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The article is dedicated to the analysis of axiological ideas lying in the foundation of the modern economic science in general and theory of finances in particular. The concept of homo economicus and its origins are considered. Concept of the "homo economicus" is used in the modern philosophic and methodologic literature on methodologic questions of economical science is used in two meanings. The first considers homo economicus only as a technical construct or model created in the form of certain hypotheses and suppositions set taken in their limit form as an idealization. The second takes it as a certain anthropologic type characterized with according values and behavior. It was demonstrated that the concept of homo economicus has a long before-history consisting in gradual break-up between economical theory and ethics. The homo economicus is a person who build his behavior through calculation of his profit. The latter is a form of his self-discipline that forms a new system of norms free from moral and other similar things. The new system of norms suppose no stable tenets and axioms as it takes place in ethics but remains rational and is based on probabilities calculations. The evolution of economical science is regarded as well as its division into political philosophy and proper economic theory in the end of the XIX century, the role of the growth principle, the growth in spite of anything that stood to the first place in the time of the Great Depression and goes on occupying this place till now. It is demonstrated that the essence of money consists in being a symbol and sign of debt obligations, that the capital is representation of their accumulated form and moving power that makes market economics to move. It is shown also that namely the ideas of capital as well as labour compound axiological foundation of modern economical ideas. The homo economicus or economical man, that means individualistic and egotistic psychotype oriented onto profit and satisfaction of his desires, becomes conceptual ideal. ; Статья посвящена анализу аксиологических представлений, которые лежат в основе теорий современной экономической науки вообще и теории финансов в частности. Рассматриваются истоки концепта homo economicus'a или человека экономического. В современной литературе, посвященной философским и методологическим проблемам экономической теории, термин «homo economicus» употребляется в двух основных значениях. Первое – чисто технический конструкт или модель, образованную в виде суммы определенных предположений, взятых в их предельной форме, или, если проще, как определенную идеализацию. Второе рассматривает «homo economicus» как определенный антропологический тип, который характеризуется соответствующими ценностными и поведенческими особенностями. Показано, что конструкт homo economicus возник не в результате умозрительных рассуждений, а имеет довольно-таки длинную предысторию, суть которой заключается в постепенном отрыве экономической теории от этики. Человек экономический – это человек, который выстраивает свое поведение через подсчет выгоды. Постоянное ведение таких подсчетов является самодисциплиной человека экономического. Такая самодисциплина формирует новую систему норм, свободную от морали или других подобного рода вещей. Новая система норм не предусматривает каких-либо устоявшихся догматов или аксиом (как это обычай имеет место в этике), но является полностью рациональной и опирается на подсчет вероятностей тех или иных вариантов развития событий.Показана эволюция экономической науки. В ее основу после разделения политической экономии на политическую философию и собственно экономическую науку в конце XIX в. был положен принцип роста. Этот принцип выходит на первый план во времена Великой депрессии, но продолжает свое господство по сей день. Показано, что сущность денег заключается в том, что они являются символом или знаком долговых обязательств, тогда как их концептуальной формой, выражением их количественного аспекта является капитал. Именно капитал является тем двигателем, той движущей силой, которая заставляет двигаться рыночную экономику.Показано, что труд и капитал становятся основополагающими аксиологическими принципами современных экономических представлений. Идеалом становится человек экономический, то есть индивидуалистический и эгоистический тип, ориентированный на поиск выгоды, которая заключается в удовлетворении желаний. ; Стаття присвячена аналізу аксіологічних уявлень, які лежать в основі теорій сучасної економічної науки взагалі та теорії фінансів зокрема. Розглядаються витоки концепту homo economicus'a чи людини економічної. У сучасній літературі, присвяченій філософським і методологічним проблемам економічної теорії, термін «homo economicus» вживається в двох основних значеннях. Перше – як суто технічний конструкт чи модель, утворену у вигляді суми певних припущень та уявлень, узятих у їхній граничній формі, або, якщо простіше, як певну ідеалізацію. Друге розглядає «homo economicus» як певний антропологічний тип, який характеризується відповідними ціннісними та поведінковими особливостями. Показано, що конструкт homo economicus'у виник не в результаті умоглядних міркувань, а має досить-таки довгу передісторію, суть якої полягає у поступовому відриві економічної теорії від етики. Людина економічна – це людина, яка вибудовує свою поведінку через підрахунок вигоди. Постійне ведення таких підрахунків є самодисципліною людини економічної. Така самодисципліна формує нову систему норм, вільну від моралі чи інших подібного роду речей. Нова система норм не передбачає якихось сталих догматів чи аксіом (як це звичай має місце в етиці), але є повністю раціональною і спирається на підрахунок імовірностей тих чи інших варіантів розвитку подій.Показано еволюцію економічної науки. В її основу після розділення політичної економії на політичну філософію та власне економічну науку наприкінці ХІХ ст. був покладений принцип зростання, зростання не зважаючи ні на що. Цей принцип виходить на перший план у часи Великої депресії, але продовжує своє панування донині.Показано, що сутність грошей полягає в тому, що вони є символом чи знаком боргових зобов'язань, тоді як їх концептуальною формою, вираженням їх кількісного аспекту є капітал. Саме капітал є тим двигуном, тією рушійною силою, яка змушує рухатися ринкова економіку.Показано, що праця та капітал стають основоположними аксіологічними принципами сучасних економічних уявлень. Ідеалом стає людина економічна, тобто індивідуалістичний та егоїстичний тип, орієнтований на пошук вигоди, яка полягає в задоволенні бажань.

Tesis doctoral inédita leída en la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Departamento de Historia Contemporánea .Fecha de lectura:17-02-2017 ; Esta tesis tiene embargado el acceso al texto completo hasta el 17-08-2018 ; Esta tesis doctoral expone el proceso de trasformación de la Cuba revolucionaria desde la entrada de Fidel Castro en La Habana en enero de 1959 hasta la proclamación del carácter socialista de la revolución a mediados de abril de 1961 y lo hace a través de una selección de publicaciones periódicas de España y Cuba editadas durante el período analizado. Con este objetivo en cartera, esta tesis se centra en tres aspectos fundamentales: en el análisis de la paulatina y progresiva decantación ideológica del socialismo cubano de impronta fidelista; en el modo en que esta transformación fue contada en aquel momento, y en las razones del cambio orquestado: del cambio del propio proceso en su desarrollo, del cambio del relato o los relatos durante el proceso y de los procesos de cambio acaecidos en una revolución que llegó bajo la bandera nacionalista y humanista y que devino socialista sin perder sus atributos de origen. En definitiva, se centra en las causas por las que la Cuba revolucionaria asumió el socialismo; en el por qué lo hizo; en el cómo lo hizo, y en el modo en el que se explicó este proceso a los cubanos y a los españoles. Así pues, este trabajo está volcado en los relatos de la revolución, en cómo fue contada aquella revolución a los que la protagonizaron desde la proximidad y la implicación absoluta y a los que la contemplaron desde la distancia, las reservas o los afectos. Se acomete un análisis de las lecturas de la revolución desde la lógica del cambio revolucionario y desde la recuperación del cambiante panorama que acompañó al proceso; un análisis que se realiza desde las publicaciones periódicas, pues son ellas las que nos hablan de la imagen de la revolución en cada momento y son ellas también las que nos ofrecen la visión que se difunde a escala social de un proyecto revolucionario que afectó no solamente a Cuba, sino también a todo el ámbito iberoamericano. Lo que aquí se muestra es un estudio de la revolución que coloca en el centro del debate al sujeto real, al protagonista del cambio, a sus razones, y a las visiones que sobre él lanzaron sus contemporáneos. En este trabajo se apuesta por el sujeto real frente al sujeto político del que nos habla la teoría, se apuesta por el relato del cubano y sobre el cubano que encabeza la revolución, pues sólo así se puede entender la naturaleza del cambio y sólo así se pueden comprender las contradicciones habidas durante este proceso y los mecanismos que se orquestaron para ; This doctoral thesis exposes the transformation process of revolutionary Cuba from the entrance of Fidel Castro in Havana in January 1959 to the proclamation of the socialist character of the revolution in mid-April 1961 and does so through a selection of publications, newspapers and magazines, from Spain and Cuba published during the period analyzed. With this aim in mind, this thesis focuses on three fundamental aspects. The first one is the analysis of the gradual and progressive ideological decantation of Cuban socialism from its "fidelista" dimension. The second focuses on the way in which this transformation was narrated at that time. And the third is centered on the reasons for this orchestrated change: the change of the process itself in its development, the change of the story or the stories during the processand the processes of change that occurred in a revolution that came under the nationalist and humanist banner and became socialist without losing its attributes of origin. In short, it focuses on the causes for which revolutionary Cuba assumed socialism, on why it did it, on how it did it, and in the way that this process was explained to Cubans and Spaniards. Thus, this work focuses on the revolution readings, on how the revolution was explained to those who played a role from the proximity and absolute involvement and those who followed the revolution from distance, reservations or affections. An analysis of the readings of the revolution that is undertaken from the logic of revolutionary change and from the recovery of the changing panorama that accompanied the process. An analysis that is built from the newspapers and magazines because these publications are the ones who tell us about the image of the revolution at every moment and these publications also offer us the vision that is spread on a social scale of a revolutionary project that not only affected Cuba, but also to the entire Ibero-American sphere. What is shown here is a study of the revolution that places the real subject at the center of the debate, the protagonist of change is the focus, its reasons, and the visions that his contemporaries casted about him. This work takes as reference the real subject instead of the political subject reflected in the political theory. This work bets on the history of the Cuban and about the Cuban who leads the revolution, because only then we can understand the nature of the change and only then we can understand the contradictions that have occurred during this process and the mechanisms that were orchestrated to solve them.

Tésis doctoral inédita. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Departamento de Organización de Empresas. Fecha de lectura 26 de abril de 2016 ; Antecedentes: el Asociativismo empresarial es una alternativa de singular importancia para impulsar la competitividad de las Pymes de calzado, como un instrumento para aunar recursos productivos, compartir filosofía empresarial y metas, que deben responder a necesidades o problemas conjuntos. Esto no tiene su origen en la pasividad sino que, debe ser impulsado en el marco de la gestión estratégica de la empresa para conformar relaciones eficaces y estables, dirigido a generar ventajas competitivas que permitan su supervivencia en los mercados altamente competitivos. Para ello, la innovación tecnológica es un elemento esencial de diferenciación que debe ser considerado junto a la creación de alianzas entre Pymes que permitan disponer de los recursos adecuados para su desarrollo. Objetivo: el objetivo general de este estudio es la validación de un modelo de gestión estratégica para aumentar la ventaja competitiva de las empresas del sector del calzado de Guayaquil (Ecuador). El modelo se asienta sobre una estrategia de agrupación de Pymes a partir del Asociativismo, con el fin de tener acceso a los recursos financieros y materiales necesarios para desarrollar ventaja competitiva a partir de la Producción Intermedia. Métodos: el diseño de la investigación corresponde a la de un estudio descriptivo transversal. La muestra está formada por 59 empresas del sector del calzado de Guayaquil, a las que se ha aplicado un cuestionario de elaboración propia que evalúa 6 dimensiones (Asociativismo, innovación, capacidad productiva, competitividad, financiación y abastecimiento continuo). Además, se ha realizado una entrevista de factores competitivos a 12 empresarios de Guayaquil (Ecuador) y a 6 de Fuensalida (España). Resultados: los resultados de la investigación han permitido conocer las dificultades operativas y de financiación de las Pymes de calzado. Se determinó que el 92% de los encuestados no asignan presupuesto a las actividades de investigación y desarrollo, ni tampoco han recibido ayuda del gobierno en los últimos 5 años para propiciar la innovación. El 100% manifestó la conveniencia de participar en el proyecto de producción intermedia mediante el Asociativismo empresarial, aplicando mecanismos adecuados que aseguren una buena práctica de cooperación empresarial. Las entrevistas y los cuestionarios han permitido confirmar la viabilidad del modelo de gestión estratégica propuesto. La propuesta está encaminada a reformular los instrumentos dinamizadores de fomento del Asociativismo, como estrategia de crecimiento del sector de las Pymes ecuatorianas de calzado, para lo que se proponen las siguientes herramientas organizativas: Gestión organizativa, Planificación estratégica de la Demanda de materiales (MRP), Certificación y acreditación de Calidad ISO 9001 y Desarrollo Organizativo, basados en principios de Filosofía empresarial, Cultura, Gestión de la Innovación, Calidad total, Justo a Tiempo y Capacidad de Absorción del Conocimiento. Conclusión: los factores del modelo de gestión estratégica propuesto han sido reconocidos por los participantes como elementos adecuados para alcanzar una ventaja competitiva sostenible, todo ello sobre la base del Asociativismo como fundamento para acceder a los recursos necesarios para su desarrollo. ; Background: business association is a particularly important alternative to boost the competitiveness of SMEs in footwear industry, as an instrument to combine productive resources, sharing business philosophy and goals that should respond to common needs or problems. Its origin lies not in passivity but must rather be promoted within the framework of the strategic management of the company in order to build effective and stable relations, to generate competitive advantages that ensure its survival in highly competitive markets. This can be done by technological innovation - an essential element of differentiation which should be considered along with the creation of partnerships between SMEs making available adequate resources for its development. Objective: The objective of this study is to validate a model of strategic management to increase competitive advantage of companies in footwear industry of Guayaquil (Ecuador). The model is based on a strategy of grouping SMEs through association, in order to have access to financial and material resources needed to develop competitive advantage starting from intermediate production. Methods: The research approach corresponds to a cross-sectional study. The sample consists of 59 companies in the footwear industry of Guayaquil, which has been surveyed using a specifically designed questionnaire assessing six dimensions (degree of association, innovation, productive capacity, competitiveness, funding and uninterrupted supply). It has also conducted an interview of 12 entrepreneurs of Guayaquil (Ecuador) and 6 Fuensalida (Spain) regarding competitive factors. Results: The results of the research have allowed getting know footwear SMEs' operational and funding difficulties. It was determined that 92% of respondents do not allocate budget for research and development, or have not received for five years any government assistance to promote innovation. 100% welcomed participation in the proposed intermediate production by the business sector activities, using appropriate mechanisms that ensure good implementation of business cooperation. The surveys and questionnaires have confirmed the feasibility of the proposed model for strategic management. The proposal it to reformulate instruments to promote business cooperation, as growth strategy of Ecuadorian SMEs footwear industry to which the following organizational tools are suggested: Organizational Management, Strategic Materials Demand Planning (SMRP), certification and accreditation of ISO 9001 quality standard and organizational development, based on principles of business philosophy, Culture, Innovation Management, Total Quality and Timely Knowledge Absorbance Capacity. Conclusion: factors proposed by the model of strategic management have been recognized by participants as appropriate elements to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage, each based on cooperation as a basis for accessing the resources needed for its development.

The Red River Delta in Vietnam is one of the regions whose quaternary aquifers are polluted by arsenic. Chronic toxification by arsenic can cause severe illnesses such as cancer, skin lesions, developmental defects, cardiovascular and neurological diseas-es, and diabetes. In this study, a food processing craft village in the Red River Delta was investigated regarding the potential risk faced by the population due to arsenic. The potential sources of arsenic are the groundwater, the crops grown in the sur-roundings, and animal products from local husbandry. However, the occurrence of arsenic in nature is variable, and its bioavailability and toxicity depend very much on its specification: trivalent compounds are more toxic and often more mobile than pen-tavalent compounds, while inorganic species are generally more toxic than organic ones. Local conditions, such as the redox potential, strongly influence its specification and thus potential bioavailability. The introduction to this work elucidates the key factors which potentially cause human exposure to arsenic: the geological setting of the study area, land and water use pat-terns, and the current state of research regarding the mobilization, bioavailability and plant uptake of arsenic. Although the study area is located in a region where the groundwater is known to be moderately contaminated by arsenic, the level of arsenic in the groundwater in the village had not previously been determined. In this study, water use in the village was examined by a survey among the farmers and by water analyses, which are present-ed in the following chapters. Four main water sources (rain, river, tube well and a pub-lic municipal waterworks) are used for the different daily activities; the highest risk to human health was found to be the bore well water, which is pumped from the shallow Holocene aquifer. The water from the bore wells is commonly used for cleaning and washing as well as to feed the animals and for food processing. Products like noodles and rice wine were examined as well as local pork and poultry. Vegetables from the gardens and rice plants from the surrounding paddy fields were sampled and ana-lyzed. All plants were found to have accumulated arsenic, leafy vegetables showing the highest arsenic concentrations. The results are discussed and compared, and conclusions are drawn in the last part. The reducing conditions in the paddy fields are likely to have a strong influence on arsenic uptake in rice plants and on transport to the aquifer. The installation of a wastewater treatment plant under the research project INHAND, which was funded by the BMBF German Ministry of Education and Research, led to lower arsenic concen-trations in the groundwater. Soaring industrialization, the growing population, and the consumers' changing behav-ior will widely affect land and water use and hence the potential mobilization of arse-nic. In order to mitigate further human exposure to arsenic, wastewater needs to be treated and the reducing conditions in the rice fields need to be decreased by means of enhanced cultivation methods.:Abstract III Zusammenfassung V Acknowledgements VII Contents IX List of abbreviations XIII List of tables XVII 1 Scope of this work 1 2 Introduction 2 2.1 Geographical and geological setting of the study area 2 2.2 Hydrological situation 5 2.2.1 Surface water 5 2.2.2 Impact of human activities on surface water quality and distribution 6 2.2.3 Hydrogeology 7 2.3 Arsenic occurrence 7 2.3.1 Arsenic toxicity 8 2.3.2 Risk potential of arsenic in diet 10 2.4 Arsenic contamination in the groundwater resources of the Red River Delta 11 2.4.1 Occurrence and origin of arsenic in the Red River Delta 12 2.4.2 Mobilization processes 13 2.4.3 As mobilization in paddy fields 15 2.5 Arsenic occurrence in daily rural activities 16 2.5.1 Arsenic in soil 17 2.5.2 Arsenic in drinking water 19 2.5.3 Phytoaccumulation: Current state of research 20 2.5.4 Bioavailablity 22 2.5.5 Arsenic uptake in rice plants 23 2.5.6 Arsenic in meat and animal products 26 2.5.7 Arsenic uptake in golden apple snails 27 2.5.8 Processing: Wine and noodles 28 2.5.9 Arsenic concentrations in wastewater, activated sludge and digestate 29 2.6 Iron and manganese in the nutrient chain 30 2.7 Land and water use in the Red River Delta 31 2.7.1 Historical and political aspects of rural development in Vietnam 33 2.7.2 Craft villages in the Red River Delta 34 3 Materials and methods 36 3.1 Soil sample analyses 36 3.2 Well sampling 37 3.3 Wastewater and sludge analyses 37 3.4 Food analyses 38 3.5 Site visit and field observations 39 3.6 Questionnaire 39 4 Results 40 4.1 Soil samples 40 4.1.1 Total arsenic and total heavy metal concentrations 40 4.1.2 Sequential fractionation procedure 41 4.2 Arsenic in the water cycle in Dai Lam 43 4.2.1 Groundwater analyses 43 4.2.2 Water use in Dai Lam 47 4.2.3 Wastewater in Dai Lam 50 4.3 Arsenic in sewage sludge 51 4.4 Arsenic in manure samples 52 4.5 Arsenic in food samples 52 4.5.1 Rice 52 4.5.2 Arsenic in leaf vegetables 53 4.5.3 Arsenic in poultry products 56 4.5.4 Arsenic in pork samples 57 4.5.5 Arsenic in snails 57 4.6 Economic and demographic development potential 58 5 Discussion 61 5.1 Soil samples 61 5.2 Groundwater samples 62 5.2.1 High arsenic concentrations 62 5.2.2 Strong temporal and spatial variation 63 5.2.3 Weak correlation between measured parameters 69 5.3 Wastewater and sewage sludge 70 5.4 Pig manure 71 5.5 Daily exposure to As from dietary intake 71 5.6 Effects of land and water use on water quality and public health 76 5.7 Against the background of the transition economy 77 6 Conclusion 80 7 Perspectives (further work) 85 8 References 86 9 Annex 110

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Jennifer Huddleston


Much like little children who are losing a game, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and Department of Justice (DOJ) have decided to change the rules that govern when they engage in enforcement actions to intervene in mergers. These proposed changes follow several recent losses in court, and they are designed to increase the enforcers' chances at deterring mergers. The draft of the DOJ/FTC merger guidelines released in July 2023 indicates concerning potential changes that would take the focus off objective economics and the consumer and, instead, place more emphasis on subjective political and policy preferences of enforcers to engage in more intervention in a variety of industries. This is because these guidelines rely on faulty policy presumptions about the nature of mergers based on selectively chosen case law and shift away from sound economics.
The changes in these draft proposed new guidelines are significant and will have a negative impact on companies of all sizes and consumers, as well as allow more government interference in the economy in general. While there is much more to dig into with the specifics of these new guidelines, at a high level they are particularly concerning for the shift away from a long‐​standing focus on consumers.
New guidelines shift away from sound economics
One of the most significant trends is that the new draft guidelines shift standards without providing much, if any, economic reasoning for such changes. This is most notable in the lowering of the threshold for concentration to be considered a potential issue in whether there is a harm to competition. The proposed guidelines are much more concerned about the potential number of players in a market and the share of any one player, but notably, such changes are not backed up by economics or past examples.
As Brian Albrecht points out, economics questions the idea that concentration correlates to an anti‐​competitive effect. Similarly, others have discussed how increased concentration does not mean higher prices for consumers. In fact, it would punish firms from improving efficiency in ways that lead to lower prices as such actions can lead to increased concentration due to consumer response to lower prices.
This shift in guidelines suggests that rather than relying on objective standards and looking to consumer welfare, enforcers at the DOJ and FTC are instead choosing the levels of concentration they believe will most likely allow them to succeed in the cases they want to bring. History shows that presumptions and predictions from regulators may miss what is actually occurring in a market, as well as what would play out if consumers were the ones to make the choices about products. Such a shift away from economic reasoning, however, is likely to result in the agency intervening more subjectively in a range of markets —including technology — and preventing mergers that would prove to be beneficial from occurring.
New guidelines selectively choose case law
The new merger guidelines rely significantly on case law, but not on sound precedent. In fact, the case law relied upon largely comes from the 1970s or even earlier and ignores more recent precedents. This illustrates how, once again, the FTC's approach is not actually "updating" rules to handle a novel challenge, but a return to the past and its problems of more subjective standards.
These proposed revised guidelines are backed up by selectively drawing upon case law in ways that would position enforcers to be more likely to win cases regardless of their impact on consumers. This practice even extends to cherry‐​picking dictums from these cases. For instance, when attempting to implement a preemptive strategy to hinder mergers without apparent harm to competition, the FTC leans on dictum stemming from non‐​binding case law, such as United States v. Microsoft Corp. 253 F.3d 34, 79 (D.C. Cir. 2001). This reference stands out, given that it is a decision from the D.C. Circuit over two decades old and used to interpret the spirit of the Sherman Act.
As Gus Hurwitz tweets, while many of these cases are technically "good law", this is largely due to the fact that previous guidelines for agency enforcement have led to more informal behavioral changes and settlements that meant courts have not had the opportunity to formally repudiate them in the past. The selective nature of the new guidelines is likely to meet skepticism from courts more familiar with the entire body of law and could, in fact, result in more formal repudiation of the cases on which the guidelines are based. Agency officials seeking to enforce under the new guidelines could find themselves worse off than they are now by providing courts a more formal opportunity to overturn these outdated precedents and diminish the courts' view of the soundness of the agency's guidelines.
The myth of the "kill zone" rises again
Proponents of stricter merger guidelines and deterring mergers and acquisitions, particularly in the technology sector, often point to the idea that large companies kill off nascent rivals through acquisitions. This, however, misunderstands the role mergers and acquisitions play and instead should serve as a reminder that new guidelines will harm small and large companies by limiting their options.
Making mergers and acquisitions more difficult eliminates one exit strategy for companies. Some small companies may be seeking to make an existing product better, and they find being acquired by that product's original developer is the best way to reach a wider audience. Others may find that they enjoy being entrepreneurs or creating new products, but they have no desire to manage the many aspects that come with a growing company. Some may find that they do want to challenge existing giants and remain independent and eventually "go public" via an initial public offering (IPO). All of these should be considered valid strategies in different situations, but the added difficulty and scrutiny of the revised merger guidelines would make it more difficult for those small companies whose preferred strategy involves acquisition.
Beyond the reasons for exit, the idea of a "kill zone" — or any other justifications for changes to existing evaluations of mergers and acquisitions — neglects to consider the various benefits of these transactions in the market. In the tech sector, mergers are often about talent as well as product, a practice known as acquihiring. Consumers benefit from new collaborations not only from the products, but from the creative and talented individuals in charge of their creation and distribution. Of course, mergers can also create more solid competitors, which may provide consumers with broader access to a range of options.
Finally, the idea of a "kill zone" for new players in a given market has largely proven false, whether analyzed through new entry or investment.
The bottom line: the real losers in the new merger guidelines are the consumers
Much of the discussion around the new merger guidelines will focus on the impact on businesses, both large and small, and particularly how it relates to the ongoing debates around "Big Tech." The bottom line is consumers are ultimately the ones that will feel the brunt of the negative impact if enforcement shifts away from sound economics and law and focuses more on competitors than consumers. Beyond this, new guidelines will likely stifle beneficial deals and result in costly litigation for taxpayers and businesses, ultimately passing along to consumers. While there are certainly consequences for the tech sector in such changes, this significant shift in enforcement guidance will impact a wide variety of industries and their consumers.

Il contratto di stock lending ha dato origine a numerose questioni interpretative relative alla corretta qualificazione giuridica della fattispecie negoziale ed ai possibili rimedi offerti dall'ordinamento per contrastarne gli effetti elusivi. La complessità delle operazioni sottese al contratto contribuisce a rendere ancora più incerta la sua collocazione nell'ambito delle tradizionali categorie civilistiche, con conseguente difficoltà nell'applicazione degli strumenti sanzionatori tipici dell'ordinamento privato. In tale prospettiva, l'individuazione di un rimedio generale proprio del sistema tributario nazionale quale l'abuso del diritto, fortemente valorizzato anche sul piano europeo ed internazionale, consente di risolvere numerose problematiche di carattere esegetico ed al contempo si coniuga maggiormente con le esigenze proprie del settore fiscale. Il presente contributo analizza le suddette questioni, confrontandosi anche con la tradizionale tematica relativa all'autonomia fra ordinamento privato e tributario e tentando di offrire una chiave di lettura più in linea con le attuali esigenze di contrasto delle fattispecie di elusione fiscale avvertite in ambito nazionale ed internazionale. ; Stock lending agreement has been shaped by various case law decisions over the past decade. From a civil law perspective, stock lending agreement represents is hard to identify in a specific statutory type of contract and this circumstance also reflects from a tax perspective. Indeed, both the Italian Tax Collection Agency and tax judges are struggling with finding the correct identification of this kind of contract, trying to find an autonomous location in the legal system. In this context the claimed autonomy of civil and tax systems, based on different requirements, caused issues of identification - also in court proceedings - of an appropriate legal instrument for the fulfilment of tax interests. As a consequence of this situation, certain questionable or unfounded tax assessments have been made, which are therefore subject to challenge from taxpayers. This document aims to offer a legal classification of the contract, which is characterized by a complex structure, by operations that are not easily justifiable on the economic point of view and by a questionable (especially from a tax point of view) contractual regulation. The document is organized as follow. First, an analysis of the entire contractual regulation will be undertaken with particular focus to the main characteristics of the stock lending agreement which essentially consists in the lease of equity securities betting on their productivity. Secondly the entire structure of the relations between the parties will be analyzed with the aim to verify if this latter can be classified in one of the statutory categories of civil law or, instead, as an atypical contract should the analysis present differences with the general models of private contracts. In this latter situation it should be possible to identify the contract as a «recognizable» negotiation that can be collocated in the Italian legal system. In this perspective it will be analyzed if the contract of stock lending can be classified as a typical statutory contract, as it is often linked to the loan agreement disciplined under article 1813 of the Civil Code, or if it is ranked as an atypical contract because of its peculiarities not only in respect of its contracts terms, but also for its cause and for its combined nature that includes different elements within multiple contracts. The attempt will be to identify the utility of this civil qualification of the contract and the risks related to this kind of hermeneutic analysis. The next step will be the assessment of the contract from a lawfulness point of view. The aim of this analysis is to show, by taking into account the potential and apparent fraudulent nature of the contract, which are the most suitable sanctioning consequences and remedies applicable under the Civil Code. In particular, in this section, it will be observed that difficulties of interpretation of the contract revived the issue of the autonomy-dependency between civil and tax rules. The strong relationship between instruments of the fraud to the law, or of simulation or more in general civil rules that provide a remedy of invalidation, and instruments against tax avoidance, revives all the problems that authors and case law have faced in the past in order to adapt civil rules to the tax system that is based on different logics and requirements. It will be highlighted the importance to find, within the tax system, a general clause useful to avoid the drawbacks coming from the coexistence between different legal systems - such as civil and tax systems - and which, at the same time, can provide an effective means against the purpose of tax evasion related to the conclusion of the stock lending contract. In particular the recent codification of the principle of prohibition of abuse of rights, under article 10-bis of the Statuto dei diritti del contribuente, can be seen in this perspective. This principle may be used as a general rule to sanction artificial contractual structures that the tax law wants to block on the basis of the fundamental constitutional rule based on the ability to contribute. Nowadays the entire European and International communities feel the need to introduce a regulatory instrument in national legislation with the aim to avoid the abuse of rights. In this regard there are two European directives - so called ATAD I and ATAD II - and a recent decree for their implementation, that are in line with the historical and juridical changed context. The presence of a supranational regulation concerning the general category of abuse of rights shows the crucial role that procedures related to aggressive tax planning play nowadays, not only on a national point of view but also on a global point of view. In conclusion, our analysis will be addressed to an effective evaluation of the typical operations of the stock lending contract by looking also at the new parameters that are now offered by the current rules concerning the abuse of rights. It will be explored if these operations might counteract general principles about the right level of taxation and if they are fiscally unenforceable, or if, whenever the opposite cannot be demonstrated, they can be considered fully valid and effective.

The purpose of the study was to analyze the content and structure of representations about the state in one of the key historical works of Ukraine in the late 17th century – «Synopsis», which was published in the printing press of the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra in 1674, and subsequently expanded in 1678 and 1680. The relevance of this theme is determined by the fact that «Synopsis» was the final result of the development of Ukrainian historiography of the early modern era, as well as the influence that this text had on the development of Ukrainian culture of the XVIII century. As a result of the analysis it was found that in the text «Synopsis» there is a clearly formulated concept of the state, which was covered in the theoretical aspect and was used to study specific historical events.The study found that the author of «Synopsis» relied in his ideas about the state on the concept developed by the Ukrainian Orthodox intellectuals, which included the categories of the essence of the state as a political entity, an ideal state structure, a political nation, a system of relations between the ruler and subjects, and the role of the church in the state. Comparison of this theory with the text «Synopsis» has allowed to reveal a number of common and distinctive points. It has been found that the central idea of the state concept of the Ukrainian Orthodox clergy in the concept of the author of «Synopsis» has not changed and is to recognize Kiev as the spiritual center of all Orthodox lands and the transcendental justification of the existence of the Ukrainian state. Also, the common feature is the unconditional recognition of the sovereignty of Ukraine in all its ethnic boundaries and understanding of its people as an ethnic and confessional community. The comparative analysis allowed us to conclude that the state theory contained in Synopsy has a number of distinctive features in comparison with those ideas that existed among the Ukrainian spiritual elite at the end of the 16th – in the first half of the 17th centuries. The main differences are the indisputable recognition of the absolute monarchy as an ideal of the state system, providentialism, the refusal of the political subjectivity by the population and the recognition of political rights only by the autocrat, the positive perception of the integration of the Ukrainian Cossack state into the Moscow kingdom, the theory of the church as supreme power in the state.It is established that a number of provisions of state theory embodied in «Synopsis» can be understood as the origins of the philosophical and political concept of enlightened absolutism, which was subsequently elaborated by Prokopovich and had a significant influence on the formation of the state ideology of the Russian Empire in the first half of the XVIII century. It was found out that the author of Synopsis actively supports the idea of political integration of Ukrainian lands with the Moscow kingdom, but defends the independence of the Kyiv Metropolitanate and the priority of spiritual power over secularism. ; В статье осуществлен анализ текста одного из ключевых исторических произведений конца XVII века – «Синопсиса», изданного в Киево-Печерской лавре. Аспектом анализа выступали представления о государстве, которые разделял автор произведения. Выяснено, что в тексте наличествует четко осознанная автором концепция идеального государства, которая включала раскрытие смысла бытия государственного организма, его трансцендентного оправдания, обоснование лучшей формы государственного управления, освещение надлежащих отношений между светской и церковной властью, описание системы прав и обязанностей властителя и подданных, формулирование категории политической нации, идеального правителя. Прослеживается, каким образом в тексте исторического произведения указанная теоретическая концепция раскрывалась автором на конкретном историческом материале.Было установлено, что теоретическими истоками наличествующей в тексте «Синопсиса» концепции государства выступала сформулированная украинскими православными интеллектуалами на протяжении конца XVI – первой половины XVII века теория украинского суверенного государства, преимущественно в том ее варианте, который разрабатывался в научных кругах Киево-Могилянского коллегиума. Отмечены существенные отличия, которые характеризуют представления о государстве автора «Синопсиса» и состоят в переходе от демократического понимания государства как добровольного объединения граждан к пониманию государства как могучей империи с абсолютистской формой правления.Определено, что в тексте «Синопсиса» присутствуют истоки концепции просвещенного абсолютизма, которая была характерна для украинских философов XVIII века. В частности, обосновывается абсолютное самодержавие как лучшая форма правления, политическая субъектность признается исключительно за самодержцем, политической нацией очерчена высшая знать. Выяснено, что автор «Синопсиса» никоим образом не отказывался от идеи политического суверенитета Украины, пытаясь обосновать позитивное значение ее интеграции с Россией, которое состоит в том, что за Киевской митрополией признается ведущая духовная роль в будущем общем государстве, а церковь имеет решающее влияние на деятельность монарха. ; В статті здійснено аналіз тексту одного з ключових історичних творів кінця XVII ст. – «Синопсису», виданого в Києво-Печерській лаврі. Аспектом аналізу виступали державницькі уявлення, які поділяв автор цього твору. З'ясовано, що в творі наявна чітко усвідомлена автором концепція ідеальної держави, що включала розкриття сенсу буття державного організму, його трансцендентного виправдання, обґрунтування найкращої форми державного правління, висвітлення належних стосунків між світською та церковною владою, опис системи прав та обов'язків володаря й підданих, формулювання категорій політичної нації, ідеального правителя. Простежено, яким чином в тексті історичного твору вказана теоретична концепція розкривалась автором на конкретному історичному матеріалі.Було встановлено, що теоретичними витоками наявної в тексті «Синопсису» концепції держави виступала сформована українськими православними інтелектуалами протягом кінця XVI – першої половини XVII ст. теорія української суверенної держави, переважно в тому її варіанті, який розроблявся в науковому колі Києво-Могилянського колегіуму. Відзначено суттєві відмінності, які характеризують уявлення про державу автора «Синопсису» та полягають у переході від демократичного розуміння держави як добровільного об'єднання громадян до розуміння держави як могутньої імперії з абсолютистською формою правління.Визначено, що в тексті «Синопсису» наявні витоки концепції освіченого абсолютизму, яка була характерною для українських філософів у XVIII ст. Зокрема, обґрунтовується абсолютне самодержавство як найкраща форма правління, політична суб'єктність визнається виключно за самодержцем, політичною нацією окреслено вищу знать. З'ясовано, що автор «Синопсису» жодним чином не відмовляється від ідеї політичного суверенітету України, натомість намагається обґрунтувати позитивне значення її інтеграції з Росією, яке полягає в тому, що за Київською митрополією визнається провідна духовна роль в майбутній спільній державі, а церква має вирішальний вплив на діяльність монарха.

The author offers an analysis of the logical model of "natural state" in the writings of the three mentioned authors and attempts to define its role in their theories of law. The analysis demonstrates that all three models share the same basic idea: namely, the concep-tion of an independent reasonable individual; this very idea is exactly what these different models are based upon. The concept of an individual itself does not have a substantiation. ; Автор предлагает анализ логической модели естественного состояния у трех выдающихся философов Нового времени, и пытается установить ее роль в пред-ложенных ими концепциях права. Анализ показывает, что в основе всех трех мо-делей лежит единое основание – концепция независимого разумного индивида, именно на ней держатся три столь разные учения о праве. Сама же концепция индивида обоснования не получает. ЛИТЕРАТУРА . Валлон А. Педагогические и психологические идеи романа-трактата Ж.–Ж. Руссо «Эмиль, или О воспитании» // Руссо Ж.-Ж. Педагогические сочинения. Т. 2. – М.: Педагогика, 1981. – С. 269–299. Гоббс Т. О гражданине // Гоббс Т. Сочинения в 2-х тт. Т. 1. – М.: Мысль, 1989. – С. 270–506. Гоббс Т. Левиафан // Гоббс Т. Сочинения в 2-х тт. Т. 2. – М.: Мысль, 1991. – С. 3–545. Кассирер Э. Философия Просвещения. – М.: «Российская политическая энциклопедия» (РОССПЭН), 2004. – 400 c. Леви-Строс К. Руссо – отец антропологии // Леви-Строс К. Первобытное мышление. – М.: Республика, 1994. – С. 19–28. Локк Д. Два трактата о правлении // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 3. – М.: Мысль, 1988а. – С. 135–405. Локк Д. Опыт о человеческом разумении. Ч. І–ІІІ. // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 1. – М.: Мысль, 1985. – С. 78–582. Локк Д. Опыты о законе природы // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 3. – М.: Мысль, 1988b. – С. 3–54. Монтескье Ш.Л. О духе законов / Сост., перевод и комментирование примечаний ав-тора A.B. Матешук. – М.: Мысль, 1999. – 672 с. Руссо Ж.-Ж. Об общественном договоре. Трактаты. – М.: КАНОН-пресс, Кучково по-ле, 1998. – 416 с. Руссо Ж.-Ж. Эмиль, или О воспитании // Руссо Ж.–Ж. Педагогические сочинения. Т. 1. – М.: Педагогика, 1981. – 654 c. Фрагменты ранних стоиков / Составление, перевод и комментарии А. А. Столярова. Т. 3. Ч. 2. – М.: Греко-латинский кабинет Ю. А. Шичалина, 2010. – 267 c. [В ссы-лках – ФРС]. Шмитт К. Левиафан в учении о государстве Томаса Гоббса. – СПб: «Владимир Даль», 2006. – 300 c. Штраус Л. Естественное право и история. – М.: Водолей, 2007. – 312 c. Ashcraft R. Locke's political philosophy // The Cambridge Companion to Locke / Ed. by Vere Chappell. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994. – P. 226–251. Brooke Ch. Rousseau's Political Philosophy: Stoic and Augustinian Origins // The Cam-bridge Companion to Rousseau / Ed. by Patrick Riley. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. – P. 94–123. Gert B. Hobbes's psychology // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes / Ed. by Tom Sorell. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1996. – P. 157–174. Goldsmith M. M. Hobbes on law // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 274–304. Grant H. Hobbes and mathematics // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 108–128. Hobbes T. De Cive. The English version (Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society) / A Critical Edition by H. Warrender. – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987. – 336 p. Hobbes T. De Cive. The Latin Version Entitled in the First Edition Elementorum Philoso-phiae Sectio Tertia de Cive, and in Later Editions Elementa Philosophica de Cive / A Critical Edition by H. Warrender. – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983. – 340 p. Hobbes T. Leviathan / Ed. by M. Missner, D. Kolak. – New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. – 304 p. Locke J. The Second Treatise of Civil Government // Locke J. Political essays / edited by Mark Goldie. – Cambridge, New York : Cambridge UP, 1997. – Р. 54–78. Locke J. An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding / ed. with an introd., critical apparatus and glossary by Peter H. Nidditch. – Oxford: Clarendon Рress, 1975. – 867 р. Locke J. Questions Concerning the Law of Nature / Definitive Latin text, with facing accurate English trans. in Robert Horwitz et al. – Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. – 260 p. Jesseph D. Hobbes and method of natural science // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 86–107. Montesquieu, Ch.-L. de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de De l'esprit des lois / chronologie, introduction, bibliographie par Victor Goldschmidt. – Paris : Garnier, Flammarion, 1979. – 2 vol. – 507 p. + 638 p. Rousseau J.-J. Du Contrat social ou Principe du droit politique / éd. E. Dreyfus-Brisac. – Paris: Félix Alcan, 1896. – 425 p. Rousseau J.-J. Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité parmi les hommes // Rousseau J.-J., Oeuvres. Vol. 2. – P. : Dalibon, 1826. – P. 211–392. Rousseau J.-J. Émile ou de l'Éducation. – Paris: Garnier frères, 1866. – 567 p. Riley P. Rousseau's General Will // The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau…, 2001. – P. 124–153. Ryan A. Hobbes's political philosophy // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 208–245. Shklar J. Men and Citizens: A Study of Rousseau's Social Theory. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1969. – 245 p. Skinner Q. Review Article. Hobbes's «Leviathan» // The Historical Journal. – 1964. – Vol. 7, 2. – P. 321–333. Skinner Q. Hobbes on Persons, Authors and Representatives // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes's Leviathan / Ed. by Patricia Springborg. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007. – P. 157–180. Sorell T. Hobbes's scheme of the sciences // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 45–61. Springborg P. Hobbes on religion // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 346–380. ; Автор пропонує аналіз логічної моделі природного стану в трьох видатних фі-лософів Нового часу та намагається встановити її роль у запропонованих ними концепціях права. Аналіз показує, що в основі всіх трьох моделей лежить одне – концепція незалежного розумного індивіда, саме на ній базуються такі різні вчення про право. Сама концепція індивіда обґрунтування не має. ЛІТЕРАТУРА . Валлон А. Педагогические и психологические идеи романа-трактата Ж.–Ж. Руссо «Эмиль, или О воспитании» // Руссо Ж.-Ж. Педагогические сочинения. Т. 2. – М.: Педагогика, 1981. – С. 269–299. Гоббс Т. О гражданине // Гоббс Т. Сочинения в 2-х тт. Т. 1. – М.: Мысль, 1989. – С. 270–506. Гоббс Т. Левиафан // Гоббс Т. Сочинения в 2-х тт. Т. 2. – М.: Мысль, 1991. – С. 3–545. Кассирер Э. Философия Просвещения. – М.: «Российская политическая энциклопедия» (РОССПЭН), 2004. – 400 c. Леви-Строс К. Руссо – отец антропологии // Леви-Строс К. Первобытное мышление. – М.: Республика, 1994. – С. 19–28. Локк Д. Два трактата о правлении // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 3. – М.: Мысль, 1988а. – С. 135–405. Локк Д. Опыт о человеческом разумении. Ч. І–ІІІ. // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 1. – М.: Мысль, 1985. – С. 78–582. Локк Д. Опыты о законе природы // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 3. – М.: Мысль, 1988b. – С. 3–54. Монтескье Ш.Л. О духе законов / Сост., перевод и комментирование примечаний ав-тора A.B. Матешук. – М.: Мысль, 1999. – 672 с. Руссо Ж.-Ж. Об общественном договоре. Трактаты. – М.: КАНОН-пресс, Кучково по-ле, 1998. – 416 с. Руссо Ж.-Ж. Эмиль, или О воспитании // Руссо Ж.–Ж. Педагогические сочинения. Т. 1. – М.: Педагогика, 1981. – 654 c. Фрагменты ранних стоиков / Составление, перевод и комментарии А. А. Столярова. Т. 3. Ч. 2. – М.: Греко-латинский кабинет Ю. А. Шичалина, 2010. – 267 c. [В ссы-лках – ФРС]. Шмитт К. Левиафан в учении о государстве Томаса Гоббса. – СПб: «Владимир Даль», 2006. – 300 c. Штраус Л. Естественное право и история. – М.: Водолей, 2007. – 312 c. Ashcraft R. Locke's political philosophy // The Cambridge Companion to Locke / Ed. by Vere Chappell. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994. – P. 226–251. Brooke Ch. Rousseau's Political Philosophy: Stoic and Augustinian Origins // The Cam-bridge Companion to Rousseau / Ed. by Patrick Riley. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. – P. 94–123. Gert B. Hobbes's psychology // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes / Ed. by Tom Sorell. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1996. – P. 157–174. Goldsmith M. M. Hobbes on law // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 274–304. Grant H. Hobbes and mathematics // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 108–128. Hobbes T. De Cive. The English version (Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society) / A Critical Edition by H. Warrender. – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987. – 336 p. Hobbes T. De Cive. The Latin Version Entitled in the First Edition Elementorum Philoso-phiae Sectio Tertia de Cive, and in Later Editions Elementa Philosophica de Cive / A Critical Edition by H. Warrender. – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983. – 340 p. Hobbes T. Leviathan / Ed. by M. Missner, D. Kolak. – New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. – 304 p. Locke J. The Second Treatise of Civil Government // Locke J. Political essays / edited by Mark Goldie. – Cambridge, New York : Cambridge UP, 1997. – Р. 54–78. Locke J. An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding / ed. with an introd., critical apparatus and glossary by Peter H. Nidditch. – Oxford: Clarendon Рress, 1975. – 867 р. Locke J. Questions Concerning the Law of Nature / Definitive Latin text, with facing accurate English trans. in Robert Horwitz et al. – Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. – 260 p. Jesseph D. Hobbes and method of natural science // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 86–107. Montesquieu, Ch.-L. de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de De l'esprit des lois / chronologie, introduction, bibliographie par Victor Goldschmidt. – Paris : Garnier, Flammarion, 1979. – 2 vol. – 507 p. + 638 p. Rousseau J.-J. Du Contrat social ou Principe du droit politique / éd. E. Dreyfus-Brisac. – Paris: Félix Alcan, 1896. – 425 p. Rousseau J.-J. Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité parmi les hommes // Rousseau J.-J., Oeuvres. Vol. 2. – P. : Dalibon, 1826. – P. 211–392. Rousseau J.-J. Émile ou de l'Éducation. – Paris: Garnier frères, 1866. – 567 p. Riley P. Rousseau's General Will // The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau…, 2001. – P. 124–153. Ryan A. Hobbes's political philosophy // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 208–245. Shklar J. Men and Citizens: A Study of Rousseau's Social Theory. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1969. – 245 p. Skinner Q. Review Article. Hobbes's «Leviathan» // The Historical Journal. – 1964. – Vol. 7, 2. – P. 321–333. Skinner Q. Hobbes on Persons, Authors and Representatives // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes's Leviathan / Ed. by Patricia Springborg. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007. – P. 157–180. Sorell T. Hobbes's scheme of the sciences // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 45–61. Springborg P. Hobbes on religion // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 346–380.

Fermo restando l'iter della tradizione romanistica nei concetti e nella terminologia utilizzata, il lavoro si sviluppa cercando di capire quanto di questa tradizione - strettamente legata ai valori di persona e di bene comune - sia rimasto nelle infinite modifiche legislative intervenute. L'indagine viene svolta attraverso la presentazione, nei tre capitoli in cui si articola l'elaborato, di tre corrispondenti scenari. Nel primo capitolo, dove lo scenario prospettato è quello storico-giuridico, dopo aver esposto i principi in tema di diritto del lavoro ed esaminato i rapporti di lavoro nel passato storico fino alla nascita dell'impresa moderna in relazione al concetto di persona, l'analisi si incentra sulle origini e sullo sviluppo delle categorie giuridiche di persona, di bene comune e di utilitarismo, che la tradizione romanistica ci ha trasmesso. Queste tre categorie logico-giuridiche rappresentano la linea di fondo dell'elaborato, gli itinera che ne hanno accompagnato lo svolgimento. È con esse che, nel secondo capitolo, si affronta lo studio delle innovazioni tecnologiche introdotte nel mondo del lavoro e della produzione economica (informatizzazione e robotizzazione del sistema produttivo e di mercato). Il nuovo scenario socio-culturale che si delinea assegna, dunque, un ruolo strategico all'elemento tecnologico in tutti i suoi aspetti. Le grandi trasformazioni avvenute, sia nella struttura sociale, per effetto dei mutamenti demografici e del cambiamento dei costumi, delle tradizioni e dei comportamenti, sia nel mondo del lavoro, per effetto dei flussi migratori e delle nuove tecnologie, hanno comportato il superamento di antichi concetti quali, ad esempio, quelli di forza-lavoro e di classe sociale, di marxiana memoria. Continuando nella trattazione, si pone l'accento sul sistema bancario (oggetto di studio del terzo capitolo), tracciando la sua storia nelle diverse epoche ed evidenziando che la sua funzione nel campo produttivo è stata tradita per effetto della nuova politica della deregolamentazione dei mercati voluta dal liberismo e dal neoliberismo, le cui conseguenze sono state devastanti nei mercati globali. Le banche, invero, non si sono più percepite come strumenti per erogare prestiti e mutui alle famiglie ed alle imprese, ma come organismi strutturati per ottimizzare i profitti, speculando su tutto e partecipando ad attività estremamente rischiose. L'analisi critica di tutti gli argomenti trattati porta alla conclusione, evidenziata nelle considerazioni generali, che i principi di bene comune e di utilitarismo, i quali presuppongono la generalità dei cittadini come loro fruitori, sono stati totalmente negletti e superati dal concetto di benessere che si fonda su indicatori quantitativi (crescita industriale, tasso di occupazione o di disoccupazione ed altri) piuttosto che su valori qualitativi. Si è verificata, in sostanza, una degenerazione dell'antico utilitarismo e del bene comune e con essi rischia di annullarsi anche il valore della persona. Ciò ha portato al dissolvimento della tradizionale politica economica e sociale al quale ha contribuito il sistema bancario che, con comportamenti altamente rischiosi, ha sottratto ricchezze immense al sistema produttivo. Il sistema bancario, affinché non sia funzionale soltanto alla propria sopravvivenza, deve recuperare pienamente le meritorie finalità originarie; per far ciò sarà necessario che ritorni sotto una vigilanza costante e concreta. ; It being understood that the tradition of the Roman Right is in the ideas and in the terminology used, the essay tries to understand how much this tradition - strictly linked to the values of person and common good - persists in the various law changes intervened later. The research is carried out through the presentation of three scenarios corresponding to the three chapters into which the book is divided. In the first chapter, of historical-legal matter, the analysis focuses on the origins and development of the judicial categories of person, common good, and utilitarianism bequeathed by the Roman tradition, exposing the principles of the Labour Law and examining the evolution of job reports from the past to the modern industry. The second chapter deals with the technological innovations introduced in the business world and in the economic production (digitalization and computerization of the new productive and trading system). In the new socio-cultural scenario, a new role is appointed to the technological element in all its aspects. The great modifications both in the social structure (due to demographic, cultural and habit changes), and in the business world (due to new technologies and migratory flows), brought to overcoming the ancient concepts of social class and workforce. In the third part the main topic is the banking system, where its evolution is traced along history, and the deception of its function in the productive world, owing to the new policy of market deregulation mostly wanted by Liberalism and Neoliberalism, is highlighted. Banking Institutions are no more perceived as instruments to distribute loans to families and companies, but as structured entities with the aim to optimize profits, taking advantage of everything and taking part in highly dangerous activities. A critical analysis of all the debated topics brings to the conclusion that the principles of common good and utilitarianism have been completely neglected and have been overcome by the concept of wealth, based on quantitative indicators (employment and unemployment rates, industrial growth.) instead of qualitative indicators. Thus, there's been a degeneration of the ancient utilitarianism and of the common well concepts, and there's a high risk that also the value of the person will be cancelled. This aspect, and the change of the banking system behaviour taking consistent wealth from the productive system to engage in risky enterprises, have brought to the end of the traditional economic and social policy. The banking system should resume its meritory initial purpose, not being merely functional to its own survival; to ensure this achievement, it should be carefully and continuously scrutinized. ; Dottorato di ricerca in Persona, impresa e lavoro: principi e tutele di diritto interno, internazionale, comparato e comunitario (XXVI ciclo)

En esta tesis se aborda la historia de la lectura en la escuela primaria argentina en el contexto de la construcción de identidades nacionales entre 1900 y 1940. Para esto, partimos de un análisis de las políticas educativas que se implementaron durante ese período, en tanto marco sociohistórico, para luego abocarnos a un relevamiento exhaustivo de las prácticas de lectura concretas que se llevaron a cabo en las aulas. En esta tesis, entonces, nos ocupamos de relevar en múltiples fuentes los discursos y representaciones sobre la lectura Iiteraria en la escuela desde la perspectiva de funcionarios, pedagogos, docentes y lectores alumnos; el lugar de los dispositivos didácticos en la formación de los lectores en edad escolar y la diversidad de géneros de libros de lectura de acuerdo a los objetivos didácticos. Por otro lado, también nos ocupamos de indagar cuales fueron los modos de leer y practicas de lectura habituales en la escuela y cómo se fue constituyendo el canon de textos Iiterarios que ingresaba en el circuito escolar. En este sentido, tomamos como caso testigo el episodio de censura y traducción cultural a los códigos argentinos de la novela Corazón de Edmundo De Amicis que fue retirada del circuito escolar durante la gestión de Ramos Mejia al frente del Consejo Nacional de Educación por considerar que era una amenaza a la nacionalización cultural y lingüística y fue sustituida por traducciones culturales argentinas. Para esto, analizamos la polémica en tomo a la inclusión de la novela como lectura escolar; las practicas de lectura, apropiaciones y propuestas didácticas en torno al texto y, por ultimo, hacemos un análisis descriptivo comparativo de los textos de las traducciones culturales. Nuestra investigación se enmarca en una perspectiva transdisciplinar y se establecen relaciones con dimensiones políticas, pedagógicas, culturales, sociales e históricas. Para ello fue necesario crear un aparato metodológico cualitativo que diera cuenta de la multiplicidad de fuentes, va sea par el formato -escritas, orales e icónicas- o por el origen -de la burocracia escolar, textos de sistematización didáctica, narrativas de la practica, artículos de revistas pedagógicas y escolares, libros de lectura, etc-. Estas fuentes son analizadas desde una perspectiva textual pero, fundamentalmente, desde una mirada sociocultural que permite acercamos alas micropolíticas escolares, a la vida cotidiana y a aspectos del contexto sociohistórico. En este sentido, nuestra tesis propone dar cuenta de un espacio vacante en la investigación realizada hasta el momento dando cuenta del lugar del lector y su formación como ciudadano argentino a partir de las practicas de lectura escolares; es decir, plantearnos la hipótesis de que durante el periodo estudiado uno de los mecanismos de nacionalización puestos en juego en la escuela fue la utilización del discurso literario y sus practicas de lectura en pos de la argentinización. Además, plantearnos que a pesar de los mecanismos, rituales y modos de intervención del Estado para la nacionalización, los lectores alumnos y los maestros se apropiaron de la literatura desde sus propias experiencias socioculturales, resistiendo al discurso hegemónico ; This thesis deals with the history of reading in Argentinean primary schools within the framework of national identities construction between 1900 and 1940. Firstly, we provide a socio-cultural framework by starting off with an analysis of the education policies that were implemented during that period then, we move on to a thorough survey of the concrete classroom reading practices. Therefore, in this thesis we look into several sources to find out the discourses and representations of school literary reading as seen by officials, pedagogists, teachers and student readers; the role played by didactic devices in the training of school-aged readers and the diversity of reading books genre according to didactic objectives. Also, we explore which ways of reading and reading practices prevailed at school and how the canon of those literary texts that entered into the school circuit came into being. In this sense, our test case will be the censorship and cultural translation undergone by the Argentinean codes of Edmundo De Arnicis's novel Corazón, which was withdrawn from the school circuit during Ramos Mejia's office at the National Education Council because it was considered a threat to cultural and linguistic nationalization. It was replaced by Argentinean cultural translations. We analize the controversy with regard to the inclusion of novels as school readings, reading practices, appropriations and didactic proposals regarding texts and, finally, we carry out a descriptive-comparative analysis of cultural translations texts. Our research is framed within the transdisciplinary perspective; political, pedagogic, cultural, social and historical relations are set. A qualitative methodological device was created to account for the numerous sources, be it because of format - written, oral or iconic- or because of origin - school bureaucracy, didactic systematization texts, narrations of the practice, pedagogic and school magazine articles, reading books and so on. These sources are analyzed textually but above all, socioculturally, which allows us to gain insight into school micropolitics, daily life and aspects of the sociocultural context In this sense, our thesis sets out to account for a vacuum in the research done so far accounting for the role of the reader and the school reading practices meant to turn them into Argentinean citizens, that is, we hypothesize that during the period under investigation one of the nationalization mechanisms at play at school was the use of literary discourse and its reading practices in the Dursuit of Argentinization. Moreover, we Suggest that in spite of the mechanisms, rituals and modes of state intervention to nationalize, student and teacher readers appropriated literature from their own sociocultural experiences, thus resisting the hegemonic discourse ; Fil: Sardi, Valeria. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

En esta tesis se aborda la historia de la lectura en la escuela primaria argentina en el contexto de la construcción de identidades nacionales entre 1900 y 1940. Para esto, partimos de un análisis de las políticas educativas que se implementaron durante ese período, en tanto marco sociohistórico, para luego abocarnos a un relevamiento exhaustivo de las prácticas de lectura concretas que se llevaron a cabo en las aulas. En esta tesis, entonces, nos ocupamos de relevar en múltiples fuentes los discursos y representaciones sobre la lectura Iiteraria en la escuela desde la perspectiva de funcionarios, pedagogos, docentes y lectores alumnos; el lugar de los dispositivos didácticos en la formación de los lectores en edad escolar y la diversidad de géneros de libros de lectura de acuerdo a los objetivos didácticos. Por otro lado, también nos ocupamos de indagar cuales fueron los modos de leer y practicas de lectura habituales en la escuela y cómo se fue constituyendo el canon de textos Iiterarios que ingresaba en el circuito escolar. En este sentido, tomamos como caso testigo el episodio de censura y traducción cultural a los códigos argentinos de la novela Corazón de Edmundo De Amicis que fue retirada del circuito escolar durante la gestión de Ramos Mejia al frente del Consejo Nacional de Educación por considerar que era una amenaza a la nacionalización cultural y lingüística y fue sustituida por traducciones culturales argentinas. Para esto, analizamos la polémica en tomo a la inclusión de la novela como lectura escolar; las practicas de lectura, apropiaciones y propuestas didácticas en torno al texto y, por ultimo, hacemos un análisis descriptivo comparativo de los textos de las traducciones culturales. Nuestra investigación se enmarca en una perspectiva transdisciplinar y se establecen relaciones con dimensiones políticas, pedagógicas, culturales, sociales e históricas. Para ello fue necesario crear un aparato metodológico cualitativo que diera cuenta de la multiplicidad de fuentes, va sea par el formato -escritas, orales e icónicas- o por el origen -de la burocracia escolar, textos de sistematización didáctica, narrativas de la practica, artículos de revistas pedagógicas y escolares, libros de lectura, etc-. Estas fuentes son analizadas desde una perspectiva textual pero, fundamentalmente, desde una mirada sociocultural que permite acercamos alas micropolíticas escolares, a la vida cotidiana y a aspectos del contexto sociohistórico. En este sentido, nuestra tesis propone dar cuenta de un espacio vacante en la investigación realizada hasta el momento dando cuenta del lugar del lector y su formación como ciudadano argentino a partir de las practicas de lectura escolares; es decir, plantearnos la hipótesis de que durante el periodo estudiado uno de los mecanismos de nacionalización puestos en juego en la escuela fue la utilización del discurso literario y sus practicas de lectura en pos de la argentinización. Además, plantearnos que a pesar de los mecanismos, rituales y modos de intervención del Estado para la nacionalización, los lectores alumnos y los maestros se apropiaron de la literatura desde sus propias experiencias socioculturales, resistiendo al discurso hegemónico ; This thesis deals with the history of reading in Argentinean primary schools within the framework of national identities construction between 1900 and 1940. Firstly, we provide a socio-cultural framework by starting off with an analysis of the education policies that were implemented during that period then, we move on to a thorough survey of the concrete classroom reading practices. Therefore, in this thesis we look into several sources to find out the discourses and representations of school literary reading as seen by officials, pedagogists, teachers and student readers; the role played by didactic devices in the training of school-aged readers and the diversity of reading books genre according to didactic objectives. Also, we explore which ways of reading and reading practices prevailed at school and how the canon of those literary texts that entered into the school circuit came into being. In this sense, our test case will be the censorship and cultural translation undergone by the Argentinean codes of Edmundo De Arnicis's novel Corazón, which was withdrawn from the school circuit during Ramos Mejia's office at the National Education Council because it was considered a threat to cultural and linguistic nationalization. It was replaced by Argentinean cultural translations. We analize the controversy with regard to the inclusion of novels as school readings, reading practices, appropriations and didactic proposals regarding texts and, finally, we carry out a descriptive-comparative analysis of cultural translations texts. Our research is framed within the transdisciplinary perspective; political, pedagogic, cultural, social and historical relations are set. A qualitative methodological device was created to account for the numerous sources, be it because of format - written, oral or iconic- or because of origin - school bureaucracy, didactic systematization texts, narrations of the practice, pedagogic and school magazine articles, reading books and so on. These sources are analyzed textually but above all, socioculturally, which allows us to gain insight into school micropolitics, daily life and aspects of the sociocultural context In this sense, our thesis sets out to account for a vacuum in the research done so far accounting for the role of the reader and the school reading practices meant to turn them into Argentinean citizens, that is, we hypothesize that during the period under investigation one of the nationalization mechanisms at play at school was the use of literary discourse and its reading practices in the Dursuit of Argentinization. Moreover, we Suggest that in spite of the mechanisms, rituals and modes of state intervention to nationalize, student and teacher readers appropriated literature from their own sociocultural experiences, thus resisting the hegemonic discourse ; Fil: Sardi, Valeria. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

En esta tesis se aborda la historia de la lectura en la escuela primaria argentina en el contexto de la construcción de identidades nacionales entre 1900 y 1940. Para esto, partimos de un análisis de las políticas educativas que se implementaron durante ese período, en tanto marco sociohistórico, para luego abocarnos a un relevamiento exhaustivo de las prácticas de lectura concretas que se llevaron a cabo en las aulas. En esta tesis, entonces, nos ocupamos de relevar en múltiples fuentes los discursos y representaciones sobre la lectura Iiteraria en la escuela desde la perspectiva de funcionarios, pedagogos, docentes y lectores alumnos; el lugar de los dispositivos didácticos en la formación de los lectores en edad escolar y la diversidad de géneros de libros de lectura de acuerdo a los objetivos didácticos. Por otro lado, también nos ocupamos de indagar cuales fueron los modos de leer y practicas de lectura habituales en la escuela y cómo se fue constituyendo el canon de textos Iiterarios que ingresaba en el circuito escolar. En este sentido, tomamos como caso testigo el episodio de censura y traducción cultural a los códigos argentinos de la novela Corazón de Edmundo De Amicis que fue retirada del circuito escolar durante la gestión de Ramos Mejia al frente del Consejo Nacional de Educación por considerar que era una amenaza a la nacionalización cultural y lingüística y fue sustituida por traducciones culturales argentinas. Para esto, analizamos la polémica en tomo a la inclusión de la novela como lectura escolar; las practicas de lectura, apropiaciones y propuestas didácticas en torno al texto y, por ultimo, hacemos un análisis descriptivo comparativo de los textos de las traducciones culturales. Nuestra investigación se enmarca en una perspectiva transdisciplinar y se establecen relaciones con dimensiones políticas, pedagógicas, culturales, sociales e históricas. Para ello fue necesario crear un aparato metodológico cualitativo que diera cuenta de la multiplicidad de fuentes, va sea par el formato -escritas, orales e icónicas- o por el origen -de la burocracia escolar, textos de sistematización didáctica, narrativas de la practica, artículos de revistas pedagógicas y escolares, libros de lectura, etc-. Estas fuentes son analizadas desde una perspectiva textual pero, fundamentalmente, desde una mirada sociocultural que permite acercamos alas micropolíticas escolares, a la vida cotidiana y a aspectos del contexto sociohistórico. En este sentido, nuestra tesis propone dar cuenta de un espacio vacante en la investigación realizada hasta el momento dando cuenta del lugar del lector y su formación como ciudadano argentino a partir de las practicas de lectura escolares; es decir, plantearnos la hipótesis de que durante el periodo estudiado uno de los mecanismos de nacionalización puestos en juego en la escuela fue la utilización del discurso literario y sus practicas de lectura en pos de la argentinización. Además, plantearnos que a pesar de los mecanismos, rituales y modos de intervención del Estado para la nacionalización, los lectores alumnos y los maestros se apropiaron de la literatura desde sus propias experiencias socioculturales, resistiendo al discurso hegemónico ; This thesis deals with the history of reading in Argentinean primary schools within the framework of national identities construction between 1900 and 1940. Firstly, we provide a socio-cultural framework by starting off with an analysis of the education policies that were implemented during that period then, we move on to a thorough survey of the concrete classroom reading practices. Therefore, in this thesis we look into several sources to find out the discourses and representations of school literary reading as seen by officials, pedagogists, teachers and student readers; the role played by didactic devices in the training of school-aged readers and the diversity of reading books genre according to didactic objectives. Also, we explore which ways of reading and reading practices prevailed at school and how the canon of those literary texts that entered into the school circuit came into being. In this sense, our test case will be the censorship and cultural translation undergone by the Argentinean codes of Edmundo De Arnicis's novel Corazón, which was withdrawn from the school circuit during Ramos Mejia's office at the National Education Council because it was considered a threat to cultural and linguistic nationalization. It was replaced by Argentinean cultural translations. We analize the controversy with regard to the inclusion of novels as school readings, reading practices, appropriations and didactic proposals regarding texts and, finally, we carry out a descriptive-comparative analysis of cultural translations texts. Our research is framed within the transdisciplinary perspective; political, pedagogic, cultural, social and historical relations are set. A qualitative methodological device was created to account for the numerous sources, be it because of format - written, oral or iconic- or because of origin - school bureaucracy, didactic systematization texts, narrations of the practice, pedagogic and school magazine articles, reading books and so on. These sources are analyzed textually but above all, socioculturally, which allows us to gain insight into school micropolitics, daily life and aspects of the sociocultural context In this sense, our thesis sets out to account for a vacuum in the research done so far accounting for the role of the reader and the school reading practices meant to turn them into Argentinean citizens, that is, we hypothesize that during the period under investigation one of the nationalization mechanisms at play at school was the use of literary discourse and its reading practices in the Dursuit of Argentinization. Moreover, we Suggest that in spite of the mechanisms, rituals and modes of state intervention to nationalize, student and teacher readers appropriated literature from their own sociocultural experiences, thus resisting the hegemonic discourse ; Fil: Sardi, Valeria. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

Mass settlement of Latvian rural inhabitants in towns and cities started just a little more than a hundred years ago, therefore bond with nature is a specifically Latvian identity sign. Studying the peculiarities of a nation, garden and plants give an opportunity to see and understand what is hard to get in a direct way as garden reveals the hidden and open processes that have taken place and are still happening in the economic, political, and social life of an individual person or the whole society. To form a perspective on the plants existing in the cultural environment as a socially significant phenomenon in Latvian identity development and preservation, in 2008 interdisciplinary research "Plants as a sign of Latvian identity" was initiated in Latvia.The present article "Plants as a sign of Latgalian identity in cultural landscape, writing, and stories" covers the results of the fifth cycle of the above mentioned research. The goal of the research was to make out which plants are assumed to be the sign of Latgalian identity. The authors of the present paper were interested in singling out the factors that were considered essential by respondents in the formation of the notion of Latgalian plants, the colours believed to belong with Latgalian garden. Collecting stories was also considered important because not everything is preserved in written sources and, as the previous studies revealed, respondents' stories were those that made it possible to understand the role of plants in the sustaining of identity. The research made use of questionnaire and written interview. The obtained results were analyzed by means of the comparative method using evidence of the cultural landscape, popular works by Latgalian authors, press periodicals published in Latgalian, literature in horticulture and gardening, archive materials of the Open-Air Ethnographical Museum of Latvia, internet resources, postcards from the private collection of Andrejs Svilāns and the prior results gained within the interdisciplinary research "Plants as a sign of Latvian identity". We set to reveal in the research what opportunities for investigating Latgalian identity are offered by the plants grown in the cultural landscape of Latgale and the way the obtained results extend the existing studies of Latvian identity.Summarizing the results of 93 questionnaires and oral interviews, 139 diversities were recognized as Latgalian plants including 54 caulescent plants – decorative plants, 35 vulnerary plants and herbs, 22 trees and 28 shrubs. The notion of the Latgalian as well as Latvian plants, according to the respondents, has been formed mostly by the gardens seen by their parents, grandparents, relatives as well as their stories. The impact of fiction and classical folklore is recognized as most essential in case of Latvian plants. The plants growing in the cultural landscape used by writers of fiction are signs that are understood and unite people belonging to a particular cultural space, they function as symbols of Latgale and the native homestead. Works produced both in Latgalian and Latvian literary language by Latgalian authors have cultivated and continue to cultivate Latgalian self-awareness, but print bans and works produced before emigration and during emigration by Latgalian writers have attributed specific worth to fiction and folklore.The research revealed that identity signs are rather stable; both Latvian and Latgalian plants were most often assumed to be those grown by a couple of preceding generations – basically at the end of the 19th –beginning of the 20th century in estate and peasant gardens. These plants are considered to be Latgalian though their origin in most cases is not the local flora. At the same time in their replies to the question what should not be grown in a Latgalian garden respondents replied – "foreign plants", meaning plants that had entered rural homesteads later on (in recent decades).The research showed that, unlike respondents from other regions, Latgalians perceive their regional landscape in a more syncretic way, not excluding plants that, due to some stereotypical notions or symbolism, do not "fit" into it, e. g. alders, asps, osiers, etc.Traditions are formed in a long-term period, but those originated in the second half of the 19th century had a special significance. Under conditions of Russification, they helped to maintain Latgalian identity, also planting particular plant combinations in line with the notion of a Latgalian garden.The information concerning plants grown in peasant homesteads in Latgale is rather scarce in the materials of the Open-Air Ethnographical Museum of Latvia, as compared to other regions. Investigation of detached homestead and village garden cultures might be a task of the further research, as village was a closed community that maintained Latvian traditions.The research brought out several debatable issues that remain unanswered. To find answers to them, a necessity to address directly the supplier of information emerged clearly in further research as well as to prepare visual material – photographs, drawings that would make it easier to identify plants and reduce the problem of taxonomic differentiation that appeared in the preceding research. For instance, it is not clear where is the border between "briar-roses" – wild rose species (Rosa sp.) and cultivated rose species and old cultivars as well as between willows (Salix fragilis), pussy willows (S. caprea or S. acutifolia x daphnoides 'Pashal') a. o. taxa of the genus Salix.The present paper does not pretend to provide an exhaustive study and analysis of the factors affecting the notion of the Latgalian plants. This is the task of further studies, as, according to the prior studies of Latvian plants, each such factor is worth a separate voluminous research.The authors of the present paper intend to proceed with the studies of garden culture as well as collecting the Latgalian names of plants grown at home, in the garden, growing in the forest, meadow, field, studying the use of plants and their economic and social significance as well as collecting stories in order to preserve this non-material culture legacy as complete and correct as possible. We hope that the paper will encourage researchers of various fields to participate in the study to use the opportunities provided by garden plants for a more unusual insight.

In this e-book I have collected some papers written for and presented at conferences and seminars during the latter years. Together with Working Papers published at the Department of Thematic Studies–Technology and social change, Linköping University, they were all part of a larger scheme of writing a history of the Swedish electricity system circa 1880–2010. That project sought to fulfil three aims: A discussion around Hughes' theory of "system" and "momentum"; A critical focus on deregulation; A critical study of the role of electricity in the conversion of the Swedish energy system towards "sustainability". As that book was intended to be written in Swedish, and papers have been written in English, it seems as a good idea to collect the English papers in one volume. So, the following texts can be seen as a draft of a book yet unwritten, but they are too disparate to be completely integrated. Therefore, papers are still individual papers in this volume. The first two papers deals with the long-term development of Swedish electricity production and the advantages and short-comings of Hughes' theory on sociotechnical systems: Did the electricity system become an unstoppable and growing force in society? Well, yes, but it met resistance. The following two focuses on deregulation: What happened when expectations of homo economicus hit real consumers? And: Can theory become reality? In short, my answer is that institutions changed, but people did not, at least not very much. The last one focus on total energy use and the role of electricity in that: Are improvements in energy efficiency useless? No, energy use has stagnated since the 1970s. After the papers I have added some afterthoughts. The main points of the first paper is that I present the many different meanings Thomas Hughes put into the concept of "momentum". Here I suggest that one of these is the most promising, but also that optimization through the pooling of power resources is based on fundamental characteristics of power production which I call "coping with variations". Another aspect on investments in electric power facilities, especially during the early period, was the heavy prime costs for the network, which explains why cables were laid out first in densely populated areas. I try to explain why these distribution costs fell dramatically from the 1920s to the 1950s. This has implications for the diffusion of the use of electricity outside big consumers like large industries, but also for pricing and purposes of pricing. The second paper is quite close to the momentum-discussion of the first paper, but here I suggest a distinction between "system growth" on one hand and "capacity growth" on the other. The basic idea is simple: The former refers to extensions of the electricity network from local to regional to national and international levels, the latter refers to the growth in size and capacity of power stations. While the network has continued to grow through interconnections without interruption, capacity growth met resistance from the environmental movement, especially in the 1960s and 1970s. This calls for a change in Hughes' idea of momentum as a purely internal mechanism leaving the relation to the political environment aside. The third and fourth papers discusses deregulation of the electricity industry in Sweden. The third has a focus on households as customers, and their propensity to act as the homo economicus expected of them. This analysis is done in terms of transaction costs. The result is, of course, a contrast to the abstract consumer in the liberal economic and neoclassical vision. There are always transaction costs, this is no surprise really, but it is still necessary to point at this fact as liberal and neoclassical economics has no room for such costs. However, I also point at the possibility of householders adapting to homo economicus. As this abstraction is necessary for the alleged self-regulating mechanisms of the perfect market, learning to act on the deregulated market opens for the neoclassical market to be realized despite its unrealistic character. The fourth paper takes this idea further. In discussion with the concept of "performativity" I point at facts supporting the notion of implementation of neoclassical ideas into the real market. There was close interaction between the practice of pricing electricity within the industry and academic economist's ideas of pricing principles. However, interactions does not necessarily lead to complete integration, there seem to be a fundamental difference between a preference for stable prices among "engineer-economists" and the preference for fluctuating prices in the short term among academic economists. The last paper is focused on the problems of energy efficiency. Improving efficiency is often mentioned in policy documents and research reports as one of the most important areas of action to solve environmental problems of today. Let me remind the reader here that I do not reduce environmental problems to the problem of global warming as "sustainable" energy sources also have negative environmental effects, albeit of a milder kind. In this paper I point at the role of all those energy-converting gadgets that we use daily, at least in the Western world, such as cars, dwellings and lamps. This study has its origin in my project on efficient lighting and the phase-out of the incandescent light bulb. The phase-out solves the problem of lock-in to a preferred and low-cost technology, and directs the change of the lighting stock to low-wattage alternatives. The paper is an effort in generalization to cars and heating of dwellings of this focus on a changing stock. The reason for doing so is that data on energy intensity falls in many countries from the 1970s onwards, at a time when environmental problems became prominent in policies. After the fifth paper follows a few afterthoughts brought to mind when papers were put together: On the character of sociotechnical system; On the role of the environmental movement and policies; And on the alleged importance of householders' "behaviour" when improvements in energy efficiency is discussed.