluble this is only something accidental to virginity; it comes from its earthly condition. It comes not from the bond itself, but rather from some deficiency on the part of the person making the vow. For it is just as easy to fall from the perfection of our engagement with Christ as it is to fall from the perfection of charity itself; in fact, much easier.Just as God permitted or indirectly al-lowed the Jews of the Old Testament to practice divorce, ob duritiam cordis, on account of the hardness of their hearts, until the time of the coming of Christ, so too does He allow a dispensation or dissolution of the vow of vii:ginity, ob duritiam cordis, on account of the weakness of man, until the law of the New Testament opens up into the law of eternity itself where there shall be no marrying or giving in marriage. Thus, the solu-bility of the bond of virginity vowed to God comes from the weakness of man in the face of the perfection of heaven. Both marriage and the religious sister's gift of herself to Christ signify the union of Christ with the Church, but in different ways. Christian marriage not only sym-bolizes the union of the Church with Christ but renews and re-creates it as the Mass does Calvary. And it does so in reference to its visible and tangible fruitfulriess. May we not say that the profession of the surrender of the virgin to Christ renews and re-creates the union of Christ with His Church with regard to the immaculate- Virginity VOLUME 24, 1965 ÷ ÷ ÷ C. A. Schleck, C.$.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ness of this union, its purity and innocence? Why it is not a sacrament is perhaps because this type of union, an immaculate union, is proper to eternity where there is no sacramental economy, where all shadows and images and even sacraments give way to reality itself. Indeed it would seem that to place virginity in the realm of sacramental realities would be to derogate from its excellence and perfection. For it would then take it out of. eternity and place it in time. Direct and immediate marriage with Christ is a state proper to fully realized eschatology and, therefore, does not demand any sacramental sign. It is the state of the bride of Christ in termino, not in via; and in termino there is no sacramental system. If the wife in Christian marriage is said to be the body-person of her husband as the Church is the body-person of Christ, then a fortiori the Christian virgin en-joys a similar relationship; her body-person is His body-person; and He cherishes her as He does Himself, for her union with Christ is nothing other than Christ loving Himself. From this it should be clear that virgins have as their reason for existence the making tangible of the perfect virginity of their mother the Church and the sanctity of her intimate union with Christ. They are those who reject the practice of marriage and yet love its mystic significance.1° ~ Roman Pontifical, Ceremony for the Consecration of Virgins. It has been the rather common conviction of the members of the Church that the reality of the Church needs a "typical" or representa-tive figure, or icon, even though she is so close to us that it is in her that we live and move and have our being. The Church is in some way visible to be sure, even physically, yet she is also remote because in her visible form we cannot touch her inmost reality. What we see and experience in her visible existence is quite fragmented. Both her invisible spiritual meaning and core and the totality of her external unity call for a "type" to personify her and make her present to us. I think that this should be recalled when there is an investiga-tion of the usefulness of the religious habit for women. The religious habit, especially for the woman, is not quite so accidental as some would make it out to be. It pertains very much to the sacramentality of the religious woman's mission or service or apostolate to the Church as the marches at Selma, Alabama, quite clearly showed. I wonder whether endugh attention has been focused on the prin-ciples that should guide any and every thought of change in this regard. These would seem to be of three orders: (I) the pronounce-ments of the Holy See; (2) the purpose of the religious habit; and (3) the circumstances of modern times. As far as the pronouncements of the Holy See are concerned, they are rather moderate. Pius XII spoke on the subject twice, in 1951 and again in 1952: "The religious habit: select one of such a kind that it will be an expression of the inner character, of religious simplicity and modesty; then it will be a source of edification for all; even for modern youth" (Discourse to Teaching Sisters, September 13, 1951). "In this crisis of vocations be watchful lest the customs, the way of life, or the asceticism of your religious families should prove a barrier or be a cause of failures. We are speaking of certain usages which if they had once a certain sig-nificance in a different cultural setting, do not possess it nowadays. The two states, marriage and virginity, are not at all opposed to one another. Rather they overlap. Virginity They are such that a young girl, who is genuinely good and coura-geous, would find them simply hindrances to her vocation. In our exposition on the subject last year, we gave various examples. To re-turn to the subject and say a word on the question of dress: the re-ligious habit should aways express consecration to Christ; that is what everyone expects and desires. For the rest, let the habit be suit-able and meet the requirements of hygiene. We could not fail to express our satisfaction when, in the course of the year, we saw that one or other congregation had already taken practical steps in this regard" (Address to Mothers General, September 15, 1952; a glance at the picture of the audience would have shown that while there were some modified habits, they all had veils or bonnets and were ankle length!). On September 8, 1964, Pope paul VI in speaking to a group of religious women at Castel Gondolfo remarked: "Here we come to the third reason for our spiritual joy in this meeting. It is that of noting your number and your fervor, that there are still today pure and strong souls who thirst for perfection and who are neither afraid nor asha~ned to wear the religious habit, the habit of total consecration of one's life to the Lord." As far as the purpose of the religious habit is concerned, two have been marked out in papal documents: simplicity and modesty, and consecration. It is true that even modern dresses or uniforms would fulfill the requirement of modesty and simplicity. But would they express the consecration and the representation of inner character and mission on the part of the sister--which is bridal certainly? And this symbol of consecration, and of representation was something that Plus wished to be retained and that Paul was happy to see in the religious to whom he spoke. It is on this score--the sacramentalism of the religious life that there is too little consideration today. The religious life is meant to be sacra-mental, that is, a visible expression of (a) poverty and detachment (the bride of Christ in poverty), (b) of obedience (the obedience of the Church to Christ), and (c) of virginity (of the Church's bridal relationship with Chris~, of the final destiny which every human being is to have bne day with God). This relationship can be shown visibly only by a woman as we have mentioned in this article. As a religious sister, it would seem that she has the duty of more publicly or visibly proclaiming this theme to the world than the member of a secular institute or a woman living a consecrated life in the world under private vows. It would seem that she should be the incarnation of the complete eschato!ogical destiny of the Church and of each member of the Church. Since only a woman can symbolize or sacra-mcntalize this bridal theme and eschatological destiny of the Church, wonld it not seem only right that she should perform this mission and function for the People of God, especially today when there is so much loss of the sacred? The objection might be raised that men do not wear their habits in public; why should women wear them then? I think this is rather begging the question and fails to realize the profound difference be-tween man and woman, a difference that is expressed especially in reference to their clothing---or at least should be. Man differs from woman as prose from poetry. And prose is word-sign; whereas poetry is image-symbol. Prose expresses things rather drably in comparison with poetry which offers us a rather unique medium of expression-- symbolic--in which the transcendent becomes immanent. The value of poetry would seem to lie not so much in itself as rather in what it enables us to be. It is profoundly evocative and generally has the ability to bring out a mu~h more engaged response than does prose or the cold reality. Similarly, the clothing of women is much more evocative (I believeI) and tends to bring about a much more engaged ÷ ÷ ÷ Virginity VOLUME 24, '1.965 847 + ÷ ÷ C. A. Schleck, .$.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 848 goes all the way along a road on which marriage stops at the hallway mark. Consequently, virginity is situated along the same line of li[e as marriage, though much further on. It transcends the earthly state of the magnum sacramentum spoken o[ by St. Paul.2° And it attains directly to the actual substance of the eternal marriage of the Church with Christ. That is why true marriage [or the fathers of the church was always the marriage of virgins with Christ or that of the human person with the Word of God made flesh. Christian marriage is held to be merely a counterpart of this in the temporal and material or physical older. Thus, to their minds, and it would seem that they are quite right in this, it is the marriage of virgins with Christ that acts as the type according to which earthly marriages are to be modeled, not vice versa. The most glorious thing about marriage is that it can be a sign or symbol of the spiritual mar-riage between Christ and His Church. Yet human mar-riage is not the most perfect symbol of the espousal between these two. It is the virginal espousal that pro-vides a better figure or image, therefore sign or sacra-ment, of this union, since the bridegroom of the virgin is not a human lover, but the Church's own bridegroom, the Lord Himself. The necessity of deepening this conviction for the per-son who has undertaken this way of life in the Church can also be seen from another approach to the meaning of virginity. The virgin must expect to be deprived of response than does the clothing of men. As someone has put it: "Everyone knows that packaging does make a lot of difference." These same observations are just as applicable to the religious woman and the clothing that she wears before the world. Finally, as far as the circumstances of our own day are con-cerned, these would have to be scientifically evaluated. If it could be proved (not just stated categorically as has been the usual pattern) that the religious habit of women is a definite obstacle to many vo-cations, and if it could be proved that both the faithful and the non-members of the Church ]or the most part are opposed to religious wearing habits in public, and if it could be proved that the nun's habit is a definite obstacle to ecumenism, at least for the majority of non-Catholics, then perhaps we should consider the possibility of some change. I am speaking here of the United States, since it would seem on the principle of territorial government that decisions of this nature should be the prerogative of the territorial hierarchy upon consultation with those who are involved. What I am personally afraid of is that an attitude or a stance which is hostile to the religious habit of women is being engendered by an unfavorable press. Often the press does not merely reflect the thinking of the people; it rather creates it, giving the impression that its statements reflect the ma-jority opinion and can be scientifically substantiated whereas often-times this is not true. Becanse of panic and perhaps the deep feminine desire to be accepted, quick changes are made which are deeply re-gretted within a few years. As the Gospel has it, the last state is worse than the first. ~o Eph 5:32. certain delights that only a wife can enjoy. Yet the genital sphere in her will continue to be the seat of im-pulses that will occasion the appropriate responses in her emotionality. Confused feelings can emerge from her nature arousing vague desires for some activity that would relieve the increasing tension. Images can grad-ually take shape demanding an eager and often anxious curiosity. An inexplicable and stubborn need for affec-tion may give rise even to a nostalgia which can make one experience deeply the effects of loneliness that might not have been suspected up to this time. In short, in the sexual spheres of one's personality there might very well appear with variable clarity and intensity a whole world of human warmth that is normally promised to the wife but from which the religious sister feels herself forever excluded. Or else if the meaning of these psychic phenomena does not reach the surface of consciousness, they can create in the emotionality a rather heavy at-mosphere that weighs down the impulses and slows down the activity of the spirit, at the same time as it brings on a rather indefinable uneasiness. The only thing ca-pable of maintaining proper balance at these times is the conviction in faith of what we have just described above, the virgin's spiritual or mystical marriage with Christ. Just as the active and loving presence of a woman's husband multiplies the energies of her being, so too the spiritual resources of the virgin will be continually in-creased by her faith's conviction that she is the object of God's incomprehensible love, by the certitude that she will never be abandoned by Him, and by her trusting sur-render to Him that is inspired by her love for Him. Virginity Introduces One into the Eschatological Life of Eternity From what we have just seen of the life of virginity as a direct marriage of the virgin with Christ, rather than an indirect one through some intermediary who repre-sents Him, it should be quite obvious that virginity in-troduces her into the eschatological life of eternity. Thus its meaning of undivided belonging to Christ in marital relationship is aimed at portraying to the whole world the end of time. There is a common desire on the part of the entire Church to see what a person in eternity, in vision, will be. It is in the virgin's vocation and in her person where this longing and desire ought to be satis-fied and sacramentalized. For her vocation is meant to manifest or make constantly visible for all to see the fact that the fulfillment of all history will be realized with the resurrection of the body. She reminds us that the Christian life here below has not yet reached its final term. It must always strive toward the future and ÷ ÷ Virginity VOLUr~ ~, 849 C. .4. Schlecl~, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 850 can never install itself in the temporal or in-human his-tory in such a way as .to disregard its future term. In fact just the opposite. Consecrated virginity has as one of its first services to the People of God to keep before their eyes the awareness that there is a wofld of realities which lies beyond the present one. It is an anticipated realization of the final transformation of the glory of the world to come inserting itself into our present situation. It is only on account of man's immortality that the risen person need no longer procreate. For the life of the res-urrection is not a life in flesh that is,doomed to die. It is, rather,,a life in God, in Christ; it is the life of man in the Spirit, loved in a body that is transformed by the divine doxa or glory. Hence the functions of the flesh become useless; procreation loses its meaning, which was to make up f6r the ravages of death. The virgin shows by her condition that such a life has already started for the Church. She testifies or acts as a witness by way of symbolized anticipation of the deliverance of the body of the flesh. She proclaims to.all that it is in Christ that man escapes the clutches of death and lives in the Spirit. Thus she is a prophecy in-carnate of the truth that the world of the flesh will disappear and give rise to the world of the Spirit where the flesh will have no power, since this world knows only the fruitfulness that comes from and through the Spirit. She is a constant proclamation to the world that no'sal-vation is to be expected from the flesh. Thus, the virgins of the Church renounce worldly hope but only because they know by faith that the world has no hope to pro-pose. Yet in their apparent loneliness they prophesy and announce and already themselves enjoy by way of special vocation and anticipation in faith the eschatolog-ical vistitation of the Spirit. It is foi: this reason that all persons, even the greatest of sinners, love to see especially in a woman the inno-cence of virginity. An immaculate life is always freshness and poetry and always a joy and enthusiasm and charm that has the power of conquering the so-called uncon-querable. It is because the life of virginity is eschatolog-ical that the virtue of virginity is called the angelic virtue and the state an ~ngelic way of life, for it seems to be a way of liv.ing that is proper to a nature that has bedn clothed with that incorruptibility and immort~ility which come only from the Spirit. Both the angel and the virgin are delivered from the necessit~ for marriage since both in a sense pertain to eternal life or to a life which shares in the eternali'now" of the community in God. From all this, it should be evident that among Chris-tians the life of virginity ought to be considered as th~ most perfect expression of the complete dependence of man upon grace. And of the virgin it can truly be said: "All is grace." For by a special act of God's predilection she is taken out of the ordinary task of humanity and established as a living sign of one whose redemption has reached not only to the soul but also to the body. For to be redeemed most perfectly is not a mere spiritual real-ity. It affects the whole of one's being, corporal as well as spiritual; it implies a necessary relationship with the body. It seems then that we are correct in concluding that virginity is a visible sign or sacramentalization of an internal attitude that ought to characterize every Chris-tian since our incorporation into Christ through baptism demands that we no longer live as pertaining to this world but with Christ who dwells in the glory of the Father. What the married woman does through an in-termediary the virgin does directly without the use of any intermediary; and in this way she shows that she is attempting the heroic, to live on earth as though she were already in vision, as though she were already cele-brating that marriage which is not temporal or passing but instantaneous and eternal. Thus the observance of virginity by some of the members of the Church is not the result or end product of fear, or panic at the ap-proach of some imminent disaster. It is rather an act of faith, hope, and especially of love. And the virgin is a living image of the salvation figure: that Christ has saved His bride the Church by immersing her in the laver of water in the word of life. He has made her die with Him and rise again; and at that moment He has united Himself with her as with a chaste virgin without spot or wrinkle, a bride dead to the flesh and raised to life in the Spirit of God. She is a sign, a constant sacrament or presence-in-mystery of the truth that salvation con-sists in marriage celebrated in death and resurrection; or, if you will, the virgin is a living memorial among us of the Easter mystery of the Church and of each of its members. She is meant to be a constant incarnation of the picture of the Church presented to us by John: "I saw a new Jerusalem and a new earth. And I saw the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, coming down from heaven, coming down from above, from God. She was adorned and beautified like a young bride ready for her husband. And I heard ~ voice from the throne cry, Behold the dwelling of God with men." 21 It is thus that the virgin lives already the life of the resurrected flesh and of the world to come, at least in an objective sense and in her heart. 22 Ap 21 : I-3. + 4- Virginity VOLUME 24, 1965 85! ÷ ÷ ÷ c. A. Schleck, C3.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 852 Virginity Contributes to Our Holocaustal Offering to God In the total view of virginity we are meant to see not only the notion of self-denial and renunciation which is indeed there and not to be at all minimized in our approach to this way of life, but also another element, the oblation of person that is made directly to the Lord. By the act of her consecration to God, the virgin takes something, her love-life on all of its levels, and makes this holy or as we usually say consecrates this and then offers it as a gift to the One whom she loves. This she does as a sign or testimony of her personal gift to Him alone. Thus perfect chastity or virginity is not only the integrity and purity of body and soul; nor is it merely the renunciation of that aspect of the woman's make-up which gives to her human existence a deep and ex-pansive satisfaction; namely, conjugal love, wifehood, and motherhood. No, it is first and foremost a offering that is most acceptable to God. For the victims that are most acceptable to Him as we learn from revelation are those that are unblemished, undefiled, without stain. It was this thought that was often recalled by St. Ambrose in his preaching to the people of Milan: "You have heard, parents, that a virgin is a gift from God, the obla-tion of parents, the priesthood of ch~istity. She is a mother's victim by whose daily sacrifice the divine anger is appeased." =~ Even in the New Testament, then, per-haps even more so than in the Old, it is true to say that only on condition that pure and unblemished vic-tims be offered to God day and night can we expect that earth will be reconciled with its God. The virgin is there-fore a kind of sacramental continuation of the sacrifices and holocausts of the Old Law, and she is a sign and sacrament of the sacrificial offering of Christ to His Father and of the Church to Christ. She is one who has intentionally made her complete exodus or the total hand-ing over of herself to God. Perhaps it is because of this symbolism pointing to an interior reality that she, like Christ in reference to Mary, is begotten in the womb of a virgin, the Church, on the day of profession. Thus the holocaustal no~e involved in the voluntary acceptance of virginity is not so much negative (although this is surely there) as rather positive. It is the holocaust that is implied in the unconditional surrender, free, total, joyful without fear or torment, of one's person in loving return to God's love. By her consecrated chastity the religious belongs as totally to God as, indeed, more totally than, a wife to her husband. In the heart of the wife no other love can have as high a degree of intimacy = De virginibus, I, 7 (P.L., v. 16, col. 198). as that of her conjugal love; this is exclusive, that is, it excludes all love of the same degree or nature. And this same thing is true of virginal love also. This truth of virginity as contributing to one's holo-caustal offering or surrender to God was brought out rather beautifully by Plus XII in an addregs made to nursing sisters in 1957: It is a truth of faith that virginity is a higher state than married life because the virgin soul binds itself by the ties of complete and indissoluble love directly to God, or, more exactly, to the God-man, Christ Jesus. Actually, all that she has received from the divine goodness to be a wife and mother is offered up by her as a whole-burnt offering upon the altar of entire and perpetual renunciation. The virgin soul in order to be united to the heart of God, to love Him only, and to be loved by Him in return, does not advance toward Him by means of other hearts, nor does she long to converse with other creatures like herself. Nothing is allowed to intervene between herself and Jesus, no obstacle, no obstruction . Since you have been called by God through an ineffable design of His love to this state of predilec-tion, you ought to be in very deed what you are by right, whatever the sacrifice that may be required of you.~ Virginity Leads to the Perfection of Fruitfulness The end for which the vow of virginity is made or pronounced is the perfection of the Christian life, namely, divine love. This as we know has not only God for its object but our neighbor in and for God. Con-sequently, by the very fact that the virgin intends the perfection of divine love, she also intends this perfection according to its all-inclusive object. She embraces vir-ginity precisely in order to learn how to love and be allowed to love with a love that is much more embracing than that which is had by two persons related to each other in the state of marriage. The virgin's love is in-tended to assume the dimensions and depth of the love of Christ and that of the Church. It is much more universal and is given not to any limited number of persons or for time, but rather to many, even to all, and for eternity. This is not something that should appear so strange. For a natural desire implanted in us by the Creator is never left unfulfilled in anyone who is faithful to God's designs. And because it is part of our very nature to wish to communicate life as father or mother, God in calling the virgin to her vocation does not at all deprive her of this desire and innate yearning. Rather, He fulfills this in a most marvelous manner. I think that this truth can be seen in the case of the religious sister by likening her relationship with Christ to that which the Church enjoys =Address to Nursing Sisters, April 24, 1957; English translation, States o] Per]ecti6n, p. 288. ÷ ÷ ÷ lqrginity VOLUME 24, 1965 853 C. A. Schleck, C.S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 854 with Him in reference to her own virginal motherhood. This is presented rather beautifully in the liturgy of the Easter Vigil in the blessing of the baptismal font. As we know, the fathers often speak of the Church as being born from the pierced side of Christ on the cross, as proceed-ing from Him as life-giver, as the bearer of water and blood, which stand for baptism and the Eucharist. Thus the Church proceeds from Christ's side as bride and mother, as the new Eve coming from the side of the new Adam, joined to Him in His rising. And coming from Him she receives and communicates His life. She is flesh of His flesh and bone of His bone; she is His body-per-son in the most profound sense of this expression. Thus, it is always His life which she does and must communi-cate. It is this same Church which prays on. the night of the Easter Vigil that the Holy Spirit, the Spirit who proceeds from the risen Christ, by the secret infusion of His grace and light, might give to the font of baptism which is the virginal womb of the Church, the power to bring men to life in the risen Christ, that a generation of immortal and eternal children may rise from this spot-less womb, that she together with Christ through the power of His Spirit might beget the people of God. The Church that came into being on the cross is a mother: mother of the faithful, mother of those living the resurrection life. In God's plan Christ submitted to the sleep of death so that from the wound in His side the true mother of the living might be fashioned and formed. As our physical life is from Adam through Eve, so our resurrection life is derived from Christ, the new Adam, through the Church, the new Eve, our mother. This is the meaning of the action of the priest when in blessing the baptismal water, he dips the lighted candle (the sym-bol of the risen Christ) into the water. It symbolizes that Christ crucified and risen gives to the water the illuminating and life-giving power of the Spirit; it signi-fies that the baptismal font has become the immaculate womb of the Church, the bride of the risen Lord. Like Mary, she is intended to bear her children solely by and through the action of the Spirit of the risen Jesus. Something very similar is true in the case of the reli-gious sister also. That is why she is usually compared to Mary, the Virgin Mother, and to the Church, the im-maculate spouse of Christ. She is their sacrament or prolongation, if you will. Thus, virginity is a "yes" not only to being virgin-spouse, but also to being virgin-mother. The theme of virginity is allied to whatever is deepest in the human heart, and it lies at the .very genter of the Catholic Church. In consecrated virginity there is found one of those paradoxes so characteristic of the Christian life: "He who loses his life shall find it; if the grain of wheat dies, it brings forth much fruit."-°4 The role for which God has fashioned the woman, that of motherhood, is not only not annihilated through the perpetual practice of virginity, but it is brought to its highest and most perfect fulfillment and achievement-- because the virgin exercises her motherhood over a greater number of persons and with respect to the highest life possible for man, that of life in and with God. It is only in the virgin's conceptions that no sin is passed on to the offspring but only grace, only the life of God Himself, as is true of the conceptions of the Church herself. Hers then is a quasi-divine, maternity, something like that of Mary, and like that of the Church. The love which prompts virginity is not sterile; rather, it is essen-tially creative, because it is of the divine order. When the woman through her promise of virginity is assumed or elevated to this order, as the woman is elevated to the order of her husband through marriage, she is called 'to share most perfectly in the love of the God-man, in the creative activity of the God-man. Consequently, what she "creates," what she brings forth in and through her union with Him in virginity is divine or quasi-divine. We might say that it was the plan of God in the present economy of salvation to establish the communication of divine life upon virginity. For He Himself chose to become incarnate of a Virgin, He chose for His spouse a virgin without spot, and He manifested His special and preferential love for the virgin disciple St. John. More-over, we might note that in the course of history the strength and dynamism of the Church's life has usually been proportionate to the strength and vitality of the institution of virginity. Wheri that has suffered, so too has the life of the Church; and when this institution has been held in high esteem and flourished, so too has the dyhamic force of the Church. Seen in this light, then, the mystery of virginity in-cludes as one of its.highest perfections and its crowning glory, motherhood, such that the virgin who belongs to Christ can be likened to snow on a mountain top or peak whose purity and whiteness are constantly being supplied by an invisible divine activity from above and yet which is constantly melting under a warming action of God's love in order to bring life-giving water to refresh those living in the valleys below. It is in the institution of virginity where we find the highest activity and out-pouring of the woman's nature. There is something that is. put into her life which cannot" come from herself, the ability to give life, the ability to be mother. By the vow of virginity the virgin does sever herself from physi-cal procreation; but she does this only in order to be "~ Jn 12:24. Virginity . VOLUME 24, 1965 855 ÷ ÷ C. A. Schleck, C~S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 856 able to enter ever more fully and entirely into the spirit-ual procreation of human persons into the life of God. She achieves her motherhood by communicating faith and by engendering men in faith. Thus, while the woman's profession of perpetual chastity consecrates her to a life of perpetual virginity and physical barrenness, it also consecrates her and blesses her for a participation in the universal and immaculate motherhood of the Church throughout the entire world. Her procreative activity is not static; rather, it is dynamic and constant, occurring whenever she turns to Christ which is always and surrenders herself to His every need and request-- the poor, the neglected, the homeless, the sick, the unwed mother, the ignorant, the aged--wherever human need asks for a response. The woman who is called sister by all others is mother in the full sense of the word-~be-cause her every activity has become a form of motherhood nurturing Christ in those persons who form her family in God. Her loving care is for the holy children whom she has conceived by the action of the Holy Spirit; for them is the warmth of her loving concern and her maternal interest and love. To be pure and untouched and wholly belonging to God and yet to be mother is the unique marvel of the mother of God in the physical order and of the Church in the spiritual. But this lies also at the very heart of the vocation to virginity in the case of the woman. It is only in this way that she can continue in her own existence the function and role and mission and aposto-late of Mary and the Church--to teach the world that only a virginal motherhood is compatible with a divine motherhood. Consequently, the phrase which the Church in her liturgy applies to Mary type of the Church can also be applied to the consecrated virgin: "Having the honor of virginity, you also have the joy of mother-hood." 25 This does not mean that the life of perpetual virginity does not have its difficult moments when the person so committed feels the renunciation involved in giving up all hope to physical motherhood. But this is part of her God-given vocation. "He who wishes to follow me let him take up his cross and follow me." While the cross stands as a symbol of triumph it also stands as a sign of suffering and love. With her Lord the virgin has chosen suffering and silence and suffering in silence. For she knows that it is only at the foot of the cross that she, like Mary and like the Church, will be enlarged in heart and mind to mother the world for Christ and unto Christ. She freely and lovingly accepts the crucifixion Antiphon [or First Vespers of September 8. implied in her renunciation of motherhood so that she like the Lord can bear about in her body the death of Jesus, the death that works life in man. It is in the pain of renunciation that the ~;irgin begets her spiritual children. It is extremely important that the crises involved in this renunciation be faced before the commitment is made. For there are shadows in every life, in virginity or marriage to Christ as well as in marriage to man. As a matter of fact, the virgin may actually experience more depressed hours when life seems fruitless and empty than her married counterpart in the world. The basic need for maternal fulfillment will be felt. The reason for this is that the sexual instinct has not merely to be controlled and mastered; it must be made an integral part of the spiritual life. It is a mistake to think that the lofty ideal of spiritual motherhood can be achieved without travail and without periods of discouragement and disappointment. And it is characteristic at such times that renunciation seems overwhelmingly real, while fulfillment on a spiritual plane is so remote as to seem effectively non-existent. And then the virgin will be in-clined to think of the joys of family which she has re-nounced and may even be tempted to regret or seriously question her lifelong decision made previously. She should then recall that all motherhood, spiritual as well as, perhaps even more so than, physical, is achieved only through suffering. Thus, her renunciation of physical motherhood is not something that she does once and for all by means of some formal resolve. She must constantly renew this commitment and gradually impress upon all the various levels of her personality her faith conviction in her spiritual motherhood in and through her union with Christ. It is only in this way that she can experience a sense of fulfillment that will parallel the fact of fulfill-ment with reference to this basic and natural need of woman. The proper attitude of mind is so important. For the way a virgin thinks about her life will determine to a great extent how successfully she lives it. Thus, sex iden-tification before embracing the life of virginity is essen-tial. For the sex role of the woman who dedicates her person to Christ is quite different from that of the woman who marries and bears children or that of the woman who anticipates doing these things. The virgin must accustom herself to think differently from the lay woman; and yet she must accept herself as a woman, as one having in God's plan who made her a woman, a definite sex role to play. She renounces the expression of sex on the natural plane, but she does not and cannot renounce her womanhood and consequently the fulfillment of her sexual role. In her sex is supernaturalized and eschatol-÷ ,4- 4- Virginity VOLUME 24, 1965 85'7 C. A. $chlech; C.S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 858 ogized, not excluded. Thus it is very important for her never to renounce her womanhood even subconsciously but rather to think often of herself as spouse and mother on the supernatural plane. The invitation to virginity is not simply nor primarily an invitation to a life of re-nunciation. It is rather an invitation to a life of unioa with Christ, a union which is spousal and maternal. The virgin can achieve her womanly fulfillment only if she succeeds in living this life in union with Christ. Once she realizes this truth and lives it and loves it, her life, like that of the Church after the Easter Vigil and that of Mary after the Resurrection, will become a quiet Alleluia, a gentle song of joy which meets the rise of day in the suffering night which we call time. Like the woman of the Apocalypse she will stand as a sign in the heavens, above the changing vicissitudes of time represented by the moon, and yet still in some way undergoing the pains of childbirth3G For the virgin of the New Testament like. the bride of the Canticle must still seek her Beloved and find Him in the night of faith.'-'7 Thus, while virginity is often associated with impo-tdnce and sterility, it is in reality associated with omnipo-tence and fruitfulness. It enriches the woman's capacity for love and for motherhood rather than diminishes it. There is a virginity about God the Father and God the Son and God the Holy Spirit. Never is man more manly nor woman more womanly than when he or she gives his or her virginity to God. I think that it is true to say that behind each of the active and contemplative religious women of the world there ought to be one single inspiration--the maternal love of the Mother of God for Christ and that of the Church for the Lord and for His Mystical Body. It is only where this spiritual reality truly shines forth in a religious sister that her vocation will become ti'uly attractive and serve to correct so many of the aber-rations'and sins which are part and parcel of modern life. For her fruitfulness is unlimited. It is as radiance emanat-ing" from her person, and those who app~'oach her will be embalmed with what Paul has called the sweet fra-grance of Christ.2s There will be always a kind of divine force that will ~o out from her to touch souls and to make them show forth the glory of her Spouse. From what we have just seen regarding the aims of virginity, it should be quite clear that virginity does have a very profound apostolic dimension. It is quite definitely ecclesial or Church orientated. It is extremely important that there exist within the Church as a service and Ap 12:1-4. Cant 3. ~s 2 Cor 2:15. mission or apostolate to it the profound and total con-secration of one who renounces all else so that she may know Christ and the power of His resurrection.29 Far from being out of commission or decommissioned, the virgin, by her consecration alone, without any added work of charity, is taken from the ranks of the faith-ful and commissioned for another task which has a profonnd ecclesial perspective. It is extremely important that she be convinced of this unwaveringly, since it will be very helpful in the resolution of the conflicts that she will often experience between her professional and re-ligious duties and obligations. Moreover, from a scriptural point of view virginity is undertaken or embraced by one as a special giving of oneself to the kingdom on God on earth as well as in heaven. It is seen to be a close personal bond with the Lord in apostolic service to the Church, such that the personal bond with Christ is seen also as a more intense bond of service toward the community of the brethren. Thus the woman whose capacity and forces are unfet-tered by the duties of generation remains totally free for the communication of the Father's love and totally free to be a sacrament of grace. It is not at all accidental that charitable works in the Church have been and are still being performed by virgins consecrated to God. For the personal bond with Christ develops of its own accord into brotherly love. And in this way also does the life of virginity fulfill a social mission with regard to the Church and especially with regard to married life: the virgin points out in her very existence the very heart of married life--the two-in-oneness opening up into dis-interested selLgiving. She has become one with Christ for the purpose of giving her entire life to His service as well as to that of the Church, His spouse. It is in this way that she proclaims not only that she wishes to see God but also that she is preeminently a daughter of the Church.a0 How simply all this has been stated by the fathers of the Second Vatican Council in the Constitution on the Church: Through the vows (or other sacred commitments similar in their own nature to vows) by which he obliges himself to the three evangelical counsels already mentioned, a member of the faithful is totally dedicated to God loved above all things with the result that he is destined to the service and honor of God by a new and special title. It is true that by baptism he is dead to sin and consecrated to God; however, in order that 'he might derive greater fruit from his baptismal grace, he decides to free himself by his profession in the Church of the evangelical ~ Phil 3:10. ~0See E. Schillebeeckx, O.P., "Priesthood and Celibacy," Herde~" Correspondence, v. 1 (1964), pp. 266-70. + + + Virginity VOLUME 24, 1965 859 ÷ ÷ C,. A. Schleck, .$. . REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS counsels from the impediments which might keep him from the fervorof charity and from giving God a perfect worship; and he consecrates himself in a more intimate way to the divine service. This consecration will be the more perfect in propor-tion as stronger and more stable bonds provide a better rep-resentation of Christ who is joined to His Bride the Church by an indissoluble bond. Since the evangelical counsels, by reason of the charity to which they lead, unite those who take them to the Church and her mystery in a special way, the spiritual life of those taking them should be consecrated also to the good of the entire Church. Hence there arises the duty of labor--in accord with their capacities and the nature of their vocation and either through prayer or active work--to enroot and strengthen the kingdom of Christ in souls and to spread it everywhere. It is for this reason that the Church preserves and fosters the character-istic nature of her various rehgious institutes. Accordingly, the profession of the evangelical counsels ap-pears as a sign which can and should effectively influence all the members of the Church to be unwearied in carrying out the duties of their Christian vocatior~. Since the People of God do not have a lasting city here below but are seeking the one that is to come, the religious state, by giving to its members greater freedom from earthly concerns, also gives to all the faithful a greater manifestation of the heavenly goods already present in this world, not only witnessing to the new and eternal life won by Christ's redemption but also prefiguring the resurrection that is to come and the glory of the heavenly kingdom . Finally, in a special way it clearly points out the preeminence of the kingdom of God over all earthly things as well as the supreme imperatives it entails; and it shows to all men the supereminent greatness of the strength of Christ the King and the infinite power of the Holy Spirit that is at work in the Church in so wonderful a way.~ Finally, one other apostolic service which virginity serves to keep before us is the dignity and value of the human person. Like the solitary flower of the mountains far up at the fringe of the snow line, like the unap-proachable beauty of the poles and the deserts of the earth that remain forever useless for the service and purposes of man, the virgin proclaims that the creature has significance but only as a glow from the eternal ra-diance and purity of the Creator. Her inviolability which if it be purity always includes pain denotes a sacrifice that is the price for insight into the immortal dignity and value of the human person. The contemplative life which regarded from a religious angle gives service in evidencing man's final destiny in God, when humanly considered, means for the most part a lack of fulfillment. So too, the virgin by calling forth a complete release from every visible womanly fulfillment enables us to catch sight of the ultimate, the transcedental meaning of the human person. If it belongs to the mother to transmit man's history-making capabilities into a given generation,' sl Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Chapter 6, paragraph 44; English translation, REVIEW fOR RELXG~OUS, V. 24 (1965), pp. 714--5. it belongs to the virgin to guarantee these capabilities of man as a person, to point to the "sublime significance and meaning and value of the individual person. In this way, the virgin is also mother. For her very virginity ren-ders a service to the race and communicates something extremely vital and important to the generation in which she lives. The Fruits o[ Virginity Virginity might be considered to be a special charism of the new covenant, just as is the visible activity of the Spirit of God, the Person of Love in the Trinity. And it points tangibly and constantly and. visibly to the superi-ority of the law of Christ over the old law. For the law of Christ is not written on tablets of stone but rather on the hearts of those who believe, who commit their persons totally to the demands of Christ. It is the law of the Spirit, breathing where He wills; it is the law of generos-ity, one that imitates and reflects that of Him who gave birth to the Church in the act of His complete surrender, His exodus to the Father. Virginity is an act of [aith in the significance of the paschal mystery which is the beginning of end-time for humanity. It is an act o~ hope because it can be undertaken only at the invitation of the Lord upon whose strength and assistance those whose hearts have been made large enough for this gift depend. But it is above all an act o~ love, because it indicates a preference of love for a Person or Persons who alone can fulfill the depths of the human heart's desire to love and to be loved. Thus love is perhaps the outstanding fruit which comes as a result of fidelity to virginity. The more pure a religious is in her life, the more faithful she is to Christ, the more clearly will He unite Himself to her in love. The reason for this is in reality quite simple. The more we think about a person, the more we begin to love him if he has attractive qualities. Since virginity is embraced precisely in order that one might think about the Lord, as Paul says, the more ought the virgin to love the person of the Lord, to possess Him and to be possessed by Him even though this be in the darkness of faith. Thus virginity by its very tende.ntial nature, is meant to bring about the fullness of divine love or charity. It is in this way that its observance enters into the theological order of things. Just as poverty, as we saw, was ultimately or-dered to the perfection and development of the virtue of hope, so too, the observance of virginity is ultimately ordered to the growth and increase of charity, thereby making its unique contribution to the trinification of the human person through faith, hope, and charity. It is in this way that the very nature of woman which is love (a personification of the essential and proper note of 4- 4- Virginity VOLUME 24, 1965 86! C. A. $¢hleck, C.S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 862 the Third Person of the Blessed Trinity) finds its most perfect flowering in the institution of virginity. As the virgin grows in love for Christ, her heart and her mater-nal dimensions will open and widen more and more; [or she will see more and more that her home is God, her children the world, and her possession and being pos-sessed personally, the peace of willing and complete sacrifice. In addition to this growth in charity through vir-ginity, several of the gifts of the Holy Spirit are also per-fected and made more operative in the spiritual life of the virgin. The first of these is the gift of understanding. The connection between virginity and this gift is indi-cated by St. Thomas when he remarks: "Pleasure fixes one's attention on that in which he takes pleasure. Thus, indulgence in the pleasures of the body causes one's attention to be firmly fixed on carnal things, thereby weakening his opera,tion in regard to intelligible things. The observance of chastity disposes a person quite well for intellectual operation." as The very nature of woman as we mentioned in the first of these articles includes the gift of intuition. And that is exactly the kind of knowledge that is given to one in and through the activity of the gift of understanding. In the case of men where we find logical operation predominating, we also find rather predominant the gifts of the Holy Spirit that are connected with reason. In the case of woman, how-ever, who is more intuitive, more spontaneous, and more instinctive by nature, we find the gift which corresponds more to instinct and feeling. It seems only logical to suppose that God would reveal Himself to woman in a way proportionate to her sex as a God sensible to the heart. Since the gift of understanding is closely con-nected with intuition, it would seem that woman pre-sents to the Holy Spirit a more connatural subject for His activity in relation to this particular gift. Was this not perhaps what our Lord meant when He said: "Blessed are the clean of heart, for they shall see God"? 8s Still another gift of the Holy Spirit that is deepened and made more operative through the practice of vir-ginity is that of wisdom. The more closely united to one another two persons are, the more intimately do they exchange the innermost secrets of their hearts; they do not consider they are revealing these so much to another person as rather to their other half. Consequently, it would seem that virginity, because it involves the perfec-. tion of love and the centering of one's entire affective life on God, opens up to the person making this com- ~ 2-2, q.15, a.3. ** Mt 5:8. mitment an availability for the knowledge-communica-tion of the Holy Spirit that comes through love. This is the function of the gift of wisdom--to dispose one for connatural affective knowledge. It is by the presence of this gift in her heart that the virgin can voyage far and wide into that world which for the majority of others lies far beyond the present one. And it is only on con-dition that she herself make this journey and make it often that she can truly return bringing back something of what she herself has tasted and seen. Finally, another effect or fruit deriving from the prac-tice of virginity is the increasing possession of something like or similar to the grace of Mary's Immaculate Con-ception. One of the purposes of the grace which is given to one consecrating her virginity to God is to establish a stance with regard to purity and the complete emancipa-tion from sin which this implies and also with regard to a certain fullness of grace, at least by way of availabil-ity. When God loves someone He pours or infuses into her a share of His own goodness and perfection. Since He loves the one whom He calls to virginity with a special love, it would seem that He makes available for her a rather special grace-communication. Just as Mary be-came filled with grace and communicative of it through the grace of her Immaculate Conception, so too the vir-gin's call by God is meant to communicate to her some-thing of this same gift; that is, a fullness of grace with respect to emancipation from sin and to mastery over sinful tendencies and with respect to gr~ice-communica-tion or to being a sacrament of grace. Like Mary she is meant to be pure and communicative of grace. Practical Suggestions With all this before you, Mothers, you might be wondering what practical steps you can take in order to educate your religious to an understanding of the vow and consecration of virginity. Without pretending to present any sort of exhaustive list of suggestions the following might serve to point out some areas where a start could be made. 1. Part of virginity as we mentioned above consists in the renunciation of the goods of marriage--the physi-cal, the physiological, the psychological, the emotional, the genital, and the spiritual values that are involved in wifehood and motherhood. Consequently, these things should be recognized positively and specifically for what they are. I might suggest that sometime before the novi-tiate all candidates have had a course in marriage; that is, the normal and complete course that would be given in the ordinary girls' high school. This should include or be completed by a course in anatomy and human physiol-÷ ÷ ÷ Virginity VOLUME 24, 1965 863 ÷ ÷ ÷ C. A. Schleck, C.S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 864 ogy as well as biology. Many o[ your candidates already have these when they come to you, but it should be made a mandatory thing for all seeking entrance to the novi-tiate. I do not mean of course that you are going to leave the matter at this. In juxtaposition to the course on marriage the lif~ of virginity and the values involved in it should also be explained, not as fully as in the novitiate and the later years of formation, perhaps, but in such a way that the excellence of virginity over marriage (ob- ¯ jectively speaking, o[ course, not subjectively) might be grasped. In the educ~ition to chastity two things are to be stressed: (1) the presentation of virginity in such a way that it be seen as perfectly capable of fulfilling the highest aspirations of the woman; (2) the establishing within this way of life, embracing as it does one's whole being and person, body, soul, emotions, and spiritual powers, nature and grace, such order that each element will fit into its proper place. The reason for this rather thorough education is quite simple. Consecrated virginity is a supernatural reality, but it must be lived in the reality of human conditions. In its profound ideal, it involves a person in her en-tire or complete being. It is the whole being, the total woman that is voluntarily handed over to Christ and to His transforming love. Such an act of surrender presup-poses that the person making it has full knowledge of herself. A woman is not really committed until she gives her whole person, for the love gift which is proper to virginity must be expressed within the framework of a body-soul composite wherein the body also becomes a means of expressing the love that is entailed in the con-secration. During the period of formation, postulancy, and novitiate, the candidate should be informed especially about the conditions that are required for the growth and development of religious chastity. Thus, the physical conditions should be explained; that is, the normal conformation of the sexual organs. Otherwise there is the risk that organic disturbances would complicate or render the problem of chastity more difficult or that psycholog-ical disturbances would arise from a sexual malforma-tion that is not properly grasped for what it is. Again the psychological conditions required for growth in chastity must be explained. She must be informed of the meaning of sexual continence and of the risks that are inherent in it. This education mnst not be merely cere-bral, so to speak, reaching only the mind of the candidate. It should be aimed at forming the entire person, intel-lect, will, imagination, heart, emotions, bodily reactions. She must accept sexual reality as an adult, without fear or shame or disgust. And she must accept and consent to virginity and all that this implies on all levels of her personality, if she is to make profession, and she must do this freely, totally, joyfully, and forever, at least inten-tionally. She must also have explained to her the spiritual conditions necessary for religious chastity to take root and develop; that is, the mystery of consecrated virginity or chastity, the mystery of the Church, and the relationship between the consecrated virgin and the Church. This training would also include certain theological attitudes or stances--of perpetual chastity as an act Ofo free and voluntary charity or love, implying an exclusive intimacy with Christ and leading to a spiritual motherhood. Again during this same period of formation the can-didate must be educated to respect certain things that are involved in her consecration. First, she must be taught to respect the being of man and the being of woman. Vir-ginity is not lived nor expressed in the same way by man as by woman. It is most important that in regard to chastity each retain the character of his or her own sex. From the very beginning of the Church as we men-tioned above there has always been in the Church a special relationship between virginity and woman. It is woman who is bride; it is woman who possesses a cer-tain delicacy of attitude toward the Lord; it is woman who possesses naturally and to a greater degree the self-giving generosity, and the joyful devotion in sacrifice that is involved in virginity. In fact, men draw their inspira-tion in reference to the delicacy involved in virginal con-secration from women. Thus, this education to respect must start with what man, and woman really are and it should leave intact what they are. Second, she must be taught that she has to respect her own development. Every person has an age, often two of them, the ap-parent age--the physical age, and the real age. So often a young woman of 18 or 19 seems to be far in advance of her counterpart of twenty years ago; and she is per-haps intellectually. But it does not at all follow that because she has seen or heard so many things that her counterpart saw or heard only at a much later age, that she is thereby formed or matured. In reality the real age of such a person, at least emotionally, is often closer to 14 or 15, since the social structure in which we live gives birth to what might be called for want of a better term, emotional retardation. Thus it may happen that such persons will undergo emotional crises proper to adoles-cents at a much later date than was considered normal a decade or so ago. And it is at these moments that they will seem to be and are at sea as an adolescent normally would be. It is not only the supernatural which they need at these moments; they have to learn to accept and humbly bow to a certain number of conditions, feelings, + ÷ ÷ Virginity VOLUME 24, 1965 865 ÷ ÷ ÷ .4. $chteck, .$.(2. REVIEV~ FOR RELIGIOUS 866 reactions, and transitions which are natural and normal to persons of what we called above their real age. And finally, they must be taught to respect their own personal history. Before one is capable of free and voluntary acts she is already determined to a certain degree, according to many modern psychologists. She has her heredity, her background, her temperament, and her childhood ex-periences. Her freedom does not consist in trying to repudiate all this, or change it, or wipe out the past, or start from the beginning. This is impossible. She must accept the fact that she enters the religious life with what she is, with what she has, and with what she has done, and with what has happened to her. It does her no good to run away from all this, or to pretend that it has never happened. No, the very first act of her liberty or freedom should be to know herself and to accept herself for what she is in reality, and again, at all levels of her personality. This acceptance is absolutely ]undamental in the matter of chastity. If she does not consciously accept this, she runs the risk of building her religious life on a falsehood, on an impossible ideal for her own person, on a vain hope of some spiritual existence that is totally ephemeral. And sooner or later this will most likely bring on a psychologically disturbed climate rendering the life of perpetual chastity difficult if not unbearable. And the religious herself would most probably be un-aware of the possible causes of her disturbances.~4 Thus because of a failure to accept one's history and sex certain spontaneous though involuntary reactions in the genital and emotional spheres could ,easily cause anxiety. They could seem to be intrinsically evil rather than natural and normal given her personal history, and she might at-tempt to oppose them by trying to drive them out of the field of consciousness. This constant action on her part could create a psychic tension that would prove to be rather favorable as a climate for the appearance of some kind of neurosis in the future. By dint of repressing her sexuality or of allowing it to infiltrate illicitly into her daily activities, the religious woman who would not have resolved or faced up to the frustrations which she ex-periences in the genital and emotional spheres of her personality could very easily become the victim of some psychic disorder requiring the intervention of a com-petent psychiatrist. Moreover, she would probably risk seeking uncon-sciously and by rather devious ways the satisfaction of these sexual impulses which would be disguised perhaps under the appearance of genuine and apostolic and there-fore acceptable "involvements." And she would perhaps, refer the reader to what was said in footnote 10 above. without even being aware of it, permit the establishment within her person of a rather unhealthy psychological and affective climate wherein a disturbed sentimentality would evoke images and arouse desires of a partly dis-guised sexual nature and import. In such a person, an exclusive friendship would find a rather favorable and fertile field for inception and growth. Finally, during these years there should be a thorough education in regard to modesty and all that this means, the necessary duty flowing from the virgin's commitment to Christ, of guarding her human affection and of using it properly, of regulating the use and non-use of her senses especially through recollection and custody of the eyes. The training of the affections both as to use and re-straint is most essential. Previous to a short time ago, perhaps the emphasis was somewhat one-sided--the re-straint of the use of the senses. Perhaps this very neces-sary aspect of modesty can be balanced with a more positive phase: the various uses and ways in which their love (which must be personal and directed to a person) is to be used. However, they are also to be reminded that their sacramental mission and service to the Church will always demand a much greater restraint in regard to the use of their senses, especially the eyes, than their secular counterpart. Religious always have the added mis-sion of proclaiming visibly the Christian truth that we have not here a lasting city. Their very religious vocation demands the renunciation of certain values perfectly legitimate for the secular. As the Constitution on the Church has it: Furthermore, all should clearly realize that the profession of the evangelical counsels, though it involves the renunciation of values which without any doubt are of great worth, neverthe-less does not prevent a true development of the human person but by its very nature makes a very great contribution to that development. For the counsels, freely undertaken according to the individual's personal vocation, are a great help to purifica-tion of heart and to spiritual liberty; they constantly enkindle the fervor of charity; above all, as is shown by the example of so many holy founders, they are able to give the Christian a greater conformation to the type of virginal and poor life which Christ the Lord chose for Himself and which His Virgin Mother embraced. Nor should anyone judge that by their consecration religious alienate themselves from men or become useless as far as earthly society is concerned. For even if in some cases religious do not directly associate with their contemporaries, still in a deeper sense they are present to them in the Heart of Christ and work with them in a spiritual way so that the building up of earthly society may always be based on the Lord and orientated toward Him lest those who build this society should labor in vain.~ ~ Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Chapter 6, paragraph 46; English translation, REWEW FOR I~Lt¢~OUS, V. 24 (1965), pp. 716-7. VOLUME 24, 1965 867 + REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 868 It is absolutely essential that you recall this to your religious from the very first days of their training. For we are living in the days of a return of humanism in which as the same Constitution on the Church mentions "the faithful must learn the deepest meaning and the value of all creation." s0 But we must not forget ours must be a Christian humanism--one that is not free to arbitrarily choose between the mysticism of the cross and the mysticism of the resurrection. Moreover, ours is a human-ism that is proper to religious, that is, one that renounces and voluntarily so (otherwise hostility to this renuncia-tion will be the result) certain values for some other service to the people of God. The recent letter of Pope Paul VI to all religious rather clearly pointed this out: With singular care religious should preserve chastity as a treasured gem. Everyone knows that in the present condition of human society the practice of perfect chastity is made difficult, not only because of the prevalence of depraved morality but also on account of the false teachings which glamorize excessively the merely natural condition of man, thereby pouring poison into his soul. An awareness of these facts should impel religious to stir up their faith more energetically--that same faith by "which we believe the declarations of Christ when He proclaims the supernatural value of chastity that is sought for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. It is this same faith which assures us beyond doubt that, with the help of divine grace, we can preserve unsullied the flower of chastity. To obtain this blessed objective it is, of course, necessary to practice Christian mortification with more courageous zeal, and also to guard the senses with more diligent care. Therefore, the life of the religious should find no place for books, periodicals, or shows which are unbecoming or indecent, not even under the pretext of a desire to learn things useful to know or to broaden one's education, except possibly in the case, duly ascer-tained by the religious superior, where there is proven necessity for the study of such things. In a world pervaded by so many sordid forms of vice, no one can adequately reckon the powerful effectiveness of the sacred ministry of one whose life is radiant with the light of chastity consecrated to God and from which he draws his strength?' In regard to this education in modesty, we should not forget that education in chastity includes an education in the over-all significance of temperance. Thus all the virtues which share in the spirit of temperance should also receive attention in the formation to religious chastity, for example, clemency, kindness, moderation, humility, studiousness, moderation in gestures and dress. This education in the early formation is necessary for two reasons. First, there is no greater danger to the perseverance in perpetual chastity than ignorance of ~ Dogtnatic Constitution on the Church, Chapter 4, paragraph 36; English translation, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, V. 24 (1965), pp. 704-5. arAddress on Religious LiIe, May 23, 1964; English translation, REVIEW fOR RELIGIOUS, V. 23 (1964), p. 701. what it involves. Knowledge of what one is, of what one is giving up, and of what one is positively embracing is the greatest preventive of future disappointments. Sec-ond, the more a girl sees the excellence and beauty of virginity, and the more she sees that its negative implica-tions have not been hidden from her, and the more she sees that the beauty of marriage has not been cloaked over, the more will she begin to love the special grace which God has given her in calling her to the religious vocation and the more gratitude will she have toward the community's openness with her, and the more free and entire will be her response to the values as well as the difficulties involved in her vocation. 2. The knowledge given during these early years of formation will not and cannot and should not necessarily be exhaustive; nor will the young candidate under-stand everything that may be given. Consequently, this education and training in chastity is something that must be developed through the next years of formation espe-cially but also even throughout the entire course of the religious life. This can be done through conferences, through private and guided reading, through discus-sions, and through the formal courses in theology espe-cially those treating of marriage and the states of life. During the years of the juniorate and the summer pre-ceeding perpetual profession, and again during the spirit-ual renewal, a very frank treatment of the crises, emo-tional and physical, which the religious woman will undergo at certain ages should be clearly pointed out to them. Thus, often today because of the emotional retarda-tion of society as a whole, there is the crisis of high adolescence occuring in the late twenties. At this time very strong desires for physical union with man and for motherhood can be felt rather intensely. There is also a rather profound psychological crisis through which a religious sister passes in her thirties. At this time she generally experiences a certain boredom with the re-ligious life and vocation. It no longer seems to satisfy her emotionally, nor does it seem to be producing the womanly fulfillment that she had expected when em-bracing this way of life; hence she experiences a certain frustration. Moreover, at this time she becomes much more deeply aware of her own personal capabilities and begins to resent the restrictions of the religious life claim-ing that they reduce her to the level of a child; hence she seems to need more independence. This state brought on often by the psychological or emotional change (a kind of a drying up in this area) through which she is pass-ing can very easily induce problems in regard to obedi-ence and authority (especially if her predominant in-÷ ÷ ÷ VOLUME 24, 1965 869 C. A. Schteck, C.$.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS clination is toward independence) and/or in regard to sensuality (especially if her predominant inclination or need lies in this direction). As a result she often tends to seek compensations for these situations: criticism of authority, the circumvention of authority in regard to permissions, the maintenance of rather odd or haughty positions on questions of discussion, or the forming of very close friendships, tending to the exclusive side, or deep involvement with the personal problems of students or patients, or romantic day-dreaming or solitary sin--in brief, the usual compensations a human being seeks when the burden of obedience and chastity is really brought home. These compensations can take and very often do take the form of less harmful involvements: an exaggerated interest in sports, or in music or other forms of culture, or an over-immersion in one's pro-fessional work, and so forth. Regardless of what form this compensationalism takes, it is a running away from an unpleasant experience rather than a facing up to it and a deriving from it what God intends it to pro-duce-- a deepening of one's commitment to Him. This transition period should serve to make the woman's service and commitment and love go to deeper levels of her personality so that it becomes more deeply human, more spiritual, and less dependent on emotional satisfac-tion than was true earlier in her religious life. It is a kind of a "dark night" if you will; but one intended to pro-dt~ ce the same result as the one spoken of by St. John of the Cross, namely, a more profound and ultimately a more peace-communicating union with Christ. It is not something to be feared, but rather looked forward to since it is an invitation on the part of God who created our nature to advance one step further in the maturation process of the human person. Far from destroying per-sonal fulfillment, it makes it more available. Again it is another instance in which the application of Christ's words are so true: Unless the grain of wheat die and fall into the ground, it remains alone; but if it dies, it will produce much fruit. Again there is the crisis of the menopause years which brings on, generally speaking, rather profound emotional changes and" disturbances. It often produces a revival of almost adolescent urges and feelings and impulses of a sensual and sentimental nature, quite humbling to say the least. Very often this transition period in the woman's life brought on by a profound transformation of her organism brings on a loneliness and a deep feeling of uselessness brought on by the loss of what she has come to identify with the very essence of womanliness--regular ovulation and the ability to bear children. At this time, too, just as was true in the above transition period, the religious sister can run away from her predicament rather than face up to it and even embrace it with eagerness, since this transition too is provided for by God Him-self, the author of her nature, and is an invitation from Him to advance another step forward in the overall matu-ration process of the human person in its feminine expres-sion. Far from destroying or annihilating her femininity, this transition is intended to expend its activity, making the woman more available for society, more capable of bringing to its service the wealth of her emotional and spiritual qualities enriched by the maturation of her personal experience, and possessing the peace and calm and serenity that are so necessary to give a more balanced direction to its many needs. The experience of these transitions is, of course, unique for each woman; but a knowledge of it and

Issue 3.4 of the Review for Religious, 1944. ; JuLY I5, 1944.3 " De,~;o}ion to~fh~ .Pr~cibus BIood"~ : . . Franclsk. .F.i.l.as E)owr) of Religious Women ,. ¯ .,. ¯ ; . ¯ Adam C. Ellis ",,Sabred, HearfPi~ogram, ¯ ¯ ,. ¯ : ¯ ." ¯ App~ar=f=ons, af Faf=m ¯ ' ;William A. ~Donaghy Worthmessm. Frequenf Communion . ,. Communicatior~s Bo"o ~ks R ~evieWed -Ou'es fi6nsA n~s weecrJ~ '" ~ ' De s~ ioins of-÷~h e H~)¯I S e ye " " NUMBER :.4 VOLU~E III. ° JULy .15, 1944 ~" NUMBER,~ CONTENTS ' . :THE DEVOTION TO THE PRECIOUS~ BLOOD~Fran¢is L. Filas,, S J. BOOKS RECEIVED ~ , ~ ¯ ' ¯ . t . "' . " 223 THE DOWRY OF RELIGIOUS W, OMEN--Adam C.'Ellis, S.J. . .' . 224 THE¯ SACR.I~D HEAI~T PROGRAM~-Eugene PM'. urphy, S.J . 240 "~HE. APPARITIONS AT FATIMA.---William A. Donaghy, S.J. '~ 245 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . . ., . - ~ . t 251 SAFEGUARDING WORTHY RECEPTION IN THE PRACTICe" OF FREQUENT COMMUNION l~mile Bergh, ~.d. 552 DECISIONS OF TI-iE HOLY SEE OF INTEREST TO RELIGIOU2.S68 : COMMUNICATIONS (On' Retreats) . "270 UNIFORM VERSION OF MASS ! "" 274 .;~BOOK REVIEWS (Edited by Clement DeMuth,"S.J,)-- Origen, His Life at Alex_andria; National Patriotism in Papal Teaching: ¯ Letters to. Persons in R,eligion:~ La Charte du Royaume Cr~tien; James . , Laynez, J~suit;\The, Christ: the Son of God: All for Jesus ' 27~5- "QIJESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- ' . 27. Portiuncula Indulgence-in Convent Chapels : ¯ ¯ . . 280 ~ 28. Mort;q-Sin against Justice and P,o~erty .~ 282- '.2 2 Superior's Power to Give Himself Permissions¯ ,. ¯ .' ¯ ¯ -i ~ ~: Z- -*; - , ' ,. _ REV, IEW FOR RELI.GIOUS. July. 194:4. Vol. III, No. 4-Published bi-monthly: _ January, March, May, July, September,. and November at the College "Press: 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's'College, St., MarTs, Kansas. ",~ith eccle'~iastical approbation. Entere~d as second class matter Januar:' 15; 1942. at the Post Office, To.pek,'a, 'Kansas, under the. a.ct of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. AugustineoEllard, S.3.Gerald ~Kelly,.~ "S.J.' Copyright, 1944, by Adam C. Ellis. Permission is'hereby granted for qubtltions of ~reasonable length, provided" due- credit be given this review and the author. Subscription, price:. 2 dollars ao yea/'. ~ o B'~fore writin9 to us, please consult notice on inside, back cover. Precious t~rancis L. Filas, iN ~-HE rich devotional !ire of the Church we are enc~ur- | ,_.,aged to honbr, our Lord s, sacred humanity under various aspects, gaining thereby a keener insigh.t into the.,attrac-,. °tire, compel!ing beauty of His character. All these-devo-tions that center ardund Christ hav~ the common aim of ?tr~n.gthening our lov~ and calling for our imitation, Most_ of them restrict themselves to a well-defined period or pliase of His life, such as the Holy Childhood, the Passion, or the Blessed' Sacrament, but this ordinary ~ule.does not hold.~ i~a the case-of the devotions to the Sadred Heart and to the Precious Blood. These two can be applied to any period_ or phrase, of' Christ's life~, ~¢hether on earth, in Heaven, or in the Holy Eucharist. What ~s ~he essence o]~ the devotion to the Preciou~ ,-~Blood?--The question does .not appear to be answered directlyqr~ any autho?itative document of the Church, but" we :can arrive at. a safe conclusi6"n by considering ~he' lan-guage of Holy Scripture, the liturgy, and the°decrees o1~ various popes. These .sources indicate that the devoti6r~ consistsbf the_.adoration of the blood of Christmas the sym- ,b~oI an_d particularly as the meang of our _~ed¢mption; th~ Precious-Blood is the spiritual drink which wins eve~lasting- ~life for our souls and° glorio~us resurrection ,for our bodies. " "~'hus, dfter the mirac-ulou~ feeding of tile'five thousand, des_us sa~d, "Amen, amen; I say to you, unless you e~t ihe flesh' of the.Son of Man and drifil~ His blood, yoff shall-not have life in you. He who eats" My flesh and drinks My blood has.life, everlasting, and I will raise,him' up on the l~is[ ~ ~-2"~ F~^NCIS L. FIL/~S - ,~ o" "t Review for~Retigiott~ o d~y" (John. 6:54-55)i'-; and at the~ Last-Supper J, esus sol-~ -. o~:'. _ .emnly. affirrned~ "This is My blood.of the new covenant.~. which is b.~i.ng shed for ;haany Unto the forgiv#nes-sLof sins'.' .~M;atthe-w 26:28) ,*-' i " St.~Peter's words are classic, "You know~that~ you ~. , were redeemed from the vain manner of life handed down ÷~ " from~your fathers~ not with perishable thing.s, w.ith silv~'~ or ~old, but with the ~precious blood of Chr!st, .as Of a lamb- -'~ .i-~ _witbdut blemish.and without .spot" (1 Peter 1:18-19). .Oo, in the AlSocalypse (5:9) one of th~ songs .of praise ~to. 0_ sthcreo Llla'amnbd otof oGpoedn bit,se gseinasls, ;" f.oWr-oTrhthoyu awrta sTt hsolaui nto'a t_ankd~- ht~het" - redeefiaed-us for God witl5" Thy blood.~' St.Pau! purst.~es ~- .o the :sime._t.l?ought in the epistl~ to the Ephesians~ (1:7): - "Iff Him we have~r&lemption through His blo0~, ~the " remission of sins,~ acci3~rding to the riches of His grace.7 Iia the lit~ur~y the prayer for, the feast:of (he Precibus Blood ~calls the blood of.the Redeemer the,~"price,-of dur sa_lvhti'on," .and the mehns by which God in His ju.stic_e "willed t~ accept'satisfaction." Moreover, at every Mass ('which-is, of course, the" renewal of th~ sacrifice of Cal.vary.):the .Church sets forth the Precious Blood for our adoratidn. In 1'34.3 Pope Cle~e~at VI. declared that .a singl~ ~drop~'- -:of'the Precioug Blood wourd have sufficed to ~redeem us. al[hough as a matter of fact Christ in His generosity willed ~.2_ to atone for our sins" not~.lSy this one_ drop aldne but by a ~- '.'eopi~us sheddihg of His blood.''1 Almost a hundred ~ years ago, when.Pius IX~ex~effded the.feast of the~Precious [- ~Blood to the-whole Church, he officially stated that "we -~ _have-been redeemed in the blood of-our Lord Jesus;Chris't . .'. which cleanse~us frpmMl,stain. Antiif in Egypt the :.~ ~'houSes that were sprinkled w.it~a the blood of a lamb were - ¯ savedfrom the wrath of God, how much more w:ill~those aBhll, Un)geni~us Dei ~Filius; DB 550. " 218" ~ -~-d-l~t, i~9~14~ "~ " THE DEVOTIOn'TO THE PRECIOUS BE~D ~ ~,persons. escape -that:wrath' "nay, they.will- 5e filled-with .~_ ~e~ and .gra~e ~wb~ ~enerate and adore the blood o~ our Savior ~ith ~peci~l devotibn.''~ Finaliy,.in 1934 a decree~ ~o~ PiusXI again set forth this same doctrine'in i~s re~erence ',~ to the "Precious Blood o~ Christ, ~by which we ,have been ~ed~emed."~ " ~ ~o appreciate the.devotion t~oroughly, we bugbt to :~' understafid the p~ihciples on which it is based. To begin with-a ~ndamental-idea, we adore the human Bature of our blessed Lord becauseit was assumed by the Second Per- ~_ son o~ the Blessed Trinity; for whatever belongs to a per- ¯ "- son ~ubstantially, deserves the same respect as is accorded to 'th~per~on. In this case-the Person is God; there~bre, the human n~ture which He took to Himsel~ shouI~ be adored. In bri~est compass, the man 3esus Christ is God. ,~ -': S~. Athanasius explains tBe matter in these.@ords: "By ~ no means do we adore a creature; this is an error o~,-tbe :~ ~. pagans-and the Arian .heretics. We adore the Lord o~ the creature,, the Word made flesh, for.although the flesh is o~ itse~ something created, it ha~-become the body of Go~d. "Who is so fbolish ,as to say to our Lord, 'Go out o~ Thy ~, body ip order that"I may adore T~ee'?"" .In honoring the Precious Blood .we honor Christ, for "" ~be'Precious'Blood is a p~rt of Hishuman nature. Here~ we follow a principle which i~ universally observed in -~daily life, "namely~ that "honor paid to a part o~a person '" "i~ paid to the person to whom the part belongs." When people shake hands in greeting each other, no, one ~upposes that the greeting is nbt from person to person simply because the hands alone express it;- Or in~ thetraditional "" example of the beggar who kisses the hand o~ his benefactor ~."A~thent. CollecL Decret. ~. R. C. n. 2978. xaAAS, 26, 560, 4Letter to ~Adelphius. n: 3: MPG 261 1073. 219 AlqCIS L'. FILAS ~ Revi2u~ f6r Religious it is clear that the" hand is~only thd instrument of the g~ne'r-o~ ity o~f the benefactorl In_a certain sefise (though in an~ 0 imrh'easurably superior degree and more excelIent ma.z~ner) - we honor the.preciou~s Blood just as W~ honor the fingers° of the virtuoso or the voice of the opera star. The Church'has always exercised great prudence qn ~guarding the orthodoxy and propriety of the devo6c~ns that center around our Lord: For example, in 182-g andl~ 18635 the Congregation of Sacred Rites declared that relics .tinge~ with the blood of Christ were not to be a-dqred as was.the Blessed Sacrament, nor w~re they to.be placed in the tabernacle" ~ith the Sacred Host; they were" to be~ granted only such veneration as is accord'ed::relics of tlae~ ~True Cross. This wise regulation was based oia the fact. that if the blood was ~ctually the blood shed~by our Lor~l " during the Passiog, its separate existence now merely pioved that it was not reassumed into the glorified body of Christ when He arose from the dead. In other words.it v)as no lbnger the b1'ood'of the living Savior. St. Thomas A~uinas proposes a.nother, possible reason in his, belief that "the blood which is preserved in ceitain churehes as a reli did not flow from the side of Christ,.but is said ,to have flowed miraculously °from some ima~ge~ of ,Christ.''~ Clearly, even blood from a-miraculou, sly bleeding :- image or Host cannot be the blood of the living 3esus, for-~ '~We know thatChrist, having risen from the dead, dies now no more, death shall nO longer have dominion over.'; Him" (Romans 6:9), and He can. no longer shed His~. blood. We posses, s the Precious Blood of'-the.living Chrisv only under the veils of the sacramental species. -~ " ¯ So rhuch for the theological¯ aspect of the devotion.~ His2 torically,' the lives7 6f the saints of all ages sho~ h~w 5Authent. Collect. Decret. 8. R. C., n. 2660 and n. 3176. OSurama Tobeologica, 3a, q.54. art. 2. 220 ~ / ~ J'ul~, 1944 THE DEVOTION TO TH~ PRECIOUS BLooD - deeply.th.ey reveri~d ~th~'blood shed for our redemption. During the early sevehteenth century confraternities were ojganized in Spain whose purpose W~;s to venerate~ the Pre-~ cious Blood. Th2e forerunner of the present Archc6nfra-ternity Of the Most Precious Blood was established in-1"808 '- y Msgr. Albertini; a priest ~of Rome. Its members were to meditate Often on the Passion and w, ere to offer the Precious Blood to God for atonement and for the dire needs of the times. "Plus VII raised it to the rank of arcbconfrat~erfi'ity in 1815. In 1850 an English branch was erected: in the London Oratory, and it was in commemoration of the tenth ,anniversary of this in, troduction in[o.London that Father° Frederick Faber wrote his choice work, The Precious Blood. For a full development of the place of the Precious Blood in our spiritual lif~ Father Faber's ~book can be consulted with grea~ profit. Various women's congiegations of the Precious Blood had their or.ig!n in the last century, but all of them are ante-dated by°the institute - oPredious Blood, founded by Blessed (3aspare del Bufalo in~ -18.15. The third superior-general of this institute,, Don Giovanni.M~rlini, ,was with Pius IX at the time of. his exile at Gaeta. He suggested to the Pope that the feast of the Pre~ious Blood be e~tended to the entire Church in order thalt God.might grant peace again t6 the papal-states. On the very day that Plus decided to take this step---June 30, 1849~--the insurgents in Rome s~rrendered. Grateful!y th~ Pope set the date of the feast on the next day, ~hich was the first Sunday of~ July, to be celebrated as a double ,of the second class. "£1uly 1st when th, e Breviary and Missal were reformed by Pius,X in 1913. In 1934 pius XI elevated it tS a rank of.~. double of the first class !n order to commemorate the nine-,,, ~Authent. Collect. Decret. 8. R. C. n. 2978. 221 te~nth,ce.ntenary of:our Redemption.~ Review /'or ReligiouS" Turning how to consider the place of th~ Pr?cious, Blbod in the contemplation c~f'Christ's life, we find that it ~bears uni~'ersal applic~ition. At Bethelehem we can: behold_~ the Infant in the manger, in whose veins flows the bliJod~ that v)ill one. day. redgem us on Calvary. At the Circum-cision we see the first shedding°of the Precious BlOod; Jesus - sub.mits to a law- for human° beings in order to be like us in' all things, sin alone excepted. Throfighout the Hidden and the Public Lif~ the Child and later the Man ~ontinues. to grow in the strerigth'and beauty which the Precious ~Blood nourishes iri His sac~ed body. ~ ~, In Gethsemani the prospect of. bearing'th4 weight'-,of. our iniq.uities-and of suffering in vain for so many men" ov~rcom~s~ur Lord. He voluntarily permits anguish and fear to seize Him to Such an extent that the Precious Blood-'- ;trickles in heavy drops, upon the ground. Durigg th~ S_courging,. the Crownin.g with Thorns, and the. three hours on ~he Cros.s,. He offers His blood in paying the price , for the sins of mankind. " Here there appears a striking characteristic of the devo-tion to the Precious Blood: it demonstrates the tremendoui realit~ of the Passion, the truth'that. Jesus actually did undergo suffering. For us the shedding of blood is an ffnpleasant sight, difficult to bear. We instinctively-stri~e to dismiss such a picture from our imagination; its pot- - trayal-o~ suffering is too vivid. But in the case of our Lord, ,-the sight of the shedding of the Precious Blood drives home the re.alization ~hat Jesus. bore actual disgrace and con.temp~ -and pain with utmost selflessness for love of us as iffdi-- v~duals, and we can more easily make our own the applica-~ tion of St. Paul, "He loved me and gave Himself up for me, (Galatians 2:20). 0 o'" - ~ Julg, 1944 THE 'DE~rOTION-TO¢THI~ #REcIous BLOOD" " .Y~et the Precious BlOod' is not~ connected sol~fy with tl4e PaSsion. "After the Resurrection it surges joyously through ~he "glorified body of Jesus, to show" us the ultimat~e tri-u, mph of Christ's cross and the ultimate triumph of our, cross when we ~carry it, united, to Him. Jesus is,glgrified in Heaven now, ,but on earth none the less we can daily receive Hi~.~Preci~us Blood in Holy Communion, for we .r~ceive Chri~st whole and entire, body and blood, soul rind.divinity, *par[aking of the pledge of eternal life th~it'draws u~ to'look_: forward to the day when the pilgrimage and time of trial will be o~er, and body will rejoin soul for a blessed eternity. \ "" Books Received ~ (From April 20 to June 20) .~ B. HERDER BOOK CO,, St. Louis. Origen: His ~Li[e at Alexandria. By Ren~ Cadiou. Translated by "John A~ ~South~well. $3.25. James La~mez: Jesuit. B~y theReverend Joseph H. Fich-ter, S.J. ~3.00. St. Dominic and His Work. By the Reverend Pierre Man-donner, O.P. Translated by Sister Mary Benedicta~ Larkin. O.P. $5.00. Paul of Tarsus. By theRight Reverend Joseph Holzner. Translated by the Reverend Frederic Eckhoff. $5.00. An l~troduction to Philosophy. By the Reverend Paul J, Glenn, Ph.D. S;T.D. $3'.00. _~THE NEWMAN BOOKSHOP, Westminster. Md. Letters to Persons in Religion. B'y St. Francis de Sales. Translated by the-, Reverend Henry Benedict Mackey, O.S.B. $2.75. The Eterf~al Priesthoo'd. BE Henry Edward Cardinal Manning. $1.50. All for Jesus. By the Rever-end Frederick William Faber, D.D. $2.50. Summarium Theologiae Moralis. " Auctore Ant6nio M. Arregui, S.J. $2.50. -ri~HE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, Milwaukee~ .M~ Father'~ Will. By the Reverend Francis J. McGarrigle, S.J., Ph.D. $2.75". LONGMANS, GREEN ~ CO., New York. The Christ: The Son of God. By the Abb~,Constant Fouard. $2.00. " FIDES, 3425, rue Saint-Denis, Montreal. La Charte du Rog~ume Chr~tien. Par le R~v~rend P~re A'drien Malo, O.F.M. :'223 The Dowry ot: Religious Women Adam C. Ellis, S.3. IN.T.HE middle ages monasteries of nuns were supported by income derived .from permanent revenues. At tha't time, when all Europe was Catholic, popes, kings, and princes, as well as other devout and wealthy C~ith01~cs, considered the foundation of'a monastery an act of r~l.igion as well as a privilege. .By a foian~lation they understood not only the building of the monastery, but also an endow-ment. This endowment consisted ot~ lands and other reyenues to pr.gvide foJ~ the temporal needs of kthe com-mu. ni.t~. ~'hus the nuns ~ould devote ~hemselves~exclusivel~r .to the l~ife of prayer and contemplation ,which was the main purpose of their life. In the .course of time, however, various difficulties ~rose. oSnomlye. afo sumndaaltli onnus mwebreer r eolfa tnivuenl-sy. sMm~olrle a fcfadn cdoiudlda tseus.p wp0errte ~recei'ired than tlSe ordinary resou'rces of the convent cbuld maintain. Then too, in the course of time some founda: tions diminished in value and became" insufficient to suppqrt the number.of nuns originally intended. Finally, the diffi-. cult times of.the reformation were not propitious to ~he founding~of new mQnasteries, and, of the ol}t'offes, many had to be closed, while others continued to exist-ofily destitfftion. -Th~se difficulties ,eventually had to be solved ¯ by the religious dgwry: Saint Charles Borrbmeo is usually considered~ to b_e the first author of an ecclesiastical law exacting a dowry from women who wished to enter religion'. The;legislation he enacted in the First and Second Prdvincial Councils :.dr -~ . THE DOWRY OF RELIGIOUS WOMEN Milan .(156~; 1569~ became the basis for later papa.l enactrfients which, in turn, have been mcorporated,-~wlth some modifications, into the'Code of Canon Law. Meaning ot: Dowrg By "dowry is. meant a definit~ sum 6f money,.or its ": equi:valent, to be p~aid by a postulant to ~he cpmmuni~y in which she Wishes to make her reli~gi~us profession, the pri-mary purpose of which is her entire of a~t l~ast parti.al sup-o~ port as long as she remains a member of the Community. The dowry, ther~efore, is not a price paid for admission into re_ligion. To accept or demand anything as a price for admission to religion would be to commit the sin of. slmofiy, as the Church has declared over and over figain. N~ither is the dowry to be confused with the paym.ent of a definit~ amount of money for board and clothing during the time of postulancy and novitiate as provided° for in can.on 570. This sum'of money a relatively .small' ¯ amount.--is actua!ly speht on the postulant or novice~by feeding her and providing~er with the religious habit. The essential characteristic of the ~o~ry is that it is a 'capital sum which must be pre.served during the lifetime of : thd iel!gious (nun or sister) in order ~hat th~ income derived from it may wholly or partially supRort her. This i~ the primary purpdse bf the dowry. A'secondary purpose is ~0_prov~ide for her support in the evefit that she should~ return to the world. For this reason the dowry must be o returned .to her if she leaves religion. This secondary pur,- pose will be considered in greater detail later.- Need o~ Dowry/~or,Nuns Since the beginning of the seventeenth century the .Hgly ~See, has required that all 'mdnas(eries of riuns demand,a dowry for both choir nuns and lay sisters. The legislation of the Code is contained in canon 547, § 1 : " 225 . ¯ b~D~/d ~. ELLIS Revie~ ~or ,Religious In the mona~fffr~es of nuns, the .pdsfulanf shall provide $h~. down,. fixe~ by the constitutions or determined by lawful custom. ~ ~ - Therefore, every ~ostul~nt~ in a monastery of nuns must-b?ing a dowry. There is no choice~in the matter. The amount to be provided. ~s 6sually determined~by the c0nsti . . ~tu~ions; but, if the constitutiofis are silent on the subject,~ ~then custom will ~etermine the amount. It is allowed to require a smaller amount from'la~ sisters than. from choir ¯ sisters; but the sum m~st be tbe same ~oc all tile members o~ " the same group. ~ .Wemight mention here ~a~ in this article we are using 226 ~ "the terms order,'congregation, nun, and sister in the ~trictly. tdchnical senses defined in canon 488. An order is an. lnstl:: " tut~ whose members make profession of-solemn vows;ca congrefqtion~is an_institute whose members make profes-~ sion of simple vows only, whether perpetUal or temporary.,~ ~ nun ts a religious woman with solemn vows or whose : . vows are normally solemn, but which, by a disposition tl'ie Holy See, are simple in certain regions--as is the cade with most nuns in the United States. gome monasteries of nuns have a few extern sisters who ¯ take care of the temporal needs of the'nuns and of all con-tarts with~the 6utside world. On' 3uly 16, 1931,. the- Sacred Congregation of Religious issued a set of statut, es for such extern sisters, and thesd statutes are obligatory for all . rrionasteries which have such sisters. Articl 51 Of these statutes reads as foilows: "No dowry is demanded for, e-xtern sisters ;" but-each aspirar~t shall bring ~uch go.ods a~a~l clothing as are prescribed by the" superior of the monasZ - tery. olt is forbidden, therefore, to demand a dowry from- ¯ extern sisters. Should a.candidate, however, freely offer a dowry, it may be accepted; and, if accepted, it will be sub-jecLto all the regulations of 0 the Code regarding the dowry. ,lulg; 194~ ' ~ THEDOWRY OF RELIGIOUS WOM~N ;~-'_ Necessit~l, of Dowr,~t_in Cofigregatiob~ of 8-[stets , ¯ " -Bef6re"the Code: legislation for congregations of ~eli-gious- wom~.n, as cofftrasted:with or_ders ~of nuns was con-~ tained ifi ~the Normae 6f 1901. Articl~ 91 of the Norroae required that every institute, of sisters" with. Simple vows= ~ . must determine the amount of the dowry to be proiridedby bot~ choir and lay sisters. The ~ub~tance of this article was embodied" in the constitutions of all congregations apl~roved by the Holy See before the Code. Exceptions were very rare. ~heCode, however, oleaves everything to the constitutions. " ~-I~n. lnstitut~s with simple vows, th~,prescrlptlo~s of the constitutions "must be ~ollowed wlthd'e~gard to the dowry o~: the rellcjious wom'~en [c~non $471 ~ ~). . . " Itfis~possible, therefore, that some ,congregatiOns o~ religio, us women may not.require a dowry, if there, are no provisions for~ the same in the constitutions. Canon 5#7 -do~s not, strictly speaking, ddmand that a dowry.must be ~p~ovided. As ~ matter offact, howeve~r,.the constitutions of'most congregations ~ppfoved by the Holy See have a provision for a dowry, even though the amoun't may be ,small. - Since the.con~titutiofis, of ttiocesan cqngregatiohs are subject only.to the approval of the Idcal" Ordinaries,-~ moie frequent omission of the dowry is found in them. The rule, therefore, for all"institutes with simple vows; ~,~hether they be approvedby the Holy~.See or by the local "Or.dinary, is to follow whatever is laid down in th~ consti-tutions regardi.ng the dowry. ~ Condonatidn of t~e Dowrg Canon 547, § 4, gives the regulations regarding con- 2donatiqns Or dispensations in regard to the-dowry: "°~ The prescribed=dowry, in tl~e case of [nstltut~s appr~dved by Se~, cannot be°condoned either en÷irely or partially without an indult of the Holy See:~in th~ case of diocesan i_nstitutes, ~¢ithout the~ consent of the 16"cal Ordinary: -'~ - , 227 ADAM "C. E~,LI8. r-.,~-. :~" ~ Review fort Religi6u~ The'.term°'!institute'' ~nclu~des bot~ orders of~nuns arid cofi~gregations b'f sisters. "- It is-evidenl~, therefore, th~t only the Holy _See can condone the-dowry entirely or in "part for an~ofd~r bf nu_n_s, ~ince only the HolyLSee can approve a religious order. "The same restriction-applies a-s well to all. "congr.egations of sisters appro~veffby the Holy See. " - In-the case of a dioce~af~ congregation, ' however, the.- local Ordinary is given the power to condone the dow.r~, in whole or in-part. :., Sometimes the constitution's~ contain a clause grantin-~.~ to the Mother Generaland her cbuncil the power .to con-hOaovne ea nt haecdadoevm~ircy.d, eagtr elee,a~sat itne apcahretr,' si~no fra_vnuorrs eo'fs "p ocsetrttijlfaicnattse ,w-.ohro ~ some similar testimony of special training which Will make .their services more than ordinarily valuable ~ for "the om-. muni~y.-The Sacred Congregation of.Religious allows 'this exception to beowritten into the constitutions- which it approves. The reason for the exception lies ~in the fact ~.th'at such ~candidates .are ~ilre.ady ?ftil,!~r traihed in a professibn which will be of special service to the community; hence the community is saved the expenses ~'that would be invol.ved in xheireducation. Such a degree or certificate is not a -stitt~e fo~a dow~r~', _but rather¯ a-reason for granting a dis-pensatlon'ln fayor bfa candidate v~h0 cannot afford a'mount of the dowry required be the constitutibns.- ' The Code itself grants to the,local Ordinary the to dispense from the dowry in the" case of diocesan congre~ gations, but not in the case~of orders or of c0ngregatioiis/ approved by the Ho!y See. However, by reason of very -special faculties_ (ca)ked qtfinquennial faculties because they"~ mtist be renewed ~very fiv.e years) all .local_Ordinaries in the united States may "diSpense from th~ lack of dowry, ir~. -owh°le or in part, in._ the case. of .nuns .or sisters (of congrega- ._'tions approved by the Holy See) provided that the financial 228 , &ilg,_1944 THE DOWRY OF REEIG~oUS WOMEN~ - ¯ ~ .~ o(onditibn of the institute does~not suffe.r~thereby, and that- ~he applicants h~ve such i:l ~ualifications that they give certain ¯ -~pr.omise 6f,geing of 9rear .service-to° the institute." ~The Apostolic Delegate has still wider faculties "to dispense, ' for a just,~cause, at the request of the community, as regauds the lack. of dowry .required for sisters or nuns in religi.on." °Alocal Ordinary must pass judgment on each case; the ~ _Ap.ost°lic Delegate can give.a ~enera! dispensation for aH cases in. which~ the same condition is fulfilled~ (cf. Kealy, Dowry1 of Women Religious, W~ashington, 1941, page 7'4.) ~ " Ih practice, therefore, it will nor be necessary to apply \. to the H6ty See for a dispensation from ihe dowry; since either the local Ordinary_or'the Apostolid Delegate will _be ~able ~o grant the condonation. , When a dispens~ition is granted unconditi6nalty to a ~po~stulfint who is unable to provide the dowry prescribed by the constitutions, she is tl-iereby freed once and forGll from '--- " thd obligation,even though, l~iter on, she should, come into possession of m~oney or other goods. Hence.some authors ~dvise tha~ the dispensations should be granted conditior~- allg, that is, with the obligation of paying the~dowry later on, if th~ candidate should then be'able to do so. Pa~/ment of Dowrg ~ This dowry must be 9~ven fo the ~'monastery before the' rec~ptlon ~f "~he habit, or at least its payme.r~t guaranteed i.n a manner recognlsed by civil law (canon 547, § 2)." Since~the habit is usually-gi~cen at the beginning of the novitiate, the dowry prescribed by the constitutionsmust .",f-~ be given to the institute before the.beginnin9 of the novi- ~tiate. It must be actually turned over to the monastery, or _-at least:its payment must be guaranteed in such a way that .the paymerit no longer depends on the will and intdrpreta- 229 ~- ADAM C. ELLIS- RevieuJ for Religiou~o~. tion of .the person'°who hai promised to pay it._:'~The form' of the guarantee_ mus-t :'be - on? which is both valid .and enforceable in the civil law. of the p[a~e in which it is made. A simple promise.,based on the good vCill of the person 'making the p?omise is not sufficient,. In cases,in which a guarantee is. given fiefor~ the 'reception of-the habit, the ~.~' dowry itself should be p~a!d before .the novice is permit,ted to pronounce her first vows. If this is not prescribed by the" constitutions, it should be'prox)ided for ifl the document ~hich guarantees the payment of the dowry. " " This canon regarding the time o~f payment applies only to monasteries of 'nuns. In the case of congregations of Women of ~imple vows, the constitutions should, specify,the tirfie. Constitutions approved by the Holy See usu.ally .require that when the dowry is onl~r guaranteed before tile reception of the habit, it should be paid before first pro-_ fession of vows. If the constitutions are silent on this mat-_ 'ter, then in pr~ictice actual payment of' the dowry shouldbe re, quired before profession, in order that the investment of -the capital may be" made ira, mediately after profession, prescribed by canon 549. Con~stitution of the Dotur. y The Amount: In orders of nuns the amount of ~tl~'e" dow_ry usually is a fixed and absolute sum: Since n.un~s are° ~iven to a life of contemplation and are st.rictly cloistered, the am6unt fiked for~ the dowry will be rather large, and should provide an income sufficient to support the nun. Members of religious congregations are usually engaged in active apostdlic works such as teacl~ing~ and nursing, which bring ifi-a certain amount of remuneration. Hence theamount of the dowry is generally much smaller than in ,an order of nuns. For congregations approved b~r the Holy See before the Code, a fixed amount was prescribedin the 230 Jut~/;'l~4"4 TH~ DOWRY OF RELIGIOUS WOM~ - conStituti6ns; T.his fi~ed amount, however, v~iri~d in ea~ch _congregation according to~ the resources and the needs~'c~f the sam~. Because of the upheaval in economic conditions which ~esulted from the first world war,"the SacredCongre-" gation of Religious adoptedShe policy of allowi_ng the gen-eral- ch~ipter t~ determine the amount of the dowry. Hence, constitutions approved within-recent times cont~iin-this ' the profession, of statement: "The aspirant shall bring a dbwry~ the am6unt bf which has been determin~d~ by the general chapter,~ according to localities arid times." Since the general.chap-ter meets periodidall3~,'every three~orfive or,six yea,rs, it may change the,amount of the dowry according to the needs of, tl2e times, raising or lowering it. In a large congregation which has provinces in various countries, it may vary the amount, of the, dowry for the~e different provinces or,court-tries; provided the amount is the same for all postulant.s in any partic'ular province or country. .Unless the constitutions-forbid it, a° post.ulant may give a qa.rger sum as her-dowry "than the amount spe.cified. Si~ould this be done, the total amount given must be sub-ject to the laws of the Code regarding the investment, administration, and t~ra.nsfer of the regular dowry. (~ualit~l: The general rule followed before the Cod~', was tfiatothe dowry had to be giyen in 5cash or money. While~this rule,was not w.ritten i~i any formal documen~t Still .the.diSpensations granted.by the SacredCdngr~gatiofi of Reli,~i0us show that'it was the "accepted customary law. ¯ The Norrna~. of 1901 contain no specific legislation, on.the. subject, and the Code is-silent regarding it. . Commentators on the Code hold widely divergent~ opinions., Some few insist that ¯tile dowry must bepaid.in cash. ~A few others go so far as to allow productive real estat~ to be accepted as dowry, and even to'be retained ~,fter the-religious as the equivalent/of an 231 ~ Reoiew for R~ligious. "- ~i'nvestment. The retention of real estate a'i the:equivalent of an ifivestment does- not seem to be in conformity with the text oLthe Code and the practice of the Sacred Congre-'~ g~tion of Rel.igious. The vast majoril~y allow the dowry. to be made up of money dr its'equivalent, that is, of a.n_y movable capitM, such as stocks and bonds. In practice the following norms maybe safely fol-lowed" ~(1) If the cdnstitutions contain a specific regula-tion regarding the quality of the dowry, it must.be fol-lowed. (2) If there is no specific regulation, then either" money or equixialent securities such as stocks and bonds may be accepted. (3) If the postulant has no money,, but onry real estate, the title to the same should be transferred to the institute, and it should be" kept during the~novitiate. After°the novice, has taken her first vows the real'estate should be sold and the proceeds invested. If the r~al estate can'not be sold for a fair price, the matter.should be referred -~ to the local Ordinary. [nuestment.of Dowry "Since the psimary purpose of the dowry-is,to produce revenue for the support of the religious during her lifetime., it is evident thatit must be invested so as to produce an- After the first profession of the religious, the superioress with her council, and with the consent of the local Ordinary and of ',the Reg'~lar Superior, if the house I~e~dependent on Regulars, must plac_e the ~l,0wry.in a safe, lawful, and productive investment (cahon 549): ~ Time of inuestment: The canon is clear. The dowery is not t6be' invested while the aspirant is making her novi- ~ tiate. It should be put in a bank and the interest accrmng frqm the" deposit should be .given to the novice.If the novice leaves before making her profession, her dowry must be returned, to her. It may be invested only after she has taken her first vows. It should then be invested at once~" .3. [l£1y, 1944 ~ THE DOWitY Ol~ RELIGIOOS WOMEN ' ~., but-& sho~t dela~ ~ma~r-be allowed if there is hopeof getting -'- a Safer orinore profitable in~restment. - " ". . Kind o~: investment: The dowry is to be invested in safe, }awful,. and productive securities. 'We may note-here in pa~sing that_the ti~xt of the authorized English transl.a-tion which we have give.n above is inaccurate. The term "nomina" used in the Latin. text is transla_ted as "invest- - "- m~nt." It is a historical fact that all the preliminary texts "" of°~he Code used the more general term xnvestlmentum, "~ : but in the final text the more specific wo"rd noinraa "¯ Was "~-' ~sUbstituted. This term is,.correctly given in other autho}.- ized transl~ltions as "titoli-securi," ".titres Stirs," and "tit.u.: r~ " " los seguros. The Latin term nomlna, as well as the cot- . rect English equivalent "securities,"; excludes real estate and other immovable goods. The Sacred Congregation of ~" Religious follows.this interpretation in practice. Asa~e investment is one which will not~ in all probabil- .,' "i,ty, lose its val.ue. -Usually the dowry will be .i~vested in ¯ stocks and bonds, of which there exists a gre~t ~rariety. The .~iSrst'obligation of ~uperiors is to choose a safe security, even though_it produ.ces a smaller income than one which is less ~afe. .~. A lawfulqnvestment i's one .which does not violate-any "la~, either ecclesiastical or civil. Canon 142 of. the Cdde forbids clerics and'religious to engage in anjr business or "tra_ding,oeither personally~or through others. Howe~rer,.th,e - common opinion today allow~ them to invest in stocks of ; any lawful commercial or in'dustriai enterprise, provided that they do n~t own or ~ontrol the maj@i,ty of the stock, a~n~,that they take no active partin the management. A productive investment is one which brings returns or yields fruit. The purpose of the dowry is to produc~ i,ncome for tile support of the religious. This purpose. " would not be fulfilled by merely placing the dowry in_a 233' ADAM C. ELLIS "" ~ Review,,for~Religi~us bank for safe k~eeplng. The rat~ o['interest or income paid on ~-tocks and bonds is a variable quantify, and usually in inverse ratio to the safety 6f the investment. extent productivity must be sacrificed in favor of safety, as it is of supreme importance to see that the capital itself is not lost or diminished. ° "Persons'who make ~be investment: various persons are~. mentioned in the canon. For .nuns it will be the superioress of the_monastery; in the case of a congregation it will be the superior general or provinfial according to the constitw tions. The tanon requires that she "discuss the matter of the investment of the dowry with bet council. The text'of the canon-does not state that the~vote of. the council, d~cisive,.but many constitutions add a clause to that effect. In the absence of any such modifying clause, the vote' of the council may be considered a~ consultative only. With the consent of the local Or, dinarg: The ter~ "local Ordinary" indludes the Bishop of the .diocese, his Vicar General, the Administrator of a vacant see, Vicars and Prefects Apostolic in missionary territories. The local Ordinary does riot make. the investment, but merely gtves his consent that it be made after he has satisfied himself that ¯ the investment proposed is safe, lawful, and productive in ac'cordance with the law. And o~ the Regular Superior: Some monasteries of nuns are subject to the supS.riots o£ the first order of inert. "In that case'they must obtain the-consent of the regular supe_rior in addition to that bf l~he local Ordinary. It may be well to,note here that "the same permissions required'bef6re the dowry may be invested by the superior and her council, are also required for euer~ chang~ of inuedt-merit. of the capital of the dowry (canon 533, § 2). -234 Prohibition.to Spend D~owrg o ~ Jt is ~¢rictly forbidden that, before th~ death of the rellg~ous, the . ,, d'uhjfi944 "~ 2"-" . =THE D(~WR~'._. OF RELIGIOUS.W. OMI~N'¯ d~>wr¥ b~ expended for~an'y':purpose,.e~ven ~o.r the ~u~ldin9 of-a house o;~ t_he.llq uldation, of'debts (canon 549)~ . . .o ~ ~ This prohibition ~is undoubtedly a very grave one as_-" ~,a~. be.deduced from canon 2412, 1.°, which orders~the~ 10~al~Ordinary.to punish a religious superior; and even to ;r~move h~r ftotn office under certain circumstances, should; "s~e presume to spend th.e_downes,of 'her subjects cont.rarY~ tc~th;e prescription of canon 549. The building of a b~ous,e and the paymefit of a debt are given by wa_y 9f exahaples to_ exclude all simila_r pretexts. ¯ In case of ]grave necessit.f a ~disEensa.tion may be obtained from ~he Holy See. Such a dispensation will always impose~the obligation of restoring ~the capital of the dowry as soon as possible, as well as the-- obli~gation of givi!ig back ihe,principal of the dbwrY~to the _'°religious who leaves the institute. _. ¯ "~dministr~ation o{ Dowry , ~ ~ .~ Th~ dowries mus~ b~ enrS{ull~ ~nd ~nte~rall¥ administered nt ~he-. ~m~n~$t~r¥ or~llouse ~( hnbffu~l residence ~{ the Mother-~nernl "~ Mo~h~er-Pr~v~n¢inl {¢nnon ~50," § I}. ° - e,_ Administration in general includes" all acts necessar.y ;:~and 6sef.ul foi: the. preservation and improvement oftem'- " poral goods: for fiaakin.gothem. . 15roduc{ive, for collecting the fruits, .and f0~ properly disposing of tl~' income. In t.6.the dowry two points are emphasized: care.arid int.egraI: ity: First of all; the dowry mtist be,invested iia°safe securi ties as We have seen above'.~ ;Then care mustobe"ex'~rcised to guard'against the dan~er ofloss or diminution in:value @anging the investment when securities, become ~anstable-of dangerous. Care also includes the ~ttentive ~ollection 0i~. the income at fixed times. ,The constitutions ng.t 5nfre-.-. --quentin; prescribe details regarding this administration of-the. dowries. Integrillity means compieteness of-ai:lrriinis-~ :tration. Practically, in regard to the dgx~ry,,it means that ,th+~'e~tlre am0unt-of the dow'ry must be .invested, and the, ~/~DAM C. ELLIS ~ " Re~eu~ ~or Religious ~. . ~, :en~tire amount, of the fruits 'or. interest_ be c611e~:ted'. ~ Theplace fo~ th6 administration of:dowries is the mon~ ~ astery in the case. of nuns, t~eho~se ofhabitual residence ~ of the s~perior generaFor provincial in the case of congre: gi~ion~. While the obligationand responsibilityrestg on the~uperior, she need not necessarily administer the dowries ~personally, but she may delegate this duty to som~ 6ther ".prudent an'd experienced religious, such as~ the treasurer g~neral. In all cases a special account Should be-kept o~ the administration of the~dowri~s, distinct, and separate from that of the ~enedal funds of the community." This-is .required for various reasons, not~ th~ least of whic~ is the-report t~ be given at stated ti~es .to ~he local Ordinary.- Administration of dowries singlg or collectively. ~he-dow~ ies may be administered in either of two ways: tb~ first'is to keep each individual doy~y separate, and to inqest it by itself. In case a religious should leave,~the c~pital of her dowry will be retffrned to her in the.condition in wBich~ it is at that time." if it has-increased in value, ,the "gain is~ hers; 'if-it~has decreased, she ~uffers the loss. T~ second method i~ to pool all the. dowries into a7 common, fund, ~nd, then invest thatfund in various kinds of securities: Obviously it would be very'unwise to invest the ~e~tire fund in onl~ one class of securities, because of the- 'danger of grave loss ~n case that particular security should suddenly decrease in value. It is much more prudent to.dis-tribute the capikal in variofis safe, lawful, anff p'r0ductive' s~Curities. There may be. occasional losses, but these, will beieihtively small. If this second method ~f~administra2- ti6n is adopted, the institute assumes the obligation returfiing to a ~relig~us who leaves merely ~the actual,. amount of money .which she originally brought, as dowry; " regardle.ss of loss or gain. in value o.f th~ securities in which it w~ invested: o ~ ~ 236' ";J"u l-~, 1"" 9~4 ~-~ x " " THE ;DOWRY OF R~LIGIOUS WOMEN'" Acquisition of Do~¢~ bq]nst{t~te -~The dowry is irrevocably acqbired, by' ~he monastery or ~he Instlfu~e on ,the death of the religious, even ~hough she had ~ade profession of only tempora~ vows (canon 548).~ " ~e have" seen that dufin~ t~e hov~fiate the dow~y remains ~be p~o~e~ty.of t~e no~ice~ Once,the novice h~ taken'her fi~st vows, the. 0~nership of the d0~ry, passes into the possession of the monastery or institute, not abso-lutely, but c6nditionally. -The condition is that the reli-. gious remain in the institute. During .the lifetime of the religious the income of the dowry goes to the monastery or insti:t~te' ~or her support. After the death of the religious, even though she had made profession of tempdrary vows : Onl.y,~ the ownership of the dowry on th~ part of the insti-tute becomes absolute and the capital may be added.to its general funds. ~n.the case of a novice who is allowed to take ~ows 0n her deathbed before the completion of the novitiate, the dowry does not become the property of the institute after bet death, but must be turned over to her heirs atlaw, ~inte i~this case the dowry never belonged to the institute even conditionally. It is 0nly after the normal professiofi of ~-first vows at, the end of a valid novitiate that the o~nersh~p ~asses conditionally to the institute. Return of Dowr~ to.Tfiose Who Leaoe,~ ,:1~, ~rom wh~ev, r cause,: a pro~#ss~d rdi~ious wi~h eHher kolemn-or simpl~ vows I~aves ~hs Institute, her dbwr~ mus~ b~ returned " We have. seen that the ownership 0f the dowry passes to "the institute c0nditionally on the. day on which the-reli- ~ gious, takes her first tempoyary, vows, Th~ condition is that the reli:gious remain aTmember of the institute. If she l~aves. ~for any cause whatsoever, either voluntarily with a dispen-sation or by' reason of dismissal, her entire dowry re,st be 237 ADAM C. ELLIS ~ ~ ~ Reoieto, /~or Religious restored tO he~, but not the fruits or,income derived there-, . f~om up. to the time of her leaving. Thus ,the secondary purlSose of the dow.r~y ii fulfilled. The Church wish~s that a woman who has spent some years in religion and then returns to the world should have~ the nece.ssary means to ret-urn home safely.and to support herself properly until ~'she "can°re.adjust h~rself in the world and find some means of support. If the religious was received without a'dowry,, -- canon 643 requires that the institute give her a charitable subsidy if she cannot provide for herself out of her ~wia resources: On March 2, 1924, the Sacred Congregatioh of "Religious declared that in a case in ~hi~b the dowry itself is not sufficient for this_ purpose, the institute is bouiad to supply the balance of the amount needed for her safe return _ ho~e ~ind for her supp6rt as ex.plained above. -Occasionally, tl?ough-rarely, the Holy See grants an indult to a profess.ed religious woman to transfer to another instithte. Then canon 551, § 2 is to be fo~llowed: But if, by virtue of ~n ~aposfolic indulf, the professed reli~iofis joins another Institute, the intereston the dowry, during her~ new novitiate, without prejudice to the prescription of canon 570, § I; and, after the ne~;~ ~ profession, the dow.ry itself, must be given to the laffer institute; if the~ relicjious passes to another monastery of the same Order, the dowry is due "~ to it from the day the change.takes place. No further" comment is given on this canon since the case is rare, and should, it arise, a careful study of cano.ns 632-636 will have to be made .regarding .the tra'nsfer to another institute.," . Vigilance Of l~ocal Ordinary The local Ordinaries must diligently see that the dowries of the rell-glou. s are conserved; and they must exact an acco~,nt on the ~ubject, especi.~lly at the pastoral visitation (canon 550, § 2). For every monastery of nun's, even exempt: I. The s,~perior.ess~must fdrnish an account of h~r administration, to be exacted gratuitously once a 238 ' " d~uly, 1944 THE DOWRY OF.RELIGIOUS WOMEN year, or. even-oftenerif th~ constitutionsso prescribe it, to theqocal Ordi-nary, as'well as to the Regular.-Superior, if ~fhe mon~sfery be subject t6~ Regulars (canon 535, § I). ~ "In other institutes of women, fh'~ account of the adminisfration of the property.constituted by the dowries shall be furnished to the local Ordl-nary off the occasion of the Vlsltation, and- even offeher if the Or.d;nary - conside~s if necessa~/(~anon 535, § 2). From these canons it is clear that the .superior "of a mon- -astery ~f nuns must give an annual account of the adminis- °tration of tl~e dowries to the 16cal- Ordinary, , as well as to the regular,superior, if the .monastery be subject to regu-lars. ~The constitutions may prescribe a more frequent accohnt. In the case of congregations of Migious w~m~n, wh~ther dioc~esa~n or approvCd by the Holy See, the account regarding the administration of the'dowries must be giv~en at least every five years on the occasion of the canonical .yis-itation on the part of the l~cal Ordinary. He may demand a more frequent account ~if he deems it necessary. This righ.t of vigilance given to" the lbcal Ordinary authorizes him to see that all the prescriptions of th'¢ law~- are observed in regardt0 the cai~ful administration of ~the .dowries in safe, lawful, and productive ~ecurities; and it includes the r'ight ;o demand an accounting of these fundS, as .explained above. The right of vigilance, however. -should not.be confused with the right of, administration', which ~emains in-the hands Of the religious s~perior. r - 239 The Sacred l-lear!: Program Eugene P. Murphy, S.J. IT ALL began in Golden Pond, .Kentucky, six years ago. -~ .|~ Several families of poor tobacco planters were ~athere_d one Sunday afternoon around t, he auto radio of the local ,. school teacher. They were listening to one of the fi~st -broadcasts of the Sa6red Heart Program, coming to them, from WEW in St. Louis. Missouri. "Listening to ,the Voick of the Ap6stl_eship of Prayer," they enrolled as mem- ~'b~rs o]~ this world-wide organization and became the first of tens of thousands .of radio listeners to join "the St. Louis Center. This was the picturesque beginning of the nation- " : wide Sac~ed 'HeartProgram. Thfs is the only Catholic Da~ily broadcast on the air today and traces it ancestry to a religious program sent out each Sunda) from Station -WEW, beginning April 26, 1"921. In May 1941 this broadcast beg.an~,to ~extend-to all .parts of the."country. Within a year and a half it has added a hundred and thirty-stations tO its lists in the United States, Canada, and the Republic Of Panama.- Behind the'Pr6gram is an effective organiZation_wi£h a central, office in St. Louis and. regional offices in Boston, Los Angeles and Toronto. @he National Director of ~the broad~ aast is the Reverend ~ugene P. Murphy, S.J., who is assisted by, the Reverend George H. Mahowald, S:J.; and the Rev-. ereffd Hugh E. Harkins, S.J., as Associate Directors. The Regional Director fgr New England and A, tlantic Coast 'States is the Reverend Matthew Hale, S.J., with the R4v- ' erend Arthur D. Spearman, S.J., in charge of the West ¯ Coast Office in Los Angeles. The Canadian Director .is tlhe -Reverend E. G. Bartlett, S.J., whose offices are in Toronto. 240 ~,~.-°" . Each morning'in ~hi~ studios 6f WEW" is produced the ~,Dady Fifteen Minui~es. of Thought ~and. Praydf." A pri: rate leased telephone line brings th,e'Program to The "nisonic Recording Laboratories whe~ it is cut into wax,~ :Later these "cut;" are shipped to The Allied Recordings Iric., in Hollywood wher~ theya_re pressed into vinolyte. transcriptidns: ~ These transcriptions are then expressed to-various outlets .of the Program from Newfoundland to. ' AlaSka and. f~om cxnada to Panama. / The purpose ofthe Program is to'promote d'evotion-td- ~ " The.Sac-red Heart among persons of all ages and classes. . Miners, farmers, factory workers, college prgfes~ors, ,busi .nessmen, housewives,, and shut-ins, all derive spirit.uaL "strength from this period of prayer, hymns, anda six,min- ~ :ute conference. Radio station'managers in all parts, oLthe -~' 0 United. States and Canada oha.ye been most enthusiastic in , % their commendation of the broadcast. The value of this broadcast as a force in social structioh, can hardly be over-emphasized. People 6f all. classes who are spiritually. unde.rprivileged,, living, oo.n ~ranches and farms far fr6m church, or in the tenement~ of "~,bu_sy cities, are {grateful for a message of superhatUral, truth coming to them every day by means of radio. It°is a most° _, effective medium for reaching the vast multittides of our ~.'-.n0n:Catholic neighbors who are starving for the realities of~ Faith. Liiteners write in from every state in the' Unior~ in : the Sgme vein as this non-Catholic friend in Wiscoiasin! ;(I , am not of your Faith but cannot tell you,how much spir-it~ al,s.trength I derive from this daily broadcast. ~ May, God prosper your great work," From Nova Scotia comes the_ word,""The Program. has had a great effect on non- ' ~_Catholics herd. Man~ of them are my friends and they', ~'~ ~ha,ve told me how much they enjoy,the sermons." In prac-tically ev, ery mail our Ame~'ican liste'nBrs tell us of the" - 241 EUGENE P. MURP'~IY. " , ¯ " . Reui~o ior ,- e~thusiasm, 6f~ their non-Catholic frie£ds. "Per_hap.s som~,of ~ the.most interestif~g 1.etters A Sister. from Can~ida ¯ [NOTE: Nismber 5 above was actually in the letter. We didn't pu~ there~ED.]~* (Continued from precedirig page) guard against these by taking the/various precautions alread~ indi: ~ III. Local Ordinaries and major religious superiors are urged to take foregoing an_d any bther means they deem necessary to "prev.env abuses and to suppress such abuses, if perchance-they have alrdady Reverend Fathers: " i think that retreat masters tend to be. tob bashful about urging ¯ to high ~erfection. .,. ~- TM ¯ (~ ~As some very~pra~tical subjects for meditations and.'conference.s, I' suggest 'the following: (1) The necessity of truth and' honesty in lout deglings with children and.others, Sisters included. (2), .Avoid '~talki.ng about the character or fatilts of those in'our charge, employees. or children. (3) Secret ambition'for positio°ns of honor--the need b~"sinceri~y rather than policy. (4) The necessity of prayerful !iv.es at all times. (5) Unworldliness a greater esteem for'the things of God rather than for the w~rld. ~(6) Perfection of our ordinary a~fions. (7) Failing t~rough human respect. (8) More meditations on the Passion of our Lord and on our Blessed Mother. A Sister " -2 Reverend Fathers: Instead of the traditional, topics--"The Eternal Truths," Sin, "The~ Vows,'; "Confession,"."Spiritual Exercises," and" so forth .I should lik~ to have a little v~irieiy no~ and'then. F~r instance, the following outline of topi.cs for anS-day retre~it might prove .sug-ge'stive: - I. The Religious Vocation a Call to Sa,nctitg. (1) Sanctity v.~ersus me.d, iocrity. (2) The means to sanctity: vows, rules, imitation of .Christ. -- " II. Supernatural Lioin~. " .(1)-Faith--purit~r of int~ntio~i. (2) Grace--the Christ'-life. (3,) Divine 1dye. (4) The Mystical Bbdy. III. The Will of God. (1) Divine Providence." (2) Abandon- "ment. (3) Obedience. (4) Spiritual childhood--tr~st.-- . IV. The Mass. (1) Its value and importance for rdigious. (2) How to live the Mass. (~3) The spirit of sacrifice--vi(timhood. V. The'Paision of Christ. (1) "Self-crucifixion~mo'rtification and self-abnegation. (2) Patience and genero~sity. (3)TM Love of the Cross. VI. The Blessed Sacrament and the Sacred Heart. (1) Love and "reparatiOn. (2) The liturgy. (3) Zeal for souls. ~-~-VII. Pra~ler: (1) The divine indwelling. (2) Recollection~° interior living. (3) Progress in prayer and divine union, - VIII., Our Blessed~ Mother : (1) Mary's spiritual maternkty '"f(.2) Spiritual motherhood in the life of, religious. (3) Childlike ~OMMUNICATIO~s -" ~ -. ~ Review [o? Religious ._,devotion to Ma~yi "(4) Imitation of her virtues, especially hmnility,~ charityl un~elfishness, and generosity. " -- o A Sister Reverend Fathers: ¯ " When I give a retreat I want my re'treatants_to show that they ar~interes(ed in what I am saying when I give c6nsid~ration's an~b conferences. I ~¢ant them to be wide-awake. I want them to look a~ me a~ I speak to them. I want them to respond tolittle pleas~int_- ries that I~mayintroduce 'from time to time by smiling an'do, even bur~tin~ out into.reverent!y suppressed l;iiighter. Sometimes I get a group of Sisters who are evidently i~redeterthined not to reipond:dn - any wa~r to'~my talk. Th'ere they sit, eyes downcast, featur_es imrgo- ~bile, like so many stathes of saints. ',And.my pleasantries fall Not a facial muscle t.witch~s, not an eyelid is rai~ed. Are they raix.in ecstasy, I wonder, or absorbed in contemplation--or, horrors! are they v;'rapt in slumber,? Whatever it is, it is crushingly hard on n~e. No onelikes'to talk to people who pay nb attention to him and.do not'even look at.him. Retreatants! Be responsive: smil'e when .~0ux are supposed to smile:-laugh~when you are'expected to laugh; weel5" _when you feel like weep{ng! . Agaifi, I want my .retreatants to meditate and a~ply th, ings to -.tbemselves'dur~ing the ball'hour or mgre that I speak to them.After. my talk.all I ask of them is to make a threefold colloquy, each lasting a few minutes and not more than five: one with our Lady, one with oi~r Lbrd,-and one with the heavenly Father. Go to'Mary., let Mary-take'you by ~he.hand and lead you to J+sus, then with Jesus arM~ Mary go to the heavenly Father. And tell each all about my con- _~ sideration and about your affection ~ind resolutions. Then the. ~-i~eriod-of meditation, is oyer! But until~the next meditatioh I wan~ tffem to liv in the atmosphere, so to speak, oof the last meditation, and to scatter ejacu!atory prayers and aspirations up and down -the ~stMrs, along the ha.llways, and s6 forth. When I m_ake.a retreat I want my retreat master, for heaven;s '~ake, to speak loud enough and nbt to ospeak too rapidl.y; and if he put~a~little animation and°some gestures into his discourse i~ wiil be "all the, better.' It does not make a good impression upon me~eithe-r,~ " .by the way, if he comes into the sanctuary and. mt~rfibles some pre-paratory p~ay.er in a'half-hearted and.hasty way. "I expect a good, a~d dev6ut preparator)i'prayer, recited d.istinct!y and ~ith~unetion. July, 1944 ' o ~ - COMMUNICATIONS .o Ag~in,,I wahi my retreat master to give the last medita~ion,'~f-the da.y and big last talk of th~day before supper, so that after the evening recrehtion of those who are not making the retreat we can* have simpiy Benediction as'ihe close of,the day. I am tired by ~hat ' time and wish to retire as.soon as possible after evening prayers. I decidedly do not like another meditation after Benediction,, given by way of points. And most decidedly I d.o not like too have'the retreat master tell us to make our own meditation in the morning, that he will not appear_ for th~it. " I want him to appear and talk longer than ever in the morning. .In fact, .the longer the retreat master talks, the" better ~I. like"it. Never'do I meditate better than °when somOne is .talking on religious topics. Again, ~ want my retreat master to illustrate his considerations ivith many stories, personal experiences in. the realm of souls. A .serious word and then that driven home by a gripping and pertin.ent ~tale: then another serious word and another tale: then a little witti-~ cism to~ bre, ak the tension ~ih! that is, a'retreat master after t~he heart of me'! A Priest ,Revere'nd Fathers: ' How disappointing to be asked to "preach" a retreat! The com-munity is not expected to meditate. The order-of the day includes three conferences, after which all betake themselves to the ordinar'y, ~occupations of the day sewi.ng, letter-writing and so forth; few read sl~iritual books. One meditati0ia is made, for a half hou~ before M~ss, and the retreat master is expected-to make that with the com-re. unity.' No points are given the night before. All that might be done at this meditation, is either to present some truth slowly and simply, in the hope .there might be some heart reaction on the part of some of the members of the community, or make'some,colloquies but loud.o The sisters may possibly be entertained during this half hour. They have not made a meditation. Such retreats cannot bring God's blessing~ on the. community. A Priest ReVerend Fathers: By all means, let us have short,, unread, interesting conferences reiterating the fundamental truths; and do, please include the mys-ticism of the Church. (May I remind your correspondent that the canonization rosters of the Church .list more feminine~ than mascu: -27"3" COMMUNICATIONS line exponents of m~rsticism? ~I have yet to meet a sincere Sister who is "mystified.") But must the banes of thee religious life alw~ays disregarded? For instance, espionage, tale-bearing, prying curiosity coupled with. gossiping which makes community life'unbearable: envy, jealousy,~ambition fo~ power, with r~lUctance tc; give it up ands. return to the ranks: the responsib.ility to keep promises; fhe types bf secrets and the sacredness of confidential and professional informa-tion.~ Many Sisters admit that the only real and~lasting help they froth,the retreat is that received in-the confession~il. °Would it onotASe worthwhile ,to-omit a conference a d~ay in favor of this type of help, either in the confessionai or in individual conferences held in com-fortable sur~roundings? Priests make a practice, of meeting lay folks - in this manner: why should th~ey fear to meet religious? My las.~ suggestion is to have a "Que.stion" or "Suggestion" Box. Many objective difficulties could be cleared up here, thus saving con-fessional time. " A Sister Reverend Fathers: Things I have disliked in retreat masters and have heard~ others say they disliked are: lack if practicality: lack of original orfimagina-tire method of presenting the truths; lack of psychol0gical approach ~o pr6blems:-qdoking on illustrations merely as sources of entertain-merit: a negative attitude towards life; lack of sympathetic under~ stan~ding of retreatants' problems; failure to adapt the accidentals of retreat to spdcific hudiences. Things w~ have liked ar~: an instructive use of illustrations: a striking manner of expression: applicationd that fit the particular grohp making the retreat: good example from the retreat master. A Young Priest ~ UNIFORM VERSION OF MASS The Queen's Work has recently published a new edition of Communit~ "Mass.~ a" ~ gooklet planned for the Dialogue Mass. The text ,of the Ordinary and Canon of the~ Mass conforms to the-new Editors' Standard Text. a uniform version~bf thesd: , .prayers (with standardized pause-marks for Diai~gue Mass) that "is"being,adopted .o by, many publishers of Missals for'the laity. ~ 274 ~ ¯ ORIGEN, HIS LIFE AT ALEXANDRIA. By Ren6 C~diou. Translated from ~ ~he'French by John A. Southwell. Pp. xill St. Louls;~1944. $3.25. The works of (Jrig~n, that many-sided genius, were written for the learned. The same may be said of this masterly ~and"the books he wrote during the first half:century of his vigorous career. Readers in search of another facile bio, graphy of the type so popular, in out'day will discover little to hold their attention~ But"the 0 intellectually m, atu,re, wh9 possess .some knowledge of the history of thought and who desire t~o extend that experience, . will find the bbok of ehgrossing interest.- , , Origen, son of-the martyred St. Leonidas, never ~ealized the supreme ambition of his youth, to die for the faith.- But with a'll the ardor of his restless nature he devoted his life to the intensification of spiritual perfection among the educated Christians of his environ-ment. His early years at Alexandria, the most active intellectual center of his time, coincided with the last" determined efforts of pagan and heretical Gnosticism' to capture the minds of that metropolis. Origen -dreamt.of a Christian gnosiL or higher, esoteric learning, that ,would make the revelation of C_hrist prevail. As head of the famous Acfide-my of Alexandria, the first university of its day, he endeavored to impart an intellectual discipline which would give the educated Chris-tian a purer insight into the natureof God and be the basis of his spiritu'al progress. To.this end he devoted the decades of his brilliant teaching and his monumental labors" in the composing of,hi~ books~ Only late ih life did he come to esteem the value of the piety of th~ 10wly for the spread of God's kingdom. ¯ U, nequipped with a sound philosophy, not always in touch with the mindof_the ChurchFan'd driven forward by his impetuous" genius, he.developed his own method of Scriptural interpretation and built upon it a system of theology that ihspired his pupils but har-bored~ trends of unorthodoxy which eventually led to his condemna-tion by Ecclesiastical authority. ,Many of the aberrations of "Ori-genism" do not reflect his own views, but were tenets formulated by later thinkers of heretical mold who were not evefi his °disciples; hbs- tile to the "restraints imposed b~r Christian Reoieto [or Religious (radition, they, claimed "Or_igen~ ~ho Would have disavowed them- as the champion of their doctrinal extremities. 'Nevertheless ~Origen was unorthodox in more than-one'!1~oint, such a_s the resurrection of the body, the. genesi.s of sin, ahd salvation as the uitimate lot of all. Mhny of his conjectures, thghgh not strictly Heretical, ba;ce always been regarded~in the Church as rash. . The authoroof this book treats ill problem.s which occur in the career and teaching of Origen with great sympathy, but at the same time with 'evident impartiality and thorough Of the works, climaxing in Origen's masterpiece, the De principiis, is penetrating, though not infrequently obscure. On the whole, the clarity and-order which we have come to associate with French authbrship are wanting. o The t_2ranslation i% generall~ good. "Foo often, however, t.he° reader is left in doubt as to the antecedents of personal, proriouns. A few sentences are U-ngrammatical, owing to the absence of words, or the wrong form of words, or defective punctuation. The l~ook is furnished with, a sufficiently complete inde~.--C. VOLLERT, NATIONAL "PATRIOTISM IN PAPAL TEACHING. By fhe Reverend John J. Wrlghf. Pp. liil .q- 358. The Newman Bookshop, Westmins÷er,~M~., 1943. $3.S0. . Iri the intrbduction to this book the author states: "The almost .universal illiteracy, so to speak, exposed, wherever question arises con~- cerni.ng the directives and doctrine of/he Pope on national and inter-naHonal° loyalties amounts to a challenge to Catholic writers "to -~c~uaint themselves more fully °with the papal teachings on these questions," The book might be called ~ monumental attempt to~ furnish the material for dispelling such illi.teracy. Father Wright stiadied the pronouncements of four Popes-- 7Le6 XIII, Pius X. Benedict XV, and Pius XI to.draw from these pronounc,efiaents the papal directives (that is, pastoral guidance specific[problems of patriotism) and the doctrine underlyin~ this guidance (,that is, the papal teaching .on .the virtue~of patriotism itsdlf)~. The author presents his findings in'this large work, divided .into three progressive parts, dealing respectively with the nature of " patriotism, the principal obligations towar~ the fatherland, and-the'~ -need of goi.n~, beyond a merely national 0utlook to build a moral~ 276 o ~internatio-nal order. -The entire study °is directed to: mo~terncondi-tibns and modern problems."~The'- re.~der is impressed with ~the fact ~ tha~t in this complicated modern world,~as in the more simplified world of.former days, the Church still has the recipe for national° anal i~ternational lqa.rmony. ~- ~ _ The book contaihs an impressive list of documents constilted, a lengthy bibliography, and an alphabetical index." Students of national and international

The Situation In The Middle East ; United Nations S/PV.8228 Security Council Seventy-third year 8228th meeting Tuesday, 10 April 2018, 3 p.m. New York Provisional President: Mr. Meza-Cuadra . (Peru) Members: Bolivia (Plurinational State of). . Mr. Llorentty Solíz China. . Mr. Wu Haitao Côte d'Ivoire. . Mr. Tanoh-Boutchoue Equatorial Guinea. . Mr. Ndong Mba Ethiopia. . Mr. Alemu France. . Mr. Delattre Kazakhstan. . Mr. Tumysh/Mr. Umarov Kuwait. . Mr. Alotaibi Netherlands. . Mr. Van Oosterom Poland. . Mr. Radomski Russian Federation. . Mr. Nebenzia Sweden . Mr. Skoog United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . Ms. Pierce United States of America. . Mrs. Haley Agenda The situation in the Middle East This record contains the text of speeches delivered in English and of the translation of speeches delivered in other languages. The final text will be printed in the Official Records of the Security Council. Corrections should be submitted to the original languages only. They should be incorporated in a copy of the record and sent under the signature of a member of the delegation concerned to the Chief of the Verbatim Reporting Service, room U-0506 (verbatimrecords@un.org). Corrected records will be reissued electronically on the Official Document System of the United Nations (http://documents.un.org). 18-10187 (E) *1810187* S/PV.8228 The situation in the Middle East 10/04/2018 2/21 18-10187 The meeting was called to order at 3.20 p.m. Adoption of the agenda The agenda was adopted. The situation in the Middle East The President (spoke in Spanish): In accordance with rule 37 of the Council's provisional rules of procedure, I invite the representatives of Canada, the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey to participate in this meeting. The Security Council will now begin its consideration of the item on its agenda. Members of the Council have before them document S/2018/175, S/2018/321 and S/2018/322, which contain the texts of three draft resolutions, respectively. The Council is ready to proceed to the vote on the draft resolution contained in document S/2018/321, submitted by Canada, France, the Netherlands, Peru, Poland, Sweden, Turkey, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America. I now give the floor to those members of the Council who wish to make statements before the voting. Mr. Delattre (France) (spoke in French): For years, as part of its responsibilities for maintaining international peace and security, the Security Council has been mobilized on the issue of chemical weapons. After the chemical attacks in Ghouta in 2013, the Security Council adopted resolution 2118 (2013), which provided for the complete dismantling of the chemical arsenal of the Syrian regime. Russia, as co-sponsor of that resolution, had guaranteed its implementation. Despite that guarantee, the Damascus regime has never complied with its obligations under resolution 2118 (2013) and has never renounced — as we saw again on 7 April — the use of chemical weapons against its civilian population. Five years after the Council's adoption of resolution 2118 (2013), we note that the general subject of chemical weapons remains tragically topical. The upcoming voting marks our fourth meeting in less than a week on this issue. Yesterday we met in an emergency meeting (see S/PV.8225) following a new chemical-weapons massacre in Douma, Syria, whose appalling images left us shocked. Last month we met to discuss the unacceptable attack in Salisbury (see S/PV.8203). Last year we met day after day after the terrible attack of Khan Shaykhun. That shows the deterioration of the situation and how serious the stakes are today for our security. The use of chemical weapons is so abominable that it has been banned for almost 100 years, and the international community began years ago to eliminate them. As such, the chemical non-proliferation regime, which we have patiently developed and strengthened, is one of the pillars of our collective security architecture, at the heart of our security system. Yet today it is under serious threat. We face the cynical, barbaric and all-out use of chemical weapons against civilian populations. The Douma attacks once again illustrated the abject brutality of the Syrian regime's resolute military strategy. Such acts constitute war crimes or even crimes against humanity. They increase the risk of dangerous normalization — tolerating the return of these agents of fear and death is nothing more than a blank cheque to all those who would like to use them. To allow the normalization of the use of chemical weapons without responding is to let the genie of the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction — which pose an existential threat to us all — out of the bottle. It would mark a serious and reprehensible setback to the international order that we have all patiently helped to develop. The consequences would be terrible, and we would all pay the price. That is why we cannot accept it. France will do all it can to prevent impunity for the use of chemical weapons. It is in that spirit that we launched an international partnership last January. The demise of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)-United Nations Joint Investigative Mechanism in November, due to the Russian veto to protect Al-Assad's regime, sent a dangerous signal of impunity. It deprived us of an essential deterrent tool. It left a vacuum that the Syrian regime has rushed to exploit, and which yesterday's atrocities have tragically reminded us of. The American initiative to re-establish an independent mechanism, based on a balanced approach and taking into account the concerns expressed by every member of the Council, enables us to fill that glaring void. Such a mechanism would support the inquiry that has already been launched by the OPCW. It would also respect the essential criteria of independence, 10/04/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8228 18-10187 3/21 without any interference, and impartiality to which each member of the Council has committed. Such a mechanism would have a mandate to attribute responsibility for the attacks. Only the combination of those two criteria — independence and a mandate to attribute responsibility — will make that mechanism effective, and therefore dissuasive. Let me be clear: in view of the gravity of the 7 April attack, France will not accept any third-rate or sham mechanism whose independence and impartiality would not be genuinely ensured. That is what the Security Council owes today to the Syrian victims of chemical attacks and to the entire international community, whose security is threatened by the chemicals in the hands of the regime of Bashar Al-Assad. Since the threat is of an existential nature for us all, combating the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction must, more than ever, be among the top priorities of the Security Council. If there is one area in which the Council has a moral and political responsibility to convene and act, it is this one. If there is one domain for which the credibility of the Council is at stake, where tactical games have no place, it is this one. This is one of those moments when we have no choice but to act because what is at stake is essential. We cannot allow the chemical non-proliferation regime, and with it our entire security architecture — along with the principles and values that underpin our action — to crack and disintegrate before our very eyes. Today's vote is one of those key moments, one of those moments of truth. On behalf of France, I therefore call on each member of the Council to properly gauge and assume its responsibilities now and to vote in favour of the American draft resolution (S/2018/321). Mrs. Haley (United States of America): We have reached a decisive moment as the Security Council. On Saturday the first haunting images appeared from Douma, in Syria. We gathered around this table yesterday (see S/PV.8225) to express our collective outrage. We then collectively agreed that the Council needed to take steps to determine exactly what happened in Douma and to put an end to these barbaric attacks. The United States has put forward a draft resolution (S/2018/321) that accomplishes those shared goals. For weeks we have been working with every single delegation on the Council to develop a new attribution mechanism for chemical-weapons attacks in Syria. We held open and transparent negotiations so that every delegation could provide its input. And we went the extra mile for one Council member. We adopted paragraph after paragraph of Russia's proposed draft resolution (S/2018/175). We tried to take every Russian proposal that did not compromise the impartiality, independence or professionalism of a new attribution mechanism. After the Douma attack, we updated our draft resolution with common sense changes. Our proposal condemns the attack. It demands unhindered humanitarian access for the people in Douma. It calls on the parties to give maximum cooperation to the investigation. And it creates the attribution mechanism that we worked so hard with each member to develop. The draft resolution is the bare minimum that the Council can do to respond to the attack. The United States did everything possible to work towards Council unity on this text. Again, we accepted every recommendation that did not compromise the impartiality and independence of the proposed attribution mechanism. I want to say a brief word about Russia's draft resolution, which is also before us for a vote. Our draft resolutions are similar, but there are important differences. The key point is that our draft resolution guarantees that any investigations will truly be independent. Russia's draft resolution gives Russia itself the chance to choose the investigators and then to assess the outcome. There is nothing independent about that. The United States is not asking to choose the investigators, and neither should Russia. The United States is not asking to review the findings of any investigation before they are final, and neither should Russia. All of us say that we want an independent investigation. Our draft resolution achieves that goal. Russia's does not. This is not an issue that more time or more consultations could have resolved. At a certain point, you are either for an independent and impartial investigation or you are not. And now that the Douma attack has happened, this is not a decision that we can delay any longer. The United States calls on all Security Council members to vote in favour of our draft resolution and to abstain or vote against the Russian draft resolution. The Syrian people are counting on us. Mr. Nebenzia (Russian Federation) (spoke in Russian): Today the delegation of the United States is once again trying to mislead the international S/PV.8228 The situation in the Middle East 10/04/2018 4/21 18-10187 community and is taking yet another step towards confrontation by putting to a vote a draft resolution (S/2018/321) that does not enjoy the unanimous support of the members of the Security Council. It is not true that it meets almost all our requirements. The text is nothing more than an attempt to resurrect, unchanged, the former Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons-United Nations Joint Investigative Mechanism (JIM), established to investigate cases of the use of chemical weapons in Syria. Russia has always emphasized that it will not support that approach. The JIM became a puppet in the hands of anti-Damascus forces, and it covered itself with shame when it issued a guilty verdict for a sovereign State without credible evidence. The American draft resolution represents an identical reproduction of all of the former Mechanism's flawed working methods. The new mechanism would conduct investigations as it sees fit, with no reference to the standards of the Chemical Weapons Convention. That has nothing to do with independence, which the draft resolution's sponsors and its closest allies only pretend to care about. We know the worth of such independence. It is true anarchy and manipulation. At every stage of our work on the American initiative we have insisted that the Secretary-General should select the staff for the investigative mechanism on the basis of the broadest possible geographic representation, with subsequent approval by the Security Council. Visits to the sites of the incidents and strict adherence to the principle of sequential actions while ensuring the preservation of the material evidence should be not optional but mandatory working principles. In a collective decision, the Security Council would determine who was responsible in any given case of the use of chemical weapons, based on reliable evidence that would leave no room for doubt about the correctness of the conclusions. There is nothing about this in the American draft resolution. The authors know that it goes against the Russian position and will not be adopted. But they are obstinately sticking to their line. It is clear that today's provocative step has nothing to do with a desire to investigate what happened in Douma, Syria, on 7 April. An attributive mechanism is not necessary in order to initially establish the facts. Even if we could conceive of the improbable scenario in which the draft resolution creating the mechanism was adopted today, it would take several months to put the mechanism together and fine-tune its operations. Establishing who is to blame is the final link in a very long chain of actions. Here, in front of everyone, I would once again like to ask the sponsors why they need the mechanism when they have already identified the guilty parties before the investigation. They do not need it. They do not want to hear anything. They do not want to hear that no traces of a chemical attack were found in Douma. They have simply been looking for an excuse the whole time, and the provocateurs among the White Helmets have very kindly provided it. This is all reminiscent of a kind of spring fever. Exactly a year ago, in April 2017, a similar scenario unrolled with the chemical provocation in Khan Shaykhun, followed by a missile strike. The fact is that the authors of the draft resolution are motivated by completely different priorities. They have pinned their hopes on the assumption that the draft resolution will not be adopted. That is what they want, and it is something that they can bank along with the rest of their reasons justifying the use of force against Syria. For several days now, the Administration in Washington, D.C., has been keeping the international community in suspense while discussing the so-called important decisions being prepared. Only yesterday we heard how anxiously Special Envoy Staffan de Mistura spoke about the current escalation extending beyond Syria's borders (see S/PV.8225), and we know that the Secretary-General is also very concerned about that. It is clear that Russia will once again be the target of the propaganda cannons. My American colleague will painstakingly enumerate the Russian vetoes on Syria. It is not impossible that she has taken upon herself a capitalist commitment to using the reckless policies of the United States to achieve some sort of personal record in that regard. We are using the veto to protect international law, peace and security and to ensure that the United States does not to drag the Security Council into its misadventures. The United States representative says that we are covering up for someone. Russia is in Syria at the invitation of its lawful Government in order to combat international terrorism, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, while the United States is covering up for militias and terrorists. If the United States has decided to carry out an illegal military venture — and we still hope that it will think better of it — it must answer for that itself. It wants to dump this draft resolution, which has been sitting on the shelf for a long time, onto the Security Council in order to find a pretext. The United States representative 10/04/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8228 18-10187 5/21 herself has said repeatedly that if the Council does not make a decision, the United States will make a decision on its own. Why is the suta purposely undermining the Council's authority by promoting a draft resolution that we know will not go through? And a lot of people said that yesterday during consultations. We urge the Americans to give sober consideration to the potential this presents for confrontation, to think better of it and to withdraw its draft resolution from a vote. Russia cannot support it. The President (spoke in Spanish): I shall first put to the vote the draft resolution contained in document S/2018/321, submitted by Canada, France, the Netherlands, Peru, Poland, Sweden, Turkey, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America. A vote was taken by show of hands. In favour: Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, France, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Netherlands, Peru, Poland, Sweden, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and United States of America Against: Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Russian Federation Abstaining: China The President (spoke in Spanish): The draft resolution received 12 votes in favour, 2 against and 1 abstention. The draft resolution has not been adopted, owing to the negative vote of a permanent member of the Council. I shall now give the floor to those members of the Council who wish to make statements following the voting. Ms. Pierce (United Kingdom): This is a sad day for the Security Council; it is a sad day for the cause of universal norms and standards; and it is a sad day for the non-proliferation regime. But, above all, it is a very sad day for the people of Douma, who now are without the protection that the international system was set up to provide for them. This is the fourth time in six days that the Council has discussed chemical weapons. Yesterday 14 members of the Security Council called for an investigation. Several members called on the permanent five (P-5) to assume their responsibilities to uphold the universal prohibition on weapons of mass destruction (WMD). As a P-5 member, the United Kingdom was ready to do that and was joined by France and the United States. Conversely, by vetoing, Russia has crossed a line in the international order, and worse, if possible, history is repeating itself one year on from Khan Shaykun. Russia helped to create the original independent investigation that attributed Khan Shaykun to the Syrian regime and concluded that sarin, which can be developed only by a State actor, had been used. But last autumn, Russia vetoed renewal of that mechanism on not one but three occasions. The reason is clear: it is because Russia would rather cross the WMD line than risk sanction of its ally Syria. Instead, we are asked to believe that the Russian version of this latest attack should be the one that the Security Council believes. Russia is not authorized by the Security Council to carry out an investigation in Syria. Russia says that there were no traces of a chemical attack. No traces were found by whom? I repeat: Russia is not authorized to carry out an investigation on behalf of the Security Council. We need an independent investigative mechanism for that purpose, and only that sort of mechanism can have the confidence of the Security Council, the confidence of the membership of the United Nations and the confidence of the people of Syria. Sadly, reports of chemical-weapon attacks in Syria have continued since the original Russian veto, in November. It has become very clear that Russia will do what it takes to protect Syria, whatever the compelling evidence of the crimes committed, and to shut down further investigation and discussion of those crimes. This has come at the cost of Russia's own obligations and credibility as a permanent member of the Council, as a State party to the Chemical Weapons Convention and as a declared and supposed supporter of peace in Syria. The Security Council has been unable to act solely because Russia has abused the power of veto to protect Syria from international scrutiny for the use of chemical weapons against the Syrian people. Even today open-source investigations have located a chlorine cylinder, the same kind that the Joint Investigative Mechanism has found that the Syrian regime used, atop a house in Douma full of people who had clearly died from respiratory problems. S/PV.8228 The situation in the Middle East 10/04/2018 6/21 18-10187 I frankly doubt that in 48 hours Russia has verified all similar reports and can conclude that they are all fake. They are not fake; they need to be looked at and investigated by a proper independent mechanism such as the Council was prepared today to pass. Russia's credibility as a member of the Council is now in question. We will not stand idly by and watch Russia continue to undermine the global norms that have ensured the security of all of us, including Russia, for decades. As a P-5 member, the United Kingdom will stand up for international peace and security; it is our moral duty. It is a matter of shame that Russia has once again blocked a draft resolution. The Russian Ambassador mentioned that it was not a question of counting the number of Russian vetoes. I beg to differ. To quote Lenin, quantity has a quality all of its own. Russia's actions today are a step against the rules and authority of the Security Council and the wider United Nations. They are a step against international peace and security and non-proliferation, and they are a step against humanity. Mr. Wu Haitao (China) (spoke in Chinese): China is deeply concerned at reports that the use of chemical weapons has caused civilian deaths and casualties in Syria. We are firmly opposed to the use of chemical weapons by any country, organization or individual, under any circumstances. This has been China's clear and consistent position. China supports the carrying out of a comprehensive, objective and impartial investigation into the use of chemical weapons in Syria so as to achieve results that are based on substantial evidence and can pass the litmus test of history and truth, bringing the perpetrators and the parties responsible for the use of chemical weapons to justice. There should be no prejudgment of the outcome or arbitrary conclusions. The Security Council has a consensus on condemning the chemical-weapons attacks in Syria, establishing a new investigative mechanism and identifying the perpetrators of the chemical-weapon attack in Syria. All members of the Security Council should remain united and insist that the Council and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons be the main channel for dealing with the Syrian chemical-weapon issue, in an effort to seek an appropriate solution through consultations. The draft resolution that was just put to the vote in the Security Council (S/2018/321) had elements of consensus, including condemning the chemical-weapons attacks in Syria, establishing a new investigative mechanism and urging all parties to cooperate with the investigation. However, on some specific measures, it does not take full consideration of some of the major concerns of certain Security Council members on improving the mechanism's working methods and ensuring an objective and impartial investigation. Against that backdrop and in the light of our long-standing position on the question of chemical weapons in Syria, China abstained in the voting on the draft resolution. The issue of Syria is currently at a critical juncture. China remains firmly seized of the situation and is deeply concerned at the developments on the ground. China has always called for respecting the sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity of Syria and insists on seeking a peaceful solution to the dispute. We oppose the use or threat of force in international relations and believe that any action taken should be in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. The international community and all parties concerned should stand firm on the imperative need to seek a political solution to the question of Syria, step up their support for the United Nations main channel of mediation, and push for all Syrian parties to seek a Syrian-led and Syrian-owned political solution to the question of Syria, in accordance with resolution 2254 (2015). China is ready to work with all parties in an effort to push for a political solution to the issue of Syria. Mr. Tanoh-Boutchoue (Côte d'Ivoire) (spoke in French): My delegation voted in favour of the draft resolution initiated by the United States (S/2018/321) for two main reasons. With regard to the first reason, Côte d'Ivoire believes that the draft resolution conforms to our firm belief that any and all use of chemical weapons in wartime as in peacetime must be condemned and requires investigation to determine those responsible for such acts to hold them accountable. In that regard, the draft resolution submitted by the United States clearly conveys the resolve of the international community to see perpetrators of chemical attacks identified and prosecuted so that they are accountable for their acts. Concerning the second reason, Côte d'Ivoire believes that the text of the draft resolution provides 10/04/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8228 18-10187 7/21 guarantees with regard to the credibility of the outcome of investigations. The text insulates such investigations from any political influence and clears a path for the experts' professionalism and independence and the impartiality of the mechanism itself. By voting in favour of the draft resolution, the Ivorian delegation wanted to show its solidarity with Syrian victims who are suffering from the consequences of an endless war and to help meaningfully safeguard international peace and security. Sadly, my delegation notes that divisiveness within the Security Council prevented the adoption of the American draft resolution, which Côte d'Ivoire painfully regrets. It is time that efforts be made to unify the Council if we want truly to work to achieve international peace and security. Mr. Radomski (Poland): The use of chemical weapons is a serious atrocity, which may amount to a crime against humanity and a war crime. Accountability for such acts is a requirement under international law — and central to achieving sustainable peace in Syria. Draft resolution S/2018/321, presented by the United States, addressed the most pressing needs related to the use of chemical weapons in Syria, including the role of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons and its Fact-finding Mission, securing humanitarian access and, last but not least, creating a new, truly independent and impartial accountability mechanism. We thank the American delegation for its ongoing leadership in the negotiations. We appreciate its flexibility and fully understand and share the rationale behind putting this text to the vote today. Because of the use of the veto by the Russian Federation, the Security Council failed once again today to establish an accountability mechanism. By that act, Russia undermined the ability of the Council to fulfil its primary responsibility under the Charter of the United Nations: to maintain international peace and security. We are disappointed that, for some States, political alliances and calculations proved to be more important than the need to end the horrors confronting the civilian population and the unacceptable loss of human life in Syria. Poland supports the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, the Impartial and Independent Mechanism to Assist in the Investigation and Prosecution of Persons Responsible for the Most Serious Crimes under International Law Committed in the Syrian Arab Republic since March 2011, the International Partnership against Impunity for the Use of Chemical Weapons, and other instruments that might facilitate bringing the perpetrators of chemical attacks to justice. We will join all genuine efforts to achieve that goal. Mr. Llorentty Solíz (Plurinational State of Bolivia) (spoke in Spanish): Bolivia reiterates in the strongest terms its categorical condemnation of the use of chemical weapons and the weaponization of chemical agents as an unjustifiable and criminal act, wherever, whenever and by whomever they are committed, as such use constitutes a serious crime under international law and a threat to international peace and security. There is no justification for their use regardless of the circumstances and of who uses them. We therefore reaffirm the need to maintain the unity of the Security Council so as to ensure that those who have used chemical weapons are held accountable and brought to justice so that their actions do not go unpunished. In that regard, we reiterate our support for the work being carried out by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons and its Fact-finding Mission so that, in line with their mandates, they can carry out the work entrusted to them in the most methodical, technical and trustworthy manner possible with the support of an independent, impartial, complete and conclusive investigation. We firmly reiterate that the work of an investigative mechanism is essential to ensuring accountability for such terrible acts. To that end, it must be independent, impartial and representative so that a transparent, impartial, complete, reliable and conclusive investigation can be carried out, and, for that to happen, we face the great challenge and the responsibility of not politicizing or instrumentalizing the Security Council. My delegation voted against the draft resolution (S/2018/321) presented by the United States of America, first of all, because we regret that once again a draft resolution was put to the vote with the knowledge that it would not be adopted by the Security Council, and, moreover, because there has already been a series of threats of the use of force accompanied by threats of unilateral action, which, of course, runs directly counter to the Charter of the United Nations. Bolivia once again makes clear its firm rejection of taking unilateral actions, because any unilateral military action that does not enjoy the approval of the Security Council is entirely illegal and contravenes the principles explicitly set forth in the Charter. In addition, any unilateral S/PV.8228 The situation in the Middle East 10/04/2018 8/21 18-10187 military action would violate the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Arab Republic of Syria, and would affect the stability of the political process and the agreements on which progress has been made under the auspices of the United Nations. Mr. Van Oosterom (Netherlands): In my statement yesterday (see S/PV.8225) I urged the Security Council not to stand idly by and watch as a spectator while chemical weapons were being used in Syria. In our opinion, the Council should act, condemn, protect, and hold to account those responsible. Those elements are all reflected in draft resolution (S/2018/321) put forward by the United States, and that is why the Kingdom of the Netherlands voted in favour of that draft resolution. We thank the United States delegation for drafting the text. We appreciate the earlier rounds of negotiations and the flexibility displayed at yesterday's late-night round. Together with others, we are extremely disappointed that an attempt to set up an effective mechanism of attribution on the use of chemical weapons has failed once again. Today we witnessed the twelfth overall Russian use of the veto concerning Syria, including six pertaining to chemical weapons. As I said yesterday, if the Russian representative claims that the chemical-weapons attack in Syria is a fabrication, he should not veto the draft resolution. By vetoing this draft resolution, the Russian Federation assumes a heavy responsibility for continued impunity and the horrible use of chemical weapons in Syria. Because of this permanent member, the Council is not even able to condemn the use of chemical-weapons attacks this past weekend in Douma, during which the White Helmets once again demonstrated their unwavering commitment to their life-saving work in the most difficult circumstances. With regard to the draft resolution proposed by the Russian Federation (S/2018/175), the Netherlands will vote against it. That draft resolution falls short in every possible way. It seems that the Russian Federation is unable to support an independent and impartial investigative mechanism. It seems that it can accept a mechanism only in which itself can decide when, where, how and by whom the investigation would be conducted, while leaving the mandate attributed to the Council subject to its veto. This cannot be the end of the issue. The Security Council cannot remain passive in the face of the atrocities being committed in Syria. We must continue to work for an effective attribution mechanism, inside and outside the Security Council. Impunity must not prevail. The President (spoke in Spanish): The Security Council is ready to proceed to the vote on the draft resolution contained in document S/2018/175, submitted by the Russian Federation. I shall now give the floor to those members of the Council who wish to make statements before the voting. Mr. Nebenzia (Russian Federation) (spoke in Russian): Before I speak about the draft resolution before us (S/2018/175), I would like to say that I am very happy that my British colleague is familiar with the classic works of Marxism-Leninism, although that is hardly surprising, because Marx, Engels and Lenin were frequent visitors to London — indeed, Marx is buried there. But I would like to cite another quotation from Lenin, who wrote an article entitled "Better Fewer, but Better". After the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons-United Nations Joint Investigative Mechanism (JIM) on the use of chemical weapons in Syria ended, in November of last year, it was Russia that found itself in the forefront of the efforts to fill the resulting gap. We drafted a resolution on the issue that we submitted to our colleagues for their consideration on 23 January. The Western camp immediately gave the draft text a hostile reception, since it eliminated the loopholes that enabled investigations to be manipulated and handed over to the control of the opponents of Damascus, as occurred with the JIM and which was the reason for its premature demise. I want to emphasize that we have not invented anything new in our text, but have merely brought the principles for the work of the new mechanism in line with the standards of the Chemical Weapons Convention. We now have a real opportunity to create a genuinely independent and impartial working mechanism that would help the Security Council to identify those responsible for the use of chemical weapons in the context of the conflict in Syria. All that it needs is for Council members to vote in favour of our draft resolution, and we call on them to do that. The President (spoke in Spanish): I shall now put to the vote the draft resolution contained in document S/2018/175, submitted by the Russian Federation. A vote was taken by show of hands. 10/04/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8228 18-10187 9/21 In favour: Bolivia (Plurinational State of), China, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Kazakhstan, Russian Federation Against: France, Netherlands, Peru, Poland, Sweden, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America Abstaining: Côte d'Ivoire, Kuwait The President (spoke in Spanish): The draft resolution received 6 votes in favour, 7 votes against and 2 abstentions. The draft resolution was not adopted, having failed to obtain the required number of votes. I shall now give the floor to those members of the Council who wish to make statements following the voting. Ms. Pierce (United Kingdom): As I have taken the floor once today already, I will be brief. With regard to Karl Marx, I think he must be turning in his grave to see what the country that was founded on many of his precepts is doing in the name of supporting Syria by condoning the use of chemical weapons on Syrian territory. We voted against the Russian draft resolution (S/2018/175) for a number of reasons. The Russian text is a distraction. It has lain dormant around the Security Council for weeks. There was no attempt to meet other Council members' concerns in its drafting, unlike the United States text (S/2018/321), which had adapted its original preferences precisely to try to meet those of the Russian Federation and others. The Russian text does nothing to bring a political process any closer. Specifically, it moves the parameters on access and imparts a quasi-judicial standard — "beyond a reasonable doubt" — that is inappropriate for the type of investigation that the Council wishes to establish. If the Russians want a criminal investigation, they could always suggest that we refer the matter to the International Criminal Court. Furthermore, there is selective quoting of the Chemical Weapons Convention to undermine the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons-United Nations Joint Investigative Mechanism, and it takes a selective approach to the parameters of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. But, above all, the text is unacceptable because it seeks to assert that sovereign States are above international law and international norms. That is breathtaking both in its arrogance and its ignorance, and for that reason alone, if not the others, we could not support it. Mrs. Haley (United States of America): Yesterday I said that history will record this moment (see S/PV.8225) as one when we as the Security Council either lived up to our responsibilities or showed our complete failure to protect the Syrian people. Today we have our answer. The votes have been cast. The record will show that today some countries decided to stand up for truth, accountability and justice for the Syrian people. Most countries saw the horror that took place in Douma last weekend at the hands of the Al-Assad regime and realize that today was a time for action. Month after month, the Al-Assad regime, with the full support of Russia and Iran, has strung the Security Council along. They ignored our calls for a ceasefire, for political dialogue and for deliveries of humanitarian aid. They ignored our calls to stop using chemical weapons — weapons that are universally banned from war. And then, last weekend, the Al-Assad regime forced a moment of reckoning on all of us by gassing people in Douma. The United States and the countries that joined us today could not allow that attack to go unanswered. The record will not be kind to one permanent member of the Council. Unfortunately, Russia has again chosen the Al-Assad regime over the unity of the Security Council. We have said before that Russia will stop at nothing to shield the Al-Assad regime, and now we have our answer. Russia has trashed the credibility of the Council. It is not interested in unity or compromise. Whenever we propose anything meaningful to Russia, Russia vetoes it. It is a travesty. It has now officially vetoed draft resolutions that would hold Al-Assad accountable for these barbaric chemical attacks six times. Things did not have to turn out this way. For weeks, the United States has led transparent, good-faith negotiations with all Security Council members to establish an attribution mechanism for chemical weapons in Syria. We started from the simple premise that every Council member would want to know who was responsible for using those barbaric and illegal weapons. We did everything to accommodate Russia's views. Russia surprised us with a proposed draft resolution (S/2018/175), calling all of us into the S/PV.8228 The situation in the Middle East 10/04/2018 10/21 18-10187 Security Council Chamber and handing out the draft text on the spot. After hearing widespread concerns about its draft resolution, Russia moved ahead anyway, accommodating no one's views. We could have done the same, but instead we tried to take as much as we could from Russia's draft text, while maintaining an impartial and independent process. We negotiated in good faith. Many aspects of our draft resolutions were similar. Russia said that the investigators should have safe access to the places where chemical weapons were used. We agreed. Russia said that it wanted an impartial, independent and professional investigation. We agreed. Russia said that the investigators should be recruited on as wide a geographical basis as possible. We agreed. Russia said that it wanted reports on the activities of non-State actors involving chemical weapons. Although that sounded to us like an attempt to distract from the Al-Assad regime, we included Russia's request. We even gave our mechanism the name that Russia wanted — the United Nations independent mechanism of investigation. There were really only two key differences between our draft resolution and that of Russia, but those differences speak volumes. First, Russia wanted to give itself the opportunity to approve the investigators who were chosen for the task. Secondly, Russia wanted the Security Council to assess the findings of any investigation before any report was released. Does any of that sound independent or impartial? Russia's proposal was not about an independent and impartial investigation at all. It was all about protecting the Al-Assad regime. This is a sad day. The United States takes no pleasure in seeing Russia exercise its sixth veto on the issue of chemical weapons in Syria. Only last week, we had hoped that the one-year anniversary of the Khan Shaykun attack might be the start of a renewed partnership to combat chemical weapons. However, those deadly weapons have been used on Syrian families again. When the people of Douma, along with the rest of the international community, looked to the Council to act, one country stood in the way. History will record that. History will record that, on this day, Russia chose to protect a monster over the lives of the Syrian people. Mr. Wu Haitao (China) (spoke in Chinese): China has stated its principled position on the chemical weapons attack in Syria. The draft resolution on the establishment of a new investigative mechanism submitted by the Russian Federation (S/2018/175) condemns the chemicals weapons attack in Syria and calls for the creation of a new investigative mechanism to establish the facts and the truth. We can all agree on those positive elements. In addition, it proposes improved working methods compared to previous investigative mechanism and set out concrete steps to carry out a robust on-site investigation on the ground and to ensure impartiality in the process of collecting evidence. As a result, the new investigative mechanism would be able to function with greater professionalism and to reach a truly credible conclusion. Those elements are in line with China's principled position. We support Russia's draft resolution. China regrets that the draft resolution was not adopted. Mr. Ndong Mba (Equatorial Guinea) (spoke in Spanish): I am taking the floor following the voting on the two draft resolutions (S/2018/175 and S/2018/321) above all to express our frustration over the fact that the Security Council was not able to adopt either the first or the second draft, which sought to give the Council an independent and professional mechanism with a mandate to attribute responsibility for the use of chemical weapons, despite the fact that all Security Council members expressed their desire in that regard. That is precisely why we voted in favour of both draft resolutions in the hope of having a new monitoring mechanism to attribute responsibility so as to protect people from the terrible and harmful effects of such chemical weapons. Despite the negative outcome of the voting on both draft resolutions, the Government of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea, whose position on the use of chemical weapons we have clearly set out during the debates on the issue, wants the members of the Security Council to seek and to explore other alternative draft texts that could merit the joint agreement or the consensus of the Security Council so that we can establish that new mechanism as soon as possible. That is what the people who are suffering, or in the future may suffer, the terrible effects of chemical weapons hope and expect of the Security Council. Mr. Alemu (Ethiopia): It is indeed regrettable that the Council could not adopt a resolution to establish a new mechanism that would identify those responsible 10/04/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8228 18-10187 11/21 for the use of chemical weapons in Syria. Establishing such a tool would have sent a quick and unified message regarding the resolve of the Council not to tolerate impunity. That is how we view the defeat of both draft resolutions (S/2018/175 and S/2018/321). However, we were not at all surprised. We voted in favour of both draft resolutions, consistent with our position in reaffirming the importance of setting up an independent, impartial and professional investigative mechanism with a view to ensuring accountability. No doubt, such a mechanism would clearly have addressed the existing institutional gap in that regard, which continues to be a source of major weakness in the fight against impunity. Both draft resolutions sought the establishment of such a mechanism. Clearly, there are differences, among others, concerning some aspects of the accountability mechanism. We believe that we have come some distance in bridging those differences. It would have been a major achievement, both functionally and from the point of view of enhancing trust, which is so greatly needed in order to address the challenge not only of ensuring non-proliferation but also of advancing the cause of international peace and security. That was why we were hoping that we could achieve consensus on the matter and unity within the Council. Frankly speaking, we do not like what we see. At the risk of sounding self-righteous — and the challenge that we face makes taking the risk appropriate — we must say that we are deeply disappointed about the situation that we are in. Since we have no alternative, it remains important that we all persevere in continuing our dialogue and supporting the efforts to ensure unity, without which the Council will not be in a position to discharge its principal responsibility of maintaining international peace and security, in particular repairing the damage to the chemical weapons disarmament and non-proliferation regime. Yesterday, we expressed our concern about the difficult situation we are currently facing (see S/PV.8225). We do not wish to repeat what we said, but allow me to state in closing that we look forward to handling the issue of the alleged use of chemical weapons in Douma, eastern Damascus, with a greater sense of responsibility. That is how we intend to look at the draft resolution from Russia before us, a draft which, in our view, is relatively similar to the draft resolution informally made available by Sweden yesterday, whenever the Council is ready to handle it. Mr. Alotaibi (Kuwait) (spoke in Arabic): I support the statement in explanation of vote on the American draft resolution (S/2018/321) made earlier in the meeting by the representative of the United Kingdom, who said that today is actually a sad day. It is a sad day for the non-proliferation regime, and a sad day for civilians — particularly women, children and the elderly — throughout Syria, and specifically Douma in eastern Ghouta. We ask their forgiveness because we have disappointed them once again. The Council has been unable to establish a mechanism that would hold accountable those who commit crimes by using chemical weapons in Syria. We ask their forgiveness because the Council has been unable to put an end to the serious and gross violations of international humanitarian law, human rights law and many Security Council resolutions condemning the use of chemical weapons in Syria. We ask their forgiveness because the Council has been unable to hold to account the perpetrators of crimes related to the use of chemical weapons in Syria. Our position has always been clear. We have called for consensus in the Council on this sensitive issue, which touches on accountability and impunity. We voted in favour of the United States draft resolution because it contains the basic elements that we think are necessary to establish any new accountability mechanism in Syria in order to guarantee its independence, neutrality and professionalism. The mechanism would identify the perpetrators responsible for any chemical attack, and then the Security Council would shoulder its responsibility in terms of sanctions. We abstained in the voting on the draft resolution presented by the Russian Federation (S/2016/175) because it did not include the elements to which I have referred. It would undermine the credibility of the new mechanism by depriving it of its fundamental terms of reference, namely, to determine whoever is responsible in the event of attacks using chemical weapons. We are very concerned about the result of voting today because it will encourage parties to the conflict to continue using chemical weapons in the absence of accountability. Kuwait supported the code of conduct whereby the States members of the Security Council would commit to not opposing draft resolutions dealing with crimes against humanity, genocide and war crimes. We also S/PV.8228 The situation in the Middle East 10/04/2018 12/21 18-10187 supported the French-Mexican initiative on abstention in the use of the veto in cases of human rights violations. As a result of the voting today, and based on our commitment to abiding by the four Geneva Conventions and their two Additional Protocols, international humanitarian law and the final outcome of 2016 World Humanitarian Summit, we call again for crimes against humanity and war crimes, as well as humanitarian issues, to receive due attention. That would include allowing the safe and sustainable delivery of humanitarian assistance and medical evacuations, and preventing the siege of residential areas. These should be treated as procedural issues; they should not be subject to a veto so that such human tragedies and sufferings are never repeated. Mr. Skoog (Sweden): Like everyone else, we deeply regret that today the Council was prevented once again from establishing a responsibility-attribution mechanism for the purpose of impartially identifying the perpetrators and organizers of the use of chemical weapons in Syria. I am sure we all share a sense of very tragic déjà vu as we repeat the scenario the Council faced in November when the renewal of the mandate of the Joint Investigative Mechanism was blocked. However — and I apologize to all of those who are tired of hearing me say this — we will not give up. Efforts to reach an agreement on a responsibility-attribution mechanism must continue, and we support all serious and genuine initiatives that aim to achieve this objective. We stand ready to help facilitatory efforts to find a way forward. Accountability for the use of chemical weapons is crucial. As we have stated before, the Syrian people suffering from more than seven years of conflict deserve no less from us. They want peace and justice, not further military escalation or impunity. A collective response to the most recent alleged chemical weapons attack in Douma therefore remains urgent and critical. The credibility of the Council is at stake. We must now come together to swiftly condemn the use of chemical weapons in Syria and express alarm at the alleged attack in Douma. We must support an immediate and further investigation through the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, and we must demand full, free and safe access without any restrictions or impediments to the fact-finding mission in its immediate deployment to Syria. Establishing the facts of what has taken place in Douma remains an essential first step towards confirming the alleged use of chemical weapons and finding the truth, and we need independent, impartial attribution of guilt followed by full accountability. The Council must remain seized and live up to its responsibility. That is why we circulated yesterday a draft text aimed at finding common ground. We stand ready to work tirelessly to find agreement on a robust, swift and immediate response. We need to come back together again after the failure that we have just witnessed. Mr. Tumysh (Kazakhstan): Our position remains unchanged and consistent. Due to well-known historical reasons, Kazakhstan has always taken a firm and resolute stance of uncompromising condemnation of any use of weapons of mass destruction, including chemical weapons. We do so as that is an extremely heinous action and an unacceptable war crime. We have also been in support of attaching paramount importance to the creation of a new investigative mechanism. That has been strongly reiterated, and we have pressed for its urgency. Impunity for chemical crimes is not acceptable. It sends the wrong signal to those who continue to use or intend to use such an extremely heinous weapon. However, in order to punish anyone, we must be able to prove guilt completely and irrefutably. In that regard, the creation of a full-fledged, impartial and independent investigative tool is of the utmost necessity for all. We have worked in earnest with the delegations of the United States and the Russian Federation. We must recognize that the use of chemical weapons in Syria continues, along with the persistent threat of chemical terrorism, to present a grave reality. In addition, many allegations of the use of chemical agents in Syria are still undisclosed. Based on the aforementioned circumstances and understanding the need to preserve this mechanism, we supported both draft resolutions intended to create new investigative mechanisms. We urge that we all work together for the maintenance and strengthening of international peace and security. Mr. Llorentty Solíz (Plurinational State of Bolivia) (spoke in Spanish): This meeting is an interesting one from a variety of perspectives. One is that Lenin and Marx, two anti-imperialists, have been invoked more than once. What we have seen today is related to that topic. It is a fact that all empires are under the illusion that they are morally superior to the rest of us, that they believe themselves to be exceptional and indispensable and that they are above the law. In this, as in other cases, they do not seek to advance democracy or 10/04/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8228 18-10187 13/21 freedom, but rather ultimately to expand their power and domination worldwide. What we have seen today is a sad reflection of what is happening on the battlefield in Syria and of those interests. I would like to echo the words of the Swedish Ambassador in urging the Security Council not to rest until we are united and can reach consensus, if indeed we believe in the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations. It is the Charter, and whether the members of the Council can fulfil it, that is ultimately at stake. One of our responsibilities under it is to refrain from taking unilateral action. We hope that principle will be honoured. The President (spoke in Spanish): The Council is ready to proceed to the vote on the draft resolution contained in document S/2018/322, submitted by the Russian Federation. I shall now give the floor to those members of the Council who wish to make statements before the voting. Mr. Nebenzia (Russian Federation) (spoke in Russian): We too are sorry that our draft resolution (S/2018/175) was not adopted today, but at the moment neither it nor the United States draft resolution (S/2018/321) would have had any influence on the investigation of the alleged incident in Douma. Right now, that is not what they are about. There is no need to mislead anybody by saying that, or that there were intensive consultations on the American draft resolution but not on ours, or that most of our amendments were supposedly taken into account. Our colleagues will now tell the press that we vetoed their resolution, while modestly remaining silent about the fact that just as with the draft resolutions on the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons-United Nations Joint Investigative Mechanism, they also vetoed ours. Yesterday, during the meeting on threats to international peace and security (see S/PV.8225), there was an emotional discussion of the event, or the alleged event, in Douma on 7 April. Based on the results of the inspection conducted by our specialists, we said that a chemical attack could not be confirmed. Nonetheless, we advocated for the speediest possible investigation of all of the circumstances by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) and affirmed our willingness to facilitate its work on the ground. The Government of Syria has sent the OPCW an official request that such a mission be dispatched to Douma as soon as possible. Yesterday, the Swedish delegation put forward a fairly constructive text for a corresponding draft resolution. Unfortunately, their initiative was undeveloped and was trampled down thanks to the confrontational efforts of the United States and its closest allies, which had decided to shift the focus away from the issue of an investigation of what happened on 7 April. That is understandable, because they have already identified the guilty parties. As far as they are concerned, the so-called regime, along with Russia and Iran, is always to blame for everything. The investigation does not interest them. Well, sometimes it does, but only if it is based on so-called exclusive data from the opposition's social networks. For the hundredth time, I would like to ask the same question yet again. Can someone here explain clearly and plainly why Damascus needed this alleged chemical attack in Douma in principle, especially since practically all of the militias had evacuated Douma by then? And the militias who were still being evacuated on 8 April knew nothing about the alleged occurrence of this chemical attack. I will answer my own question. The provocation was desperately needed by the militias who received that very timely support from the United States and other Western countries. We decided to develop the Swedish initiative, and our draft resolution notes the Syrian Government's invitation to the OPCW Fact-finding Mission to visit the site of the alleged event without delay. It welcomes the decision of the Director-General of the OPCW Technical Secretariat to send the Mission to Syria in order to conduct investigative work in line with Chemical Weapons Convention standards. It takes into account the guarantees of safe access provided by the Syrian authorities and Russian military forces. Fifteen days later, the Secretary-General would submit the first report to the Security Council. This is a strictly practical, non-confrontational and depoliticized initiative in support of the OPCW, which would help the specialists in this area determine what did, or rather did not, take place in Douma. And that is the priority now, not the draft resolution on a United Nations independent investigative mechanism, which was hastily submitted for a vote with the obvious aim of seeing both draft resolutions vetoed. We hope that Council members will give this initiative their unanimous support so that the process can begin as soon as possible. According to our information, two S/PV.8228 The situation in the Middle East 10/04/2018 14/21 18-10187 expert groups from the OPCW Fact-finding Mission should leave for Syria by the end of this week. Whatever the excuse that may be given, if the experts do not reach Douma because they have been prevented by those who continue to speculate about the chemical issue in order to smear Syria and Russia, that will be yet another piece of evidence showing that behind this thoroughly false story are dirty geopolitical games and, what is worse, aggressive military plans capable of reversing the positive trend in the resolution of Syria's conflict and inflicting a painful blow on a region already tormented by adventurist assaults. We are witnessing all of that literally in real time. We request that you put this draft resolution to a vote, Mr. President. Mr. Skoog (Sweden): We want swift and resolute action today, and we want the Security Council to shoulder its collective responsibility. But I am not sure that we have exhausted all the avenues that could get us there, nor am I sure that voting on this new Russian draft resolution (S/2018/322) will get us there either. We feel that we are at a very fragile stage of Council deliberations right now, and we need to reflect carefully on the way forward to ensure that we do not jump into further paralysis, with consequences that will be difficult to defend or repair. That is why I would like to ask you, Mr. President, to suspend the meeting right here and now so that we can all move into consultations and carefully and collectively reflect on the next step. The President (spoke in Spanish): The representative of the Russian Federation has asked to make a further statement. Mr. Nebenzia (Russian Federation) (spoke in Russian): We listened carefully to what the Permanent Representative of Sweden has just said. To be candid, we are somewhat puzzled by his statement, because the draft resolution that we submitted (S/2018/322) is, in essence, based on the same idea as the draft submitted yesterday by the Swedish delegation. I do not know what we are going to consult on in consultations. I believe we already consulted on this subject yesterday. However, out of respect for the Swedish delegation and those delegations who would like to hold consultations, we are not against that. But let me say right away that we intend to put this draft resolution to a vote today, after our consultations. We hope that the consultations will be constructive and will not drag on for long, because that is certainly not necessary at this point. We need to adopt this draft resolution in support of the mission of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in order to establish the facts on the ground as quickly as possible. The President (spoke in Spanish): If there is no objection, I will suspend the meeting. We will continue after our consultations. The meeting was suspended at 4.40 p.m. and resumed at 5.45 p.m. The President (spoke in Spanish): I shall now put to the vote the draft resolution contained in document S/2018/322, submitted by the Russian Federation. A vote was taken by show of hands. In favour: Bolivia (Plurinational State of), China, Ethiopia, Kazakhstan, Russian Federation Against: France, Poland, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America Abstaining: Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Kuwait, Netherlands, Peru, Sweden The President (spoke in Spanish): The result of the voting is as follows: 5 votes in favour, 4 against and 6 abstentions. The draft resolution was not adopted, having failed to obtain the required number of votes. I shall now give the floor to those members of the Council who wish to make statements following the voting. Ms. Pierce (United Kingdom): I will be brief. In the Consultations Room just now, Mr. President, you and the representative of Sweden made valiant attempts at a compromise. We all appreciate what is at stake and thank you for your and Sweden's efforts. But, fundamentally, the United Kingdom could not vote for the Russian text (S/2018/322) because it does not establish an investigation into who was responsible for the attack. It only welcomes the Fact-finding Mission, which is already on its way. I repeat what I said in consultations: the Fact-finding Mission determines whether chemical weapons were used and, if they were, which chemical weapons were used. It does not, and cannot, establish who was responsible for 10/04/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8228 18-10187 15/21 their use — and thus start on the first step on the path to attribution and accountability. For that reason, we are not able to support the text. It would be like watching a fire, identifying that there was a fire, and doing nothing to put it out. The Russians invited us to return to the issue of an investigative mechanism on a separate occasion. I am afraid that the answer to that is 17 November 2017, when Russia vetoed a joint investigative mechanism that it had itself decided to set up. For all those reasons, all it would have taken is a written decision for an investigation set up by the Security Council. Russia could not take that small step, and therefore we were not able to support the draft resolution. I very much regret that, but the answer was in Russia's hands. Mr. Wu Haitao (China) (spoke in Chinese): Recent reports concerning the use of chemical weapons in Douma and the consequent civilian casualties have given rise to serious concern on the part of the international community. China has noted that the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) has already asked its Fact-finding Mission in the Syrian Arab Republic to investigate the relevant reports. We support the OPCW in sending investigators to Syria so as to establish the truth. We call on all parties concerned to cooperate with the investigation. The draft resolution submitted by the Russian Federation (S/2018/322) expresses deep concern about the alleged use of chemical weapons in Douma on 7 April, strongly condemns the chemical-weapons attacks that took place in Syria and elsewhere, urges the OPCW Fact-finding Mission to carry out an on-site investigation, and provides that the Syrian Government and other parties will ensure the security of and safe access to investigators. The draft resolution is in keeping with China's principled position. China supports and voted in favour of the Russian draft resolution. Mr. Skoog (Sweden): We deeply regret that we have ended up here following a long day of serious efforts to move forward by some of us — I believe. We abstained in the voting on the Russian draft resolution (S/2018/322) a few moments ago because the attribution and accountability track, which we believe is important, lacked clarity. We called for consultations earlier because we felt that, provided there was political will, an opportunity remained for us to come together and shoulder our responsibility today. We put forward a draft resolution (S/2018/321) to all members that we felt was credible and assertive, and was intended to support the Fact-finding Mission of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. It was also very clear in its determination to establish an impartial, independent and professional investigative mechanism, and we had suggested that the Secretary-General help us recommend the best way forward in that area and give him 10 days to come back to the Council. I believe that would have been a much better way forward than where we are right now. I am therefore very disappointed that we have not been able to move forward on this. I thank all those members of the Security Council that were ready to engage, and I just hope that we do not consider this the end with regard to ensuring that the facts will be established and that there will be true accountability and no more impunity for the horrendous use of chemical weapons in Syria and elsewhere. Mr. Ndong Mba (Equatorial Guinea) (spoke in Spanish): I once again express the frustration of our delegation over this afternoon's negative outcome. We abstained in the voting on the third draft resolution (S/2018/322), first of all because it was submitted only very late today and, secondly, because it is lacking compared to the two previous draft resolutions on which we voted in favour (S/2018/175 and S/2018/321). We believe that we should ask the representative of Sweden, Mr. Olof Skoog, not to withdraw his proposal so that following this meeting — perhaps tomorrow afternoon — as was suggested during consultations, we can continue considering and analysing it to see whether we can agree to vote on the draft resolution once we have introduced amendments and reached a consensus on the text that he has presented. Mr. Radomski (Poland): Poland voted against the draft resolution (S/2018/322) presented by Russia. We believe that the draft resolution submitted originally by Sweden was an honest attempt to enable the Security Council to respond promptly to the horrific act of violence that occurred in eastern Ghouta on Saturday. To that end, the Security Council needs to re-establish a professional, truly independent and impartial accountability mechanism. The draft resolution proposed by the Russian Federation is missing that important provision. That is why we had to vote against it. S/PV.8228 The situation in the Middle East 10/04/2018 16/21 18-10187 Mrs. Haley (United States): I thank you, Sir, and members of the Security Council for what has been another frustrating day. My parents always said that you should always see the good in everyone and in everything. I have therefore been trying to figure out what the good is in Russia. I believe that it is very good at being consistent, and I believe that it is very good at playing games. We saw that when we took up the issue of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons-United Nations Joint Investigative Mechanism. Russia loved the Joint Investigative Mechanism until we found one side guilty, and then it decided that it did not want it. We then adopted the ceasefire, and Russia loved the idea of the ceasefire until Al-Assad had a problem with it and subsequently violated it. Today Russia vetoed for the sixth time a draft resolution (S/2018/321) condemning Al-Assad for chemical-weapons attacks on his own people. No matter what we do, Russia will be consistent. Russia will continue to play games, and once again it is putting forward yet another surprise draft resolution (S/2018/322). The first time that any of us saw it was today at 11 a.m. The Russians held no negotiations. It took no input, and, when Sweden asked that the Council be allowed to discuss the draft resolution, Russia allowed that but did not want any changes to it. There is a reason for which Russia did not want to discuss its resolution, and that is because it does not accomplish anything. The draft resolution mainly asks for the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) to send its Fact-finding Mission to Douma, but the Fact-finding Mission is already travelling to Douma. It already has a mandate to investigate and collect samples. What makes it worse is that Russia includes several provisions in its draft resolution that are deeply problematic and once again seeks to compromise the credibility of the international investigation. The draft resolution puts Russia and the Al-Assad regime itself in the driver seat for making arrangements for the Fact-finding Mission investigators. We are just supposed to trust that the same Government that says that everything concerning the Douma attack was fake will work in good faith with the OPCW. This draft resolution also tries to micromanage how the Fact-finding Mission should carry out its investigation, while dictating where the investigators should go. As we have always said, for an investigation to be credible and independent, the investigators must choose where they believe they should go. Members of the Council — least of all Russia — should not be calling the shots. For those reasons, the United States voted against the draft resolution. Mr. Alemu (Ethiopia): We voted in favour of the draft resolution (S/2018/322) because we saw value in its adoption as it offered, we thought, the possibility for the protection of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons Fact-finding Mission in the Syrian Arab Republic. Frankly, we tried to find weaknesses in the text. We could not. It is a matter-of-fact and uncomplicated draft resolution. We could not find any reason not to support it. Undoubtedly, it would not have made achieving attribution possible, but finding out whether chemical weapon were in fact used would have been a great achievement. Of course, so far the Russian position has been that there was no use of chemical weapons in Douma. Establishing the facts surrounding that assertion or position would have been a great achievement. We are not in a position to take advantage of the guarantee offered or the Council's strong support in that regard. We felt that the Fact-finding Mission needed the support. Mr. Nebenzia (Russian Federation) (spoke in Russian): Frankly speaking, I think all of us have seen everything for ourselves. Unfortunately, the failure to adopt draft resolution S/2018/322 really is a litmus test says a great deal and leaves us extremely apprehensive. We proposed a very innocuous draft resolution, which is moreover virtually a complete repeat of Sweden's draft text from yesterday. I find it difficult to understand which might be the parts where Mrs. Haley read between the lines to discover our scheming and our trickery. Perhaps the Permanent Representative of the United Kingdom answered that when she said that they could not adopt the Russian draft resolution — let us say it out loud — because it was a Russian draft resolution. Then everything was clear. The United States representative said that we are very good at playing games. I am not sure about that. What I am sure of is that she is very good at making threats, and the threats that the United States is making with regard to Syria should make us all extremely alarmed, because we may be standing on the threshold of some very sad and terrible events. I would once again like to ask the United States to refrain from executing the plans that it may be incubating for Syria. Unfortunately, the refusal of the United States to adopt the draft resolution speaks to the fact that our 10/04/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8228 18-10187 17/21 American partners and colleagues do not need any real investigation, which is something that we discussed earlier. We regret the fact that the draft resolution was not adopted, although it is true that the Fact-finding Mission will, I hope, reach Syria soon and be able to get to work on its principal mandate, which is establishing the facts about what really happened in Douma. To repeat what I have said once again, in all innocence, the Russian military and the Syrian Government will provide support to the mission in terms of ensuring its security. I hope that does not raise questions for anyone, because it is simply what must be done. We hope that the Mission will be able to make the trip effectively and without delay. Mr. Alotaibi (Kuwait) (spoke in Arabic): I would like to start by thanking Sweden for its efforts and attempts to achieve rapprochement and to smooth over the differences among the members of the Security Council. We are disappointed by the Council's inability to reach consensus on this important matter and by the fact that the divisions among Council members unfortunately continue. We abstained in the voting, despite the fact that the gist of draft resolution S/2018/322 calls for an investigation into what took place in Douma, which is what we called for. The investigation should be undertaken by an international, independent and impartial body, which in this case is the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). However, the OPCW Fact-finding Mission will go to Syria anyway, and the Council welcomed that fact yesterday. There is therefore no need for a draft resolution. What we are looking for is an international, independent, neutral and professional body or mechanism that would investigate the incident and identify the party that has used chemical weapons, if it indeed determines that chemical weapons have been used. That approach will enable the Council to hold the perpetrators accountable, in accordance with resolution 2118 (2013). Mr. Umarov (Kazakhstan): I thank everybody for today's very difficult and unfortunately unproductive day. We voted for the Russian Federation's draft resolution (S/2018/322) on sending a fact-finding mission of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) as soon as possible because, as we said yesterday in raising this very simple question, we need to know what happened on the ground. Yesterday we were also very clear when we said that there were different and conflicting reports about the number of casualties and even about the very fact that the chemical attack had taken place. We requested and supported the important proposal that a fact-finding mission should go to Douma to establish the facts on the ground. We are not talking right now about who did it, but we are talking about the fact of the event itself. We needed to understand what was there and what had happened there. Sending a fact-finding mission was very important to us and to all the delegations that do not have a presence there to understand the objective reality of the place. Even if the only information obtained is about the kind of substance that was used, that would be very useful for us to understand who the perpetrators might be and at the very least establish the fact that a chemical attack took place. In this kind of understanding, we very much support sending OPCW experts to investigate on the ground in order to give us information on which we can base an objective opinion about the situation. We are not taking sides here, and we were very clear about that yesterday. We would like to receive full, objective, transparent and unbiased information about the facts that we are addressing here. We are therefore glad that the OPCW is sending a group to Douma, regardless of the results of today's voting on draft resolutions. We are hopeful that we can at least get this preliminary information about the situation in Douma. I would like to say once again that we in the Security Council should be objective and base our decisions on the simple facts that may be presented to us by the independent organizations that will determine whether there was a chemical attack or not. Mr. Delattre (France) (spoke in French): After having vetoed a draft resolution that sought to shed full light on acts of violence involving chemical weapons (S/2018/175), including those that took place last weekend, Russia persists in a dual strategy of obstruction and diversion on the matter. The only aim of the draft text on which we have just voted (S/2018/322) was clearly to confuse the issue. It is not a question of disputing the importance of an independent investigation by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) into what happened in Douma on 7 April. That is essential, and the investigation has already been launched. However, the Russian draft resolution, which we had to vote against, did not meet the challenges. S/PV.8228 The situation in the Middle East 10/04/2018 18/21 18-10187 Let us be clear: what we lack today, and what Russia continues to reject, is a truly independent and impartial mechanism that can attribute responsibility in order to prevent impunity. That was the raison d'être for the OPCW-United Nations Joint Investigative Mechanism. With the establishment of the Joint Investigative Mechanism, set up with the involvement of Russia, we put in place a tool for the essential deterrence of perpetrators of chemical attacks. That is clearly what we lack today. Let us be clear in saying that statements are not enough and that the Russian draft resolution is only a smokescreen that falls well short of the urgent response that the Council should provide. That is why France voted against the draft resolution and why the draft resolution was not adopted. Today I reiterate that France will spare no effort to ensure that the perpetrators of those chemical horrors are identified and held to account in an independent and impartial way. The stakes are extremely high, and we will not give up. Mr. Van Oosterom (Netherlands): We abstained in the voting on the draft resolution (S/2018/322) because we had serious hesitations about the text, as it differed in some crucial aspects from the Swedish text put forward yesterday. First of all, the text makes it insufficiently clear that the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons Fact-finding Mission in the Syrian Arab Republic already has the mandate for on-site visits, as States have to comply with it. They do not need the Council's authorization. Secondly, the text is unduly restrictive. Paragraph 3 is not a correct reflection of the decision of the Director-General or of his existing mandate. The necessity of on-site investigations is up to the team to decide. My third point is that the fact-finding mission should be able to perform its mandate in complete independence. Fourthly, we do not want the precedent that Security Council authorization is needed for a fact-finding mission to do its work. We are convinced that those were issues that we could have solved if the draft resolution had been put forward for proper consultations. We received it this morning. We regret that those concerns could not be taken into account. My last point is that one colleague said that the litmus test of this evening, and of today, was the voting on this draft resolution. I disagree. The litmus test of today's meeting was the veto by one permanent member on the establishment of an effective attribution mechanism. Mr. Llorentty Solíz (Plurinational State of Bolivia) (spoke in Spanish): I shall be very brief. Bolivia voted in favour of the draft resolution (S/2018/322) for several reasons. One of those is that, although the nature of the events that have been condemned is unknown, the highest authorities of the Organization have pointed out that the United Nations is not is a position to verify the reports of such events. It is therefore essential to establish the truth by means of an independent and impartial investigation. Many of those reports come from non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and we know who finances those NGOs. Therefore, we must allow doubts with regard to such sources. Analysing the draft resolution submitted by the Russian Federation word by word, from the point of view of intellectual integrity, commitment to the Syrian people or international law, we found no reason to vote against the draft resolution. Nevertheless, what concerns us is what is being planned outside the structure of this edifice. While it was said today that Lenin and Marx would probably be turning in their graves, I do not know about that. But what is certain is that Churchill and Roosevelt, for example, are turning in their graves because, as founding fathers of the structure of this world order, they endowed the Security Council with the authority to use force to deal with threats to international peace and security. I am not sure that they would be very happy that the outcome of such events, without a full and conclusive investigation, is that some of its members undertake the unilateral use of force. In any case, we remain hopeful that the Security Council will shoulder its responsibility and that, through unity, it can help to identify the perpetrators of any attack against international peace and security, if that is the case. The President (spoke in Spanish): I shall now make a statement in my capacity as the representative of Peru. We regret that we were not able to achieve consensus this afternoon on a draft resolution with regard to the delicate situation in Syria. We underscore that the investigation being carried out on the use of chemical weapons must be complemented by an independent, impartial and professional mechanism that attributes 10/04/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8228 18-10187 19/21 responsibility. That is why we abstained in the voting on this occasion. We reiterate the need for the Security Council to regain its sense of unity on this very delicate subject so that it can fulfil its high responsibilities and thereby alleviate the suffering of the Syrian people. That is why we will continue to explore options on this important matter. I now resume my functions as President of the Council. I remind speakers of the content of presidential note S/2017/507 with regard to the length of statements. I now give the floor to the representative of the Syrian Arab Republic. Mr. Ja'afari (Syrian Arab Republic) (spoke in Arabic): I will give colleagues who are about to leave the Chamber some of my valuable time. They are afraid that I will beat them in the battle of arguments. They become terrified when they hear any opposing views. Those who just left the Chamber said in their statements that today was a sad day for the non-proliferation regime. I would like to refresh their memories and say that violation of the non-proliferation regime is the speciality of the following Western States. The United States of America used nuclear weapons in Japan. It used chemical and biological weapons in Viet Nam and enriched uranium in Iraq. France used Algerian human beings when it tested its first atomic bomb in the Algerian desert in 1960. In fact, it placed living Algerians in the desert tied to poles, and dropped on them the first French atomic bomb. Britain, of course, conducted all its nuclear tests in its colonies on islands in the oceans. The British Ambassador then says that day was a sad day for the people of Douma. English is not my mother tongue, but I know that there are no people of Douma. There are inhabitants in Douma. There are Syrian people. There are no people of Douma. However, beyond Marx, Engels and Lenin, I would like to quote from Shakespeare as saying: "Lies shame you. Speak the truth or remain silent". My British colleague said that Russia does not have the authority to go to Douma and establish whether or not chemicals were used there, stating that it is not within the jurisdiction of our Russian friends, who are on the ground, to go to Douma and investigate the scene. That is quite strange. Britain should have advised itself in the same manner when it sent intelligence officers to Khan Shaykhoun and conferred upon itself the authority to collect samples with the French. They took the samples to British and French laboratories, as they claimed, without coordinating with the Joint Investigative Mechanism (JIM) or the Fact-finding Mission. That is quite the paradox: giving themselves the very right that they deprive others. Approximately two weeks ago, Britain signed an agreement with the Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia for an arms deal worth $100 billion — much bigger than the Al-Yamamah deal — to continue killing people in Yemen, start new wars in the region with Iran and Syria and entrench never-ending wars throughout the entire region. That is what Britain is capable of doing. Mahatma Gandhi knew the British well, and he was right when he said, "If two fish broke out into a fight in the sea, everyone knows it was Britain that started it". The American colleague said that there is only one monster facing the entire world in defiance today. That monster has financed terrorists in Syria for seven years and provided them with arms. I would say that the monster is the United States, Britain and France. They sponsored terrorism in my country for seven years, and before that they did the same in Iraq, Afghanistan and Libya. They sponsored terrorist organizations starting with Taliban and Da'esh, down to the Al-Nusra Front, Al-Qaida, Jaysh Al-Islam, Faylaq Al-Rahman and the White Helmets, which British intelligence newly invented. The monster she spoke of unleashed lies in order to destroy, occupy and send troops thousands of miles throughout the world to destabilize international peace and security. The monster is the American who, thus far, refuses to destroy his chemical arsenal, as we know, yet lectures others on destroying chemical weapons. My French colleague said that he was horrified by the pictures he saw. But he was not horrified by the pictures of the hundreds of civilians who were killed in the 2016 French air strikes in Toukhar village in the rural area of Manbij. Two hundred civilians were killed, including entire families, by France's war planes. The French Ambassador must not have seen those pictures, and consequently they were not a source of horror for him. The concept of double standards is an understatement for those people. In response to the web of lies spread by some Western States against my country regarding the S/PV.8228 The situation in the Middle East 10/04/2018 20/21 18-10187 alleged use of chemical weapons in Douma on 7 April, the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and Expatriates of the Syrian Arab Republic sent today, 10 April, an official invitation to the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) to dispatch a fact-finding mission to Douma in order to investigate the allegations of the use of chemical weapons there and to determine the facts about those allegations. I informed members of the Council of that invitation yesterday in this very Chamber (see S/PV.8225). The Syrian Arab Republic welcomes the visit of the fact-finding mission and stands ready to fully cooperate, provide all forms of assistance to the mission in the discharge of its duties and guarantee the safety of its personnel. It will also facilitate interviewing and sampling in accordance with the terms of reference. Syria looks forward to the fact-finding mission carrying out its work in a full, transparent and professional manner and while relying on credible and tangible evidence. If it does deploy, it will find Douma liberated and it will be granted full access to any location it wishes to visit. The situation is quite clear. The co-sponsors of the American draft resolution (S/2018/321) do not seek the truth, because it will simply expose them and their terrorist proxies on the ground. Instead of waiting for the OPCW fact-finding mission to determine whether or not toxic chemicals were used in Douma, they present draft resolutions that do not enjoy consensus, nor do they seek truth, but rather establish non-objective mechanisms that pre-empt results in support of their political accusations and agendas. They are aware that a clone of the JIM would not be accepted by the States in the Council that are dedicated to the quest for truth regarding who is using toxic chemicals against Syrian civilians. In that regard, I underscore that the United States, Britain and France made the JIM fail by thwarting it through politicizing its work, putting pressure on members of its leadership and blackmailing them. Consequently, the JIM lacked credibility and professionalism, as it fabricated reports that accused the Syrian Government based on the so-called open sources, of course including the White Helmets, and false testimonies and fabricated evidence emanating mostly from terrorist groups, most important of which is the terrorist Al-Nusra Front and the White Helmets, which is the British misleading media arm of the Al-Nusra Front. The scenario that we witness today is exactly similar to what we witnessed a year ago when the United States of America launched a wanton aggression on the Al-Shayrat air base, which was founded on flimsy arguments and fabricated pretexts stating that the Syrian Arab Army used chemical weapons in Khan Shaykhoun. Those allegations were proven false when the United States and its allies prevented the experts of the JIM from visiting Khan Shaykhoun and collecting samples from the Al-Shayrat air base. Things are crystal clear. The aggression of the United States and its accomplices, throughout history, thrives on lies, deceit and hegemony, as well as on the rule of the powerful. It is a brutal approach that will never respect the rule of law and international legitimacy. For seven years, my country, Syria, has been a stark example of what the United States and Britain did when they unleashed lies, misleading information and fabricated stories in this very Chamber in order to destroy and occupy Iraq. Their actions were grounded on the pretext of a significant lie, that is, the existence of the so-called weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. I am compelled each and every time to remind the Council of the position of former Secretary of State Colin Powell when, in this very Chamber (see S/PV.4701) — and I was sitting where the Deputy Permanent Representative of China is seated today — he presented tapes, documents, maps and pictures that were later discovered to have been produced, faked and fabricated by the American intelligence services for the purpose of invading Iraq. The operation was prepared in advance. The same scenario occurred with Libya. The truth must be revealed. For centuries the world has witnessed various instances of occupation and hegemony, whose sole purpose was to loot the wealth of nations, occupy land or impose a geopolitical agenda. However, political immorality has reached a depth today to the extent that Libya has been destroyed and many of its people killed to cover up cases of bribery and financial corruption involving the President of a permanent member of the Council that talks about democracy and freedom. It is so low today to the extent that a permanent State regrettably forces Arab oil-exporting countries to foot the bill for its ongoing aggression and military intervention in my country, Syria. It is a business deal forged between the corrupt with the financial means and a mercenary who has weapons and power. Some permanent members of the Council commit acts of aggression against sovereign 10/04/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8228 18-10187 21/21 countries simply to detract attention from domestic crises and ongoing controversy surrounding their political elite. Following seven years of a dirty terrorist war that was imposed upon us, we in Syria believe that clear options exist — but they pose a major challenge to the majority of Council members. The Council must refute the lies and reverse the political deterioration that the United States, Britain and France are trying to push the Council towards engaging in. It is up to the Council today, and in the future, to make its decision. World public opinion and the people of the free world will judge whether or not the Council has assumed its responsibility to uphold international legitimacy, maintain international peace and security and protect the world against the horrible terrorism that is used and exploited by those three permanent member countries to undermine the stability and self-determination of States. I call upon the members of the Council to uphold a global, ethical and multilateral political system that believes in international law and in the right of peoples to self-determination, and rejects military, political and economic hegemony. In conclusion, my country reiterates its condemnation in the strongest terms of any use of chemical weapons by any party, anywhere and under any circumstances. My country stands ready to cooperate with the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons to reveal the allegations and lies being promoted by some Western parties so as to justify their aggression and serve their own political agenda. Their fleets are now in the eastern Mediterranean, waiting for the veto in order to start their aggression. I would like to inform those Western parties — and they must pay close attention to what I say — that their threats of aggression, manoeuvres, lies and terrorism will never prevent us — as one of the founding States of the Organization — from exercising our duties and rights under the Charter of the United Nations and our national Constitution to protect our sovereignty and territorial integrity and to fend off aggression from any source. We will not allow anyone — big or small, permanent member or non-permanent member — to treat us the way Iraq and Libya were treated. The meeting rose at 6.35 p.m.