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In ancient Greece and ancient China, small states engaged in intense military competition and incessant warfare. In such contexts, there was naturally much emphasis on the training of soldiers. One might have expected state-sponsored physical education to develop as a by-product of the need to train soldiers, but the historical record shows that ancient Greek states placed far more emphasis on physical education compared to their counterparts in ancient China. This essay attempts to (partly) explain the divergent outcomes with reference to the idea of citizenship. The first part outlines the practice and philosophy of state-sponsored physical education in ancient Greece and ancient China and addresses the question of why the two ancient civilizations should be compared in this respect. The main body of the article discusses the political differences between ancient Greece and ancient China that help to explain the different outcomes regarding state-sponsored physical education. The last part ends with some normative reflections that may be relevant for present-day societies.

Preface -- 1. Introduction to Education Policy -- 1.1 Definitions and basic concepts -- 1.2 Public education in the 21st century -- 1.3 Values and ideologies in education -- 1.4 Summary of the chapter -- References -- 2. The Policy Process: The Design of Education Policy -- 2.1 Power, politics, and agenda setting -- 2.2 Key players and the social construction of the target population -- 2.3 Decision-making processes and ethical aspects of decision making -- 2.4 Summary of the chapter -- References -- 3. The Policy Process: Implementation of Education Policy -- 3.1 Policy instruments -- 3.2 Field effects on implementation -- 3.3 Evaluation of education policy -- 3.4 System change and education reform -- 3.5 Summary of the chapter -- References -- 4. The Policy Process: Contextual Factors -- 4.1 Demographic and economic aspects -- 4.2 Political culture -- 4.3 National culture and social cohesion -- 4.4 Summary of the chapter -- References -- 5. Contemporary Discourse in Education Policy in the 21st Century: Problems -- 5.1 Public education in crisis -- 5.2 Bureaucratic structure and central government -- 5.3 Poor professionalization in teaching -- 5.4 Inequality in education -- 5.5 Summary of the chapter -- References -- 6. Contemporary Discourse in Education Policy in the 21st Century: Solutions -- 6.1 Promoting school effectiveness -- 6.2 Promoting teaching as a profession -- 6.3 Promoting equality in education -- 6.4 Summary of the chapter -- References -- 7. Criticism of education policy as a field of knowledge -- 7.1 Criticism of the basic assumptions and conceptualization of studies in education policy -- 7.2 Criticism of comparative studies in education policy -- 7.3 Criticism of evaluation studies in education policy -- 7.4 Summary of the chapter -- References. .

The rural school layout adjustment in China -- The rural teacher development in China -- The rural students' all-round education development in China -- The vocational education in China's rural areas -- The rural education informatization development in China. .

Describes problems associated with using standardized achievement test scores, and assumptions and methodologies employed to adjust SAT and ACT scores. The estimates produced by these methodologies are compared and evaluated for consistency. A single estimate of performance implies a false precision: a range of estimates is sufficient for informed policymaking. (Abstract amended)

Die Autoren zeigen, dass grenzüberschreitende Tendenzen in der Hochschulbildung nicht nur von verschiedenen politischen Systemen geformt werden, sondern auch von der Beschaffenheit der politischen Netzwerke innerhalb einzelner Länder abhängen. Da sich diese Netzwerke in Bezug auf das jeweilige Politikfeld unterscheiden, müssen bei der Erfassung der Veränderungen in der Hochschulbildung beide Ebenen gleichermaßen in Betracht gezogen werden. Die Autoren verdeutlichen dies exemplarisch für die Länder Großbritannien und die Niederlande und beschreiben die Veränderungen bei der Finanzpolitik, der Entwicklung von Qualitätssystemen, der Regelung neuer Studienprogramme und des Ausbaus der Beziehungen zwischen den Hochschulen und der Industrie. Obwohl es eine übergreifende Richtung der Veränderungen in diesen Bereichen gibt, die seit Anfang der 1980er Jahre zu verzeichnen sind, unterscheiden sich die eingeschlagenen Wege und ihr Einfluss auf das nationale politische System in deutlichem Maße. In einem politischen Mehrheitssystem, wie in Großbritannien, sind rasche Veränderungen bei den politischen Strategien zu erkennen, während für Länder, deren politisches System auf einer Konsensfindung beruht, wie die Niederlande, langsame, aber stetige Veränderungen typisch sind. (ICI).

Attempts to discern where Russia fits in the categories cast by Monsma and Soper to describe the relationship between the state and religious education with such questions as those concerning religious classes in public schools and funding and regulation of religious schools. Finds that Russia transcends the three categories, which are "partial establishments," "strict separation," and "pluralist or structural pluralist" models. In the case of Russia, only religions established there prior to the 1917 revolution have any legal standing towards recognition. Diagrams the history of the state and its considerations of religious training beginning at the Bolshevik rise to power after the revolution, right up to today. One problem seen today goes beyond mere polemic as bureaucratic entanglements strangle the process of regulation and licensing of schools, accreditation of classes between private and public, secular and religious schools, and issues of discrimination against religion in general. Additionally, the curriculums of many schools are simply too loaded to find room for other religious classes that many pedagogues would like to see implemented. On the whole, finds a great, possibly the greatest problem, to be inconsistency throughout the system and hopes for standardization, towards whatever perspective that may be in the end. References. S. Fullmer