Suchergebnisse

Come ormai quasi ovunque in Italia, anche presso la Biblioteca dell'Università di Trento i servizi di prestito interbibliotecario e di fornitura di articoli in fotocopia o altri formati hanno avuto in questi ultimi anni un forte incremento. Se si può dire che presso questa biblioteca il prestito interbibliotecario sia sempre stato effettuato, solo da pochi anni, e precisamente dal 1993, ad esso è riservato uno specifico settore della biblioteca, un settore che cura anche il servizio di informazioni bibliografiche e di assistenza alla ricerca in linea. Questi servizi sono stati recentemente molto influenzati nelle modalità di gestione dall'uso dei nuovi strumenti che la rete mette a disposizione dei bibliotecari. Del resto, la decisione di rendere consultabile in rete il Catalogo bibliografico trentino ha portato a un veloce e significativo incremento delle richieste di fotocopie e prestiti. Nessuno può negare che in Italia, se si escludono le agenzie che offrono il loro servizio dietro pagamento, ciò che fa funzionare il prestito interbibliotecario sia in ultima analisi la gentilezza e la volontà di efficienza del singolo bibliotecario. Nel corso del 1995, e in attuazione di una norma dello statuto dell'ateneo trentino, si è cominciato a tariffare il servizio, stabilendo un costo di L. 8000 per ogni richiesta giunta a buon fine. L'utente paga al momento di ritirare le fotocopie dell'articolo o il libro giunto con il prestito interbibliotecario. Le norme generali per il funzionamento del servizio sono state ricavate principalmente dalle raccomandazioni dell'IFLA. L'importo è stato fissato calcolando la spesa media necessaria per espletare ogni richiesta, detraendo da essa i costi postali, coperti da un apposito ufficio che cura il servizio per l'intero ateneo. Fissare un costo medio è servito a non penalizzare quegli studenti che per la natura stessa della loro ricerca sono costretti a rivolgersi a biblioteche che impongono tariffe più alte. In un primo momento si è deciso di escludere dal pagamento professori e ricercatori, perché questi utenti non pagano normalmente di tasca propria ma con fondi destinati alla ricerca, messi a disposizione sempre dall'università. L'incremento delle richieste ha portato tuttavia a concludere che è meglio estendere la norma anche al personale docente, se non altro per la funzione responsabilizzante che essa ha. Si è cercato inoltre di ridurre i tempi di attesa dell'utente, quantificabili in circa venti giorni. L'ultimo passo compiuto sulla strada del miglioramento dell'efficienza del servizio è stato quello di automatizzarne la gestione, tramite un programma approntato appositamente con il software Access e che prevede la possibilità di utilizzare cinque moduli di richiesta di prestito e fotocopie. Un grande vantaggio dell'introduzione di questo sistema automatizzato di gestione consiste nella possibilità che esso offre di ricavare in modo semplice e non troppo laborioso dati statistici utili per valutare l'efficienza del servizio e i suoi costi. Gli obiettivi da perseguire per permettere un ulteriore miglioramento del document delivery si possono individuare nella creazione di cataloghi unificati almeno a livello nazionale di monografie e periodici, integrati a pacchetti per la gestione del servizio sul modello delle migliori realizzazioni già esistenti, nell'unificazione delle modalità di pagamento, che deve potersi eseguire attraverso snelle procedure, e, infine, nel coordinamento delle politiche degli acquisti sia fra le biblioteche universitarie sia fra biblioteche di enti diversi. ; Trentino is a special-statute province with ca 460,000 inhabitants. It is distinguished by an articulated network of public libraries, a well-established tradition of librarianship at the region's historic libraries, a young university, and a strong commitment on the part of the provincial authorities to enhance library services. In 1962, under the aegis of Provincial Council, the University of Trento came into being as a free university with strong local links. In 1964, the university library was founded and the management entrusted to an council official. Despite the subsequent institution of new faculties and the division of the library's holdings among the various sites, management of the library together with the acquisitions, inventory and cataloguing activities remained centralised. This unity has undoubtedly assisted the integration with the public library services as those who promoted the integration did not have to deal with a host of differing regulations and management practices. In the 1970s, the Provincial Council sponsored the institution of modern public libraries in the region's biggest towns, and took responsibility for controlling said libraries' holdings, the quality of service and librarians' professional qualification. Before long, Trentino had 93 libraries which offered services to some three quarters of the region's population, a far cry from the ten or so town libraries the region had at the end of the 1960s. At the same time, librarians set up cataloguing cooperation projects to show it was possible to develop knowledge and access tools for the historic holdings of important libraries. The principal lesson of such schemes was that it is necessary to know how many and which documents are held by the region's public and private libraries and that this information should be gathered and organised at a single site. Article 9 of Provincial Law no. 17 of 1977 envisages the setting up of a union catalogue of the historic bibliographical holdings of Trentino's libraries. In 1981 another lax was approved which set up the Trentino Bibliographical Catalogue (Catalogo bibliografico trentino, CBT). The main objective of CBT is to gather in a single database bibliographic information concerning the holdings of the various types of libraries in Trentino province. The integrated library automation program DOBIS/LIBIS was chosen for the catalogue. At the start of the 1990s, the Provincial Council decided to set up a network which would interconnect all of Trentino's towns (TELPAT). This "backbone" can also be used to circulate bibliographical information and hence TELPAT allows the interconnection of all the public libraries which thus become access "counters" for a range of information which extends far beyond that actually held by a single library. For the university, the possibility for students in towns to use their public library to gather information and borrow documents has alleviated the lack of study and reading space which is now a chronic problem in the university library. The sharing of information was the first concrete goal along the path to enhance library services. A provincial law of 1987 introduced the concept of the Trentino Library System (Sistema bibliotecario trentino, SBT) whose final objective is to offer a library service to all the province's inhabitants by promoting cooperation at all levels of management of all the Trentino region's libraries, whatever their nature and type. All the libraries which share information and documentary archives participate in the provincial interlibrary loan scheme. However, for integration to be comprehensive further initiatives, in addition to those already undertaken, are required, such as the coordination of acquisitions, differentiated conservation policies, the sharing of information resources from outside the province, and the inclusion of school libraries in the SBT.

Einleitung: Banken und Sparkassen sind durch das Internet heutzutage viel mehr auf dem Präsentierteller, ihre Konditionen und Preise werden transparenter und vergleichbarer, die Margen geringer und die Risiken bezüglich des guten Rufs werden größer. Befragungsergebnisse der Studie 'Bank Zukunft 2008' des Fraunhofer Instituts zeigen, dass Online-Marketing bis dato nur begrenzt Einzug im Finanzsektor gehalten hat. So gaben lediglich 5% der befragten Institute an, bereits derartige Instrumente einzusetzen. Mit 85% verneinte der Großteil der befragten Institute einen Einsatz zum gegenwärtigen Zeitpunkt. Verstärkt wird dieser Effekt noch durch die Folgen der Finanzkrise, welche die Experimentierfreude der Banken zusätzlich dämpfen. Gerade aber die Instrumente des Web 2.0 eröffnen dem Kunden die Möglichkeit, von vielen Seiten Informationen über Finanzdienstleistungen zu sammeln und aktiv darüber zu diskutieren. Bietet dann die Bank keine Möglichkeit des Dialogs, so verliert sie möglicherweise den Anschluss an ihre Kundschaft, insbesondere an die als besonders attraktiv geltende junge Zielgruppe der 'Digital Natives'. Banken können nur gegensteuern, indem sie von sich aus auf Online-Marketing setzen und sich möglichst schnell und breit als innovatives Unternehmen präsentieren. Allerdings gilt insbesondere für den Bankensektor, dass Online-Marketing authentisch sein und mit der Unternehmenskultur bzw. den regulatorischen Vorgaben übereinstimmen muss. Ziel der Arbeit ist es, Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Online-Marketing zu untersuchen, um daraus konkrete Handlungsempfehlungen für deutsche Sparkassen zu geben. Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, werden einige ausgewählte, stark im Trend liegende Instrumente des Online-Marketing herausgegriffen und näher analysiert. Aufgrund der Aktualität des Themas und der dadurch bedingten ständigen Änderungen, wurden bei der Literatur-Recherche – neben Standardwerken zu Marketing und Online-Marketing in Buchform – auch E-Books, Studien und Whitepapers aus dem Internet verwendet. Kapitel zwei setzt sich zunächst mit der Definition des Online-Marketing auseinander, zeigt dessen Besonderheiten auf und nimmt eine Abgrenzung zum klassischen Marketing vor. Nach einer Auswahl der für diese Diplomarbeit relevanten Instrumente des Online-Marketing und der Begründung der Auswahl, erfolgen Begriffsdefinitionen dieser Instrumente. Im dritten Kapitel erfolgt eine Auseinandersetzung mit den aktuellen Herausforderungen für das Marketing der Sparkassen. Nach einer einleitenden Darstellung der Sparkassen und ihrer Rolle im Bankenmarkt, wird auf deren Besonderheiten im Marketing eingegangen. Danach werden aktuelle Herausforderungen geschildert. Zuerst wird die gestiegene Kundenmacht durch Web 2.0 betrachtet. Anschließend wird die steigende Markttransparenz durch das Internet veranschaulicht. Das Kapitel fährt fort mit der Begründung des Vertrauensverlustes durch die Finanzkrise und schließt mit der Erklärung, warum SB-Automation die Möglichkeiten des Kundenkontakts reduziert. Im vierten Kapitel konkretisiert sich das Thema durch Analyse der Instrumente E-Mail Marketing, Suchmaschinen-Marketing, Mobile Marketing und Social Media Marketing. Die Untersuchung der Instrumente wird dabei weitgehend nach einem einheitlichen Schema durchgeführt. Zuerst werden Einsatzbereiche und Nutzungsquoten aufgezeigt. Danach werden die für einen erfolgreichen Einsatz des Instruments nötigen Erfolgsfaktoren und Richtlinien erarbeitet. Hieraus werden Chancen und Risiken des Einsatzes bei Sparkassen abgeleitet, um folglich konkrete Handlungsempfehlungen und ein Zwischenfazit für Sparkassen zu geben. Durch die Darstellung bereits im Einsatz befindlicher Online-Marketing-Lösungen bei Banken und Sparkassen werden die Empfehlungen konkretisiert. Im fünften Kapitel wird in Grundzügen das Controlling des Online-Marketing betrachtet. Hierzu wird zuerst ein Chancen-Risiken-Profil der Instrumente des Online-Marketing erstellt. Die anschließende Darstellung beschränkt sich auf eine Abgrenzung der wichtigsten Online-Marketing-Kennzahlen, den Aktivitätszyklus eines Website-Besuchers und der Herleitung der ROMI-Optimierung. Das Kapitel endet mit Handlungsempfehlungen für Sparkassen zum Thema Controlling des Online-Marketing. Kapitel sechs gibt – rückblickend auf die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse – den deutschen Sparkassen sowohl allgemeine Handlungsempfehlungen als auch spezielle Handlungsempfehlungen zum Ausbau des Online-Vertriebs. Das letzte Kapitel fasst die Möglichkeiten des Online-Marketing für Kreditinstitute am Beispiel der deutschen Sparkassen zusammen, indem Ziele und Zielgruppe nochmals klar herausgestellt werden. Die Diplomarbeit schließt mit dem Ausblick auf die Trends im Online-Marketing.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: I.AbkürzungsverzeichnisIV II.AbbildungsverzeichnisV III.TabellenverzeichnisVIII 1.Einleitung1 1.1Problemstellung1 1.2Ziel der Arbeit und Vorgehensweise2 2.Grundlagen4 2.1Definition des Online-Marketing4 2.2Besonderheiten des Online-Marketing und Abgrenzung zum klassischen Marketing7 2.3Ausgewählte Instrumente des Online-Marketing8 2.3.1Begründung der Auswahl8 2.3.2E-Mail Marketing9 2.3.3Suchmaschinen-Marketing11 2.3.4Mobile Marketing13 2.3.5Social Media Marketing16 3.Herausforderungen für das Marketing der Sparkassen19 3.1Sparkassen und ihre Rolle im Bankenmarkt19 3.2Besonderheiten des Marketing bei Sparkassen20 3.3Kundenmacht durch Web 2.022 3.4Steigende Markttransparenz durch Internet25 3.5Vertrauensverlust durch Finanzkrise27 3.6Weniger Kundenkontaktmöglichkeiten durch SB-Automation28 4.Untersuchung der Einsatzmöglichkeiten ausgewählter Instrumente des Online-Marketing am Beispiel der deutschen Sparkassen29 4.1E-Mail Marketing29 4.1.1Nutzerverhalten als Grundlage für E-Mail Marketing29 4.1.2Rechtliche und technische Richtlinien für E-Mail Marketing31 4.1.3Erfolgsfaktoren für den Einsatz des E-Mail Marketing33 4.1.4Chancen und Risiken des Einsatzes von E-Mail Marketing bei Sparkassen34 4.1.5Handlungsempfehlungen und Zwischenfazit für Sparkassen35 4.2Suchmaschinen-Marketing37 4.2.1Aktuelle Nutzungsquote und Einsatzbereiche des Suchmaschinen-Marketing37 4.2.2Richtlinien für die Usability von Websites41 4.2.3Ganzheitliche Vorgehensweise als Erfolgsfaktor bei Suchmaschinen-Marketing43 4.2.4Chancen und Risiken des Einsatzes von Suchmaschinen-Marketing bei Sparkassen44 4.2.5Handlungsempfehlungen und Zwischenfazit für Sparkassen47 4.3Mobile Marketing48 4.3.1Aktuelle Nutzungsquote und Einsatzbereiche des Mobile Marketing48 4.3.2Erfolgsfaktoren für Mobile Marketing50 4.3.3Chancen und Risiken des Einsatzes von Mobile Marketing bei Sparkassen51 4.3.4Handlungsempfehlungen und Zwischenfazit für Sparkassen53 4.4Social Media Marketing55 4.4.1Aktuelle Nutzungsquote und Einsatzbereiche des Social Media Marketing55 4.4.2Richtlinien beim Einsatz von Social Media Marketing57 4.4.3Erfolgsfaktoren für Social Media Aktivitäten58 4.4.4Chancen und Risiken des Einsatzes von Social Media Marketing bei Sparkassen60 4.4.5Handlungsempfehlungen und Zwischenfazit für Sparkassen62 4.5Online-Marketing-Lösungen bei Banken und Sparkassen64 4.5.1Ausgewählte Lösungen deutscher Sparkassen64 4.5.2Beispiel eines ganzheitlichen Ansatzes im Online-Marketing69 5.Controlling-Ansätze des Online-Marketing75 5.1Chancen-Risiken-Profil der Online-Marketing-Instrumente75 5.2Grundlagen des Online-Marketing-Controlling76 5.3Handlungsempfehlungen und Zwischenfazit für Sparkassen79 6.Handlungsempfehlungen für Sparkassen79 6.1Allgemeine Empfehlungen79 6.2Ausbau des Online-Vertriebs82 7.Zusammenfassung und Ausblick85 IV.LiteraturverzeichnisIXTextprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 4.1.3, Erfolgsfaktoren für den Einsatz des E-Mail Marketing: Da die ersten Zeilen entscheidend dafür sind, ob die E-Mail geöffnet wird oder nicht, sollte hierauf besonderes Augenmerk gelegt werden. Die ersten Worte nach der Betreffzeile enthalten meist den Hinweis zur Webansicht, falls die E-Mail nicht richtig dargestellt wird. Damit wird leider etwas Potential des Preheaders verschenkt. Der Preheader könnte aber deaktiviert werden und stattdessen eine packende erste Zeile eingefügt werden. Bei aktiviertem Preheader muss die Werbebotschaft bereits in der Betreffzeile gelingen. Nach Öffnen der E-Mail fällt der erste Blick auf den Header, dessen Design zur Corporate Identity passen muss und auch bereits die Weiterleiten-Funktion und Social Share Buttons beinhalten sollte, die es dem Empfänger ermöglichen, die E-Mail direkt in dessen Social Networks wie Facebook und Twitter zu posten und somit zusätzlich vom Effekt des 'Word of Mouth'-Effekt zu profitieren. Transparenzgebot: Die Kopf- und Betreffzeile müssen ehrlich sein und dürfen nach § 6 Abs. 2 TMG weder den kommerziellen Charakter der Nachricht noch den Absender verschleiern. Ein absichtlicher Verstoß kann ein Bußgeld von bis zu 50.000 Euro nach sich ziehen. In Werbe-E-Mails sollten auch alle diejenigen Angaben enthalten sein, die nach handels- und gesellschaftsrechtlichen Bestimmungen in Geschäftsbriefen der klassischen Briefpost üblich sind. Der Hinweis auf die Abmeldemöglichkeit in jeder Werbe- und jedem Newsletter E-Mail ist zwischenzeitlich als Best-Practice zu betrachten und sollte daher in keiner E-Mail fehlen. 4.1.4, Chancen und Risiken des Einsatzes von E-Mail Marketing bei Sparkassen: Kosten sparen: Mit E-Mail Marketing können Kosten gespart werden, da Porto für Post wegfällt. Unmittelbarkeit: E-Mails landen – im Gegensatz zum traditionellen Post-Mailing – sofort beim Empfänger. Nach Versenden des E-Mails kann zudem sofort die Response gemessen werden. Kundenpflege: E-Mail Marketing eignet sich vor allem für die Pflege des bereits bestehenden Kundenstamms. Push-Strategie: E-Mail-Marketing ist ein geeignetes Instrument für eine Push-Strategie. Neue erklärungsbedürftige Produkte, nach denen niemand aktiv suchen würde, kann man darüber publik machen und profitabel verkaufen. Für das E-Mail-Marketing besteht das Risiko der Nutzung von E-Mail-Adressen, die in einem unzureichenden Verfahren erhoben worden sind oder nicht vollständig für alle Bestandskunden vorhanden sind. 4.1.5, Handlungsempfehlungen und Zwischenfazit für Sparkassen: Obwohl E-Mail inzwischen ein wichtiges Instrument der Neukundengewinnung und Kundenbindung ist, verfolgt nur ein Viertel der Unternehmen eine systematische Nutzung. Dafür steht dieses wichtige Thema aber ganz oben auf der Liste der geplanten Aktivitäten bei den Unternehmen. Der Erfolg von E-Mail-Marketing steht und fällt mit dem Grad der Korrektheit, Aktualität und Vollständigkeit von E-Mail Adressen aller Bestandskunden. Gerade weil E-Mail-Marketing das preiswerteste Direktmarketinginstrument ist, muss im Kampf um Aufmerksamkeit im Posteingang mit höchster Professionalität gearbeitet werden. Das Bewusstsein hierfür und für die Konsequenz, dass daraus ein Fulltime-Job wird, ist jedoch bei deutschen Unternehmen noch unterentwickelt. Die unter rechtlichen Richtlinien dargestellten Anforderungen sollten bei der Gestaltung des Einwilligungstexts für E-Mail Werbung unbedingt in die Überlegungen mit einbezogen werden. Bei der Gestaltung der Einwilligung sind sowohl inhaltliche als auch formale Vorgaben einzuhalten, die – im Falle einer Missachtung – die Einwilligung unwirksam machen. Mit dem Einwilligungstext wird exakt festgelegt, für was, für wen und durch wen geworben werden darf. Der Kunde muss sich über Zweck, Art und Umfang der Erhebung und Verwendung seiner Daten sowie darüber, wer diese Daten erhebt, im Klaren sein. Beim E-Mail-Marketing – also auch bei einem Newsletter – dürfen nur die zur Zusendung der E-Mail erforderlichen Felder als Pflichtfelder vordefiniert sein. Da dies aber im Normalfall allein die E-Mail-Adresse ist, müssen bereits Angaben wie Anrede oder Name als freiwillige Angaben ausgestaltet sein. Auch zur Erstellung von Nutzungsprofilen (z.B. Öffnen der E-Mail, Klick-Verhalten) muss die Einwilligung des Betroffenen vorliegen. Für das E-Mail-Marketing bedeutet dies, dass ohne diese Einwilligung das Zusammenführen des Nutzungsverhaltens mit den Daten des E-Mail-Adressinhabers nicht zulässig ist. Gemäß Schwarz 2011a gibt es fünf Regeln, die es bei einem Newsletter einzuhalten gilt. Die Sparkasse als Absender muss klar erkennbar sein, der Betreff enthält aktuelle Informationen, die Anrede ist persönlich, der Kunde hat eine Abbestellmöglichkeit und im Impressum sind alle Kontaktdaten hinterlegt und somit die Kennzeichnungspflicht erfüllt. Dass E-Mails nicht immer so angezeigt werden, wie es die Grafiker geplant haben, wird immer mehr Unternehmen erst jetzt bewusst. 47 Prozent beschäftigen sich deshalb aktiv mit der Gestaltung von E-Mails, bei denen auch bei blockierten Bildern noch ein professionelles Erscheinungsbild erhalten bleibt. Sobald einer E-Mail-Adresse der Name des Beworbenen zugeordnet werden kann, ist ein personenbezogenes Datum gegeben und der Datenschutz greift. Praktisch kann daher der Sparkasse nur empfohlen werden, den Datenschutz strikt zu beachten. Da bei der E-Mail-Kommunikation mit Kunden sowohl die Verschlüsselung der Daten als auch die gesicherte Identität des E-Mail-Absenders geboten ist, sollten Sparkassen das Produkt 'Secure E-Mail' der Finanz Informatik einsetzen. Da zum gegenwärtigen Zeitpunkt elektronische Zertifikate der Klasse 3 bei Kunden noch kaum vorzufinden sind, ist es dennoch erforderlich, sich einmal von der Übereinstimmung von E-Mail-Adresse und Absender durch telefonische / persönliche Nachfrage beim Kunden zu überzeugen. Als Fazit bleibt festzuhalten, dass E-Mail Marketing von zwei Grundsätzen geprägt sein sollte. Transparenz: Der Kunde sollte stets darüber informiert sein, in was er einwilligt und was mit seinen Daten passiert. Einwilligung und Freiwilligkeit: Dem Kunden darf eine Einwilligung zur E-Mail Werbung weder unterstellt noch aufgedrückt werden.

Logistički automatizovani informacioni sistem treba razvijati kao deo jedinstvenog automatizovanog informacionog sistema (JAIS-a). Da bi se logistički automatizovani informacioni sistem uspešno razvijao i primenjivao u operativnoj praksi, neophodno je slediti globalni koncept razvoja JAIS-a i u razvoju više primenjivati timski rad profesionalnog informatičara i poznavaoca realnog logističkog sistema. Bitan uslov za razvoj kvalitetnog logističkog informacionog sistema jeste definisanje informacionih potreba o pojedinim objektima koje tretira logistički informacioni sistem. Zadatak logističkog automatizovanog informacionog sistema jeste da obezbedi: stalni uvid u stanje logističkog sistema; ukazivanje na potrebne i moguće mere poboljšanja; bolje planiranje i upravljanje radom realnog sistema; informisanje ljudstva o stanju realnog sistema i ukazivanje na pravce daljeg razvoja informacionih sistema. Logistički informacioni sistem treba razvijati vodeći računa i o kompatibilnosti sa budućim saveznicima i partnerima. ; A logistics automated information system should be developed as a part of a unified automated information system (JAIS). In order to develop a logistics automated information system and to apply it successfully in operational use, it is necessary to follow the JAIS global development concept and rely more on teamwork of IT experts and specialists in real logistics systems. An important condition for the development of a high-quality logistics information system is to define information needs for particular objects treated by a logistics information system. The task of such a system is to provide: permanent insight into the logistics system, pointing to the necessary and possible measures for improvement, better real system planning and management activities, personnel information about the state of the real system, pointing to the directions of further system development. A logistics information system should be developed taking also into account compatibility with future allies and partners. Defense systems were among the first to accept the challenge (because they were forced to) to introduce information technology in their management system and, with the help of innovations in this area, to increase the performance effectiveness under the conditions of environment dynamic changes. Information technology development mostly followed development of large military projects aimed at solving management or technology issues within military industry complex and management in the most technologically developed defence systems. These science and defense practice efforts resulted in many new methods and techniques such as the method of system analysis and information system design, methods of operational research and simulation, pattern recognition, expert systems for individual processes in management, as well as those for information retrieval and their implementation in decision making. Over time, partial innovations reached a high level of synthesis, leading to new management systems able to function in most complex task conditions. Mastering the procedure of creating autonomous partial information systemswhere the operational research methods helped to optimally apply some of their particular values – has led to the creation of integrated automated information systems for management support. Our recent defence theory and practice have not concentrated enough on logistics information systems in professional journals, neither from the organizational nor from the technological point of view. Experiences gained from operational practice and knowledge acquired by visiting foreign armies, practical needs as well as modern times demands and current trends in the development of defence systems pointed out that it is necessary to pay more attention to this logistics segment in military journals. Logistics information systems cannot be researched, developed and introduced into operational practice (applied) without knowing the structure of high-quality information systems in general. High-quality information systems for supporting the logistic aspects of decision-making and logisticsdealing authorities cannot be developed without properly defining information needs of specific customer information systems and without most precisely describing objects of interest of the logistics system. It is also not possible to go forward in the development and implementation of logistics information systems after long stagnation unless this important area is considered through a retrospective, identifying and defining problems that accompany the development and introduction of information systems in the military forerunners of the Army of Serbia and the AS now and realizing the current situation in this area in the defense system. In principle, our defense system started the work on the automated collection, processing and distribution of information simultaneously with other developed defense systems in the world. However, in the meantime orientations and concepts changed so that no project focused on the development of integrated automated information system (AIS) and decision support system was brought completely to the end. The development of information systems to support the defense system and particularly the Army faced specific dilemmas and problems which hindered their development: information needs of users which information systems should provide for were never properly defined; disputes occurred between "generalites" and "specialists" on whether the system should be built from the bottom (the base) or from the top, resulting in the development of small-scale applications in the base (where problems needing automation occurred) that could fit into a global concept and the development of global concepts never implemented completely into the defense system operational practice. Due to the low level of their information culture, real system experts were not able to properly express and define their needs and expectations of IT professionals who, because of their low levels of general military knowledge, were not able to fully understand the functioning of the real system and information system needs. The above dilemmas and other problems are still present today so that the present automated decision-mking support in the defense system (not just in logistics) does not match the needs of practice, requirements of time and modern trends. In treating logistics information systems in this paper, we will apply an analogy with other information systems. Particular aspects and segments of the development and implementation of logistics information systems will be processed with a high degree of generalization, using the experience and research the authors participated in as well as available sources of knowledge. The aforementioned approach allows for a wider general aspect of the given views, while, on the other hand, gaining the depth and accuracy if validly applied to each specific case and to each logistics system. After the organizational changes in the defense system, and in logistics in particular, due consideration should be paid to the development of information systems since there possibly lies the answer to the request 'to reduce the system response time' within a framework of constant reducing the workforce and 'scope of logistic resources'. Changes in the organization of the technical, health, infrastructural and financial support of Defense represent an additional reason to approach more seriously the issues of defense logistic support and the logistic aspects of decision-making in the defense.

Inhaltsangabe:Einleitung: Problemstellung und Zielsetzung: Mit der zunehmenden Internationalisierung des Wirtschaftslebens ist die Zahl der deutsch-russischen Geschäftskontakte rasch gestiegen. Doch mit der steigenden Effizienz stieg auch das Konfliktpotenzial, das mögliche Wettbewerbsvorteile vernichtet. Nach der Auflösung des Ostblocks und bei dem Versuch der Ost-West-Annäherung wurde die Basis des Ost-West-Gegensatzes nicht mehr wie vorher im Politisch-Wirtschaftlichen gesehen, sondern zunehmend im Kulturellen. Der Eiserne Vorhang und der Kalte Krieg wurden durch eine neue Grenze ersetzt, die den Namen Mauer in den Köpfen bekam. Das brachte die Herausforderung mit sich, die Reibungsverluste in den interkulturellen Verhandlungssituationen zu minimieren. Somit gewann auch das Thema Interkulturelles Lernen stark an Bedeutung. Im Mittelpunkt dieser Arbeit stehen die Missverständnisse, die im Rahmen deutsch-russischer Zusammenarbeit entstanden sind bzw. entstehen können. Beim Entwerfen des theoretischen Rahmens sowie bei der Analyse erhobener Daten wird von der Annahme ausgegangen, dass die Unterschiede in den Werteorientierungen der Interaktionspartner ein hohes Potential für Missverständnisse bergen. Dabei sind die Ursachen für die Missverständnisse nicht die kulturellen Unterschiede an sich, sondern vielmehr die Annahme, dass es diese nicht gibt. Die Forschungsproblematik beinhaltet somit zwei Ebenen: die Ebene der kulturellen Unterschiede, die für die Geschäftsbeziehungen zwischen Deutschen und Russen relevant sind, und die Ebene der daraus resultierenden Missverständnisse. Von daher werden für die theoretische Untermauerung des Forschungsproblems zwei theoretische Gebilde miteinander verknüpft. Das innere Theoriegebilde besteht aus den Theorien über die Werteorientierungen von G. Hofstede, E. T. Hall sowie F. Trompenaars. Den äußeren theoretischen Rahmen bildet die 'Mindful Identity Negotiation' - Theorie von Ting-Toomey. Der Ansatz von Ting-Toomey ermöglicht, die vielfältigen Aspekte der interkulturellen Problematik systematisch zu betrachten, und bildet eine Brücke zwischen den Kulturunterschieden und den daraus resultierenden Missverständnissen. Das gesamte Theoriegebilde dient als Basis für die Entwicklung des hier vorgestellten 'Mindful Identity Negotiation for Business' - Modells, anhand dessen die Analyse der Missverständnisse in den deutsch-russischen Geschäftsbeziehungen vorgenommen werden soll. Untersucht wird lediglich jener Teilaspekt der zugrunde liegenden Theorie, der sich auf die Werteorientierungen bezieht. Anschließend dienen die Untersuchungsergebnisse der Konstruktion zweier Fallstudien, die ein Bestandteil des vorgeschlagenen bikulturellen Trainingskonzepts sind. Struktur dieser Arbeit: Den konzeptionellen Überlegungen von oben folgend, besteht diese Arbeit aus drei Teilen: dem Theorieteil, dem Untersuchungsteil und dem Anwendungsteil. Im Teil I werden zunächst die Schlüsselbegriffe erläutert. Der Abschnitt 3 stellt den theoretischen Rahmen dieser Diplomarbeit vor. Da die Bildung eines kulturspezifischen Kategorienrahmens für die Analyse der Missverständnisse in den deutsch-russischen Geschäftsbeziehungen auf der 'Mindful Identity Negotiation' - Theorie von Ting-Toomey basiert, wird diese zuerst vorgestellt. Im Hinblick auf den Schwerpunkt der Untersuchung werden die Theorien zu den Werteorientierungen detailliert behandelt. Die kulturhistorische Verankerung der forschungsrelevanten Aspekte wird ebenfalls aufgezeigt. Im darauf folgenden Abschnitt wird die 'Mindful Identity Negotiation' - Theorie als neuer Kategorisierungsrahmen für die Analyse der Missverständnisse in den deutsch-russischen Geschäftsinteraktionen vorgestellt. Teil II dieser Arbeit widmet sich der eigentlichen Untersuchung. Im Abschnitt 4 wird das Forschungsdesign vorgestellt. Anschließend werden in den Abschnitten 5 und 6 die Ergebnisse präsentiert und die Untersuchungsmethode kritisch gewürdigt. Die Interpretation der Untersuchungsergebnisse mit abschließender Diskussion befindet sich im Teilabschnitt 7. Der letzte Teil dieser Arbeit besteht aus einem theoretischen und einem praktischen Abschnitt. Der Theorieteil widmet sich der Konzeption des bikulturellen Trainings. Die im Rahmen der Konstruktion des Trainingsinstruments vorgenommene Validierung ergänzt den praktischen Teil dieser Arbeit. Am Schluss wird das Trainingskonzept (Ablauf) vorgestellt und gewürdigt. Im Schlusswort werden die zentralen Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zusammengefasst und die Implikationen für die weitere Forschung aufgezeigt.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: TabellenverzeichnisI AbbildungsverzeichnisII AnhangsverzeichnisIII AbkürzungsverzeichnisIV 1.Einleitung1 1.1Problemstellung und Zielsetzung1 1.2Struktur dieser Arbeit2 Teil I: Theoretischer Rahmen3 2.Begriffsbestimmung3 2.1Kultur und Interkultur3 2.2Geschäftsbeziehungen als besondere Art der Interaktion5 2.3Interkulturelle Kommunikation und Missverständnisse5 3.Theorien zur interkulturellen Forschung und die relevante Teile der Kulturgeschichte8 3.1'Mindful Identity Negotiation' - Theorie8 3.1.1Begründung der Theorieauswahl und die 'Identity Negotiation' - Perspektive8 3.1.2Modell der interkulturellen Kommunikation nach Ting-Toomey9 3.1.3Theorien zu den Werteorientierungen13 3.1.3.1Dimensionen nach G. Hofstede14 3.1.3.2Zeitorientierung nach E. T. Hall16 3.1.3.3Dimensionierung der Arbeitskulturen nach F. Trompenaars17 3.1.3.4Kritische Würdigung der Dimensionierungskonzepte18 3.2Historische Hintergründe20 3.2.1Kulturerbe Russlands20 3.2.2Kulturerbe Deutschlands22 3.3'Mindful Identity Negotiation for Business' - Modell23 3.3.1Flexibilität vs. Terminierung26 3.3.2Das geschäftsbezogene Rollenverständnis27 Teil II: Untersuchung31 4.Untersuchungsdesign31 4.1Überlegungen zur Auswahl der Forschungsmethode31 4.2Untersuchungsschritte32 4.2.1Auswahl der Stichprobe33 4.2.2Kategoriensystem und Kodierschema 134 4.2.2.1Analyseeinheiten34 4.2.2.2Einschätzungsdimension34 4.2.3Kodierschema 2: Sonderkategorie36 4.2.4Interviewleitfaden37 4.2.5Die Datenerhebung und -erfassung38 4.2.6Datenaufbereitung und Auswertungsschritte39 5.Ergebnisse der Untersuchung40 6.Kritische Würdigung der Untersuchungsmethode42 7.Interpretation und Diskussion der Ergebnisse44 7.1Potenzial für Missverständnisse aufgrund der Unterschiede in den Terminierungs- und Flexibilitätspräferenzen45 7.2Unterschiede im geschäftsbezogenen Rollenverständnis als Quelle der Missverständnisse46 7.3Sonstige Ursachen für die Missverständnisse in den deutsch-russischen Geschäftsbeziehungen: Versuch einer Strukturierung51 7.4Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse und Zwischenfazit53 Teil III: Interkulturelles Training54 8.Theoretische Vorüberlegungen zu interkulturellen Trainings54 8.1Trainingsziele55 8.2Cultur Assimilator und Critical Incidents56 8.2.1Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Trainingsmethode56 8.2.2Fallkonstruktion: Methodische Vorgehensweise57 9.Validierungsverfahren58 9.1Vorgehensweise bei der Validierung58 9.2Validierungsergebnisse59 10.Trainingsablauf60 11.Kritische Würdigung des Trainingskonzepts61 12.Schlusswort und Ausblick62 Literaturverzeichnis64 Anhang74Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 3.2, Historische Hintergründe: Die Erklärung der Tiefenstruktur einer Kultur bedarf einer historischen Fundierung. Anhand der historischen Eckdaten und Prozesse wird im Folgenden versucht, die Wurzeln der Werteorientierungen beider Kulturen abzuleiten. Kulturerbe Russlands: Bei der Ausformung der russischen Arbeitskultur haben neben den klimatisch-geografischen Bedingungen das Zarentum, die Ostkirche, das kommunistisch-sozialistische Ideologie- und Wirtschaftssystem sowie der momentan andauernde Transformationsprozess eine entscheidende Rolle gespielt. Seit dem 10. Jahrhundert (mit der Christianisierung) wurde Russland patriarchalisch und absolutistisch regiert. Zuerst der Großfürst und später der Zar verfolgten als Ziel die Unterordnung der Kirche und die Integration aller ethnischen Gruppierungen, um das Regieren des riesigen Landes zu erleichtern. Durch die osmanische Fremdherrschaft (1236-1480) war Russlands Entwicklung von der Europas abgespalten und somit blieb auch der durch das Bürgertum angetriebene gesellschaftliche Progress aus. Das Fehlen von Privateigentum und Bourgeoisie sind dabei die gravierendsten Folgen. Die Orthodoxe Kirche beeinflusste zusätzlich das (ökonomische) Denken und Handeln der Russen. Sie trägt nach Lyskow-Strewe Schroll-Machl folgende Züge: (1) Sie prägte ein Gott-Königtum und steht nie in Rivalität zum Staat; (2) Sie sieht das Leiden als natürlichen und zu akzeptierenden Bestandteil des Lebens an (was im Zusammenhang mit einer ausgeprägten Mystik eine demütige Akzeptanz der Welt, einen Fatalismus, eine unendliche Geduld und Opferbereitschaft zur Folge hat); (3) Sie lehnt das Recht als Bestandteil der religiösen Ethik völlig ab und 'ersetzt' es durch die Brüderlichkeit als wichtige Basis für das Zusammenleben. Die Fähigkeit zum Mitgefühl und zur Solidarität wird ebenfalls stark betont. 'Die Zaristische Autokratie ging nahtlos in die bolschewistische Diktatur über'. Der Totalitarismus, die Einparteienregierung sowie die Zentralverwaltungswirtschaft haben die russische Mentalität weitere 70 Jahre geprägt. Die Kommunistische Ära hat die kollektiven Organisationsmuster im russischen Alltag und das Massenbewusstsein in den Menschen tief verankert: Defizitäre Zustände und eine starke Bürokratisierung haben dazu geführt, dass die informellen Netzwerke, die immer schon schwer durchschaubar waren, noch mehr an Bedeutung zunahmen. Die Misstrauenshaltung, die sich in der Zeit der Massenrepressionen entwickelte, ist in vielen Bereichen des Geschäftslebens heute immer noch präsent. Die allgegenwärtige Kontrolle, die Willkür der Entscheidungen und Sanktionen bewirken eine Scheu vor möglicher Verantwortungsübernahme. Der Verzicht auf freie Meinungsäußerung und Kritik war zu dieser Zeit auch überlebenswichtig. Anstelle eigenverantwortlicher Entscheidungen und persönlicher Initiative war Konformität, das Warten auf die Anweisung 'von oben' oder die Hoffnung auf ein Wunder angesagt. Die absolute Isolation Russlands von den westlichen Kulturen während des Kalten Krieges führte zu einem Bild des Westeuropäers, das auf wenigen und eher ideologisch verzerrten Stereotypen aufbaute. Der Transformationsprozess in Russland ist aber außer durch wirtschaftliche auch durch zahlreiche mentale Barrieren behindert. Dem globalen Trend zufolge wird heutzutage auch Russlands Gesellschaft mehr und mehr individualistisch. Somit zeichnet sie sich heutzutage durch das Spannungsverhältnis zwischen pro- und contrawestlichen Wertemustern aus. Die sozialen und politischen Strukturen sind immer noch stark hierarchisch. Die während des Sozialismus eingepaukten Tugenden, 'bescheiden zu sein' und 'nicht auffallen zu wollen', hemmen auch heute noch die Entfaltungs- und Innovationskraft der russischen Arbeitskräfte und sorgen dafür, dass sie daher auf dem globalen Markt nicht konkurrenzfähig sind. Das an Personen gebundene Vertrauen äußert sich in der Tatsache, dass trotzt der geringen Identifikation mit dem Staat das Vertrauen in die 'Starke Hand' sehr hoch ist. Im Geschäftskontext stellt die Bürokratie einen Hauptrisikofaktor dar. Als Folge des Erodierens des Kontroll- und Sanktionsapparats verbreitete sich die Korruption. Unter diesen Umständen sind der Aufbau und die Pflege von informellen Kontaktnetzen zum Erfolgsfaktor Nummer 1 für das heutige Geschäftsleben geworden. Diese Mechanismen des informellen Tausches von Privilegien mit dem Ziel der Unsicherheits- und Konkurrenzreduktion tragen den Namen 'Blat'. Die heutige Entscheidungssituation ist durch Intransparenz, Ineffizienz, Instabilität und Unzuverlässigkeit der wichtigsten gesellschaftlichen Institutionen gekennzeichnet und erschwert somit die langfristige Planung und macht sie somit schlichtweg unmöglich. Stattdessen sind Flexibilität, Erfindungsgeist und Kreativität gefragt. Kulturerbe Deutschlands: Nach Schroll-Machl haben insbesondere 'das lange Verharren in der Kleinräumigkeit der Territorialstaaten", 'die Lehren des Protestantismus" sowie 'mehrfache existenzielle Erschütterungen" die deutsche Arbeitskultur nachhaltig geprägt. Durch die Kleinstaatlichkeit war es leicht, die Pflichten der Bürger zu kontrollieren. Die Kontrolle ging dabei nicht nur von der Obrigkeit aus, sondern auch unmittelbar von den Nachbarn. Nur im Privaten entfiel sie. Die beruflichen und privaten Bereiche wurden dadurch streng getrennt. Das unter diesen Umständen entstandene enorme Pfichtbewusstsein wurde im Lauf der Zeit verinnerlicht. Bedingt durch die Enge des Staatswesens sowie eine absolute Isolation nach Außen entwickelte sich die Liebe zu Ordnung und Detail. Mit der zunehmenden Industrialisierung und Automation setzte sich eine strikte (monochrone) Zeitreglementierung durch. Im Gegensatz zu der von der Mystik durchdränkten Orthodoxie wurde beim Protestantismus sehr viel Wert auf Sachlichkeit und Rationalität gelegt. Der Stellenwert des Berufs war beim Protestantismus ebenfalls sehr hoch. Nach Luthers Aussage: 'Hilf dir selbst, dann hilft dir Gott" waren die Menschen für ihre Lebensgestaltung selbst verantwortlich. Damit hat die protestantische Arbeitsethik von den Menschen vor allem Eigeninitiative, Disziplin und Entscheidungsfähigkeit erwartet. Im 20. Jahrhundert wurden die Verhaltensstandards in ganz Europa (und somit auch in Deutschland) gravierend verändert. Unter anderem haben sich die Machtgefälle zwischen (1) Männern und Frauen, (2) den älteren und jüngeren Generationen, (3) den europäischen Gesellschaften gegenüber dem Rest der Welt und insbesondere zu ihren ehemaligen Kolonien und (teilweise) (4) zwischen den Regierenden und den Regierten verringert. Nach dem Zusammenbruch 1945 bemühte man sich verstärkt um sachorientierte Arbeitsweisen und vermied es weitgehend, den Stellenwert der einzelnen Person zu unterstreichen. Überlebenswichtig erschien in der Aufbauzeit auch die Konzentration auf eine pflichtbewusste Rollenübernahme. Die kritische Grundhaltung der Deutschen zu ihrer Vergangenheit hat zur Revitalisierung und Demokratisierung der Nachkriegsgesellschaft entscheidend beigetragen. Zwischenfazit: Die kulturellen Unterschiede resultieren in unterschiedlichen Vorstellungen vom Wünschenswerten und beinhalten grundsätzlich ein vorhandenes Potenzial für Missverständnisse. Inwieweit diese Missverständnisse im Einzelfall lediglich zu Irritationen führen oder im Sonderfall sogar zu Konflikten eskalieren, hängt in starkem Maße ab von ihrer Wahrnehmung, die ihrerseits stark von den Vorkenntnissen über den anderen Kulturkreis sowie von der individuellen Anpassungsfähigkeit und -bereitschaft abhängt.

[ES] Todos los años este Organismo, al igual que otras muchas instituciones, tiene la ingente labor de recopilar en un volumen la actividad que se ha llevado a cabo durante todo un ejercicio. Esta es la finalidad de esta Memoria, exponer los objetivos cumplidos por la Agencia Estatal Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas a lo largo de 2009. Desde el pasado año, la Memoria de la Institución dejó de editarse en formato impreso, siguiendo las propuestas de nuestro Plan de Actuación. La Memoria se encontrará "colgada" en nuestra página web, junto a las de años anteriores, medio idóneo para facilitar a todo el personal de nuestros Centros e Institutos la información recabada, así como a todos los interesados que accedan a nuestra renovada página institucional. Es difícil destacar alguna de las actividades llevadas a cabo durante este año, pero creo interesante señalar los Centros o Institutos que han finalizado las obras de sus nuevas instalaciones científicas en 2009, actividad que viene asociada a la apuesta de esta Agencia Estatal por proporcionar las herramientas y estructuras necesarias para mejorar la labor de investigación, y sobre todo por aumentar la masa crítica en determinadas áreas científicas. Muchas de estas nuevas instalaciones constituyen la sede de Centros conveniados con otras entidades. En este sentido, se completaron los edificios de la Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas, el Centro de Ciencias de Benasque, el Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación y el nuevo animalario del Centro de Biología Molecular. Creo fundamental reseñar también en estas líneas la creación de nuevos Centros en este ejercicio: la firma de un convenio con la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid para la creación de los nuevos Centros de Acústica Aplicada y Evaluación no Destructiva, el Centro de Automática y Robótica, y el Centro de Investigación en Seguridad y Durabilidad Estructural y de Materiales; y con la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha y la Fundación General de Medio Ambiente de esta Comunidad, el convenio de creación de la Unidad Mixta "Laboratorio de Ciencias de la Atmósfera y el Clima". En el ámbito de la investigación científica y técnica se destacan en los resúmenes de los Coordinadores de Área e Institucionales algunos de los logros conseguidos a lo largo del 2009. De manera genérica, lo más importante ha sido, sin duda, que de nuevo, en los indicadores de investigación y transferencia del conocimiento, este Organismo ha conseguido incrementar, un año más, sus publicaciones científicas, tanto en cantidad como en calidad; la misma progresión se ha obtenido en el número de patentes, proyectos, convenios y contratos, en parte estos resultados son consecuencia del aumento en recursos humanos, tanto de personal técnico y de gestión, como en la plantilla de investigadores. Todo ello nos ha permitido seguir siendo el Organismo impulsor de la investigación de excelencia en España, en producción de conocimiento y en su transmisión a la sociedad, a la que nos debemos. Por la labor de elaboración de esta nueva edición de la Memoria anual 2009, y por el esfuerzo que supone el facilitar y coordinar las actuaciones más relevantes que se han llevado a cabo en nuestro Organismo, quiero dejar patente mi agradecimiento a todas las Unidades, Coordinadores de Áreas e Institucionales y Centros e Institutos de Investigación. ; [EN] Every year this institution, like many other similar bodies, has the daunting task of compiling all the activity that has taken place over an entire year in a single volume. Thus the purpose of this report is to outline the objectives met by the Spanish National Research Council (Agencia Estatal Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas) over the course of 2009. In line with the proposals of our Action Plan, since last year the Institution's annual activity report has ceased to be published in hard copy format. This report will therefore be posted on our website, along with those of previous years, this being the most appropriate means to enable all staff in our centres and institutes to access the information collected, as well as making it available to all other interested parties visiting our recently updated institutional website. It is difficult to pick out just a few of the activities taking during this year for a special mention, but I think that it is worth noting the centres and institutes that have completed the construction of new scientific facilities in 2009, an activity that is associated with the CSIC's challenge of providing the tools and structures needed to do better research, and in particular to increase the organisation's critical mass in certain fields of science. Many of these new facilities have been created through agreements with other entities. These new facilities include the buildings for the Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas (Arid Zone Experimental Station), the Centro de Ciencias de Benasque (Benasque Science Centre), the Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación (Food Science Research Institute) and the new animal house at the Centro de Biología Molecular (Centre for Molecular Biology). Likewise, I think it is also worth briefly mentioning the creation of a number of new centres during the year: the signing of a agreement with the Madrid Polytechnic University to create the Centro de Acústica Aplicada y Evaluación no Destructiva (Centre for applied acoustics and non-destructive evaluation), the Centro de Automática y Robótica (Centre for robotics and automation), and the Centro de Investigación en Seguridad y Durabilidad Estructural y de Materiales (Centre for research in materials safety and structural durability) and with the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha (Castile-La Mancha regional government) and the region's General Foundation for the Environment, an agreement has been signed to create a joint atmospheric sciences and climate laboratory unit. The Area and Institutional Coordinators' summaries highlight some of the accomplishments achieved during 2009 in the field of scientific and technical research. In general, no doubt the most important were once again the CSIC's research and knowledge transfer indicators, which show that the organisation has once again managed to increase both the quantity and quality of its scientific publications. Similar progress was achieved in terms of the number of patents, projects, agreements and contracts, these results being partly a result of the increase in human resources, including technical and management personnel, as well as research staff. This has allowed us to remain the driving force behind world-class research and knowledge production in Spain, as well as its transmission to the society to which we owe our existence. For the work of preparing this new edition of the 2009 Annual Report, and the effort involved in enabling and coordinating the key activities that have taken place in our organisation, I would like to express my gratitude to all the organisation's units, areas and institutional coordinators, research centres and institutes. ; Peer reviewed

Issue 17.1 of the Review for Religious, 1958. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious JANUARY 15, 1958 Retreats in Retrospect Thomas Dubay Spiritual Cancer . Francis ~1. Macl:ntee Roman Documents . R. I:. Smith Book Reviews Questions and Answers For You~ Information VOLUME 17 NUMBER 1 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS VOLUME 17 JANUARY, 1958 NUMBER 1 CONTENTS RETREATS IN RETROSPECT--Thomas Dubay, S.M .3 FOR YOUR INFORMATION .34 SPIRITUAL CANCER--Francis J. MacEntee, s.j .3.7 SURVEY OF ROMAN DOCUMENTS--R. F. Smith, S.J .4.2 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 50 BOOK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS: Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . 51 SOME BOOKS RECEIVED . 59 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS: 1. Preferred Mass on a Ferial Day of Lent . 60 2. When Does an Anticipated Renewal of Vows Begin to Run?. 60 3. Personal Gifts and Poverty . 61 4. Saving Money for Desired PuFposes . 62 5. Permission Required for Minor Necessities . 64 6. Elimination of Precedence in the Refectory . 64 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, January, 1958. Vol. 17, No. 1. Published bi-monthly by The Queen's Work, 3115 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis 18, Mo. Edited by the Jesuit Fathers bf St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approval. Second class mail privilege authorized at St. Louis, Mo. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.J.; Gerald Kelly, S.J., Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Robert F. Weiss, S.J. Copyright, 1958, by The Queen's Work. Subscription price in U.S.A. and Canada: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U.S.A. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: Review for Religious, :3115 South Grand Boulevard. St. Louis 18, Missouri. Review t:or Religious Volume 17 January--Deceml~er, 1958 Ecllt:ed by THE JESUIT FATHERS St. Mary's College St. Marys, Kansas Published by. THE QUEEN'S WORK SI=. Louis, Missouri REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is indexed in the CATHOLIC PERIODICAL INDEX Retreats in Retrospect Thomas Dubay, S.M. IN SIX RECENT issues of this REVIEW~ seven hundred sisters told with considerable detail what they think about the prob-lem of more fruitful retreats for religious. This temperately told tale was no trite tally, for the sisters expounded their posi-tions with logic and insight. Yet all the same, we still lack an adequate analysis and evaluation of their views, without which, of course, the study remains truncated. But even more im-portant, we also lack solutions to many ot~ the problems they raised. This present article aims at contributing a mite toward the filling of both needs.2 I shall not, however, attempt to discuss every problem unearthed by the study, but those only whose solution is most signific~tnt and pressing. These latter we will review in the order in which they occurred in the original articles. Source of Retreat Masters Where ought religious communites to get their retreat mas-ters? From religious communities, manifestly. But which? Ought retreats to be given by priests from the same order each year or by priests from different orders? Most of the sisters queried favored the latter choice. As I went through the sisters' stated preferences regarding the sources of retreat masters, the overall impression I received was one of dissatisfaction with a current tendency to rigid uniformity. This dissatisfaction, while not universal, was especially noticeable in those congregations which are not attached to any order of men but nonetheless re-ceive retreat masters t?rom one order alone. Only 11.3% of the sisters belonging to these communities positively liked their custom, 73% positively disliked it, and 15.7% were indifferent. 1R£VIEW gOR RELIGIOI./$~ January through November, 1956. 2The reader will note that much of our discussion is pertinent to the retreats of all religious, men and women alike. THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious Even among sisters attached to a religious order of men, 18.75% desired retreat masters from other orders at least occasionally, while another 18.75% were indifferent to the source of priests. The remainder preferred all priests to come from their own order. We may conclude that among religious women unat-tached to any order of men the vast majority prefer their retreat masters to come from different congregations each year. Among sisters affiliated with an order of men a notable minority like an "outsider" at least occasionally. With these opinions I must register a hearty agreement. But before delving into the realm of reasons I would like to clarify the position .here taken. I do not hold that a change of ordereach year is necessarily desira.ble, even for religious attached to no order of men. So frequent a change may be helpful, or it may not be. If one order consistently furnishes more skilled or more holy priests, there is no reason in the wide world why that order should no~ be tapped more often than others. Secondly, for sisters attached to a religious order of men I think that the usual retreat master should be a priest from their own order: a Dominican for Dominicans, a Trinitarian for Trinitarians, and so on. A majorityof sisters in these groups desire this arrangement, and their desire should be respected insofar as it is compatible with the preferences, of the minority. The formers' reasoning is i, alid: they feel that their, own priests bettei understand their spirit and way of life and hence can direct them more effectively. Since this is ordinarily true, the usual retreat for such. religious ought to be given by a priest belonging to their own order. However, since a sizeable number of these same religious women desire atlease an occasional change, I think that an outside priest should be invited every few years. Reason-able wishes e~cen of minorities should be respected, and this wish is reasonable. Now why is it desireable for retreat masters to be chosen from a number of different orders of men? First of all, the 4 January, 1958 I~ETREATS IN RETROSPECT supply of really top-flight retreat masters in any religious con-gregation is limited. This observation bespeaks defect in no order, since it simply reflects the fact that human abilities are distributed according to a normal curve. TO my knowledge no order is bursting at the seams with men highly gifted with the specialized talents needed for successful retreat work. If a community chooses its. retreat masters exclusively from one order of men, and especially from one province of that order, it may in time exhaust the supply of the best. A partial solution to this difficulty is the return of the good retreat master. When such can be arranged, and when the priest' has another set of meditations and conferences available, there seems to be no rea-son why he should not be invited for a second or third retreat. After all, a priest of proven ability is a far more secure risk than an unknown quantity. A second reason beckoning variety--and to my mind, a much more potent one than the first--is the danger of insularity. If we religious, men and women alike, are perfectly frank with ourselves, we will have to admit that we too often tend to horizon our outlook to our house, our province, our congregation. We may not intend it, but we do incline that way. We tend to insularity in our works, our "devotions," our interests, our spirit. In something of this context Thomas Merton refers to "the tyranny of restricted human systems and 'schools of spirituality' that might tend to narrow us down to a particular esoteric out-look and leave us something less than Catholic.''3 No one order .of men or women has a monopoly on helpful approaches to the love of God. We have a special love for our own society. Fine, we should. But we should also be interested in the works, the interests, the devotions, and the spirits of o~her orders and be more than ready to grant that in all likelihood they are just as worthy "as our own. The Catholic Church is catholic, and we aBread in the Wilderness (New York: New Direction, "1953), p. 41. THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious religious are first Catholic and then religious. Would it not, therefore, be healthy for all of us to listen to a retreat master t~rom another order once in a while? Would we not stand to profit from another viewpoint? Not another truth, mind you, but another viewpoint on the same truth. Could not an "out-sider's" look at our own spiri( perhaps cast valuable light on our own appreciation of it? I, for one, think so. So also does a sister who observed to me that "we had one Dominican retreat master who was as Franciscan as any Franciscan we've had." Said another: "Personally, I am not a Franciscan, but St. Fran-cis's detachment, joy, and poverty have helped me tremendously, which led me to do much reading in Franciscan spirituality." Our final reason supporting a variety of retreat masters is the danger of monotony stemming from a sameness of approach. This objection is real for it was mentioned over and o~,er again in the sisters' comments. Some orders of men have a set retreat methodology, and ~sually it is an effective one. And yet i~or all that, a year-in, year-out repetition, of the same routine of subject and technique can be tiresome. We must agree that it is neither pleasant nor overly profitable to hear the same medita-tion subjects discussed year after year, and all the more so when they are treated in much the same manner and according to a prefashioned approach. On this score we might remember that God Himself in writing His Book chose to use a large number of different men with widely diverse backgrounds, techniques, and literary styles. He knows that men need variety . . . and He gave it to them. Among religio.us some like a sameness of approach~ but most do not. Those who do not seem entitled to an occasional change: But we must not be too rabid in our desire for variety. There are difficulties attached to it. Obtaining capable priests year after year from different r~ligious communities is without doubt a somewhat uncertain and perhaps unpleasant preoccupa-tion for the higher superior. It is much easier to have a stand-ing agreement with some one order of men for the simple reason Januavy, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT that uncertainty and negotiation are done away with. Then, too, it seems safe to suppose that most sister superiors have relatively few contacts with the higher superiors of orders of men. They may not, as a consequence, know exactly where to turn for com-petent retreat masters. What can be done? Two possible solutions occur at the moment, and there are doubtlessly others. The first bespeaks a widespread effort. Some national organization of religious women (or men, as the case may.be) could act through a spe-cially appointed committee as ~a~coordinating agency for the ex-change of retreat information. Superiors could forward to the committee the names of priests whom they have found through dxperience especially competent in retreat work. They could receive in return names of others whom they (the superiors) could contact for future engagements. The second possibility envisions the same type of coopera-tion on a limited, inter- or intra-community basis. Several com-munities could appoint individual religibus to exchange and relay pertinent information among themselves. Or within one com-munity (and especially one of the larger variety) sisters could be asked to forward to the provincia!, superior names of priests whom they "have found skilled in the giving of conferences or retreats to religious. Both of these suggested solutions would really be talent hunts. Their success would depend largely on the willingness of the superiors of religious men to appoint retreat" masters accord-ing to the expressed desire of other communities and also on the willingness of certain priests to be "worked over and over" in a rather taxing occupation. Experience seems to indicate that in many if not in most cases these religious men show that willing-ness and would be happy to cooperate insofar as possible in some such plan. If a program of this kind could be worked out, the bother and uncertainty so 'often bound up with obtaining priests from different orders would quite probably be lessened if 7 THOMAS DUBAY Review ]or Religious not entirely eliminated. There can be no doubt whatsoever that we in the United States possess within our land hundreds of earnest and skilled retreat masters, actual and potential It is up to us to exercise ingenuity and initiative in finding and using ¯them. Familiarity with Constitutions Unmistakable is the word to describe the preponderant number o~ sisters that desire their retreat masters to be well ac-quainted with the constitutions under which they live. Of 701 religious, 616 (89%) expressed- themselves positively, on this question, while only five (.7%) registered a negative opinion. The others were °indifferent. The majority view is to my mind soundly based, and that fo~ the ~.oIlowing reasons. i. From a negative point of view an acquaintance with a community's constitutions forestalls blundering statements in con-ferences and meditations. Such are, for example, advising the sisters how to spend time "in their, rooms" when they have no rooms; or speaking of vacations home when they have no vaca-tions, home; or, finally, making suggestions on how to say the Office when they do not say it. 2. Even more troublesome is advi~e that contradicts or seems to contradict provisions contained in the constitutions. Young religious may beupset or confused, while the older are probably annoyed. Neither reaction contributes to a suc-cessful retreat. 3. On th~ positive side we can find pertinent to our prob-lem the venerable scholastic adage that "whatever is received is received according to the condition of the receiver." What-ever the retreat master has to say to his "receivers" will surely be modified and conditioned by the mental set of those receivers. Part of that set is formed bytheir rule of life; and so, if he wants to know how they are going to understand his observations on the religious life, he should try to acquire some of their condition-ing by a reading of their rule. 8 ¯ January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT 4. A priest will be much more practical (and interesting) in his meditation expos~ and conferences if he can occasionally choose for the illustration of his principles items selected from a community's own blueprint for life. As I pound the typewriter before me, the thought passes through my mind of the times my own-ignorance of a congregation's constitutions has wasted valuable conference time and rendered application less effectual. More than once has ~he awkward, expression passed my lips: "I do"not know whether you . . . , but if you do, you may find it helpful to . " Hardly a smooth attempt to be practical. 5. .Reading the constitutions enables the retreat master to grasp this congregation's spirit--not that of his order, nor that of a third or a fourth. 6. The work of the confessional can be done more effec-tively, more surely. Questions are understood and more cor-rectly answered. A sister is scarcely helped in her query about a possible infraction of poverty if her confessor knows nothing about her congregation's interpretation and practice of that vow. 7. An easy familiarity with a community's own ,way of life as expressed in its constitution~ is .bound to generate a receptive notein the retreatants. Their confidence in the master.i~ height-ened-- understandably. Sister~ typically love t~eir rule of life and are appreciative of the priest who will trouble himself, to read it for his own benefit. So much for reasons. A. few cautions seem in order. .The retreat master must exercise a bit of circumspection in his use of another community's constitutions. His references m~ist.be r~spectfui. Obviously out of place is any criticisfi~ of rule or custom, whether that ciiticism is patent or merely implied. This has been done and it isheartily re~ented. And.rightly. Con- ¯ stitutions have .been ' approved by ecclesiastical authority far greater .than any an individual priest can rustle .up. His criti-cism~ therefore, carries little weight.It further lal~ors under theburden of bad "taste. 9 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious The retreat master, secondly, should be reasonably sure of the interpretation he attaches to a principle or regulation. To obtain this reasonable degree of certitude one aid is the applica-tion. of the ordinary norms of hermeneutics. Such would be the consideration of the entire context: paragraph, chapter, whole work; the explanation of the obscure by the clear; the directive help of custom. Perhaps the safest guarantee of correct inter-pretation, however, is the help of a superior of the retreatants. She might favor the priest, with some hints on points she thinks need stressing. She might also offer interpretations that alter the prima facie meaning of regulations contained in the constitu-tions. Since custom is the best interpreter of the law and the retreat master may not know of modifying customs, both he and the sisters will be decidedly aided by observations of this type. Our third caution is a mere reminder that constitutions ought not to be worked td death by overdoing references to them. No Usable directive covering all cases can be given. Good taste and common sense must be the guiding norms. The protocol of getting a copy of the constitutions into the hands of a retreat master ought not to be difficult. It would seem best for the provincial superior of the retreatants to offer a copy to the priest about six months in advance. I stress the word, offer, for the reason that a priest does not especially care to ask for a copy of the constitutions. He fears that the superior might be unwilling or that she may think him curious (I doubt that he is). In any event her taking the ~initiative makes the whole matter more simple. Conference and Meditation Approaches What kind of approach do sisters like best? Intellectual? Emotional? Mixed? Difficult questions, these . . . questions that admit of no facile answer. And further, do the likes of the sisters necessarily coincide with .what is objectively best? It is possible that a religious keenly enjoy an emoti0nally toned meditation expos~ and actually derive little lasting benefit from 10 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETR~ it. But as far as preferences go, we may recall that among the surveyed sisters-- 1. Almost none (.6%) want emphasis placed on the emotions alone. 2. Slightly more than half (50.5%) desire some stress on the use of emotions by the retreat master. 3. Slightly.less than half (49.5%) want no stress on the emotional approach. 4. A vast majority (93.1%) seek emphasis placed on solid intellectual content, whatever other techniques be mixed in.4 5. A lesser majority (78.4%) want Sacred Scripture to have a prominent place, o '6. In order of preference the intellectual approach out-distances the others; the frequent use of Sacred Scripture ranks second, and a stress on the emotions third. The retreat master is evidently ir~ the position of a cook seasoning soup destined for a hundred palates. But the cook enjoys an advantage in that he can season moderately and depend on the saltcellars to supplement his efforts. The retreat master, however, can lean on no stylecellar to alter the fare he presents. And yet spiritual palates vary .as widely as do material. The situation, nonetheless, is not hopeless. I am strongly inclined to think that while the sisters' differences in preference are real, they are not as deep as they first appear. For one thing, you will note that the whole problem is one of emphasis . . and emphasis is a relative thing, a thing that has many meanings and many degrees. Then, too, desire for stress on one approach does not thereby exclude other approaches. It indicates merely a wish that this one be given a prominent place. Emphases are not mutually exclusive. All things c.onsidered, I submit that the interests of most retreatants will best be served 4 In our original article we erred slightly (by 1.8%) on this point. This error was due to faulty grouping. For the present conclusion we should have com-bined groups 2, 4, 6, and 7 of the questionnaire items instead of 2, 4, 5, and 7. See REWEW FOR RELIGIOUS, March, 1956, p. 91. 11 V Review for Religious rences of the majority propet~ly honored by~ari ~ ¯ 'ing the. following characterigtics, negative and ~ ~[0~ry language, sentimental and.exaggerated orator2 ical devices (e.g.,. whispering, unusual exclamations--alas! oh!) are anathema. Earlier.ages may have felt differentlyi but realis-tic, twentieth-century American religious give evidence ot: little patience with the stage-pulpit mixture. We. typically resent any obvious, artificial attempt of a retreat mfister to play upon our emotions. Quite another matter, of course, is the sincerely felt but restrained emotion of a priest'who is deeply penetrated with his message. I do not think that the sisters who exi0ressed them-selves so emphatically against en~otionalism wish a re.treat master ¯ to be stoical. They, after all, are human and so is he. Rather I think they merely wished to exclude an emphasis on the emo-tional approach and any semblance of artificiality. The priest who knows himself to be inclined to manifest his feelings too freely--even s!ncerely experienced t~eelings--will do well to exer-cise a moderat.ing restraint over them.' . 2. While most ~eligious harbor a strong dislike for flowery language, the)) do seem to appreciate a .well-#pok~n sentence, English that is clear, correct, and intelligent. We do not need to labor the point that there is a vast difference between over-done verbiage and a first-class command of language. 3. Absolutely es~entihl in the minds of a vast majority of sisters is a sound intellectual current runiling through medi-tation exposes and conferences. With thi~ pFeference I am in complete agreement. I do not mean to imply, howev.er,' that. meditations and conferences are to be periods .of intense intel-lectual gymnastics. But they should serve as channels for the. conveyance of solid doctrine.on anintellectual level transcending the catechism. In a meditation on the Blessed Trinity, for ex-ample, I can see no reason for refusing to touch upon the intel-le'ctuai generation of the Word and the spiration of the Holy Spirit. These trutl~s, if we work overthem, can be put simply 12 / January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT and explained clearly. Coordinated with the divine indwelling they can be°ihvaluable spurs toward sanctity. So, too, can abbre-viated theological analyses 0f the beatific vision, de~otion to. the Sacred Heart, and the mediation of Mary. Repet!tion is .the soul of monotony . . . and s~ is triteness. If a retreat master seldom offers new insights, rarely teaches what has not been heard ten. or twenty times already, ~carcely ever delves more deep!y into God's reve!ation, he is likely to leave little mark on his hearers. ¯ Sisters are people--they like to listen when they learn. 4. The retreat master must at all times keep .his presenta-tion gimple. While he does well to develop some of the finer. points of theology, he must keep his vocabulary lind phraseology tuned to a non-theologi~ally prepared audience. .Profundity of thought and simplicity of presentation can go nicely together. Most sisters are.intellectually capabl'e of understanding theologi- .cal concepts, but nonetheless many of them lack the technical ¯ training needed to grasp these concepts i'f they are ~ffe~ed in fancy terminology. In his outlook on conference-giving to religious; the priest must be careful not to confuse a lack of knowledge with a lack of intelligence. Some sisters may not hav.e too much of the former in matters theol6gical, but most are well equipped with the latter. 5. Attractive~ apt analogies and illustrations are indis: pensable helps, because ~hey suktain interest and pave the way to clear explanation. One i~eed only study the master teacher, Christ, to see how effective a concrete, well-illustrated approach can be. Instead of discoursing abstractedly about a psychology of pride, Jesus hammered home His teaching by talking about places at a banquet table, a boasting Pharisee, and ~a small child. Instead of extolling in the abstract the good-example angle of the religious life, a retreat master can nail down his point by doncretizlng it: "Every time you leave the door of this convent you give. the world a. wordless sermon, a sermon it needs badly, a sermon on the beauty of voluntary .poverty, chastity, and obedience." Or rather than a mere theoretical disquisition on 13 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious generosity, why not follow up the theory with a few concrete ideas about being available for extra jobs around the convent: substitution for a sick sister, extra duty in the hospital or class-room, acting as a companion (a happy one). Theory is fine, but apt illustration is even better. 6. It seems to me that an abundant--but not overdone --use of Sacred Scripture sh0ul'd usually find its way into the retreat meditation and confei:ence, The word of God Himself has an efficacy with souls Ufishared 'by the most clever words we humans can concoct. One sister remarked in this connection that "it is only too late that one finds the beauty and worthwhile passages in Holy Scripture. Personally, I have found myself living in close union with God by just one passage studied in the New Testament at meditation or spiritual reading." The retreat master, therefore, in gathering together material for his conferences ought to search the sacred pages (with the help. of a concordance) for apt scriptural support, Well-chosen texts will enlighten the minds and move the wills of his listeners far more effectively than his own words ever will. Theology in Retreats If ever a universal statement is dangerous, it is when discuss-ing the problem of theology in retreats fc~r religious. So varied are the talents, tastes, and training of typical groups of retreatants, that a priest's efforts to trim his treatment of theology to suit the preferences of all are almost predoomed to failure. And yet, while we may not be able to meet the needs of each and" every religious, I think we can tailor our approach to care for the great majority. First of all, I think it is safe to say that very few sisters and brothers have more~than a handshaking acquaintance with theology . . . real theology. I know full well that many have taken ~he mushrooming colleges courses in "theology," whether in their own juniorates or in regularly constituted colleges; but for the most part these are merely college religion courses 14 Janua~'y, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT labeled theology. In any event, we can agree that few brothers or sisters have taken the theology that priests have taken. The retreat master may not forget, therefore, that in his planning he ought not to assume technical knowledge or training in the .sacred science. Positively,. he sh(~uld assume that there are many theological concepts with which the retreatants are not acquainted ai~d about which they will be delighted to hear. These two facts suggest a pair of norms which may guide masters in their ap-proach to theology. First~ any theological concept that is introduced into con-ference or meditation must be presented simply if it is to reach the majority. This caution can hardly be overemphasized. A technical, highly abstract, sparsely illustrated presentation is so much wasted time . . . and sometimes patience. A' priest who uses unexplained theological or philosophical terms (e.g., hypo-static union, satisfactory value, timorous conscience, formal object, eschatological emphasis) may impress his hearers with the pro-fundity of theology, but he is hardly going to lead them to a greater love of God. Yet (and this is our second norm) this does not mean that retreat masters should not present profound truths. They cer-tainly should. God gave us the whole of His revelation for a purpose: the sanctification of souls. If a priest neglects to teach those truths when they can in some way be grasped, he is neglect-ing a powerful, God-given means diGrm[y aimed at the sanctifi-cation of souls. There is a tremendous difference between presenting the-ology in retreats and presenting theology technically. One sis, ter brought this point out beautifully. She observed that a retreat master: should give sisters exactly the same substantial content as he would give to other priests. He need have no fear that they will not be able to understand and live what he himself understands and lives. He should deliver his message, however, without scholarly verbiage, Latinisms, and all the other trappings which serve to im-press rather than to clarify. Through no fault of their own, sisters 15 Review for Religious do not have the.information to cope with this. It is a great mistake, however--and sad to say. a common one--to confound a sister's lack of technical theological learning with a lack of intelligence. It is the priest's task to make the technical comprehensible to the non-theologian. This of course demands inuch more understanding than does a presentation in the language" of the manuals. Most retreat' masters present a very thin gruel by comparison with what the}, could give if tl~ey had greater respect for the potentialities of the sisters. :&nd there are further reasons for introducing simplified theological concepts into. retreats. To my mind triteness of sub-ject matter (and triteness of expression, ~;oo) is candidate number one fo~ the title of b~te noire among the defects of contemporary preaching. We tend to' repeat meditation subjects and medita-tion ideas so unendingly that often little of enduring value is ldft with the retreatant.'If, on the contrary, we delve into the riches of divine revelation and teach the retreatants some of the many things they do we can hardly fail to Sot~nd theolegy not know about God and His.loveliness, leave a beneficial and lasting mark. retreat offers the further benefit of furnishing solid bases for a fervent spiritual life. It is perfectly true that learning is not .an essential ingredient in the make-up of saintliness; but, all else being equal, it is undeniably a power-ful aid. The reasori for this is nothing more. nor less than the age old scholastic axiom: nothing is willed unless it is first known. If we want our religious to live sensible, solid, and saintly lives, we must do our part by furnishing them with lucid explanations of pertinent sections from "moral, .dogmatic, scriptural, ascetichl, .and mystical theology. To offer less is to shortchange." Fine. I suppose we are agreed that simplified but new theological concepts .have a place in retreats for religious. But how is the .individual retreat master going to know (1) what will be "new" concepts for a particular group of religious and (2) whether his treatment of those concepts can be honored by the adjective simplified? A partial answer to the first problem can be worked out by a close cooperation between the retreat master and the provincial 16 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT superior of the retreatants. The latter could volunteer informa-tion on the background of the sisters with particular emphasis on their previous education and present work. If she can indicate with some precision to what extent the sisters have been in-structed in sacred doctrine, all the better. The retreat master needs help in answering the second question also, but this time it must issue from the retreatants themselves. A teacher can hardly know of himself whether or not his classroom presentation is clear and simple. He must hear from his pupils in some way or other, whether by examina-tion or oral comment. A retreat master hears nothing from the former and little from the latter. If he is brave enough, he might invite written comment. Toward the close of the exercises he could pass out a one-page opinionnaire asking for a frank evaluation of his exposition. If he does this, he should make it perfectly clear that he is not looking for an oblique pat on the back but for a statement of unadorned fact. Private Interview with the Retreat Master We approach now a question on which there is sharp dis-agreement between two large groups of American sisters. That question is whether or not sisters making a retreat should be allowed to approach the retreat master for a discussion of spiritual problems outside of the confessional. You will note that the question is not whether all sisters should see the priest in this capacity, but whether they may see him if they wish. Our survey indicated that a majority of religious women favor the availability of a priva.te confer.ence, although a strong minority look askance at it. The study suggested also that religious communities themselves vary in their official views. Some allow the private interview; others do not. To my mind the opinion favoring the availability of the private conference is the better. But before I set down reasons, a word of caution. No religious should be in any way forced or persuaded to seek a conference. Some sisters find the help 17 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious available in the confessional adequate for their needs. Others would be embarrassed and at a loss to explain their problems in. a private interview. We must remember that most sisters, unlike both religious and diocesan seminarians, are not accustomed to speak of their spiritual life with a priest sitting face-to-face be-fore them. Perfect and complete freedom, therefore, should surround this whole matter. Some religious, however, not only desire a private interview, but clearly need one. Any experienced spiritual director knows well enough that there are problems involved in the fervent living of the religious life far too complicated to be solved in the time ordinarily available in the confessional. As one sister put it, "there are some matters one simply can't get straight in the confessional." General conferences do not help here pre-cisely because they are general. We are not trying to form "religious in general" but particular religious, and for that individualized attention is indispensable. Said one sister: "Some-times the conferences would never have cleared up my diffi-culties, but a private conference where I can ask questions did." Aside even from strictly spiritual problems of an ascetical nature, a religious may want to discuss a moral or vocational difficulty. Again, as any director knows, these problems are often such that they cannot be solved by a few paternal (and some-times trite) words in the confessional. They need a full hear-ing followed by mature thought and discussion. Then, too, few sisters during the course of the year enjoy the opportunity of receiving an adequate hearing on their spiritual needs and aspira-tions. Why not give that opportunity to them at retreat time? A denial-of it could have unfortunate consequences. One superior has observed that "if a religious doesn't feel she has that freedom [of a private conference at retreat time], she Will look for other means to solve her problems, or just drop them and give up . " Failures in the religious life are not always due wholly to the unfortunate religious. 18 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT The fact that many sisters do so well in their spiritual" lives without systematic and thorough spiritual direction is hardly an argument against its value. In all likelihood they would advance in God's love even more rapidly if they were given regular direction as the major seminarian, for example, is given it. The objections brought against the private interview do not seem entirely valid. They are, for to the danger of abuse. And among likely (judging from the sisters' opinic community and self-seekir~g on the part on the latter I think we should reser~ religious could be sure that such an at for me to see. Nor is. disloyalty so. Most priests, after all, are sensible en( case of criticism, even bitter criticism, th side of the story. They are not going mentally with the other side unheard. sister's criticism is valid, it is clear that sl Her needs should be cared for. Possible abuse is no argument ag~ Church herself allows (and prescribes great abuse is possible. The same obi are possible also in the confessional, b~ dreamed of discontinuing the sacramen them. She merely surrounds that sacr~ guards as are reasonable and then lear of God. Which may remind us that which abuse may be .present. will. .the most part, reducible ~ossible abuses the most is) are disloyalty to the of the sister. Judgment to God. How fellow ase is present is difficult ormidable an objection. agh to realize that in a .'y are receiving only ond condemn a community But whether or not the may really need advice. .nst a good thing. The many things in which ~ctions mentioned above .t the Church has never of penance because of ment with as many safe- ~s the rest in the hands 3od also allows much in Consider the prosaic fact of free The practical problem of little time anda large number of retreatants is genuine: "I can't see how a retreat master in one private conference could possibly help one--especially when two or three hundred people are making the retreat that usually 19 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious lasts five or eight days." Real though the difficulty is, its solution is not impossible. First of all, we must remember that most religious will probably not seek a private interview, at least not in every retreat. Secondly, superiors should exhaust their in-genuity in seeking ways and means of multiplying retreats and consequently reducing the number of participants in each one. Finally, retreat masters should imitate St. Paul in spending them-selves without stint for the benefit of the sisters. They should give generously of their time and l~e as available as possible. On their part local superiors "(in congregations that allow the private conference) should make it as easy as possible for the sisters to obtain direction. While religious discipline may not suffer, red tape ought to be reduced to the barest minimum. And we might observe in conclusion that the religious themselves ought carefully to abstain from making comments of any kind about those who choose to avail themselves of the opportunity to. obtain spiritual direction. Understanding of Retreatants' Needs We have already observed in our survey series that a some-what disturbing number of sisters feel that at times their retreat masters do not understand well enough the spiritual problems of religious women. If we may judge the views of these sisters on the basis of the typical comments they made, we must return the verdict that usually those views are objectively based. Perhaps an instance of what I mean will help. If a priest counsels a community to do something prohibited by its constitutions, the sisters' judgment that their spirit is not understood is objectively founded. It is not a mere subjective persuasion. When a priest does not understand the needs of a particular group of religious, that lack of understanding will usually occur in one or other of the following categories. 1. Failure to grasp the diverse needs of the different re-ligious communities. This particular type of misunderstanding comes in a number of varieties. One sister observes that the 20 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT retreat master does not seem to appreciate the needs of the teach-ing religious. Another remarks that the problems of the nursing sister are for the most part missed. A third objects that the priest does not understand the spirit of her order or that he confuses it with the spirit of some other congregation. This type of misunderstanding is itself readily understand-able. Many retreat masters are not teachers; none are nurses; and none belong to the identical community as that of the re-treatants. It isi therefore, encouraging that the sisters themselves show a sympathetic appreciation of the di~culties lying before the retreat master. Yet for all that, the obstacles can be at least partially removed. If a priest habitually gives retreats to teaching or nursing religious, it seems imperative that he keep abreast of current problems facing the sisters by reading publications in which those problems are discussed. Such would be, for example, the Catholic Educational Review, the Catholid School Journal, Hospital Progress, Review for Religious, Sponsa Regis, and Sister Formation Bulletin. A first-class biology teacher keeps himself au courant on the newest developments in his field. So does the first-class retieat master. An invaluable means of learning about the problems peculiar to sisters in diverse works (and we are thinking also of contem-plation, social service, missi(~ns, and others) is to give the sisters a chance to say something during retreat time. A daily discussion period wi~h the master serves a number of excellent purposes and . this is one of them. A discussion period can easily replace or be integrated with the daily conference (as distinguished" from the meditations). 'Misunderstandings bearing on the community's works and spirit can be eliminated to a large extent by a careful reading of sisters' constitutions together with exchanges with their su-periors. We have discussed both of these matters in the early part of this present article. 2. Lack of understanding of the psychology of women and of the religious life as lived by women. On this point I would 21 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religfous almost prefer to say nothing at all, for there is little that I can offer with certainty. Of this, however, we can be sure: we do have a prob.lem here that is worth noticing. In our survey the sisters mentioned it more than once and that in diverse con-nections. Now, of course, men and women are not so psychologically different that the one group can never hope to know very much about the other. Yet there does seem to be a chasm in mutual understanding wide enough to create difficulty in obtaining optimum retreat results. This difficulty is sharp-ened when we reflect on the patent fact that retreats for religious women given by religious men are here for keeps. We want, therefore, to make them as successful as possible. What can be done to further a more complege understanding? Experience, obviously, will help any priest. And so will his study of feminine psychology (if he can find something reliable on the subject). But I think that the real solution, if there is one, lies with the sisters themselves. To a consid-erable extent the heart of a nun is unknown terrain. Her confessor surely has some access to it, but a decidedly incom-plete access. The depths of her heart, its love, its aspirations and yearnings, its happiness and its pain are for the most part a closed book. How precisely she views the trials and joys of her-consecrated life are her secret hardly to be shared fully by another. Her entire reactions to her friends and i~amily and sister religious and superiors are unknown quantities. In all this, of course, she is no different from the rest of us. The difference lies in the fact that a priest can more easily understand all these things as they occur in laymen and in priests because he has been both. And many priests engaged in seminary work have spent long hours in the spiritual direc-tion of seminarians. They know the masculine mind in its religious implications because they have experienced it both in themselves and in others. 22 January, 1958 RETREAT~ IN RETROSPEC~ ' Now if there is such a thing as a psychology of religious women--and many sisters insist there is--it is the religious women themselves who must give an account of it. Perhaps our sisters have been too reluctant to explore this particular aspect of their vocation or too taciturn about making known what they have found. In any event the initiative must stem from them. 3. Lack of understanding of the real problems in the religious, life of sisters. This problem, where it actually does occur, is probably connected with the preceding. In our opinionnaire an item on community ~ problems was included and to it many interesting answers were given. I have not as yet written up this particular question, but hope to do so in the reasonably near future. It may cast some light on this third source of misunderstanding. 4. Failure to realize th~it most sisters are not interested in mere mediocre holiness. While this particular type of mis-understanding is by no means universal, mention of it did occur frequently enough to warrant more than a passing notice. Since, however, it shall come up for consideration in our next section, we will pass it by for'the present. 5. Lack of patience with sisters' poblems. To run out of patience is like running out of gas. Neither necessarily sug-gests a lack of understanding of people or of gas tanks. Either may bespeak nothing more striking than some deficiency or other in human nature. But on the other hand, misunder-standing may be the culprit. And this takes us back to our psycholog)~ of the sexes. It is easy to visualize a priest brush-ing off a sister's problems as petty and of no consequence. He may be right (and he may not), but in either case charity indicates that he give her a kind hearing and a patient-answer. Attitudes Toward Sanctity In proposing to analyze so intricate and delicate a question as the present one, we are perhaps treading where angels fear; 23 THOMAS DUBAY Review fo~" Religious but the very moment of the matter beckons at least a try. If it is true, as the Salmanticences say it is, that to raise a good person to saintliness is a greater work than to convert a sinner to grace, the efforts of retreat masters to lead religious to the heights of holiness loom up as of no little account. There are two elements involved in the retreat master's approach to sanctity for his auditors. On the one hand there is the question as to whether he urges them sufficiently to the heights, and on the other whether he explains adequately just how those heights are to be scaled. The survey indicated that a majority of sisters (63.1%) felt that retreat masters usually do urge them sufficiently to supreme sanctity, while a notable minority (36.9%) were of a negative opinion. Regarding the second element the breakdown was closer: 53:8% thought that retreat masters usually explain adequately how complete holiness is to be achieved and "46.2% embraced an opposite view. These contradictory opinions on both questions are easily understood. They are probably due to three factors: (a) the sisters polled have differing standards as to what the heights of holiness really are; (b) they also differ in their judg-ments as to what a retreat master ought to say about complete sanctity in a heterogeneous group of religious; and (c) they are speaking of different retreat masters. Understandable though these differences of opinion are, they are nonetheless represented by percentages large enough to indicate that a considerable number of retreat masters are not satisfying a considerable number of religious in their ap-proach to the question of sanctity. If this conclusion be correct, we might dwell with profit on possible means of improving inadequacies where they do occur. 1. The confessional is a situation tailor-made for the pru-dent direction of a soul to holiness. A confessor can often spot the fully generous so.ul, the soul that is ripe for a greater love of God. The penitent's confession itself both in its content 24 Janua~'y, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT and in its mode will often suggest the, practical means to be used at each pa_rticular stage in the spiritual life. 2. In his conferences and meditations the master should present saintliness itself as the goal of the religious life. He ought not to suggest by word or attitude that some sort of mediocre goodness is sufficient, but rather that the very end of the state of perfection is perfection, a thorough doing. The word itself, perfection, indicates a completeness, an entireness that can be predicated of nothing less than the sanctity of the saints. And yet while he presents holiness in all its totality, the retreat master will be careful not to discourage the weak. Some religious do not feel that they are ready to scale the heights and that they must first get themselves established at the moun-tain's base. The priest will, therefore, counsel patience and p~udence in adapting means to an individual spiritual condition and state in life. While pointing out the sublime goal, he makes it clear that we do not reach it in a month or a year, but that with the cooperation of our unstinting generosity God brings us to it in His own good time. .Presented in this way the doctrine of saintliness for the religious fits the needs of all and hurts none. 3. The retreat master should next show that the heights of holiness are possible of achievement. One sister'ha~ ob-served that the manner of reaching sanctity "is often presented as being very difficult rather than as something to be. faced with joy and confidence." Working for real holiness is difficult-- there can be no doubt about that. But it is not a sombre and forbidding difficulty and certainly not an insuperable one. Christ could not have commanded the impossible, and yet He made it crystal clear on at least two occasions that all men are to strive for perfect sanctity. "You therefore are to be perfect, even as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Matt. 5:48). "Thou shall love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart, and with thy whole soul, and with thy Whole mind" (Matt. 22:37). The 25 THOMAS DUBAY Review ]or Religious comment of Pius XI on the first of these texts was emphatic: "Let no one think that these words apply only to a very few select souls and that all the others are permitted to remain in some inferior degree of virtue. It is evident that absolutely everybody without exception is bound by this law" (third cen-tenary of St. Francis de Sales). If saintliness is possible for all men, it is doubly possible for the religious who has chosen the most effective means to attain it, the state of perfection. 4. A step further. Saintliness for religious should b~ presented as eminently desirable, a thing at once splendid, satisfying, and sublime. There is nothing in the world so utterly charming as a saintly soul--and also nothing so pleasing to God. The beauty of a consecrated life lived to the hilt should be like a golden thread that the priest weaves through-out the retreat by his attitudes, words, and actions. 5. A practical explanation of the means to achieve sanctity is indispensable. We have already noted that a con-siderably greater number of the sisters participating in our study found fault with retreat masters on this score than on the score of theory. Such is not surprising for we humans naturally tend in our teaching to stress the general and avoid the specific. And in our spiritual conferences we tend to generalize all the more because we are subconsciously afraid that we will step on somebody's toes if we get too specific about what we mean. Yet if a retreat master is going to be clear he has got to be specific. Else he is likely doing' nothing but preaching pious platitudes: I suppose I might right now practice what I am' preaching and be specific. Instead of resting content with a glowing but merely general eulogy of detachment from created things, the retreat master ought to get down to brass tacks and spell out what this thing is really all about. He might tell his audience clearly what an attachment is: the clinging of the will to a created thing for its own sake; the loving of a creature for its own sake and not for the sake of God. Then January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT he could specify as does St: John of the Cross what some of these creatures might be: a book, a piece of clothing, news and rumors, a love of ta/king. (See Ascent of Mount Carmel, Book I, Chapter 11.) He might be even more specific and explain the psychology of attachment and then use some of these examples to illustrate his point. When a speaker has spent twenty or thirty minutes in this fashion, he has said something . something that ~vi[l move to action because it is clear, practical, down to earth. 6. In our efforts to move souls to seek saintliness itself as their goal we might well draw more freely from the lives of the saints as a source t:or apt illustrations. If in a lecture on biology you want to explain the nature of plants, you draw your illustrations from plants. Why not the same in explain-ing saintliness? The unqualified idea that saints are to be admired but not imitated is, of course, the merest nonsense. Any good theology manual p.oints out that an essential reason for the pope's infallibility in a decree of canonization is pre-cisely that he is presenting to the faithful an example to be imitated and that, consequently, he cannot lead them astray. The retreat master, to be sure, ought not to dwell on the unusual doings of the saints for the twofold reason that these unusual activities are both comparatively rare and also not the chief basis for the saints' canonization. If the Church intends us to present the saints to the simple faithful as concretizations of perfect sanctity, all the more ought they to be presented to priests, brothers, and sisters both in retreat and out of it. 7. In order to further the work of all-outness in matters spiritual, the master could suggest to the retreatant community choice books eminently suited to the purpose. Our contem-porary spiritual reading market is not totally void of second-rate works, wo~'ks that sometimes clip the corners off perfection as it has been explained by the saints. If you wonder, perhaps, at exactly what I mean, I would suggest that you read side by side 27 THOMAS DUBA¥ Review ]or Religious St. Frzn¢is de Sales, St. John of the Cross, and St. Teresa of Avila on the one hand and some of our less noteworthy moderns on the other. 8. Our final suggestion: a self-analysis on the part of each retreat master. Some priests are undoubtedly doing a superb job in this whole matter; others seemingly are not. A self-examination may help to indicate who is where. I think that some such examination would be based on three funda-mental questions: (a) do I really~know the doctrine of the saints; (b) am I prudent in applying it; (c) am I practical in explaining it? Other questions would be mere derivatives of these three. Characteristics of the Retreat Master We will preface our comments on the traits of retreat mas-ters by refreshing our collective mind on the preferences and dislikes of the ret~eatants. It is the mark made on them, after all, that determines the success or failure of the retreat. As regards positive qualities our survey indicated that sis-ters, at least, overwhelmingly nominate genuine sanctity as thi~ trait most desirable in a retreat master. Practicality, a distant second-placer, was followed by experience, theological learning, kindness, and a sense of humor in that order. On the negative side the number of different defects noted by the sisters was decidedly large. Among the most frequently mentioned wero reading of meditations, lack of interest, conceit, verbosity, sar-casm, joking manner, impracticality, severity, harshness and speed in the confessional, bad delivery, superficiality, dramatic manner, lack of preparation, excessive intellectuality, critical spirit (and especially toward sisters), worldliness, condescension toward sisters, negative approach, scandalous stories, crude lan-guage, idiosyncrasies, and insincerity.~ For a complete treatment of these and other qualities and defects, see REY'IEW RELIGIOUS, September, 1956, pp. 253-62. 28 Janua~'y, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT Perhaps the brightest and most encouraging element in this whole matter is that every quality above mentioned, with the possible exception of a sense of humor (which came last in importance), can be acquired by a serious priest, while almost every defect can with due attention be eradicated. Any priest can, if he really wants to, set out after genuine sanctity; he can acquire practicality, experience, a competent knowledge of theology; and he can be kind merely by making up his mind to it. On the other hand he can tone down a clamorous delivery or clarify a muttering one; he can eradicate harshness, conceit, verbosity, and sarcasm; he can prepare his retreat well and refrain from reading conferences and meditations; it is within his power to avoid disinterestedness, criticism, condescension, and worldliness. Most priests (who, after all, have had enough talent to receive ordination) can with hard work develop them-selves into acceptable retreat masters. But--and this is a worthwhile but--we do not always know our defects and, for that- matter, sometimes our strong points. I would not be entirely unwilling to support the thesis that most of the failings we have noted are unrealized by the retreat masters possessing them . unrealized at least as defects. A man can easily be unaware that his manner is conceited, his delivery raucous, and his matter superficial. He may sincerely think that his emotionalism is desirable, his severity needed, or his critical spirit justified. He may not know that his read meditations grate on the nerves of many or that his manner in the confessional is at all hasty or severe. All of which suggests the need for a large package of charity in the mental and verbalized judgments of retreatants, but it also suggests that perhaps the priests among us ought not to take too much for granted. We may not be so free of deficiencies as we might imagine. How to find out? One way is honest self-examination. Some defects so stand out that they can be seen with half an eye. Sarcasm, 29 THOMAS DUBAY Review /or Religious insincerity, criticism of sisters, and lack of interest seem to fall into this class of obvious deficiencies, obvious at least on a mo-ment's reflection. I think that sisters' retreats would in many instances be greatly improved if each retreat-giving priest would examine himself periodically on the list of qualities and defects the sisters furnished us in the above referred.to study. Knowing a deficiency is half the battle; the other half is won by good will and God's grace. But there are other defects that even a serious examination will not reveal. To know these we must be told by another. Is it beyond the realm of feasibility to suggest that the retreat master distribute once or twice in his career a simple question-naire to the retreatants in order to obtain a frank expression of opinion? There is the danger, of course, that he may appear to be seeking a naive pat on the back; but that danger can be annihilated by a few sincere, well-chosen words. Most retreat-ants would be frank, and their comments couid prove invaluable for the future improvement of that priest's retreat work. Despite his best and most sincere efforts, however, it may happen, that a priest is just not fitted by nature to do retreat work. Well and good. He may be a fine man and capable of doing outstandingly well in some other field. And it would seem wise for his superiors to assign him to another field. But at minimum we submit as imperative that superiors send into retreat work only those priests who are interested in it and generously willing to do it. The sisters' complaints dealing with lack of interest on the part of retreat masters are, as we ha.ve noted, heavy. And in all probability it is often the root cause of other defects. Experience in the classroom indicates clearly that the best teacher is the enthusiastic, interested teacher. The very same may be said of retreat master~ for they too are teachers. It would be generally agreed, I believe, that the work of giving retreats to religious is highly specialized and quite unlike 30 Janua~'y, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSFECT the Usual activities of most priests. Neither the ordinary course of seminary theology nor the typical Sunday sermon approach is equal to the sublime task of forming consecrated souls to a configuration with Christ. Ideally, therefore, men who do re-treat work should have specialized preparation for it. We prepare men and women for other les~ important specialized jobs. Why not for that of retreat master? .We need not necessarily think here of formal and especially tailored courses; they may be feasible--I do not know. But as a minimumwe must think of a private, orderly study on the part of priests who give retreats, a study bearing on ascetical and mystical theology, the New Testament, and the lives of the saints. The nature of the work demands, of course, that th~ retreat master be competent in dogmatic and moral theology--else his ascetical and mystical theology may be in a tottering condition. Real competence and facility in these fields take time. Years. A man cannot have a real grasp on ascetical and mystical theology by reading two or three books, no matter how good they be. Nor can he know the mind of the saints by reading two or three lives, even the best of them. An ideal retreat master can be that man only who is wholeheartedly interested in the glorious work of raising chosen souls to a lofty degree of holiness and who is willing to submit to the rigors involved in acquiring and maintaining a fitness for it. A final note for the retreatants themselves . . . and that note is one Word: forebearance. Despite the very best and sincerest efforts of all concerned with retreats, masters are not going to be perfect. Our first and last perfect retrea~ will be conducted in heaven. In the meantime we must be patient and do the best we can with what we have. Meditation Subjects I do not think there is need here to 'ana1~ze the question of subject matter for retreat meditations, since the major impli-cations of our retreat study on this point have already been 31 THOMAS DUBAY Review fo~" Religious discussed.° One observation only seems worthy of mention, and that is the avoidance of triteness. It is neither psycho-logically nor pedagogically wise to insist on the same set of meditation subjects year after yea~. Topic repetition is psy-chologically unwise because attention is blunted by sameness and impressions fade: assueta vi/e~cunt. Subject reiteration is pedagogically unwise for the obvious reason that you. are not teaching very much, if anything at all. By hitting the same truths in the same way, few new insights are given and, conse-quently, few new motives for action. If, on the contrary, the same subjects are tackled from .new points of view and if they furnish new insights, all our objections fall to the ground. In a true sense, you really have new subject~. You are no longer trite. Rest Before Retreat A noteworthynumber of sisters mentioned in our opinion-naire that plain weariness hindered them from getting full spiritual benefits from their retreats. And one need not tax his imagination to believe them. Ushered by ol~edience directly from the hospital floor or the classroom into conference hall and chapel, these religious simply do not have the energy to give themselves completely to the searching work of a vigorous self-renewal. But we must remember at the same time that scarcity of personnel may prevent a provincial superior from doing a whole lot about the situation. Yet when it is possible, a full day's rest would seem in order for all sisters about to go on retreat. Even bettek would be a week or two of vacation, a vacation during which only spiritual exercises and trifling daily duties are mandatory. Religious (as we well know but some-times tend to forget) do not acquire nerves of copper merely by donning a habit. Daily Retreat Schedule Closely linked to the immediately preceding problem is the tightly packed retreat horarium. A daily schedule that is closely °See gEvIsw FOg gELm~OUS, November, 1956, pp. 301-5. 32 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT crowded with a multitude of spiritual exercises is psychologically and spiritually unsound. It does not take cognizance of the fact that God works best in peace and quiet, that the sisters need serenity of mind and heart if they are going to love Him tremendously. It would seem wise, therefore, to reduce the number of exercises in a squeezed-together horarium, to sched-ule vocal prayers in moderation, and to allow an adequate amount of free time. Most sisters are in dead earnest about the business of sanctity; and it should be assumed, until the contrary is proved, that they will use free time to their greatest advantage. Physical Accommodations During the Retreat One of the sisters good-naturedly referred to the problem of spacial overcrowding during retreat time as "one of those August mob scenes." We may easily sympathize with her viewpoint and yet at the same time grant that the problems of the assigning superior are knotty. Especially in large communi-ties this latter has often to provide the benefits of an annual retreat to hundreds of religious and that within the narrow confines of a few weeks and drastically limited facilities. For some communities, perhaps, the "mob scenes" cannot be avoided, at least in the near future. For others, however, careful plan-ning and personnel adjustment together with fresh thinking could conceivably issue in an amelioration of the situation. The solution in most cases would probably be a greater number of distinct retreats, however they can be provided. Possibly the week after Christmas would for some communities lend itself to an additional retreat time; for others the Easter vacation might be used for the same purpose. In still other cases the solution might lie in a greater dispersion of retreat locations. Rather than have all retreats in a motherhouse or community college, smaller houses might with some adjustment be adaptgd to serve as supplementary retreat centers. Aside from the greater ad-vantage of more physical space, such dispers)on would enable the sisters to seek and receive more individualized attention from 33 ¯ FOR YOUR INFORMATION Review for Religioz~s the master whether in the confessional or in the private conference. Conclusion Before capping this disquisition with its amen, I would like to reject in anticipation a possible illusion, for if. it came to be, it would probably be my fault. That illusion is that this study contains the answers to almost all retreat prol~lems. The truth is, of course, that it may contain some answers to some problems. The truth is also that we need a lot more thinking, fresh think-ing, about these questions. Investigation, too. It seems to me that we ought to learn from our secular friends how to use the tools of research to further love for God. We ought to study ourselves and our doings more objectively--scientifically, if you want to call it that. In all likelihood both we and our doings would be much more effective. For Your Informal:ion In Future Numbers NOT INFREQUENTLY we receive articles that have to be returned because the subjects are treated in articles that we have already accepted, but not yet published. It has occurred to us that this problem might be avoided if we publish a list of articles that will appear in subsequent numbers of the REVIEW, with a brief indication of the content of each article. Besides being helpful to prospective contributors, this list should be of interest to all readers. We give here a list only of articles that have been accepted at the time we are preparing this material for the printer. That means, roughly speaking, articles accepted before November 1, 1957. 34 January, 1958 FOR YOUR INFORMATION "The Holy See and Teaching Brothers." Under date of March 31, 1954, Pope Pius XII addressed-to Cardinal Valeri a letter on the special vocation and apostolate of religious institutes of teaching brothers. ,Several magazines have published English translations of this letter. The Commentarium pro religiosis published not o~nly the original Latin text of the Pope's letter, but also some background material and a commentary on the papal letter by Father A. Guti~rrez, C.M.F. We intend to pub-lish an English version of the papal letter, together with the background material and some o~ the more important observa-tions made by Father Guti~rrez. -"The Gifts of the Holy Spirit." This article gives a clear, simple, and attractive explanation of the more common theolo-gical teaching on the gifts and on their function in the ascetical life. "Religious and Psychotherapy." What are psychiatric treat-ments? What is their purpose? Should religious who suffer from a mental illness go to a pxsychiatrist and cooperate in psy-chotherapy? The article answers questions such as these. "A Sense of Balance." This is a study in contrasts: opti-mism and pessimism; with insistence that the true Christian view of life is an optimistic view that sees God as love, man as re-deemed, other creatures as means of sanctification, and the com-mandments as laws of love and life. "Saint Th~rhse of the H61y Face." The Little Flower's full name in religion is Sister Th~r~se of the Child Jesus and of the Holy Face. This article brings out, by means of numerous quo-tations, how profound was her devotion to the Holy Face. "To extend the Reign of Jesus Christ." This is an account of the founding of the first non-cloistered institute of teaching sisters. "Unceasing Prayer." We all wonder at times how we can fulfill the words of St. Paul, "Pray without ceasing." One ex-planation, called virtual prayer, has been recommended by cer- 35 FOR YOUR INFORMATION tain prominent French Jesuit writers. Their explanation is presented briefly in this article. "Proficients Who Do Not Progress.'? One division of the stages of spiritual progress is: beginner, proficient, and perfect. This article pays particular attention to the difficulties of the second stage and to the ways of surmounting these difficulties. "Preliminary to Adaptation." The theme of the article is that, in order properly to carry out the recommendations of the Church concerning adaptation and renovation, there must be a careful study of the spirit of the institute. "Countering Serious Sin." Religious are not immune from the possibility of committing mortal sin, and they need to take precautions. Such precautions are outlined in this article, which, in the author's words, is "a blueprint . . . for constructing (or re-constructing) an interior citadel against the lethal foe, serious sin." "Keeping the Rules." In religious institutes there are two kinds of rules: disciplinary regulations that mainly concern exter-nal observance and community order, and spiritual directives that pertain to the interior spirit and the apostolate. The article shows that fidelity to the rules means one thing as regards the first kind of rules, and another as regards the second kind. "The Neurotic Religious." This is a sequel to the article on religious and psychotherapy. Most religious who might need and profit by psychotherapy suffer from an emotional illness known as neurosis. This article is an attempt to paint a verbal picture of the neurotic religious and his problems. Non-Jesuit Contributors We are often asked (apparently by those who have not been regular readers of the RE'Ci, EW) whether we accept articles by non-Jesuits. One answer to this question might be a simple reference to the articles published during the last three years, (continued on page 41) 36 Spiri!:ual Cancer I:r~ncis J. M~cEnt:ee, S.J. wE ARE HEARING a great deal these days about cancer. Millions of dollars are set aside every year to study it, to learn everj~thing possible about this mysterious killer. People are made constantly conscious of it because they see and hear about it on all sideg: campaigns for research funds and hospitalization; drives against this and that as possible causes; salves and various ray-treatments as possible cures. The obituary page in every newspaper is also a persistent reminder of its omni-presence. Yet, even though cancer is prominent in the public eye, the very mention of it still strikes terror into those confronted with it. Any unexpected need for hospital care or sudden surgery generally wrings the same agonized question from the anguished patient: "It. isn't cancer, is it, doctor?" as if anything else would be almost welcome as an alternative. There is good reason for this terror, because the most terrifying thing about cancer is its insidiousness. Cancer is really an abuse. It might even be called too much of a good thing. Many people have a vague notion that.cancer is something like leprosy in that it is a disease that eats away until the poor victim just distintegrates. Actually it is just the opposite. Cancer is a lively exuberant~ growth of body cells, which in itself is a good thing because it is the normal function of body cells to increase and grow. Only in this case the growth gets out of hand and keeps right on growing long after it should have stopped. The cells continue to divide madly without any apparent cause or method of being stopped. That is why cancer is an abuse; why it is too much of a good thing; why it is insidious, for it starts with something that is normal and natural and perverts it. Finally, since these wildly pro-lifer~ ting cells are living things, they must be nourished; con-sequently, they spread out like the crab from which the disease takes its name and pirate their nourishment from the surrounding 37 FP~-NCIS J. MAcENTEE Review for Religious healthy tissue which in time, as is quite obvious, will be starved dead by the greedy voracious intruders. I am sure the .medical profession would find much to criticize in this over-simplification of one of the most serious and complicated diseases of our time, but my purpose is a medical one only to the limited extent of setting up a parallel with what might be called spiritual cancer. Our growth in the spiritual life is measured by our close union with Christ, an ever-deepening awareness of His presence and a constant striving to have an unalloyed intention in all our endeavors in His service. One good sign of a sound spiritual growth is the balance and harmony with which it proceeds. Our performance of the many activities which make up our dedicated lives mirrors, to some degree, the progress of our spiritual growth. We of course realize that all our duties and obligations, even those which may seem to be of lesser moment, or even (to our practical minds) somewhat impractical, are nonetheless very important from God's viewpoint. Therefore we must be on the alert that we don't allow our more favored activities, like those that bring more immediate and concrete results, to divert the activity that should be going into all our activities. For any such activity in our lives which starts to grow out of all due proportion, siphoning off time and energy from some other duty, is an abuse; it is too much of a good thing; it is a spiritual cancer. We must bd constantly on our guard against the manifesta-tions of this disease because, like its physical counterpart, it will have begun long before we become aware of it. The insidious-ness here lies in the fact that we have within ourselves the germs of the disease because, for most of us, activity of some sort is our way of life, our prime means of doing .God's will. And it is so easy for one phase or other of this activity to get out of hand, to start growing out of all due proportion, thriving perhaps, but only to the detriment of our whole spiritual or- 38 Janua~'y, 1958 SPIRITUAL CAN(~ER ganism. Since activity, then, is the way by which we serve God, it is so easy ~or us to play the doctor in our own case and give a false diagnosis to our symptoms, admitting perhaps the begin-nings of an excited growth but misinterpreting the symptoms as a case of increased fervor in doing God's work. If God is pleased with this much activity, we say, then He will be twice as pleased with twice as much. Like the man who reads the prescription on the medicine bottle then doubles it, convinced that he will get well twice as fast. Such a dangerous spiritual bedside manner in dealing with our own ailments can lead to only one conclusion: an ever-spreading cancer which will soon sap our entire spiritual nourishment leaving us spiritually ema-ciated and all under the guise of giving God a service which He most assuredly does not want. The activities in our dedicated lives by which we serve God are numberless. As long as their growth is normal and in har-mony with the growth of our whole spiritual structure, our spiritual li~e will be sound and healthy. But let's look at a ~ew pertinent instances of activities that could, if we are not watchful, begin to grow malignantly. For those o~ us who teach school on any level whatsoever, there is little question of what to do with our superfluous time since that precious commodity is practically non-existent in-this glorious activity. But because there is no proportion at all be-tween the time spent in preparation for and actually spent in the classroom and the time formally spent in meditation, examen, and spiritual reading, we might come to the sad conclusion that the one which takes the more time is the more important. If that becomes the case, then it won't be long before there is a big-business merger and even the little time which was once spent in spiritual duties will be absorbed by the larger enterprise. Prognosis? Incipient malignant cancer. However, we might justify this course oi: action by saying that we have thereby be-come a better teacher. After all, we argue, if it's God's will that I teach others that I may bring more and more souls to 39 FRANCIS J. MACENTEE Review for Religious love Him an°d to save their souls, then anything I can do to make myself a better instrument will be furthering God's glory. The fallacy there is that we are judging only by externals. We forget that God can raise up. better instruments from the stones in the street. What if the time plundered from spiritual activi-ties did give us the appearance of a better teacher, how would we then differ from the good lay teacher on our faculty? Another phase of teaching that might blight this great activity with an unhealthy growth is the element of competition involved. We want our classes to do well, for their own sakes, of course, but also to some extent for our sakes too. For if they don't do as well as other similar classes, the reflection will be on us; and we will be in a bad light not only in the eyes of our fellow teachers but perhaps also in the eyes of superiors. Therefore, we start giving undue time to class preparation and class work in general in order to fill up what we label a defilzit; but in the process we lay the groundwork for a deficiency of a much higher magnitude. We are deluded into thinking that success depends entirely on ourselves so that, if we're not an apparent success, there is a fault involved and the fault c.'-n be only our own. We ignore the palpable fact that God can make greater use of the not-so-successful teacher who depends totally on Him than on the obviously successful one who is just as obviously self-pleased with the whole thing. When we begin to realize that God doesn't look solely at results (which unfortun-ately are almost our sole criterion of judgment), that He looks first at the motive and effort involved, then we will see that our opinion about any teacher or anything else, for that matter, might be quite different from God's. The same thing would apply to the student. When the nourishment for our spiritual life begins to feed the abnormal appetite which studying can easily become, then it is high time for a spiritual check-up to see that the instrument which is being honed for Christ's service does not slice us too thin. Studying 4O Janua~'y, 1958 SPIRITUAL CANCER is just another activity which we undertake for Christ's greater glory. Success is welcome, but it is certainly not the be-all and end-all of the undertaking. God demands first our pure inten-tion, great effort, and continual complete dedication. From there on in, it's His affair. If He wants others to reap the academic fruits, what is that to us? Again, the fallacy of judging success only by the results produced. Despite all "the changes in our way of life, despite loud mass production and speedy efficiency, growth in the spiritual~ life is a delicate thing that needs a sustained climate of quiet, inward ¯ peace, and recollection. Nervous effusions to exterior things and a one-sided dedication to activity which results in making ar~ end. out of what should be only a means are so many strangling weeds that make spiritual growth impossible. The only growth they foster is an abnormal one, a growth that drains off spiritual vitality, a growth that is cancerous. For Your In[ormal~ion (continued from page 36) 1955-1957. During these years we published 67 articles. This does not include translations of papal addresses, compilations of papal statements, and the surveys of Roman documents made by Father Smith. Of these 67 articles, 35 were by Jesuits, 32 by non-Jesuits. We might add that anyone who contributes an article should confer our "Notes for Contributors," which were published in the REVIEW, March, 1955, pp. 104-112, and July, 1955, pp. 194-196. 41 Survey oJ: Roman Document:s R. F. Smil:h, S.J. IN THE PRESENT survey there will be given a summary, of the documents which appeared in Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS) from August 24, 1957, to September 25, 1957, in-clusive. Page references throughout the article will be to the 1957 AAS (v. 49). Our Lady On July 2, 1957 (AAS, pp. 605-19), the Holy Father published a new encyclical, Le P~lerinage de Lourdes (The Pilgrima~/e o/ Lourdes). The document was directly ad-dressed to the Church in France on the occasion of the coming centenary of our Lady's appearances at Lourdes, but granted the international extent of devotion to our Lady of Lourdes the encyclical is of great interest to the entire Church. The en-cyclical is divided into two parts, the first of which begins by sketching what may be termed the Marian history of France. So notable has been France's devotion to our Lady, remarks. the Pontiff, that today the entire country lies under the protec-tive shadows of Marian sanctuaries--humble chapels or splendid basilicas as the case may be. There is good reason to say that this Marian history of France culminated in the nineteenth cen-tury. It was then, for instance, that our Lady gave the miracu-lous medal to a humble daughter of St. Vincent de Paul; and a few years later in 1858 she appeared to St. Bernadette at Lourdes which from then on became a pilgrimage center for the sick, the afflicted, and the truth-seekers of the entire world. The Pope then notes that the hundred years that have passed since Our Lady's appearances at Lourdes have seen an ever stronger relationship between the See of Peter and the grotto of the appearances. Indeed, the relationship was present 42 ROMAN DOCUMENTS from the beginning, for it would seem that what the Holy Father had infallibly defined a few years previously the Blessed Virgin wished to confirm by her own words, since she appeared to Bernadette with the message: "I am the Immaculate Conception." Since then each of the Romari Pontiffs has eagerly shown his favor toward the sanctuary of Lourdes. Pius IX showered bene-fits on the shrine erected there and ordered the coronation of its statue of our Lady; Leo XIII granted a proper office and Mass for the feast 6f the Appearance of Our Lady Immaculate. St. Plus X introduced the cause of Bernadette; and above all the sainted Pontiff emphasized the remarkable manner in which Marian piety at Lourdes led to an equally remarkable worship of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament. Benedict XV permitted the bishop of Tarbes and Lourdes to wear the pallium at the place of the appearances, while Pius XI beatified Bernadette and chose to close the jubilee year of the Redemption at the shrine of Lourdes. Plus XII then concludes this first part of the encyclical by recalling his own endeavor to continue the relationship between the Roman See and Lourdes, an endeavor which was manifested most recently by the closing at Lourdes of the centenary year of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. The second part of the encyclical is devoted to a considera-tion of the spiritual lessons of Lourdes; these lessons, notes the Vicar o~Christ, are but echoes of the gospel message, for, like John theB, aptist and like Christ .Himself at the beginning of His public life, our Lady called at Lourdes for l~enance and con-version. At the same time she brought a message of pardon and hope for those who do repent; indeed just as the miraculous cures of Christ were but signs of the power and readiness of Christ to forgive sins, so also the physical cures at Lourdes are invitations to hope for pardon. The centenary jubilee at Lourdes, continues the Holy Father, will possess grandeur only in so far as men respond to these messages of our Lady. Each pilgrim to Lourdes and each Catholic throughout the world who is united in spirit to the 43 Review for Religious centenary celebrations at the shrine should realize in himself a true spiritual conversion. The conversion of the individual, however, is not enough; rather the faithful must be aroused to a collective effort directed towards the Christian re;aewal of society. This will be shown by a reaction to that materialism which manifests itself not only in the philosophy that presides over the political and economic affairs of a large segment of humanity but also externalizes itself in a greed for money, a cult of the body, a flight from all austerity, and an unrestrained pursuit of pleasure. The Holy Father then urges priests to preach to their people the narrow path that leads to life, reminding them that they, like Mary, must live only to give Christ to the world. So too religious must seek the same end by their weapons of prayer, penance, and charity. Families, too, should do their part by considering the irreplaceable mission they have in society; they should consecrate themselves to the Immaculate Heart of Mary, asking her to remove from their lives all false judgments and egoistic actions. In a moving conclusion to the encyclical the Holy Father addresses the poor and those in bodily or spiritual afflic.tion, urging them to journey to Lourdes where they.will be received with special predilection by our Lady who knows the value of their sufferings when these are united with those of Christ. There can be no doubt, declares the Pope, that the prayers and sufferings of such will play a great part in the Christian renewal of the human race. As his final message the Holy Father makes his own the words of St. Bernard: "In.dangers, in diffichlties, in doubts, think of Mary, call on Mary." Social Matters On June 7, 1957 (AAS, pp. 621-29), the Holy Father addressed a group of Italian workers on the problems attendant on automation. While, as the Pontiff points out, the existence of automation should arouse in the Christian a grateful admira- 44 Janua~'y, 1958 ROMAN DOCUMENTS tion for the Creator and His works, still one should not think that automation of and by itself can radically change the life of man and society--such an admission belongs to Marxism with its false emphasis on the technical side of human life. For social reality and its stable ordering cannot be based only on statistics and mathematics; social life demands besides and prin-cipally other knowledges: theology, philosophy, and the sciences of the spiritual life of man and of his history. Moreover, the Vicar of Christ continues, it should be re-membered that automation, even when considered merely as a new method of production, will give rise to delicate problems. The first is that technical productivity may be confused with economic productivity. Automation offers a continuous, unin-terrupted process of production and hence a fantastic increase of productive capacity. But this does not necessarily constitute a true increase in the productivity of the national economy. This is why even the European countries who possess the best eco-nomic qualifications for automation approach automation with caution and content themselves with only a partial form of it. In any case a country that is not rich and is faced with urgent problems of communication systems, of land reforms, and of adequate housing must not live above its conditions--as it would if it were dominated solely by the fascination of technical progress. Moreover, adds the Pope, the introduction of automation may cause serious unemployment. Even if this problem can eventually be o,~ercome, it still must be remembered that even a temporary increase of unemployment can be a serious matter for certain countries. Added to this is the consideration that under automation the entire question of salaries wiil have to be com-pletely reconsidered. Prior to automation human labor is part of the very process of production and the value of labor can be determined by what it contributes to the production; under automation, however, the worker will be above and outside the 45 Review for Religious actual process of production; hence there will be need for new criteria of estimating the value of labor. So great and so many are the problems connected with a~tomation, the Holy Father warns, that some think that these problems cannot be resolved except by some form of socialism, involving a greater or lesser abolition of private property. It is true, he says, that in an era of automation a greater degree of planning will be needed, but this should not lead to a more or less absolute control, for the independence of the family and the liberty of the citizen are naturally bound up with the sane existence of private property as a social institution. Automation will also give rise to problems connected with the training of the worker; under automation technical training of the highest type will be required; moreover, the worker will not be able to be highly .specialized but "will require a training sufficiently versatile to embrace the functioning and coordinating of greatly differing machines. Such training, however, cannot be given rapidly, but will necessarily entail a long apprenticeship both in the place of production as well as in specialized schools. Moreover, the education given to the worker must also provide for his general culture; only in this way will the worker be able to solve the problem of leisure time which automation will bring to him. In this connection, the Holy Father adds, it must be noted that automation can easily produce a grave danger to personal morality and hence to the sane structure of production and consumption in the national economy. It is for this reason that under automation professional formation must include the general education of the worker. On July .23, 1957 (AAS, pp. 730-37), the Holy Father addressed a group of bishops and priests from all the dioceses of Italy who constituted the first meeting of the Italian Catholic Congress for Emigration. The Pontiff urged his audience to apply to themselves and their work the parable of the Good Shepherd and told them that the basis of their work for emi- 46 Janua~'y, 1958 ROMAN DOCUMENTS grants must'be a supernatural charity that is at once intensive, universal, and disinterested. It is this and not a mere humani-tarian sympathy that will make of them good shepherds of the people they work with. This charity, he continues, must be reduced to effective action by which they become all things to all men. Hence the Vicar of Christ urges them to devote themselves to the careful preparation of the emigrants for the new country to which they are going. They should give the emigrants instructions in the language and customs of the country to which they are going and above all impress on the emigrants by their zealot's work a remembrance of the maternal solicitude of the Church. Finally, the Holy Father takes up the case of the priest who himself emigrates with a group to another country. Such a priest will have special need .of a right intention which wi!l remove from him the danger of a merely nationalistic motive and which will prevent his group from seeing in him, not a missionary, but a mercenary. As a pastor of the group of emi-grants the priest must be alert to the needs of his flock, take care that they gradually adapt themselves to their new country, and at all times treat them with the highest degree of patience. On June 13, 1957 ('AAS, pp. 629-32), the Pontiff addressed the Congress of Europe, a group dedicated to the unification of Europe. The Holy Father recalled his own interest in the idea of European unity, noted the progress made towards this goal since the conclusion of World War II, and encouraged his listeners to ~ontinue their efforts for a political unification of the countries of Europe. He also urged them to advocate a large and comprehensive aid on the part of Europe to Africa, so that it can be clearly seen that the desire for a European community is not merely a selfish reflex of defense against a common encroaching enemy but proceeds rather from constructive and disinterested motives. Finally, the Pope recalled to them the nature of Christianity which offers 47 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious to all men an unshakable assurance of a fatherland which is not of this world and where alone perfect union will be known, because it proceeds from the power and light of God Himself. On June 27, 1957 (AAS, pp. 632-33), Pius XII addressed the third convention of the Atlantic Treaty Association, encour-aging them in their work to enlist the cooperation of schools in the task of spreading knowledge of the union that exists between all men. Miscellaneous Matters By a declaration of August 20, 1957 (AAS, p. 762), the Sacred Congregation of Rites took up the question of the use of vestments made according to .their ancient form. The use of such vestments is now left to the discretion of the local ordinary. The Sacred Congregation of the Council issued a decree dated July 25, 1957 (AAS, p. 638), transferring the obligation of fast and abstinence from the vigil of the feast of the Assumption to the vigil of the feast of the Immaculate Conception. Two documents published during August-September, 1957, deal with causes of beatification and canonization. In the first, which is. dated March 3, 1957 (AAS, pp. 756-59), the Sacred Congregation of Rites approved the introduction of the cause of the young layman, Zephyrinus Numuncur~ (1886-1905). In the second, dated April 9, 1957 (AAS, pp. 759-62), the same congregation approved the introduction of the cause of the Servant of God Frances de Sales Aviat (1844-1914), found-ress of the Congregation of the Oblate Sisters of St. Francis de Sales. Four documents of the same period pertain to priests and religious. On July 16, 1957 (AAS, p. 637), the Sacred Congre-gation of the Council forbade priests, whether secular or religi-ous, to engage actively in Hungarian politics. They are forbidden to seek or accept any position in the Hungarian Parliament; and if they presently hold such a position, they must resign it within a 48 Janua~'y, 1958 ROMAN .DOCUMENTS month; they are moreover forbidden to attend s~ssions of the parliament and to give help to any activities connected With the position they have resigned. A priest disobeying an); of the above prescription~ incurs by that very fact an excommunication specially served to the Holy See. ¯ " On July 12, 1957 (AAS, p. 640), the Sacred Congrega-tion of Seminaries and Universities issued a decree bidding bishops not to admit to their seminaries students who have left any diocesan seminary or who have been dismissed from any such .seminary. If in a given case such a person should be thought worthy of admission, th'e bishop, besides fulfilling the requirements of Canon 13.63, §3, should' apply to the Sacred. Congregation of Seminaries and Universities for further direc-tions. On July 1, 1957 (AAS, p. 751)., the Sacred Congrega-tion of Religious inaugurated the Pontifical Institute "Iesus Magis~er" " ("Jesus the Teacher"). The new institute is in-tended f0~ members of n0n-clerical congregations of religious men and other similar groups; the institute will provide training to einable ~uch religious to be. better fitted to promote the sanc-tification of themselve~ and of others and to imbue their students with Christian truth and virtue. The same congregation in a decree of March 15, i957o (AAS, pp. 749-50), promulgated, the canonical erdctionof a school to be called "Mater Divinae Gr.atiae" ("Mother of Divine Grace") des~tlned foi the training of mistresses of postulants, of novices, and Of younger religious women. The school offers a three-year course which¯ is open to members of a.ny state of per-fection for women. The school is tinder the jurisdiction of the Sacred Congregation of Religious and has its own statutes ap-proved by th~ same qongregation. Under date of July 1, 19.57(AAS, pp. 737-39), the 'Holy Father sent a written message tothe Catholic BoyScouts attending the .international jamboree, held in England on the 49 R. F. SMITH occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the. founding of the movement. The Pope expressed his satisfaction at the vitality and expansion of the scout movement among Catholic youth and urged them to prepare themselves for their future place in the world by developiag the compreher~sive friendship that translates itself into, the disinterested service characteristic of the scout movement. He also encouraged them to be proud of their purity, their courage, and their nobility; he concluded by suggesting to them that. at Mass they raise their ideal of Catholic scouthood to the heights of the divine Master who came among us to serve and to give Himself. Two documents of the Sacred Congregation of Sem-inaries and Universities deal with general educational matters. In the first of these, dated April 25, 1957 (AAS, pp. 638-40), the congregation canonically established the Catholic Uni-versity of Leopoldville in the Belgian Congo. The new uni-. versity will include a faculty of sacred theology. In the second document, dated May 4, 1957 (AAS, pp. 753:55), the Catholic University of St. Thomas of Villanova in Havana was officially established. Finally/ it should be noted that AAS on pp. 663-89 lists the 261 matrimonial cases which were decided by the Rota during the year 1956. OUR CONTRIBUTORS THOMAS DUBAY teaches philosophy and ascetical theology at Notre Dame Seminary, 2901 S. Carrollton Avenue, New Orleans 18, Louisiana. R. F. SMITH is a member of .the faculty of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, K~nsas. FRANCIS J. MacENTEE is studying for his doctorate in bacteriology at Catholic Uaiversity, Carroll House, 1225 Otis Street .Northeast, Washington 17, D. C. 50 Book Reviews [Material for this department should be sent to Book Review' Editor, REVIEW FOR.RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.] SON OF THE CHURCH. By Louis Lochet. Translated from the French by Albert J. LaMothe, Jr. Pp. 255. Fides Pub-lishers Association, Chicago 19. 1956. $4.50. Son of the Church is a penetrating analysis of ~he spirituality of the. apostolate, 'written as a series of personal insights and not as a formal treatise. Its purpose is to give the reader the benefit of years of reflection on the character of apostolic action by a former professor of theology who is now parish priest in the diocese of Reims. His thesis is that work in the apostolate, for cleric, religious, and layman, must be done with and through the Church in order to be truly effective. "Lacking that, it founders in absurdity and despair." In tracing this theme, the author shows a solid grasp of human psychology which he integrates with the basic principles of ecclesi-ology, especially of the Mystical Body. Among the temptations that face the apostle, the greatest is "the latent rationalization of all our difficulties [which sees] only what we are doing and not what God is doing. What we do hides from us what God does. It is a short and narrow view of our activity and that of the Church, on the level of what we know of it through history and experience alone." True to the mission of her Founder, the Church is described as a manifestation of divine love, and not only of love but of mercy. Accordingly, the apostle is not to be surprised at running into obstacles of sin, as Christ did. "The love he bears the world is a redeeming love. This is what he has to understand if he does not wish to be disconcerted by the difficulty of the mission. It is not by some strange accident that he meets with coldness, disdain or hatred. It is as the law of his development." Perhaps the outstanding chapter in the book deals with the proper dispositions of anyone engaged in the apostolic life. First must be the conviction that the heart of the apostolate consists in subordinating oneself to the hierarchical authority of the Church. Correlative to this dependence is the realization that the principal object of apostolic labor is to bring the world into the Church's sacramental order--b~ receiving the sacraments in greater numbers, with greater frequency, 51 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious increased fervor, find consequently greater efficacy. As an expression of this zeal, the. apostle desires to bring all men into the Mystical Body of Christ, at least to the extent that the Church is every.where implanted with her life-giving channels of grace. However the per-spective must be. kept very clear. A person "who would want to reduce his activity to promoting a better social orgariization or to spreading a temporal beneficence without referring it all to the restoration of the Church by faith in Christ and the sacramental life would no'longer be doing apostolic work." Since the task of bringing souls to God is supernatural, it does not finally rest on the resources of human power~ to succeed--not even those of the apostle. If he .employs all his native ingenuity, "it is not so much in the mahner of a wealth which God needs as of a poverty which God is willing to use for a tran-scendent goal." Corollary to this reliance on grace is the value to be set on self-renunciation. "One will not avoid the mystery of the Cross . Far from fleeing it, we will welcome it as the means par .excellence of realizing the greatest ambitions." In many ways, LocKet has written an excellent book. If on occasion the diction is a bit verbose, this is more than compensated for by the wealth of ideas covering the whole range of apostolic asceticism. It differs considerably from P~i:e Chautard'.s classic on tl~e same subject. Lochet is more cor~cerned with theological integra-tion than with direct motivation. There is also less coherent logic hmong the various parts; something in the style of the Imitation of Christ. For that reason almost any page can be quoted out of con-text withodt losing its inherent meaning. Son of the Church is highly recommended to priests and religious as a doctrinal synthesis of Catholic evangelism.--JoHN A. HARDO,XT, THE CROSS OF JESUS. Voi. I. By Louis Chardon, O.P. Trans-lated from the French by Richard T. Murphy, O.P~ Pp. 304. B. Herder Book ComPany, St. Louis 2. 1957. $4.25. The Dominican Father~ have presented us with another spiritual masterpiece in the "Cross and Crown Series of Spirituality." Written by Father Louis Chardon, O.P., Tl~e Cross of Jesus was published in France in 1647. Thanks to the fine work of the translator, the first volume is now available in English. The Cross of Jesus is not the type of book one rushes through. if given the attention any good spiritual I~ook requires, it will cer-tainly prove profitable. The content is solid; the theme.is simple: 52 January, 1958 BOOK REVIEWS Growth in holiness is achieved through the cross. Although the ideals are lofty ones, they are not set forth merely for mystics. Heeding Jesus' command to take up the cross daily, all holy souls will find guidance and consolation in this book. Father Charddn makes no compromises. He leaves nb doubt as to the necessity of p~arification through the.cross before a s0ul can be united with Jesus. This austere message, however, seems less sdvere when we read the chapters on thesuffe.rings of Jesus and His Mother. It strikes us as quite logical after we read of our place in the Mystical Body of Christ. Most important of all, we are assured that purification is effected by our cooperating with grace and the indwelling Trinity--a doctrine that is beautifully treated by the authoL In all, there are forty-eight chapters. The.relative brevity of most of them seems to be a marked advantage. In each chapter a distinct message is conveyed and understood withbut the necessity of reading dozens of pages. ¯ This book could also be used for meditation material. As indi-cated above, a number of doctrines of the. spiritual life are discussed --/~11 with reference to the cross.' Father Chardon cites Scripture for added effectiveness. Moreover, his exclamations ~nd invocations give The Cross of Jesus a warmth and unction that is often either lacking or overdone in spiritual, writings.' Finally, this re~ciewer wants to congratulate Father. Ri~:hard T. Murphy, O.P., for his very readable translation. Seventeenth-century French does present difficulties which often show up in. English' trans-lations. This cannot be said of the English edition of The Cross of Jesus.--DoNALD O. NASTOLD~ .S.J. CHINA AND THE CROSS; A SURVEY OF MISSIONARY HIS-TORY. By Dom Columba Cary-Elwes, O.S.B. Pp. 323. P.J. Kenedy and Sons, New York 8. 1957. $3.95. Shakespearean Sonnet 116 con~(eys, poetically the spirit of Dom Cary-Elwes's latest work. With an insight which is the fruit of twenty-five years of resea.rch, this artist dep~ct.s vividly the scenes of Cath-olic victories as Christ's mind marries China's amid "tempests, and is never shaken." This is the first Catholic work of this type since Abbe Huc's Christianityin China, Tartary, and Thibet in 1858. As thd author asserts, the eastward expansibr~ iof the Ch~arch is an inspira-tional story, not something freakish and unique. His labor, which is based on the latest evidence, proves his statement. 53 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious The book is divided into five chapters: "The Legend of St. Thomas the Apostle," "The Nestorians," "The Franciscans in Cathay," "The Jesuit Age," and "Modern Times." Some summary of the contents of these chaptegs will amply support this reviewer's opinion that Dom Cary-Elwes has penned an exposition which covers the essential points of the history of Chinese Christianity and which contains facts and colorful incidents which appeal to the scholarly, as well as the casual, reader. Latest evidence indicates that St. Thomas the Apostle never set foot on China. Earliest Christians were the Nestorians who landed at Cathay in the seventh century. Tamberlaine was the death-knell of the Nestorian Church. New hope for conversion comes with the Franciscans. Friar John o~ Pian di Carpina, intrepid explorer, arrives at the command of Innocent IV. William of Rubruck, "John of Montecorvino, and others follow with tenacity of purpose. Clement V at Avignon orders that seven Franciscans be raised to the episcopate, and they in turn would consecrate Friar John archbishop ~nd patriarch oi: the whole East. When the Ming dynasty won its way: to the imperial throne, the immense labors of the Franciscans terminated in the wake of violent persecution. Then came the Jesuits. Saint Francis Xavier, "for whom nothing was impossible with God," died off the coast of China in 1552, In that very year was born his greatest successor, Father Matteo Ricci, S.J., whose discreet guidance of missionary activity in China wins the highest praise from the author. F~llowing the Pauline "Go in their door . . ," Ricci builds a r~/¢rocl~elnent between himself and the tradition of China. The Jesuit showed the similarity between the moral teaching of Confucius and that of Christianity. In general, Dom Cary-Elwes judges that the Jesuits met with success as long as they followed the Riccian teaching of not exciting the Chinese by imprudent acts of proselytism. The author's explanation of the famous Rites Controversy is clear, accurate, and prudent. The possibility .that the Jesuits are condoning certain pagan rituals in observance of the memory of Confucius prompts the Holy See to pronounce in 1704 against the Jesuit position. The fact that this decision was reversed in 1939 leads the writer to state: "It is not for us to sit 'in judgment on that decision [1704]. There were cogent reasons in favor of that judgment then. Today those reasons no longer hold, and the Holy See has thought fit to 54 January, 1958 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS reverse that decision in the year 1939" (p. 160). The Jesuits fade from the picture with Clement XIV's Dominus et Redemptor. They will return, Dom Cary-Elwes predicts, "if love is stronger than death." The remainder of the book cites modern conditions: the rapid rise of Communist control, uncanny persecution of the faithful, the work of the Maryknolls, the .Catholic school system in China, the elevation of Cardinal Tien, and the fundamental reason why merely philanthropic Christians become Communists. For the informed reader of Chinese history, Dom Cary-Elwes synthesizes centuries of Christian activity in a scholarly, carefully annotated volume. For the uninformed, he presents a colorful and factual account of the history of the Church in China. For both, he instills with his information the desire to see one yet unwritten chapter: "The Conversion of China to Catholicism." --JAMES J. CREIGHTON, S.J. SARDAR PANNIKAR AND CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. By Jerome D'Souza, S.J. pp. 146. St. Joseph's Industrial School Press, Trichinopoly, India. 1957. One rupee. A grand old pagan of the Roman Empire confronts his Augustine in this book--with differences. St. Augustine heard the accusation that Christianity was destroying Roman civilization, and he wrote the great De Civitate Dei. The Catholic Church, which has been growing up in India gince the days of St. Thomas the Apostle, hears the accusation that Christianity is destroying the civilizations of India and Asia. Here is an answer worthy of a smaller brother of the great Augustine himself. The.author, a member of the India dele-gation to the General Assembly of the United Nations, finds the latest and greatest exponent of this accusation, the former India am-bassador to Red China, "biassed" in his approach to the missions and possessed of "insufficient" knowledge and of "harsh" judgment. Any-one interested in the missions and missio[ogy wil| profit by this frank and friendly and fearless volume.--PauL DE,X,T, S.J. BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, .400 N. Broadway, Mil-waukee 1, Wisconsin. Common Sense. By Joseph McSorley, C.S.P. We read essays on spiritual or religious topics to acquire new knowledge or new or 55 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religious renewed motivation. We do not expect to find, and all too often do not find, gems of the essayist's craft. In .Common Sense each of the thirty-one essays might well be .taken ~s a model of what essays on the spiritual life can and should be. Reading the book is almost as inspiring and refreshing as a personal visit with. the author would be. Pp. 136. $2.75. CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PRESS, 620 Michigan Avenue, N.E., Washington, D. C. The Supreme Moderator of. Clerical Exempt Religious Institutes. A Historical Conspectus and Canonical Commentary. By Maurice J'. Grajew~ki, O.F.M. This is a dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Catholic University ofAmerica in partial fulfillment of the requirement~ for the degree of Doctor of. Canon Law. Pp. 180. Paper $2.00. FIDES PUBLISHERS ASSOCIATION, .744 E. 79th Street,Chi-cago 19, Illinois. Marriage Is Holy~ Edited by H. Caffarel. Translatdd by Ber-nard G. Murchli~nd, C.S.C. A group 0f Christian families meeting with their chaplains to discuss their common problems are responsible for .the various essays whicl~ are the chapters of this book. .There is a tKirty-six page appe~di~ which contains synopses and discussion questions. It is one of the volumes of the "Fidds Family Readers." Pp. 219. $3.75. GRAIL PUBLICATIONS; St. Meinrad, Indiana. .Queen of the Universe. An Anthology on the Assumption and Queenship of Ma~y. Edited by Brother Stanley G. Mathews, S.M. This i~ thd secohd volume of the "Marian .Library Series of An-thologies." The first was The Promised Woman (Grail, 1954). In the present volume .you will find all the. most recent pronouncements'of the Holy See as well as the most recent theological researcl~ .on two ~rerogativ.es of our Lady, her Assumpti6n and her Queenship. Here .is a volume well c~lculated to increase our love for her who is both" the Mother of God and our Mother." Pp. 258. $4.00. P. J. KENEDY & SONSI .12 Barclay Street, New York 8, New The Hermit of Cat Island. The Life of Fra Jerom~ Hawes. By Peter F. Anson. Monsignor ~'ohr~ C. Hawks, the future hermit.of Cat. Island, led a ver~ full and c6lorful lifd. He was born ~n September 7, 1876, of Anglican parents, became an architect who sp~cial!zi:d in 56 J~nua~'y, 1958 ~BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS ecclesiastical 'architecture, then became an Anglican Clergyman and went as a missionary to the Bahamas in 1908. He designed and built Anglican churches while acting as pastor on Long Island. He became a Catholic in 1911, was ordainedin Rome in 1915, and then took up missionary life, until 1939, in Australia where he designed and built many churches, monasteries, and convents. He was made a domestic prelate in 1937. He led the life of a hermit for seventeen yearg on Cat Island, one ofthe Bahamas. He died on June 26, 1956, and is buried near his hermitage as he requested. The author has given us an interesting and profitable, book. Pp. 286. $4.75. THE NEWMAN PRESS, Westminster, Maryland. Communal Life. Edited by Albert PIE, O.P. Translated by a Religious of the Sacred Heart. This is Volume VIII in the justly '. popular "Religious Life Series." It deals with that essential element of the religious life, common life, from many points of view, historic-ally, canonically, ascetically; it does not neglect the contributions of modern psychology; and it points out adaptations that must be made in view of the background that modern youth bring to religious life. Pp. 320. $4.50. The Insight of the Cur~ D'Ars. Selected Stories by Msgr. Francis Trochu. Translated by V. F. Martel. The fifty stories of this volume, all illustrative of the mystical insight of the Cur~ D'Ars into the secrets of souls, make very interesting reading and furnish "much material for reflection. Pp. 103. $1.75. THE PRIORY PRESS, Asbury Road, Dubuque, Iowa. Toward Marriage in Christ. By Thomas C. Donlon, Francis L. B~ Cunningham, and Augustine Rock, all of the Order of St. Dominic. The book is the first of a new series entitled "College Texts in The-ology." Unlike most books on marriage, this one was written to be ¯ used as a textbook; hence with the requirements of college students and college class procedures in mind. It contains a nine-page bib-liography. Pp. 199. Paper $1.50. SHEED & WARD, 840 Broadway, New York 3, New York. Theology for "Beginners. By F. J. Sheed. Perhaps the greatest single need of the average Catholic layman today is a better knowledge of the faith that is the norm he lives by; a knowledge that will enable him to give a satisfactory answer to the non-Catholic who may agk him the reasons for his faith and conduct; a knowledge too that will BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religious lead him to a more intelligent practice of hig faith. An excellent introduction to that knowledge is Theology for Beginners, writte~ by a layman who has received the degree of Doctor of Sacred Theology l~onoris causa. The book could also serve as an excellent text for study clubs. Pp. 241. $3.00. M~re Marie of the Ursulines. By Agnes Repplier. This gripping biography of M~re Marie who founded the first convent school in North America in 1639 was first published in 1931. If you have not al-ready read the book, now is the time to read it. Pp. 314. $3.15. The Beginning of the English Reformation. By Hugh Ross Wil-liamson. The author, a former Anglican clergyman and a recent convert (1955) to Catholicism, gives us an excellent analysis of the complexities of the English Reformation, a period of English history widely misunderstood even today. The book is very well written as. one would expect from the author of eleven plays and a former editor of The Bookman and The Strand. Pp. 113. $2.50. In We Sing While There's Voice Left by Dom Hubert van Zeller, O.S.B., we have another interesting book on the spiritual life for the layman. It measures up fully to the high level of excellence which the author has established in his other books. Like them it is matter-of-fact, down-to-earth, and faces reality squarely. Pp. 198. $2.50. The Restless Christian. By Kilian McDonnell, O.S.B. The number of spiritual books written explicitly for the layman is gratifying. It testifies to the growing realization that the lay Catholic is called to holiness, and it supplies the necessary information and inspiration. You may recommend The Restless Christian to lay Catholics with the certain knowledge that you are giving them an effective means of progress. You may also, though you are a religious, read the book yourself with profit for your own soul. An unusual feature of the book is an eight-page list of suggested readings on the spiritual life. Pp. 183. $3.00. SISTERS OF MERCY, 8200 West Outer Drive,' Detroit 19, Michigan. Into Thy Hands. By Sister Mary E. O'Connor, R.S.M. This book of reflections intended for refectory reading for the Sundays of Recollection first appeared in mimeographed form. So many requests for copies were received that it is now available in printed form. Pp. 105. Cloth $1.75. 58 January, 1958 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS SYRIAN CARMELITE CONGREGATION, Monastery Road, Erna-kulam 1, South India. Souvenir of the First All-Kerala Religious Week, Dec. 27-30, 1955. The closing days of 1955 witnessed what was probably a unique and certainly a most profitable centenary celebration at Sacred Heart College, Thevara, in the state of Kerala in Southwest India, to mark the completion of the first century of activity of the Syrian Car-melite Congregation since its canonical erection in 1855. All the numerous orders and congregations of Kerala were invited to send delegates to a convention, not to recall the history of the congregation or to extend their felicitations, but to discuss their common religious problems and those of the South of India. Souvenir prints in full the addresses made before the convention together with a resum~ of the discussions that followed. We congratulate the Syrian Carmelite Congregation not only on the occasion of their centenary but also on the wise and profitable way that it was commemorated. It was a good preparation for the persecution the large and ancient and fervent Kerala Catholic community suffers in its schools from the Communists recently elected in the predominantly non-Christian state of Kerala. SOME BOOKS RECEIVED [Only books sent directly to the Book Review Editor, West Baden College, Wes~ Baden Springs, Indiana, are included in our Reviews and Announcements. The following books were sent to St. Mass.] Love and Marriage. By James Kelly. Clonmore and Reynolds Limited, 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 3/-(paper cover). God's Infinite Love and Ours. By Robert Mageen, C.SS.R. Clonmore and Reynolds Limited, 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 12,/6. Come, O Holy Ghost! By Adrian Lyons, O.F.M. Clonmore and Reynolds Limited, 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 12/6. A Dangerous Little Friar. The Life of Father Titus Brandsma, O.Carm. By Josse Alzin. Clonmore and Reynolds Limited, 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 9/6. 59 ( ues ons and Answers ['The following answers are given by Father Joseph F. Gallen, S.J., professor of canon law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland.] DuringLent should a priest celebrate the Mass of the ferial day or of an occurring feast? On a dm. or d. feast that falls between Ash Wednesday and the Saturday before Palm Sunday, an ember day except tl~ose of Pente-cost, Rogation Monday (Monday before Ascension), or a common vigil, the Mass may be either of the feast in the festal, not votive, manner or of the ferial day or vigil. However, since liturgically the Temporale is preferred to the Sanctorale and the full celebration of a vigil is desirable, the preferred Mass liturgically is that of the ferial day or vigil. If the feast, is ~ d. 1 or 2 cl., it must be celebrated. If the feast is only of s. rite or a mere commemoration, the Mass of the ferial day or .vigil must be said. On din. and d. feasts during the same period of Lent and Passion-tide only, the private recitation oi: the office may be of the feast or of the ferial day. Cf. J. O'Connell, Tl~e Celebration o[ Mass, 54; Mueller- Ellis, l-Iandbook of Ceremonies, 42; Wuest-Mullaney-Barry, )l~fatters Liturgical, n. 280. Our constitutions permit a renewal of temporary vows to be an-ticipated by a month. When does such an anticipated renewal or new profession begin to run? Your constitutions are. merely stating the law of the code. The following three important ~oints are to be kept in mind in an antici-pated renewal. (a) .Length of anticipation. Canon 577, § 2, permits an anticipated renewal of tempo.rary vows but not by more than a month. Therefore, if the profession is to expire on August 15, 1957, the anticipated renewal may not be made before July 15, 1957. Berutti, De Religiosis, 2i0; Jone, Commentarium in Codicem luris Canonici, I, 506; Cervia, De Pro/essione Religiosa, 114. 60 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (b) Competent superior. In the law of the code, the anticipation as such may be permitted by any superior, whether higher or minor local (c. 577, § 2). However, the right here is only to permit an anticipation. Since the renewal is a juridical profession, all the requisites of suoh a profession must be observed; and therefore ~he admission to this anticipated profession must be made by the competent higher superior with the vote of the council or chapter according to the constitutions (cc. 543; "575, § 2). In constitutions an anticipa-tion is usually reserved to higher superiors or to a partictilar higher superior. (c) .When does the anticipated renewal begin to run? In the example given above of a profession that expires on August 15, 1957, and is anticipated on July 15, 1957, does the new l~rofession begin to run from August 15 or July 15? This depends on the intention of the one making the profession, which is presumed to be according to the way the matter is understood in the particular institute. Ordi-narily the understanding is that the anticipated renewal begins to run from the time when the former profession is completed, i. e., August 15. If such an understanding does not exist in the institute, the presumption is that the intention was for the new profession to begin to run from July 15. Explicit instruction should be given to the ren-ovants on this matter, since it is possible that the subject would be without vows for a month of the triennium; and consequently the perpetual profession would be invalid. The better method is to intend that the new profession begin to run from August 15. Cf. Goyeneche, Quaestiones C.anonicae, I, 442143; De Carlo, Jus Religiosorum, n. 300; Creusen, Revue des Cotnntunautes Religieuse's, 18-1946-184-85; Choupin, Nature et Obligations de l'Etat Religieux; 301-2; Jombart, Trait[ de Droit Canonique, I, 626. m3-- My family~ or close relatives give me five or ten dollars or more because I am their relative. The money therefore constitutes, a personal gift. When the money is turned in, is it contrary to poverty to ask to use it for a definite purpose? The norm for asking and giving permission in the matter of poverty is the need of the religious according to the limit in quantity and quality of material things prescribed by the law or legitimate traditions of the particular institute (c. 594, § 3). Therefore, the fa~t that yoia received a gift 'is completely indifferent in relation to 61 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious this norm. If you had not received a gift, you would have the same right of asking for your necessities. The fact that you did receive a gift is no motive for asking and no motive for the superior to give the permission. Religious profess poverty according to their constitutions, i. e., according to the norm described above; they do not profess poverty according to their income: The gift is in some sense a positive-reason for not giving the permission, simply because it leads to the practice of poverty according to one's income. This practice eventually causes a distinction of classes in the institute, the well to do and the poor, and is contrary to canon 594, § I, which t prescribes a moral un

Klimaforandring er et enormt problem for styring, koordinering og incitamentskabelse. For at nå vores klimamål kræver det et langvarigt samarbejde mellem mennesker. Dette omfatter en lang række styringsniveauer, der spænder fra ikke-statslige, subnationale, nationale og internationale aktører. Parisaftalen, den første multilaterale miljøaftale, bygger på en bottom-up og decentral koordinering mellem alle disse aktører. Denne decentraliserede styringstilgang muliggjorde gennembruddet i klimaforhandlingerne men udgør også en enorm ledelses- og styringsudfordring. Tidligere klimastyringssystemer, såsom Kyoto-protokollens mekanismer, var alle centralt koordineret og førte til fragmenterede og ensartede systemdesigns. For at muliggøre en effektiv koordinering af klimaindsatsen på tværs af styringsniveauerne skal disse systemer bindes sammen for at eliminere informationsasymmetri samt skabe gennemsigtighed og tillid. I denne sammenhæng nævnes blockchain ofte som en lovende teknologi. Dog er blockchain stadig en ny og ofte misforstået teknologi der skaber både hype og antagonisme. Denne afhandling har til formål at analysere denne teknologi baseret på en systematisk tilgang til at forstå hvad den kunne bruges til og hvor den ikke bør anvendes. Afhandlingen fokuserer på anvendelsesmuligheder inden for rammerne af Parisaftalen, navnligt CO2-markedsmekanismer og energieffektivitet. En detaljeret forståelse af de specifikke anvendelsesbetingelser er bydende nødvendigt, da blockchain med rette kritiseres for at være en teknologi på jagt efter efter anvendelse. Derfor skal betingelserne for at anvende en blockchain-løsning være stærkt begrundede, da teknologien medfører betydelige afvejninger sammenlignet med konventionelle databasesystemer. Teknologien bør kun anvendes hvis blockchain er den eneste løsning til at udvikle nye økonomiske- eller styringsmodeller, eller som minimum føre til en betydelig forbedring i forbindelse med automatisering og transaktionseffektivitet. For at foretage denne systematiske vurdering fremfører denne afhandling nogle kriterier og en beslutningsramme for at evaluere om det er gavnligt at anvende blockchain-teknologien, og i så fald, hvilken type blockchain er mest nyttig. Dernæst trækker afhandlingen denne beslutningsramme ud over de forskellige anvendelser inden for kulstofmarkeder og energieffektivitet. På baggrund af denne evaluering fastslås det at anvendelse af blockchain-teknologien på disse brugstilfælde er nyttig. Analysen viser også at valget af blockchain-design, eksempelvis i forhold til de gavnlige teknologiske egenskaber og styringstyper, varierer væsentligt. Der er således ikke tale om en ensartet blockchain der "passer til alt", men derimod at den pågældende anvendelse i hvert enkelt tilfælde resulterer i et særskilt blockchain-design. Efter at have bekræftet brugsrelevansen for blockchain ved brugstilfælde inden for rammerne af Parisaftalen, kom spørgsmålet om "hvordan denne teknologi kan bruges til at skabe reel forandring og fremskynde koordineringen af klimahandlinger?" Parisaftalen består af et betydeligt antal aktører med vidt forskelligartede kapaciteter og interesser. Disse kapaciter spænder fra aktører med et stort fravær af teknologisk eller organisatorisk parathed til at kunne gennemføre klimaregnskaber samt inddrage blockchain-teknologi, over til aktører med meget avancerede handlemuligheder. Som følge deraf udviser aktører også forskellighed i deres åbenhed over for forandring, alt fra en parathed til at tage tigerspring ind i nye teknologier, og i den anden ende en teknologisk fastlåshed og stiafhængighed. På samme måde varierer interesserne og de økonomiske incitamenter blandt aktørerne meget. Denne heterogenitet blandt aktørerne er allerede evident på den politiske forhandlingsscene, hvor nationale parter hidtil ikke har kunnet nå til enighed omkring regelbogen for de nye mekanismer for kulstofmarkedet (Artikel 6). I dette heterogene og politiske miljø ville anvendelse af en blockchain-applikation være gavnlig, men vedtagelsen og innovationen kompliceres af de mange forskellige aktørers kapacitet og interesser. Blockchain er en teknologi der formes af det miljø, hvor det anvendes, og derefter fungerer som en platform der muliggør ledelse af det pågældende miljø. Disse indbyrdes afhængigheder mellem blockchainen og dets adoptionsmiljø afføder nye teoretiske overvejelser for adoption og innovation af blockchain-teknologien. På trods af disse kompleksiteter og usikkerheder er det nødvendigt at indtænke blockchain-teknologien til at fremskynde og muliggøre en accelereret klimahandling. Vi befinder os i en afgørende tid hvor de nuværende konventionelle systemer og teknologier ikke er i stand til at levere den nødvendige koordinering til at opnå vores klimamål. Vi er i gang med at skabe fremtidens systemer og arkitekturer; post-2020-systemerne. Dette giver os mulighed for at overgå fra manuelle og analoge processer til automatiserede og digitale designs, aktiveret af nye teknologier, såsom blockchain-teknologien. ; Climate change is an enormous governance, coordination and incentive challenge. To achieve our climate goals, a multitude of governance levels, ranging from non-state, to sub-national, to national and to international actors need to collaborate over a long-time period. The Paris Agreement, as the first multilateral environmental agreement, is built on bottom-up and decentralized coordination among all of these actors. This decentralized governance approach enabled the breakthrough in climate negotiations but also posed an immense governance challenge. Previous climate governance systems, such as the Kyoto Protocol mechanisms, were all centrally coordinated and led to the establishment of fragmented and heterogeneous system designs. To enable the effective coordination of climate action through governance, these systems need to be connected to eliminate information asymmetry and create transparency and trust. In this context, blockchain is frequently mentioned as a promising technology. However, blockchain is still a new and often misunderstood technology, causing both hype and antagonism. This thesis analyses this technology based on a systematic approach to understanding what it could and what it shouldn't be used for. The thesis focuses on use cases inside the Paris Agreement, namely carbon market mechanisms and energy efficiency. A detailed understanding of the specific case requirements is critical as blockchain is rightfully criticised as a technology in search of use cases. Accordingly, the case requirements need to provide a strong justification for a blockchain application as the technology comes with significant trade-offs compared to conventional database systems. Only if blockchain is the sole technological solution to develop novel economic or governance models or significantly improves automation and transaction efficiency should it be applied. For this systematic assessment, the thesis develops criteria and a decision framework to evaluate if a blockchain application is beneficial and, if so, what type of blockchain is most feasible. As a next step, the thesis applies this framework to the different carbon market and energy cases. This evaluation establishes that a blockchain application towards these cases is suitable. In addition, the analysis demonstrates that the blockchain design, e.g. in terms of beneficial technological features and governance type, vary substantially. Hence, there is no uniform blockchain that "suits all", but each case requirement results in a distinct blockchain design. After confirming the relevance of blockchain for cases inside the Paris Agreement, the question became, "how can this technology be used to have an actual impact and accelerate climate action coordination?" The Paris Agreement consists of a vast number of actors with very different capacities and interests. Such capacities range from almost no technological or organisational capacities to conduct climate accounting and adopt blockchain technology to very advanced actors. Consequently, actors also show diverse attitudes manifesting in openness to leapfrog into new technologies or technology lock-in and path-dependence. Similarly, the interests and economic incentives among actors vary widely. This actor heterogeneity was already expressed at the political and negotiation stage, where national Parties could thus far not agree on the rulebook for the new carbon market mechanisms (Article 6). A blockchain application would be beneficial in this heterogeneous and political environment, but its adoption and innovation is complicated by the diverse range of actors' capacities and interests. Blockchain is a technology that is shaped by its application environment and then acts as a platform to enable governance of that environment — these blockchain inherent interdependencies with its adoption environment present novel theoretical considerations for blockchain adoption and innovation. Despite these complexities and uncertainties, blockchain needs to be considered to enable and accelerate climate action. We are at a crucial time where the established legacy systems and technologies are insufficient to provide the coordination needed to achieve our climate goals. We are currently designing the systems and architectures of the future, the post-2020 systems. This allows the transition from manual and analogue processes into automated and digital designs, enabled by emerging technologies, such as blockchain.

Several changes in the rice and other crop production landscape in the Philippines have occurred since an account of the status of agricultural mechanization was reported forty-five years ago in the first issue (Spring 1971) of Agricultural Mechanization in Southeast Asia, now AMA (Lantin, 1971). Part I of the two-part article on agricultural mechanization in the Philippines provides the brief background of its development. Part II will discuss the current status of agricultural mechanization and the formulation of strategies after having set out a firm policy as provided by the Agriculture and Fisheries Mechanization (AFMech) Law of 2013. Historically, the following chronology of development events related to agriculture and agricultural mechanization that have been unfolding through the years and marked by milestones, have had significant impact on shaping the present status of agricultural mechanization in the Philippines: Before 1521 (Pre-Spanish era) • Blacksmithing and metalworking technologies, probably acquired from Chinese traders, are used for making weapons, household metal wares, hand tools and paraphernalia for fishing and rudimentary agriculture; • Inhabitants thrive on hunting, fishing and little agriculture; natural resources are abundant and more than enough for a small population of tribes sparsely distributed throughout the archipelago; • Ifugao rice terraces in the mountains of Luzon and cultivation techniques have already been well-developed and sustained through the culture of the Indigenous People since about 2,000 years ago. 1521-1898 (Spanish colonial regime) • Spaniards introduce single animal-drawn wooden plow with cast-iron plowshare and moldboard, carabao (water buffalo)-drawn carts for agricultural produce transport and horse-drawn calesas (carriage) for personnel transport; • Spaniards introduce processing technologies such as for making chocolate tablets from cacao, concrete and wood construction technologies for structures such as churches and public buildings and blacksmithing such as for horses a cart and carriage wheels, hand tools and plow accessories. 1902-1940 (American colonial regime) • US military and investors first used three-wheel tractors in abaca (banana fiber crop) plantations in Mindanao to produce cordage for maritime usage and for export; • US mechanization technologies transferred to Philippines such as the tractor-powered stationary rice thresher - the "McCormick" thresher or "trilladora". 1941-1945 (Japanese occupation, World War II • Japan introduces household gadgets such as lamps, cooking appliances • No technology transfer on agricultural mechanization as Japan also uses draft animals in farm operations. 1950-1970 • President Elpidio. Quirino (1948-1953) pursues industrialization making Philippine economy second only to Japan in Asia by early 1960s; unfortunately, this pursuit was not sustained by the succeeding administrations; • Large grain silos for storage of paddy and corn are installed in Northern and Central Luzon but turned out to be "white elephants" and later dismantled; • Human and animal farm power sources are predominant; agricultural mechanization and labor productivity levels are low; • Small landholdings of up to 3 ha constitute 62.3 % of total farms in 1960; • Four-wheel tractor sales are driven by credit programs and high sugar prices; • IRRI is established in 1960 at the University of the Philippines College of Agriculture campus, now UP Los Baños (UPLB); the green revolution starts; IRRI develops IR8 or "miracle rice" in 1966; • Hand tractors from Japan are introduced in early 1960s; Land-master tractor from UK fits as workhorse for multiple cropping project by IRRI; • President Ferdinand Marcos (1965- 1986) builds infrastructures such as roads, ports, dams for irrigation and power generation as foundation for industrialization originally envisioned by President Quirino to support agriculture. 1971-1980 • Agricultural Mechanization in Southeast Asia (now AMA) launches its maiden issue -Spring 1971; • IRRI Agricultural Engineering Department undertakes the Small Farm Machinery Development Program under USAID grant; the axial-flow thresher makes obsolete the traditional pedal drum and manual threshing methods; • President Marcos declares martial law; Masagana-99 rice program enables export of rice; GO 47 strategy for corporate rice produc- tion fails; the barangay as basic political unit is organized; • Institution-building and strengthening start: AMTEC in 1977; PhilRice in 1985; Philippines hosts the Regional Network for Agricultural Machinery (RNAM) at UPLB with the Agricultural Mechanization Development Program (AMDP) as country counterpart, which advocates agricultural mechanization policy; • First fuel crisis occurs in 1973 and a second one in 1979. 1981-1990 • IRRI-AED releases more designs of small farm machines and devices; • UPLB-based RNAM actively conducts regional activities on agricultural machinery and mechanization; • SV Agro-industries in Iloilo develops floating power tiller; IRRI-AED modifies it into hydrotiller; both designs are adopted by farmers; • Delta Motor Corporation with technology backstopping of Toyota Motor Corporation of Japan landmark manufactures 1,000 units of 10-hp diesel engine, the first in Southeast Asia; • People's Power Revolution in 1986 causes political turmoil and economic downturn; cuts short the Marcos strategy of infrastructure development to support industrialization which in turn was aimed at supporting agriculture. 1991-2000 • IRRI-AED releases design of the rice stripper-gatherer SG800 based on stripper rotor technology developed by the UK Silsoe Research Institute; • IRRI phases out design and development of rice production machinery and focuses instead on postharvest technologies starting in late 1990s; • PhilRice-Rice Engineering and Mechanization Division (REMD) and the Bureau of Postharvest Research and Development (BPRE) sustain research, development and extension (RDE) activities of rice production and postharvest machinery; • Functions of the Department of Agriculture and other government agencies are devolved to local government units (LGUs) 2001-2016 • The Agriculture and Fisheries Mechanization (AFMech) Law is passed in 2013; this landmark legislation now firms up the policy of modernizing Philippine agriculture through agricultural mechanization; • The Philippines starts deliberate shifting from labor-intensive and low labor-productive farm operation methods to mechanized farming; • PHilMech implements the Department of Agriculture's Rice Mechanization and Postharvest Program (RMPP) for 2011-2016; promotes production and postharvest machinery among Farmers' Associations on favourable procurement terms; • The Philippines imports some 200,000 single-cylinder gasoline and diesel engines in 2013 alone (AMMDA, 2014) mostly from US, China, Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam; • A new National Agro-fishery Mechanization Program (NAF-MP) is being formulated by the Bureau of Agricultural and Fisheries Mechanization Engineering (BAFE); • Level of mechanization is still low with work animals still the predominant power source for small landholdings, which have presently increased in number, further reduced in size and been widely scattered because of partitioning among heirs, inter-regional marriages, land reform and sale/conversion for non-agricultural uses. • Small landholdings of up to 3 ha constitute 88.4% of total farms in 2012 • Power tillers are gradually replacing the carabao through increasing availability of custom hire services, but not as rapidly as desired because of high prices of imported engines • Imported four-wheel tractors, rice transplanters and combines start getting popular • Foreign exchange remittances by overseas Filipino workers and professionals slowing down due to Middle East crisis, low fossil fuel prices and economic growth rate slowdown - may affect importation of agricultural power and machinery • Killer typhoon Haiyan or Yolanda devastates Leyte, Samar and other Northern Visayan provinces killing some 10,000 people (unofficial estimate) in 2013 Beyond 2016 The following are some issues to consider in the formulation of agricultural mechanization policies and strategies: • Deliberate pursuit of national industrialization to support agriculture; • National Agro-fisheries Mechanization Program (NAFMP) to continue distributing power and machinery which are "Made not in the Philippines?" • Local manufacture of engines; development of renewable and environment friendly farming technologies; • RDE on technologies for land levelling and precision agriculture, automation and robotics but not to neglect the classic designs for transition from traditional to high-tech agricultural mechanization; • Overhaul of polices and laws for farmland inheritance, land forming and terracing for soil and water conservation as well as for agricultural mechanization; • Building of infrastructures for irrigation and drainage, transport (roads, railways, cableways and ports) for efficient agricultural mechanization; and • Other issues that may crop up.

[cat] A causa de l'augment de l'entrada de contaminants en el medi aquàtic, el control de l'aigua és essencial. En aquest sentit, els governs han augmentat el control de l'aigua a través de regulacions més estrictes. Pel que és important desenvolupar mètodes analítics eficients en termes de cost, precisió, freqüència d'anàlisi i impacte ambiental per controlar les emissions de contaminants i així verificar el compliment de les normes definides. No obstant això, les anàlisis mediambientals plantegen algunes dificultats a causa de la complexitat de les matrius de les mostres, ja que en general els analits d'interès són a nivell de traces i hi ha una àmplia varietat de possibles interferents, fent gairebé obligatòria una etapa de pretractament de la mostra abans de la detecció. Les noves tendències es centren en l'ús de tècniques de microextracció, com ara la microextracció en fase sòlida (SPME) i la microextracció líquid-líquid dispersiva (DLLME). No obstant això, les etapes de pretractament són llargues i impliquen un gran consum de reactius i mostra quan es duen a terme de forma manual. Així, l'automatització del pretractament de la mostra té un paper important per aconseguir mètodes analítics eficients i ràpids. Per tant, l'objectiu principal d'aquesta tesi ha estat desenvolupar diferents metodologies basades en tècniques d'anàlisi en flux per a la determinació de paràmetres d'interès ambiental. Aquestes metodologies es basen en la implementació de tècniques de microextracció, és a dir SPME i DLLME, en sistemes en flux, en particular utilitzant sistemes d'anàlisi per injecció seqüencial, sistemes d'anàlisi per injecció en flux multixeringa i lab-on-valve. L'ús de tècniques de detecció espectrofotomètriques i fluorimètriques ha permès el desenvolupament d'analitzadors totalment automàtics. Així, el potencial de les tècniques d'anàlisi en flux per implementar diferents tècniques de pretractament de la mostra queda demostrat en aquesta tesi amb el desenvolupament de set sistemes analítics automàtics per determinar ferro, alumini, tensioactius aniònics i catiònics, i filtres UV, aplicats a mostres d'aigua ambiental. Tots els analitzadors desenvolupats han demostrat la gran versatilitat de les tècniques d'anàlisi en flux en el seu acoblament a una gran varietat de tècniques de detecció i pretractaments. A més, l'ús de tècniques d'anàlisi en flux per automatitzar els mètodes analítics desenvolupats ha aportat gran robustesa, simplicitat i estabilitat la qual cosa s'ha traduït en resultats precisos i exactes, juntament amb l'estalvi de temps i reactius, una major freqüència de mostreig, una mínima manipulació de la mostra i reactius per part de l'analista, i un menor impacte ambiental per anàlisi a causa de la reducció dels residus generats. ; [spa] Debido al aumento de la entrada de contaminantes en el medio acuático, el control del agua es esencial. En este sentido, los gobiernos han aumentado el control del agua a través de regulaciones más estrictas. Por lo que es importante desarrollar métodos analíticos eficientes en términos de coste, precisión, frecuencia de análisis e impacto ambiental para controlar las emisiones de contaminantes y así verificar el cumplimiento de las normas definidas. Sin embargo, los análisis medioambientales plantean algunas dificultades debido a la complejidad de las matrices de las muestras, ya que por lo general los analitos de interés están a nivel de trazas y hay una amplia variedad de posibles interferentes, haciendo casi obligatoria una etapa de pretratamiento de la muestra antes de la detección. Las nuevas tendencias se centran en el uso de técnicas de microextracción, tales como la microextracción en fase sólida (SPME) y la microextracción liquido-líquido dispersiva (DLLME). No obstante, las etapas de pretratamiento son largas e implican un gran consumo de reactivos y muestra cuando se llevan a cabo de forma manual. Así, la automatización del pretratamiento de la muestra juega un papel importante para lograr métodos analíticos eficientes y rápidos. Por tanto, el objetivo principal de ésta tesis ha sido desarrollar diferentes metodologías basadas en técnicas de análisis en flujo para la determinación de parámetros de interés ambiental. Estas metodologías se basan en la implementación de técnicas de microextracción, es decir SPME y DLLME, en sistemas en flujo, en particular utilizando sistemas de análisis por inyección secuencial, sistemas de análisis por inyección en flujo multijeringa y lab-on-valve. El uso de técnicas de detección espectrofotométricas y fluorimétricas ha permitido el desarrollo de analizadores totalmente automáticos. Así, el potencial de las técnicas de análisis en flujo para implementar diferentes técnicas de pretratamiento de la muestra queda demostrado en esta tesis con el desarrollo de siete sistemas analíticos automáticos para determinar hierro, aluminio, tensioactivos aniónicos y catiónicos, y filtros UV, aplicados a muestras de agua ambiental. Todos los analizadores desarrollados han demostrado la gran versatilidad de las técnicas de análisis en flujo en su acoplamiento a una gran variedad de técnicas de detección y pretratamientos. Además, el uso de técnicas de análisis en flujo para automatizar los métodos analíticos desarrollados ha aportado gran robustez, simplicidad y estabilidad lo cual se ha traducido en resultados precisos y exactos, junto con el ahorro de tiempo y reactivos, una mayor frecuencia de muestreo, una mínima manipulación de la muestra y reactivos por parte del analista, y un menor impacto ambiental por análisis debido a la reducción de los residuos generados. ; [eng] Water monitoring has become essential owing to the increasing income of contaminants into the aquatic environment. In this sense, governments have increased water control through tighter regulations. Hence, it is important to develop efficient analytical methods in terms of cost, precision, throughput and environmental impact to control pollutant releases and verify compliance with respect to defined regulations. However, environmental analysis poses some difficulties due to matrix complexity, since the analytes of interest are usually at trace levels and there is a wide variety of potential interferences, making almost mandatory the sample pretreatment prior detection. New trends are focused in the use of microextraction techniques, such as solid phase microextraction (SPME) and dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME). Nonetheless, pretreatment steps are time consuming and involve a large consumption of reagents and sample when carried out in a manual approach. Thus, automation of sample pretreatment plays a major role in order to achieve efficient and fast analytical methods. Therefore, the main objective of this thesis was to develop different automatic analytical flow-based methodologies for the determination of parameters of environmental interest. They are based on the implementation of microextraction techniques, i.e. SPME and DLLME, in flow based systems, in particular exploiting sequential injection analysis, multisyringe flow injection analysis and lab-on-valve. Spectrophotometric and fluorimetric detection techniques were used allowing the development of fully automated analyzers. Thus, in this thesis the potential of flow analysis techniques to accommodate a variety of pretreatment techniques is proven by the development of seven automated analytical systems to determine iron, aluminium, anionic and cationic surfactants and UV filters, applied to environmental water samples. All the developed analyzers have demonstrated the versatility of flow analysis techniques to accommodate a plethora of pretreatment and detection techniques. Furthermore the use of flow analysis techniques to automate the present analytical methods achieving maximal robustness, simplicity and stability has resulted in precise and accurate results, together with time and reagents saving, and therefore higher sample frequency, minimal handling of sample and reagents, and a lower environmental impact per analysis due to reduced waste production.

Current power systems have remained qualitatively similar to how the were in the last century, especially with respect to the interaction with the end-users. Though present global challenges are putting pressure and questioning their architecture. The increasing demand for electricity - that has become an essential commodity, fundamental for all activities of today's lifestyle - coupled with the concerns about climate change and the need to improve the quality and reliability of the provision urge a modernization of the network. A modernization that needs: to be low carbon, to be reliability and security improving, and to develop new models of customer relationship. Indeed, the thesis deals with important issues that are today in the limelight, such as: i) the importance of the electricity sector in the implementation of climate change mitigation strategies, ii) the innovation of the electricity network as a strategy for reducing emissions, iii) the design of new policies of management of renewable energies and of the new services available, iv) the need to actively involve the users of the network into new styles of consumption / production of energy. All of this is evaluated in a context of evolving energy policies, where the relative long-term importance of the different power generating technologies is changing, especially after the recent events in Japan. The thesis aims at demonstrating the need to promote a qualitative transformation in the system architecture of the "grid" to make it suitable for managing the complexity of the economic scenarios and advanced services that characterize the emerging "knowledge society", in compliance with the objectives of environmental sustainability and in response to concerns about global climate change. Indeed, because of these concerns and of social and political acceptability issues of nuclear power, as we know it today, the energy scenarios for the next few decades see the emergence of an increasingly important role for renewable energy sources. The general assumption of the thesis is that such a change in the sources of production is likely to cause a major qualitative leap in the power grid. This transformation may induce the evolution of the electricity grid from a classical architecture, top-down and hierarchical, to a more innovative architecture, that will configure the grid (more and more) as a "social ecosystem", able to include the empowerment of all its stakeholders and to enhance, in particular, the more active role of all users of the new network services. To demonstrate and operationalize the complex nature of this change and the emerging trends, the thesis is organized into three integrated papers that develop and disentangle the system effects of the two technologies that today seem to be at the basis of the possible evolution: Super-Grids and Smart-Grids. The analysis will be conducted using a qualitative-quantitative methodological approach through simulations for both technologies and their integration. The first paper - New electricity generation networks and climate change: the economic potential of national and trans-national super-grids powered by Concentrated Solar Power - develops the analysis of Super-Grids. More in detail, it analyses the system effects and the technological and economic opportunities of transmitting large amounts of electricity over long distances, for the stabilization of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, with particular attention to the resulting geopolitical dynamics. The analysis is conducted using the simulation platform WITCH, an Integrated Assessment Model (IAM), able to compare this option with other mitigation opportunities, in a framework of intertemporal optimization of resources. In particular, the focus is on the production of electricity from concentrated solar power (CSP) in areas of high solar intensity in places located far from demand centres and, until now, not economically advantageous. The quantitative analysis focuses on the electricity supply made available by the Super-Grid - both domestically and for export/import - evaluating their economic, technological and CO2 mitigation potentials. We have analyzed, in particular, the EU-MENA trade case, though, the results can be expanded qualitatively to consider also the North-South European energy axis, extending the analysis of the geopolitical implications. The second paper - Smart-Grids and Climate Change. Consumer adoption of smart energy behaviour: a system dynamics approach to evaluate the mitigation potential - develops the analysis of Smart-Grids. More in detail, it analyses the system effects of engaging with consumers. More specifically, it looks at the impacts of allowing consumers to: (i) manage more actively and consciously their consumption patterns; (ii) participate to innovative contracting; (iii) generate electricity for own consumption and /or to inject into the grid. Particular interest is directed to the increase in variety of user behaviour (shift, demand response, home automation, generation), caused by the implementation of Smart-Grids, which allows: (i) to form new relationships among actors of the network, (ii) to trigger new processes of "micro production" for energy self-sufficiency to be integrated into the network; and to (iii) improve the management and optimization of the power network. In short, to transform the network into a "sensitive network" capable of opening new organizational spaces/times of action. The analysis is conducted by means of simulations of the adoption dynamics of "smart energy behaviours" by citizens, using the methodology of System Dynamics (J. Forrester) to address the complexity of the dynamics involved. The quantitative analysis focuses on the power supply made available by the change in consumption patterns and by domestic generation, in a "energy self-sufficiency" perspective and on the impacts in terms of demand, system costs and opportunities for mitigation. The qualitative analysis studies the organizational transformations, and the social and cultural evolutions induced by the new interactivity with the end-user The concept of Smart Grid connects the power system to the emerging qualitative transformations and scenarios of the "Knowledge Society" and its newly empowered "Smart Prosumer". In the third paper - Super & Smart Grid integrated investment scenarios: Green Sustainable Energy Management Strategies & Scenarios - the complex effects of Super and Smart Grid are analysed together. The paper is divided in two parts: the first one where Super and Smart Grids are integrated in one simulation environment to conduct an in-depth economic analysis, and the second part where they are jointly evaluated and compared considering the effects of the innovation of the electricity grid on different levels: environmental, technological, economic, organizational, social and geopolitical, by means of the GEMS (Green Energy Management Strategies foe sustainable scenarios) multi-level evaluation function: GEMS = (Env, Tech, Ec, Org, Soc, GeoP). The proposal is to identify an approach for the analysis and management of the various strategies of green energy generation, that is able to grasp the complexities and interactions of the multiple effects induced by the different options. The quantitative analysis focuses on the integration of the power supply made available jointly by Super and Smart Grids. The qualitative analysis has investigated the new dynamics of empowerment among all the stakeholders involved and the possible impacts on various levels. The synergies of system integration, related to the potential mix of Super and Smart Grids, to manage the evolution of green electricity are also analysed. Concluding, the thesis started with a substantial economic and computational approach, and then was expanded to take into account qualitative aspects that govern the dynamics of the complex "social ecosystem" in play. In synthesis, we analyze the quali-quantitative system effects induced by the impact of the innovation processes in the power network, in an energy market that is not able, alone and in a classical economic perspective, to jointly optimize aspects concerning the environment, technology, organizational structures, economics, society and geopolitics, that are put into play by the introduction of these technological options. These tools are also needed to manage the inevitable conflicts of interest that will arise with the change. We propose an approach "beyond grid parity", in the sense that we aim at analyzing a broader concept of "costs", to: (i) identify the paths of evolution of the electrical system in the scenarios of the knowledge society, (ii) the nature and extent of the processes involved, and (iii) to assess the feasibility of accepting the challenge of a low-carbon economy based on renewable energy.

Before considering the new concepts in cataloguing which are likely to govern bibliographic control in the future, it is important to look back at the way in which the migration of the card catalogue to a networked environment has affected the organization of libraries. In many ways, the implementation of the National Library Service (SBN) has played a decisive role in "the slow and painstaking process of standardising the catalogues, with respect to cataloguing rules and record formats", which is among the main concerns of the Italian library authorities and therefore marked as one of the objectives of a national action plan as early as 1959. The production of the tapes containing the National Bibliography records in 1975 is the first episode of some importance in the history of library automation in Italy. Used for the photomechanical processing of the bibliography in its printed version, those tapes provided data in machine readable form which could be exchanged within the framework of the Universal Bibliographic Control programme strongly endorsed by IFLA. These records were given the ANNAMARC format structure, a local variant of the MARC format in use at the Library of Congress at the time. It was Maltese who recommended the adoption of MARC on the assumption that this would facilitate the integration of the Italian agency in the international bibliographic circuit. For several years only a few libraries, if any, could benefit from the availability of the national bibliography records. Copy cataloguing was in fact not a traditional procedure in Italian libraries the way it had been since the beginning of the 20th century in North-American libraries. The success of bibliographic utilities such as OCLC, RLG, WLN and UTLAS as well as the adoption of MARC and AACR2 as standards can easily be explained with the practice of importing the records produced at the Library of Congress into the various local catalogues. Most Italian developed cataloguing systems, instead, did not even include an import-export module, making it therefore impossible for Italian librarians to consider copy cataloguing as a promising, cost-effective option. Technology is not the only explanation for such a scarcity of cooperative efforts. Other factors include the non existence of library schools and the absence of an overall coordination policy at a national level. The first task to be undertaken by the National Library Service was therefore of an educational nature: the systematic training of librarians towards the use of standard cataloguing criteria. This required the adoption of a closed, centralised architecture, which replaced the distributed model initially envisaged by Vinay and Boisset. In joining the network each library or group of libraries added its existing records to the union catalogue through successive migrations of data. As a consequence of such a process, the quality of the records became rather uneven, forcing the national library as a routine to merge the duplicates and clean up the indexes. Most important, the project led to the creation of a database consisting of over 4.5 million records, contributed day by day by a thousand libraries of all shapes and sizes. The sense of cooperation, resulting in a general refinement of the acquisitions strategies as well as in the improvement of the exploitation of existing bibliographic resources, is particularly important in view of the development of the Italian digital library, as was emphasized during the 3rd National conference of libraries held at Padua last February. Descriptive cataloguing should become a minor concern for libraries as a consequence of the improved coverage offered by the various bibliographic utilities, in conjunction with the increasing number of digital documents. This has nothing to do with the idea that digital entities will catalogue themselves and that cataloguing standards are becoming unimportant since they do not apply to web sites and the rest. Such views, according to Gorman, are "not only wrong but also noxious because, though masquerading as progressive, they are impeding progress". Instead cataloguers should aim at developing linking devices to connect packages of recorded knowledge and information, using their titles, edition statements, issuers, dates and any other known data, and adding formalized names and titles to those descriptions and to those digital entities that allow library users to retrieve and collocate those documents, and relating them to a location either physical or virtual. However, it proves difficult for most librarians to abandon a system of bibliographic control that has been so successful and to adopt an entirely new set of concepts that will take full advantage of the new digital environment. The professional debate at an international level seemed so far more concerned with improvements needed within the established framework and hardly looked in any great depth at new concepts in cataloguing which are required if one wants to benefit from the intrinsic feature of a computer which resides in the ability to "establish, coordinate and connect syntaxes of signs", as suggested by Serrai. The need for a reassessment of the foundations on which cataloguing is based appeared with great evidence in the theoretical activities leading to the publication of the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records in 1998. On the one hand it was felt that many inconsistencies were caused by bibliographic representations heavily relying on ISBD, a standard which uses principles having little relevance in an electronic environment, having been defined with a concern for the printed versions of the national bibliography and the exchange of bibliographic record at an international level, rather than as a data model for the needs of the individual library catalogue. On the other hand, it is evident that because of the large size of many databases and the number of hits that most searches produce, users tend to be frustrated in attempting to use a catalogue and sometimes wonder if the complexity is really necessary, especially if compared to the apparent user-friendliness of the general web search engine. The difference, according to Ayres, is a conceptual one which is already to be found in information retrieval where two basic types of searching have become established. These are pre-coordinate and post-coordinate. Cataloguing has so far always been a pre-coordinate operation and is based on what cataloguers do at the input phase, both as regards the description and the access terms. In particular, authority control (or "entry point control" as Gorman termed it already in 1977) in its present form is expensive to set up, to maintain and to use. Nevertheless, it is the foundation stone of sound cataloguing and a key factor in information retrieval and digital resources management. Again Ayres suggests that authority control be used to provide the link rather than the preferred heading, bearing in mind that from the user's viewpoint the preferred heading is the heading that he/she searches by and that in searching he/she wants the heading that he/she has thought about to be linked to the headings that he/she has not thought about. This means that the present authority control files will become linking files and that the entire procedure will implicitly be a post-coordinate operation. A fully developed electronic catalogue should be able to function in two ways, according to the specific needs of the user, providing "intellectual" (that is, access to the contents of library resources) as well as "bibliographic" control (that is, access to the physical packages in which content appears). Eventually, catalogues should give access to cultural heritage information, not just of a bibliographic nature, which is now under distributed control, bridging the barriers to access that have been created by specific traditions of custody and documentation. The feasibility of such a vision largely depends on the capability of the system within which they are stored to interoperate with those around them, but above all it relies on the intellectual effort dedicated to build up some kind of semantic, political, human and legal interoperability, both nationally and internationally.

Inhaltsangabe:Einleitung: Der Titel des Diplomthemas enthält drei wesentliche Begriffe: Brandenburg, Sägeindustrie und die Zeiteinteilung von 1850 bis 1990. Folgende Fragen sind also zur Klärung dieser Begriffe zu beantworten: Was ist bzw. wie definiert man Sägeindustrie ? Warum gerade die Sägeindustrie in Brandenburg ? Warum gerade diese Zeit von 140 Jahren behandeln ? Die Sägeindustrie bzw. das Sägehandwerk gehört zur Branche der Holzbearbeitung, diese wiederum zum Grundstoff- und Produktionsgewerbe In der analytischen Literatur und der brandenburgisch-preußischen Geschichte wechselte aber produktionstechnisch und statistisch die Zuordnung zwischen Holzbe- und -verarbeitung. So hielt Hahn 1923 fest, dass man 'von einer Sägeindustrie als selbstständigen Industriezweig ... vor einigen Jahrzehnten noch nicht gesprochen [hat]. ... Es besteht aber heute kein Zweifel mehr, dass man darunter einen besonderen Zweig der Holzindustrie versteht. 'Weitere Wirtschaftsanalysten definierten für die Sägeindustrie wesentliche Faktoren, nämlich mit unterschiedlichen Betriebsformen Sägearbeit zu verrichten, um schwerpunktmäßig Schnittholz einschließlich der Nebenprodukte (Schwarten, Spreißel, Späne) herzustellen. Auch in den Statistiken von Preußen, dem Deutschen Reich und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik (DDR) wird die Sägeindustrie stets in Zusammenhang mit anderen, dem eigentlichen Schnittvorgang nachgelagerten Be- und -verarbeitungen genannt. Dazu zählen insbesondere die Furnierherstellung, das Hobeln, das Imprägnieren und seit 30 Jahren auch die Herstellung von Holzfaserplatten und Holzspanplatten. Heute wird von einer zweistufigen Produktion gesprochen. Diese Aufzählung zeigt, dass bei der Darstellung der Sägeindustrie nicht bei den 'reinen Sägewerken', also nur den 'sägenden' Betrieben, stehen geblieben werden darf. Es sinnvoll, die einzelnen Produktionsstufen bzw. -verfahren in der Analyse getrennt zu betrachten. Daher wird hier versucht, die Geschichte der Holzbearbeitung darzustellen, mit dem gegenwärtig besonderen Schwerpunkt der schnittholzerzeugenden Werke. Die weitreichend bekannten geschlossenen Wälder Brandenburgs bieten einen nahezu unermesslichen Holzvorrat an vielen verwertbaren Holzarten, z.B. Gemeine Kiefer, Rotfichte, Rotbuche, Stieleiche und andere Werthölzer. Was aber passiert mit dem Stammholz? Verarbeitung in der heimischen Industrie oder im Handwerk, Energiegewinnung oder Export? Die Geschichte zeigt: 'Der Holzreichtum der Provinz Brandenburg sowie die Nähe des großen Verbraucherplatzes Berlin haben eine bedeutende Holzindustrie entstehen lassen. In Brandenburg ist besonders die Sägerei und die grobe Holzverarbeitung ansässig'. Dies verdeutlicht im besonderen Maße, dass sich die brandenburgische Sägeindustrie – aus handwerklicher Sägearbeit – streng standortsgebunden an der Rohstoffbasis entwickelt hat. Auch der Zusammenhang zwischen Produktion und Wirtschaft wird hervorgehoben. Brandenburg war schon immer wichtigstes Rohstoffgebiet für die Expansion und Entwicklung Berlins, zum Bau von Wohnhäusern und Industriebauten, für Kultur- und Gebrauchswaren wurde Holz gebraucht. Auch für die Energieversorgung war Holz dringend notwendig. Diese Beziehung ist annähernd vergleichbar mit der massiven Kohleindustrie und dem Ruhrgebiet am Rhein. Aber gerade das Gebiet mit dem Namen Brandenburg, sowohl geographisch als auch politisch, macht die korrekte Analyse schwierig. Die Bezeichnungen wechselten von Kurmark über Mark, Provinz und Land Brandenburg, Bezirke Cottbus, Frankfurt/ Oder und Potsdam zum Bundesland Brandenburg. Dabei erstreckte sich das Gebiet ständig ändernd auf Teile des heutigen Mecklenburg, Vorpommern, Sachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt und Polen. Als Grundlage wird deshalb nur das Gebiet des heutigen Bundesland Brandenburg gewählt. Es wird bei den Grenzen der jeweiligen Zeitepoche, bei den einzelnen Kreisen und bei der allgemeinen Entwicklung der brandenburgischen Sägeindustrie verblieben. Es könnte mit der genaueren Betrachtung des Zeitfaktors im Mittelalter begonnen werden, denn im späten Mittelalter erfolgte eine sprunghafte Entwicklung des Handels und des Handwerks, beim Städtebau, Schiffsbau und Bergbau. Eine mechanische Schnittholzerzeugung war daher ein gesellschaftlich notwendiger Prozess. Doch auf der Suche nach einer Definition von Industrie traten verschiedene Merkmale auf. Der Begriff 'industrielle Revolution' wurde mit der Einführung der Dampfmaschine geprägt. 'Unter industrieller Revolution versteht man ... jene Periode, in der sich 1. neue Techniken, speziell die Arbeits- und Energieerzeugungsmaschinen durchsetzten, 2. die natürlichen Rohstoffe Eisen und Kohle erstmalig massenhaft genutzt wurden und somit die organischen Stoffe und Muskelkraft nicht mehr die Produktionsmöglichkeiten begrenzten, 3. das Fabriksystem als Organisationsform arbeitsteiliger gewerblicher Produktion seine Überlegenheit in entscheidenden Wirtschaftszweigen erwies und 4. freie Lohnarbeit die herrschende Erwerbsform der Massen wurde. Dies soll in England in den Jahren 1783-1802, in Deutschland von 1850-1857 eingetreten sein'. Ergebnis der Entwicklung der revolutionären Dampfkraft: 'Von nun an waren die Sägewerke nicht mehr an das Wasser gebunden oder vom Wind abhängig. Ihr Standort kann seither nach solchen wesentlichen Gesichtspunkten wie Verkehrslage, Holzaufkommen oder Holzweiterverarbeitung gewählt werden.' Gleichwohl blieb in Sägewerken die Wasserkraft noch lange Zeit die wichtigste Antriebskraft und die Sägeindustrie ist deshalb als 'Prototyp eines statischen Wirtschaftszweiges bezeichnet worden.' Daher ist es sinnvoll mit der genauen Betrachtung ab dem Jahre 1850 zu beginnen, da sich in dieser Epoche 'Deutschland aus einem Agrarland zu Beginn des Jahrhunderts über ein agrarisch-industrielles Land um 1850 zu einem industriell-agrarischen Staat .. entwickelte.' In den folgenden 140 Jahren fand eine der schnelllebigsten Entwicklungen in der Geschichte der Schnittholzproduktion statt. Hahn stellte 1923 fest, dass 'seit der Einführung der Sägemaschinen .. sich eine vollkommende Abkehr von der Herstellungsart mit der Handsäge vollzogen [hat]'. Die obere Grenze von 1990 beruht darauf, dass Rüberg mit einer Untersuchung der brandenburgischen Sägeindustrie den Zeitraum der letzten 13 Jahre abdeckt. Er untersuchte mittels Fragenbogen alle Betriebe, die er in dieser Branche einordnen und finden konnte und fragte unter anderem nach der Art des Werkes, dem Jahreseinschnitt, der Produktion und dem Absatzgebiet des Betriebes. Er arbeitete 'drei Zentren der Sägeindustrie in Brandenburg' heraus. Wie diese entstanden sind, gilt in dieser Arbeit zu klären. Ziel der Arbeit soll es vorrangig sein, einige Momente der Geschichte der Sägeindustrie speziell in Brandenburg darzustellen. Dabei können nicht alle vielfältigen Beziehungen zum Wirtschafts- und Dienstleistungssystem der Region einbezogen werden, doch muss zunächst der Begriff Sägewerk charakterisiert werden. Schwerpunkte sind daher die Darstellung der Menge der schnittholzerzeugenden Betriebe, ihre Leistungen, Techniken und Bedeutung als Arbeitgeber anhand von Beschäftigtenzahlen, u.a. wichtige soziale Aspekte. Auch sollen die Reaktionen auf politische Entscheidungen, wirtschaftspolitische Veränderungen und technische Neuentwicklungen einbezogen werden. Beispiele von einigen brandenburgischen Sägewerken sollen dies unterstützen. Dabei sind mündliche Aussagen von Zeitzeugen für die Nachwelt bedeutungsvoll. Ergebnis dieser Arbeit ist es, ein Fazit zur Entwicklung der brandenburgischen Sägeindustrie zu ziehen und in Form einer Gegenüberstellung der Vor- und Nachteile von Klein- und Großsägewerk festzuhalten. Es ist hier außerdem zu klären, welche Möglichkeiten es gibt, die Branche in Brandenburg als traditionellen Wirtschaftszweig mit dem Wissen und Konsequenzen aus der Vergangenheit zu erhalten. Als Anregung sollen insbesondere für Klein-, aber auch für Großsägewerke, einige Maßnahmen erläutert werden.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: 1.Einleitung und Ziel der Arbeit4 2.Durchführung der Recherchearbeit7 2.1Allgemeine Recherche7 2.2Statistiken der Berufs-, Betriebs- und Gewerbezählungen in Preußen, im Kaiserreich und im Deutschen Reich7 2.3Statistiken in der Sowjetischen Besatzungszone (SBZ) und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik (DDR)8 2.4Sonstige Quellen8 3.Charakterisierung eines Sägewerkes9 3.1Standort des Sägewerkes9 3.2Die Sägemaschinen eines Sägewerkes11 3.3Die Antriebskräfte eines Sägewerkes 13 3.4Aufbau und Ablauf eines Sägewerk13 4.Die Geschichte der Sägeindustrie in Brandenburg15 4.1Das Sägehandwerk in der Holzindustrie vor 185016 4.21850 - 1918 Das Sägegewerbe im Kaiserreich18 4.31918 - 1945 Die Sägeindustrie in der Weimarer Republik und im Nationalsozialismus32 4.41945 - 1990 Die Holz- und Kulturwarenindustrie in der DDR41 5.Diskussion50 5.1Kleinsägewerk kontra Großsägewerk50 5.2Ausblicke und Möglichkeiten für die brandenburgische Sägeindustrie54 6.Zusammenfassung58 Verzeichnisse60 Anhang66Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 5.1, Kleinsägewerk kontra Großsägewerk: Einige Faktoren eines Sägewerkes wurden in der Charakterisierung im Kapitel 3 erläutert. Sie kann man außerdem in die drei Bereiche Rohstoff-Erzeugnis, Arbeit und Finanzen einteilen. Anhand dieser drei Bereiche wird eine Gegenüberstellung von Kleinsägewerk und Großsägewerk übersichtlicher. In allen Bereichen ergeben sich Vor- und Nachteile, die zeigen, dass beide Betriebsgrößen ihre Berechtigung haben. Zunächst sollen die Vorteile bzw. die Nachteile eines Kleinsägewerkes erläutert werden. Das Kleinsägewerk hat durch seine traditionell historische Lage überwiegend im oder an der Peripherie Rohstoffgebiet Wald den Vorteil, ohne größeren Transportaufwand und -kosten sein Sägeholz zu beschaffen. Mit einem ausreichend großen Rohstoff- und Bezugsgebiet wird i.d.R. die angestrebte Kapazität des Kleinsägewerkes ausgenutzt. Sie beträgt in Brandenburg zwischen 3.000 und 35.000 fm Jahreseinschnitt. Der Sägeholzbedarf wird durch die örtliche Forstwirtschaft größtenteils gedeckt und fördert somit den Absatz in dieser Branche. Aus den Daten von Rüberg geht hervor, dass die brandenburgischen Kleinsägewerke bis zu 90 % brandenburgische Kiefer, Lärche und Fichte bearbeiten. Die Sägeindustrie entstand zumeist aus der Kombination mit einer Weiterverarbeitung. Es wurde also nur Holz eingeschnitten, welches gerade gebraucht wurde und nur Sortimente hergestellt, welche anschließend weiterverarbeitet werden konnten. Heute besteht eine ähnliche Form – die Spezialisierung. Dadurch muss der Sägeholzeinkauf sorgfältiger ausgeführt werden. Er wird den Möglichkeiten des Sägewerkes, entsprechend der technischen Ausstattung, angepasst. Dies ergibt für ein Kleinsägewerk den Vorteil, dass eine hohe Qualität und eine hohe Ausnutzung des Sägeholzes – insbesondere bei den brandenburgischen Werthölzern – erzielt wird. Die kundenorientierte Produktion von einem speziellen Teil der Sortimentspalette deckt den örtlichen Holzmarkt größtenteils ab, überfrachtet ihn aber gleichzeitig nicht. Durch die Spezialisierung und die Angebote der Standardsortimente eines Sägewerkes muss ein Kleinsägewerk nur in solche Sägemaschinen und Förderanlagen investieren, die unbedingt für die Spezialisierung notwendig sind. Auch die folgenden Wartungskosten der Maschinen bleiben im finanziellen und wettbewerbsfähigen Rahmen eines Kleinsägewerkes. Oberstes Prinzip ist die Konkurrenzfähigkeit am Markt zu sichern, zumal die Standardsortimente nur sehr teuer produziert werden können und nur die Spezialisierung konkurrenzfähig ist. In der Regel haben sich die Kleinsägewerke in mehreren Landkreisen niedergelassen, weil Brandenburg nahezu in allen Landesteilen ausreichend Waldflächen besitzt und eine genügende Nachfrage durch die angrenzende Weiterverarbeitung und Bevölkerung vorhanden ist. Die Kleinsägewerke bieten den Vorteil, für die meisten ländlichen Gebiete ohne Konzentration Beschäftigungsmöglichkeiten. Dazu zählen nicht nur die Arbeitsaufgaben im Sägewerk selbst, sondern auch bei den weiterverarbeitenden Betrieben, die meist auf die charakteristischen Schnittholzsortimente zurückgreifen. Der schwerwiegendste Nachteil ist die relativ hohe Abhängigkeit vom regionalen Markt und somit das Risiko, leicht wettbewerbsunfähig zu werden. Die i.d.R. schwache Kapitallage lässt kein oder nur ein geringes Reaktions- und Ausweichvermögen auf wirtschaftliche Veränderungen zu. Folglich sind Kleinsägewerke auf einen gleichmäßigen Produktionszyklus mit stabiler Auftragslage angewiesen. Geschehen kurzfristig unvorhersehbare Entwicklungen, z.B. Naturkatastrophen mit Marktüberfrachtung bzw. ohne Zugriff auf dieses Sägeholz oder ein plötzlicher Preisanstieg des Sägeholzes o.ä., kommen sie in finanzielle Schwierigkeiten. Denn ein Kleinsägewerk muss mit dem gerade erwirtschafteten Gewinn so schnell und so günstig wie möglich neues Sägeholz erwerben, um die Produktion der Sägeholzerzeugnisse weiterzuführen. Fazit: Das Kleinsägewerk ist meist spezialisiert und produziert mit relativ geringem Investitionsaufwand und geringeren Transportkosten hochqualitäts- und kundengerechte Sortimente. Es strukturiert den ländlichen Raum im Arbeits- und Sortimentsangebot. Es unterlieget aber einer hohen regionalen Marktabhängigkeit, einer geringeren Kapitallage und verlangt eine stabile Auftragslage. Ein Großsägewerk strebt eine Kapazität ab einem Jahreseinschnitt von 100.000 fm an, dem das naheliegende Rohstoffgebiet nicht umfassend gerecht wird. Daher müssen die meisten Großsägewerke ihr Sägeholz oft über weite Transportwege beziehen, um ihre Kapazität auszunutzen und ihre Wirtschaftlichkeit zu gewährleisten. Vorteil dabei ist, dass ein Großsägewerk auf möglicherweise billigeres Weltmarktholz (z.B. skandinavisches, russisches oder aus den baltischen Ländern) zurückgreifen und mit den anfallenden höheren Transportkosten kalkulatorisch günstig gegenrechnen kann. Außerdem kann die Holzartenbreite im günstigsten Fall stark erweitert werden, z.B. mit französischer Esche, finnischer Birke oder ukrainischen Ahorn, so dass ein spezieller Markt – auch im Ausland – bedient werden kann. Ein weiterer Vorteil besteht darin, dass auch etwaige Engpässe aus einigen Holzimportgebieten umgangen werden können. Ein Großsägewerk setzt i.d.R. auf Massen- und Standardware und produziert somit auf Vorrat. Dabei ist es vorteilhaft, auf Nachfrage kurzfristig reagieren zu können. Das Sägewerk kann dadurch größere Schnittholzmengen erzeugen, hat also insgesamt u.a. auch aufgrund der intelligenteren Technik ein größeres Reaktionsvermögen als ein Kleinsägewerk. Um das bevorratete Schnittholz abzusetzen, orientiert sich das Großsägewerk vornehmlich nicht auf den regionalen Markt, sondern weitet sein Absatzgebiet über die Landesgrenzen aus. Der gesamtdeutsche, europäische und überseeische Markt ist daher in vielen Fällen interessanter, als der brandenburgische Markt, wodurch sich wiederum Marktchancen für Kleinsägewerke auf dem Inlandsmarkt eröffnen. Großsägewerke haben oft eine höhere Gewinnspanne. sie können auftragsschwache Zeiten abpuffern und besitzen größere Spielräume, um am Markt besser und stärker aufzutreten. Die Stärke der Sägewerke zeigt sich mit den besseren Bedingungen in den Bereichen Werbung, Angebot und Menge. Mit dem höheren Kapital wird eine höhere Investitionskraft möglich, wie der Einsatz einer vollständigen Automation im Sägewerksbetrieb oder von computergestützten Sägemaschinen, u.a. intelligenten Technologien. Die Produktionsweise eines Großsägewerkes verursacht aber Nachteile. Da die Produktion i.d.R. automatisiert und zeitorientiert vonstatten geht, muss das Sägeholz günstigerweise einheitlich gestaltet sein, welches es in der Natur so gut wie nicht gibt. Der erhöhte Zeitdruck, durch die Wirtschaftlichkeit der Sägemaschinen bedingt, und die bestimmten Kalibrierungsgrenzen der computergestützten Produktion verursachen u.a. einen erhöhten Verschnitt (Rundholzausnutzung 50 bis 55 %, gegenüber in einem Kleinsägewerk mit über 70 %). Qualität, hohe Stammholzausnutzung und Kundenorientierung leiden darunter. Es besteht außerdem ein reales Risiko auf dem bevorrateten Schnittholz sitzen zu bleiben, da die Massen- und Standardsortimente nicht speziell dem Markt angepasst werden können. Dieser kann temporär keine Absatzmöglichkeit bieten. Für den notwendigen Maschinenpark sind meist höhere Investitionskosten aufzubringen, als bei einem Kleinsägewerk. Der schwerwiegendste Nachteil eines Großsägewerkes ist, dass es den ländlichen Raum durch seine Konzentration an Kapazität und damit an den gebundenen Arbeitsplätzen gewissermaßen schädigt. Bei einer Konzentration der Sägeindustrie in einer Region oder in einem Ort in Form eines größeren Werkes, kann zwar eine größere Marktstärke aufgebaut werden, jedoch wird dadurch die Möglichkeit den ländlichen Raum industriell weiter zu entwickeln bzw. zu fördern, vergeben.

Structures, actors and processes make up the unifying thread of the diversity of themes specific work on the articles that make up this issue of the magazine. Several texts point to federalism as a structuring dimension of the Argentine state in its three jurisdictional levels and the tensions that arise between the level national jurisdictional and sub-national levels. Niembro, Aristimuño and Del Bello subject to scrutiny the effective scope of the federalization objective in income to the career of scientific and technological researcher at CONICET; prove the uneven achievement of the same and the risks of a return to academicism that marked moments precedents of the organism. Fernando Rubino compares two experiences of associativism intermunicipal in the Metropolitan Area of Buenos Aires and its effectiveness as management tool. Piana and Patiño Jaramillo focus on the organizational structures of the Public Administration of the province of Buenos Aires during the government of María Eugenia Vidal (2015-19), highlight the contrast between the official privatization discourse, anti-political, downsizing of the state and cutting expenses, the reality of growth of the resources and responsibilities of the agencies taken into account and the increase in political positions without specific functional involvement. The effective validity of the policy glacier protection in the provinces of Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego allows Ana Paula Lucero to identify and explain the tensions that arise between a federal political norm of universal application and the provincial interests derived from their specific endowment of resources and their own development strategies. The coupling between federal political institutions and processes and provincial regimes is explicit in the analysis of the electoral coalition building strategy of the UCR in the province of Santa Fe ahead of the 2019 elections, carried out by Ariadna Gallo and Carolina Pérez Roux. Since the 1980s, organizations of unemployed workers and residents of precarious communities have witnessed rapid growth in magnitude organizational, assertive effectiveness and formulation of public policy proposals; they relativized the formal quasi monopoly of the articulation of interests by political parties and the trade union movement, contributed to reformulate the conventional articulation between state and civil society. Julia Nesprias explores the evolution of the villero movement in the City of Buenos Aires in its articulation with the predominant institutional policies. The article by Maneiro and Núñez describes the process of struggle of the organizations of workers of the popular economy around the Social Emergency law of 2016, their strategies for building alliances with a wide range of society and the system political, in an institutional political environment of ruling neoliberalism. Finally Feldman and Girolimo analyze the promotion policies of Industry 4.0 in a context of accelerated technological change, taking as a reference the experiences recent developments in Mexico, Argentina and Brazil in digitization and automation of Productive processes; draw attention to the need for peripheral economies and the need to face these challenges so as not to deepen the existing gaps with respect to to the core countries. An analysis of political and administrative capacities is published in the Documents section of the state, from the perspective of the State and Public Administration Commission of the Homeland. This document is included as a contribution to the political-academic debate around the role of the public sector in promoting development with social equity. With this number the RPPP reaches its first decade of existence. In these ten years 150 articles and 42 reviews were accepted and published, of the more than 600 originals received. 69 articles published are by female authorship (46%), 68 by authorship masculine (45%) and 13 of authorship gender sharing; one sixth comes from authors affiliated with academic institutions abroad. The variety of your content, according to the breadth of its call and the wide field of analysis of the State and public policies, combines academic quality according to standards with the commitment to the substantive values that inspire and guide the National University of Lanús. ; Estructuras, actores y procesos conforman el hilo unificador de la diversidad de temas específicos trabajados por los artículos que integran el presente número de la revista. Varios textos apuntan al federalismo como dimensión estructurante del estado argentino en sus tres niveles jurisdiccionales y a las tensiones que se suscitan entre el nivel jurisdiccional nacional y los niveles subnacionales. Niembro, Aristimuño y Del Bello someten a escrutinio el efectivo alcance del objetivo de federalización en los ingresos a la carrera de investigador científico y tecnológico del CONICET; demuestran el desigual logro del mismo y los riesgos de un retorno al academicismo que signó momentos precedentes del organismo. Fernando Rubino compara dos experiencias de asociativismo intermunicipal en el Área Metropolitana de Buenos Aires y su eficacia como herramienta de gestión. Piana y Patiño Jaramillo enfocan las estructuras organizativas de la Administración Pública de la provincia de Buenos Aires durante la gobernación de María Eugenia Vidal (2015-19), destacan el contraste entre el discurso oficial privatizador, antipolítico, de achicamiento del estado y recorte de gastos, la realidad de crecimiento de los recursos e incumbencias de los organismos tomados en cuenta y el incremento de los cargos políticos sin afectación funcional específica. La efectiva vigencia de la política nacional de protección de glaciares en las provincias de Santa Cruz y Tierra del Fuego permite a Ana Paula Lucero identificar y explicar las tensiones que se suscitan entre una norma política federal de aplicación universal y los intereses provinciales derivados de su dotación específica de recursos y sus propias estrategias de desarrollo. El complejo acople entre instituciones y procesos políticos federales y regímenes provinciales se explicita en el análisis de la estrategia de construcción de coaliciones electorales de la UCR en la provincia de Santa Fe de cara a los comicios de 2019, llevado a cabo por Ariadna Gallo y Carolina Pérez Roux. Desde la década de 1980, las organizaciones de trabajadores desocupados y habitantes de comunidades precarizadas han dado testimonio de un acelerado crecimiento en magnitud organizativa, eficacia reivindicativa y formulación de propuestas de política pública; relativizaron el cuasi monopolio formal de articulación de intereses por los partidos políticos y el movimiento sindical, contribuyeron a reformular la convencional articulación entre estado y sociedad civil. Julia Nesprias explora la evolución del movimiento villero en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires en su articulación con las políticas institucionales predominantes. El artículo de Maneiro y Núñez describe el proceso de lucha de las organizaciones de trabajadores de la economía popular en torno a la ley de Emergencia Social de 2016, sus estrategias de construcción de alianzas con un amplio arco de la sociedad y del sistema político, en un ambiente político institucional de neoliberalismo gobernante. Finalmente Feldman y Girolimo analizan las políticas de promoción de la industria 4.0 en un contexto de cambio tecnológico acelerado, tomando como referencia las experiencias recientes de México, Argentina y Brasil en digitalización y automatización de procesos productivos; llaman la atención sobre la necesidad de las economías periféricas y la necesidad de afrontar estos desafíos para no profundizar las brechas existentes respecto a los países centrales. En la sección Documentos se publica un análisis de las capacidades políticas y administrativas del estado, desde la perspectiva de la Comisión Estado y Administración Pública del Instituto Patria. Se incluye este documento como un aporte al debate político-académico en torno al rol del sector público en la promoción del desarrollo con equidad social. Con este número la RPPP alcanza su primera década de existencia. En estos diez años fueron aceptados y publicados 150 artículos y 42 reseñas, de los más de 600 originales recibidos. 69 artículos publicados son de autoría femenina (46%), 68 de autoría masculina (45%) y 13 de compartición autoral de género; una sexta parte proviene de autoras y autores afiliados a instituciones académicas del exterior. La variedad de su contenido, acorde a la amplitud de su convocatoria y al amplio campo de análisis del Estado y las políticas públicas, conjuga la calidad académica de acuerdo a los estándares convencionales con el compromiso a los valores sustantivos que inspiran y orientan a la Universidad Nacional de Lanús. Carlos Vilas.

Aim: India has emerged as one of the most favoured destinations in the global Information Technology (IT) outsourcing market. On the other hand, the IT industry has been playing an instrumental role in transforming India's image from a low income-backward nation to a knowledge-based economy. Furthermore, the role of IT industry has been pivotal in putting India on a higher growth path. In addition, India's IT industry has been showing robust performance in revenue earning, particularly in export revenue. However, the performance of this industry is likely affected by some recent global phenomena, such as 2008's subprime crisis originated in the US, uncertainties in changes in H1-B visa rules, Britain's exit from the EU, automation etc. There are other factors, like exchange rate volatility, emerging competition from other low-cost outsourcing destination countries, are also posing threat to India's IT-outsourcing business. Against this backdrop, it is crucial to analyse the sustainability of performance of Indian IT industry. Thus, the present study aims at assessing the performance of Indian IT industry and evaluating the determinants of performance thereafter.Design / Research methods: To realize the objectives of the study, firm level data has been collected from the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) Prowess database. For empirical analysis, we have applied a two-stage method. In the first-stage, we have used Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) based Malmquist Productivity Index (MPI) to evaluate the Total Factor Productivity Growth (TFPG) of Indian IT industry during the period from 2004-05 to 2014-15. For this purpose, a balanced panel consists of 70 IT firms has been considered. Further, the TFPG has been decomposed into three components, viz. Catch-up, frontier-shift, and scale efficiency change (SEC). Consequently, in the second-stage, three random-effects panel regression models are considered to investigate the determinants of TFPG, catch-up, and frontier-shift separately. Conclusions / findings: During the study period, the average TFP and frontier-shift has been improved. On the other hand, catch up effect is found to have declined. The variables, such as export intensity, salaries and wages intensity have positive and statistically significant impact on the catch-up and frontier-shift. Export intensity has positive impact on TFPG. Age of the firms has positive impact on catch-up and TFPG. Salaries and wages intensity has positive impact on TFPG. On an average, the firms which spent on research and Development (R&D) have experienced improvement in TFPG and frontier-shift. The public limited firms performed better than their private counterparts in terms of catch-up, frontier-shift, and TFPG. The non-group firms have performed better than the group firms in case of catch-up. On the other hand, on an average, the firms exhibiting decreasing Returns to Scale (DRS) are found to have registered deterioration in catch-up and TFPG with respect to the benchmark firms which are exhibiting Constant Returns to Scale (CRS). The firms exhibiting Increasing Returns to Scale (IRS) have shown improvement in catch-up and TFPG over the benchmark CRS firms. The impact of the US subprime crisis has been negative on catch-up, frontier-shift, and TFPG. The firms, which have spent on royalty, have experienced improvement in catch-up and TFPG. Originality / value of the article: So far in our knowledge, not so many studies of this kind have been done in the arena of empirical research pertains to the IT industry, especially in a developing country like India. Moreover, we have not found any study that covers the span of the dataset considered in the present study. In addition to this, the present study has employed a random-effects panel model to accommodate a number of time-invariant dummy variables which would not be possible in case of a fixed-effects panel model incorporated by some previous studies of this genre.Implications of the research: The identification of the determinants of TFPG and its components would help the stakeholders and policy makers of the IT industry to formulate appropriate policies which could mitigate the risks faced by the industry on one hand, and stimulate the forces that would enhance the growth of this industry on the other. For instance, to mitigate future risks, Indian IT industry should reduce its dependence on the US and UK markets. Besides, it should explore new markets in the EU, and other emerging economies where opportunities are plenty. To maintain India's robust global position in the long run, Government of India should play the key role in providing world class infrastructure and telecommunication facilities to its IT industry. In addition to this, Government needs to rationalise and simplify the existing Indian labour law to facilitate the business of IT industry. Various stakeholders along with the Government should put necessary efforts to develop the domestic IT market as there exists ample of opportunities in future. ; Cel: Niniejsze badanie ma na celu ocenę wzrostu całkowitej produktywności czynników produkcji (ang. Total Factor Productivity Growth (TFPG)) i jego determinant w indyjskim przemysle technologii informacyjnych (ang. Information Technology (IT)). Metodyka badań: Aby zrealizować cel badań, zgromadzono dane na poziomie firm z bazy danych PROWESS z Centrum Monitoringu Indyjskiej Gospodarki (ang. Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE)). W analizie empirycznej wykorzystano metodę dwuetapową. W pierwszym etapie zastosowano Indeks Produktywności Malmquista (ang. Malmquist Productivity Index (MPI)) oparty na Metodzie Obwiedni Danych (ang.: Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)), aby ocenić TFPG w indyjskim przemyśle IT w okresie od 2004-05 do 2014-15. W tym celu uwzględniono zrównoważony panel 70 firm z branży IT. Następnie dokonano rozkładu TFPG na trzy komponenty, mianowicie catch-up , frontier-shift oraz zmiana efektywności skali (ang. scale efficiency change (SEC)). W drugim etapie rozważono trzy modele regresji dotyczące efektów losowych paneli, aby zbadać oddzielnie determinanty TFPG, catch-up i frontier-shift. Wnioski: W okresie badawczym, poprawił się średnio TFPG i frontier-shift. Z drugiej strony zmalał efekt catch-up. Zmienne, takie jak intensywność eksportu czy intensywność wynagrodzeń miały pozytywny i statystycznie znaczący wpływ na catch-up i frontier-shift. Intensywność eksportu oraz wynagrodzenia pozytywnie oddziaływały na TFPG. Wiek przedsiębiorstw pozytywnie wpływał na catch-up i TFPG. Średnio, firmy, które dokonały wydatków na badania i rozwój (ang. Research and Development (R&D)), doświadczyły poprawy TFPG i frontier-shift. Publiczne przedsiębiorstwa z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością radziły sobie lepiej niż ich prywatni odpowiednicy pod względem catch-up, frontier-shift i TFPG. Niezgrupowane firmy miały lepsze osiągnięcia z punktu widzenia catch-up aniżeli firmy zgrupowane. Z drugiej strony, przeciętnie, firmy osiągające malejące efekty skali (ang. decreasing Returns to Scale (DRS)) odnotowały pogorszenie w catch-up i TFPG w porównaniu do wyznacznika, jakim są firmy o stałych efektach skali (ang. Constant Returns to Scale (CRS)). Przedsiębiorstwa osiągające rosnące efekty skali (ang.: Increasing Returns to Scale (IRS)) uzyskały poprawę w zakresie catch-up i TFPG w większym stopniu niż będące wyznacznikiem firmy CRS. Kryzys na amerykańskim rynku kredytów hipotecznych negatywnie odbił się na catch-up, frontier-shift i TFPG. Przedsiębiorstwa, które poniosły wydatki na należności, doświadczyły poprawy catch-up i TFPG. Wartość artykułu: Autorzy dotychczas nie spotkali tak licznych badań empirycznych tego typu odnoszących się do przemysłu IT, zwłaszcza w krajach rozwijających się, jak Indie. Co więcej, autorzy nie doszukali się żadnych badań obejmujących tak dużą rozpiętość danych, jaką uwzględniono w niniejszym artykule. W dodatku w niniejszym badaniu zastosowano model efektów losowych, aby dostosować pewne niezmienne w czasie zmienne, co nie byłoby możliwe w przypadku modelu stałych efektów, który wykorzystywano w niektórych wcześniejszych badaniach tego rodzaju. Implikacje: Identyfikacja determinant TFPG i jego komponentów mogłaby pomóc interesariuszom i decydentom w sformułowaniu odpowiedniej polityki, co pozwoliłoby z jednej strony zmniejszyć ryzyko, którego doświadcza indyjski przemysł IT, a z drugiej pobudzić siły, które mogłyby przyczynić się do rozwoju tego przemysłu. Na przykład, aby ograniczyć przyszłe ryzyko, indyjski przemysł IT powinien zmniejszyć swoją zależność od rynku Stanów Zjednoczonych i Wielkiej Brytanii. Innymi słowy, powinien poszukiwać nowych rynków zarówno krajowych, jak też zagranicznych, np. w Unii Europejskiej, Australii i w gospodarkach wschodzących, gdzie rynki IT wydają się być obiecujące. Aby utrzymać indyjską solidną pozycję globalną w długim okresie, rząd indyjski powinien odgrywać kluczową rolę w zapewnianiu światowej klasy infrastruktury i urządzeń telekomunikacyjnych w przemyśle IT. Co więcej, rząd indyjski musi zracjonalizować i uprościć istniejące indyjskie prawo pracy, aby ułatwić aktywność ekonomiczną w przemyśle IT. Przeróżni interesariusze wraz z rządem powinni włożyć niezbędny wysiłek w rozwój krajowego rynku IT, które jest pełen możliwości.

Ten technology forecast reports from the Fraunhofer Institute have been reviewed by staff at the Department of Military-Technology at the Swedish National Defence College (Note that there probably are other technology areas, equally interesting, but not included in this study). The task given by FMV was to assess the military utility of the chosen technologies in a time frame from 2025 to 2030, from a SwAF viewpoint. The method used was first to make a summary of each forecast report. The technology was then put into one or more scenarios that are assessed to be the best in order to show possible utility as well as possibilities and drawbacks of the technology. Based on a SWOT-analysis, the contribution to SwAF capabilities and the cost in terms of acquisition, C2 footprint, logistic footprint, doctrine/TTP, training, facilities and R&D were assessed. Conclusions regarding the military utility of the technology were drawn. We introduce our definition of military utility as being activities that efficiently and with the lowest cost in terms of lives and materiel lead to fulfilment of the mission objectives. The technologies were grouped in three classes; technologies with a significant potential, with uncertain potential and with negligible potential. The following technologies were assessed to have a significant potential for military utility; Augmented Reality Nano air vehicles Solid State Laser weapons In the scenarios studied, Augmented Reality (AR) is assessed to have a positive impact on several SwAF capabilities, especially for C2 and intelligence. AR is a relatively mature technology, applicable in many different branches. There are examples where AR is already applied with great success, e.g. Head-Up-Displays, HUD. The technology has proven its value. However, there are well known drawbacks to the technology such as weaknesses regarding models, increased weight for dismounted soldiers, power consumption etc. There is also a risk that personnel will have problems solving their tasks when AR systems fail, not being used to fighting without supporting systems. Nano air vehicles (NAV's) have been assessed to contribute to a large range of capabilities, primarily intelligence. Their lifecycle cost has been assessed to be low, since development in this area is commercially driven, bringing down acquisition costs. Also, FAA has decided to allow NAV's in controlled air space from 2015, which is expected to lead to an increase in civilian use of NAV's. The technology is relatively mature even though there are obstacles concerning suitable materials, energy efficient propulsion systems as well as miniaturized microprocessors and software to control them. In the scenario studied, High Energy Solid State Lasers are assessed to have a positive impact on SwAF capabilities to engage targets on surface and in the air. The technology can be used to protect vessels on the surface and thereby increase survivability. The development of SSL in the given timeframe is expected to lower cost per shot and avoid the environmental problems with use of chemical lasers. Neighbouring military powers are expected to use laser weapons in the future, therefore SwAF should monitor the development of the laser weapons technology and develop and purchase adequate countermeasures. The following technologies were assessed to have uncertain potential for military utility; Metamaterial cloaking Electromagnetic gun Small satellites Ultra-violet communication Metamaterial cloaking, if realisable in the future, is assessed to be firstly implemented in the acoustic spectrum, since manufacturing of small structured cloaks for the shorter wavelengths in the optic and radar spectra is believed to be more difficult. Cloaking of submarines is primarily assessed to increase the survivability against torpedoes having active sonar. The use of cloaked mines could pose a deterring threat, even to advanced amphibious operations against Sweden. The technological development in this area should be closely monitored and compared to existing, maturing techniques for countermeasures and for the development of broad spectrum active torpedoes. The greatest concern is that cloaking will have negative impact on submarine manoeuvrability. The electro-thermal chemical (ETC) gun seems to be a first step towards a fully electrical gun such as the rail-gun or the coil-gun. The fully electrical guns have been a work in progress for some decades and there are still remaining challenges both concerning electrical power supply and design materials. When or if, they will be operational is difficult to say. The military utility of small satellites is disputed, despite an assessed contribution to several of the SwAF capabilities. The main reason for this is that there seems to be other alternatives which provide the desired capabilities, at a lower cost. Furthermore, the realisability and performance of small productionline manufactured nanosatellites is uncertain. However the scenario has shown that there are benefits to the military utility not met by other resources, e.g. the capability to perform surveillance and reconnaissance in operational areas globally without risking violation of the territorial integrity of other states or the lives of military personnel. Since there is a great interest in the technology area and several programmes are ongoing internationally the knowledgebase is assessed to be significantly better in a five year period. Also, the Swedish in depth study of space exploitation is soon to report. Ultra-violet communication has uncertain potential for military utility within the period, but the technology is assessed to have a positive impact on SwAF capability to maintain communications. The theoretical understanding of the area is low It is therefore uncertain if systems can be realized in the time frame. However, if commercial applications are developed, the prospect of military applications might change. In that case UV-communication could be a complement to RF- communication but is not foreseen to replace it. The following technologies were assessed to have negligible potential for military utility; Biomimetic unmanned underwater vehicles (UUV) Automated behaviour Analysis Evolutionary Robotics Biomimetic UUV's could be used for covert surveillance and inconspicuous naval reconnaissance missions at sea or in amphibious missions. Even though the report focuses on fishlike propulsion, the military utility of UUV's is assessed to be mostly dependent on the development of advanced automation and learning systems. As of now, we assess other existing technologies as being preferable due to lower cost and less complexity. The performance of UUV's needed for SwAF capabilities are assessed to be far off into the future. Simpler UUV systems could however be used by potential adversaries for monitoring our own base areas and hence the development should be monitored from a protection point of view. Automated behaviour analysis may be of some relevance for increased security screening and surveillance. The primary military utility of the technology will however probably be for international activities and to a lesser extent for increased base security in Sweden. Generally the main applications for this kind of technology are assessed to be for civilian use in public spaces and close to high value areas like airports, important official buildings and other similar objects. Evolutionary Robotics, here restricted to the sub domain Advanced Robotics, has uncertain potential for military utility within the period. In the scenarios studied the technology is assessed to have a positive impact on a broad range of SwAF capabilities. The area is large and inconsistent comprising sub areas that are assessed to have significant potential, but also those that are believed to have negligible potential or where technological obstacles might retard the development. Our evaluation of the used method shows that there is a risk that the assessment is biased by the participating experts' presumptions and experiences from their own field of research. The scenarios that were chosen do not cover all possible aspects of the technology and their possible contribution to operational capabilities. It should be stressed that we have assessed the ten technologies' military utility in the presented scenarios, not the technology itself. The chosen definition of military utility clearly affects the result of the study. The definition is believed to be good enough for this report, but could be further elaborated in the future. The greatest value of the method used is its simplicity, cost effectiveness and the trade off that it promotes learning within the working group. The composition of the working group and the methodology used is believed to provide for a broad and balanced coverage of the technologies under study.