Suchergebnisse

The design and construction of CARMENES has been presented at previous SPIE conferences. It is a next-generation radial-velocity instrument at the 3.5m telescope of the Calar Alto Observatory, which was built by a consortium of eleven Spanish and German institutions. CARMENES consists of two separate échelle spectrographs covering the wavelength range from 0.52 to 1.71¿m at a spec-tral resolution of R < 80,000, fed by fibers from the Cassegrain focus of the telescope. CARMENES saw ¿First Light¿ on Nov 9, 2015. During the commissioning and initial operation phases, we established basic performance data such as throughput and spectral resolution. We found that our hollow-cathode lamps are suitable for precise wavelength calibration, but their spectra contain a number of lines of neon or argon that are so bright that the lamps cannot be used in simultaneous exposures with stars. We have therefore adopted a calibration procedure that uses simultaneous star / Fabry Pérot etalon exposures in combination with a cross-calibration between the etalons and hollow-cathode lamps during daytime. With this strategy it has been possible to achieve 1-2 m/s precision in the visible and 5-10 m/s precision in the near-IR; further improvements are expected from ongoing work on temperature control, calibration procedures and data reduction. Comparing the RV precision achieved in different wavelength bands, we find a ¿sweet spot¿ between 0.7 and 0.8¿m, where deep TiO bands provide rich RV information in mid-M dwarfs. This is in contrast to our pre-survey models, which predicted comparatively better performance in the near-IR around 1¿m, and explains in part why our near-IR RVs do not reach the same precision level as those taken with the visible spectrograph. We are now conducting a large survey of 340 nearby M dwarfs (with an average distance of only 12pc), with the goal of finding terrestrial planets in their habitable zones. We have detected the signatures of several previously known or suspected planets and also discovered several new planets. We find that the radial velocity periodograms of many M dwarfs show several significant peaks. The development of robust methods to distinguish planet signatures from activity-induced radial velocity jitter is therefore among our priorities. Due to its large wavelength coverage, the CARMENES survey is generating a unique data set for studies of M star atmospheres, rotation, and activity. The spectra cover important diagnostic lines for activity (H alpha, Na I D1 and D2, and the Ca II infrared triplet), as well as FeH lines, from which the magnetic field can be inferred. Correlating the time series of these features with each other, and with wavelength-dependent radial velocities, provides excellent handles for the discrimination between planetary companions and stellar radial velocity jitter. These data are also generating new insight into the physical properties of M dwarf atmospheres, and the impact of activity and flares on the habitability of M star planets. © 2018 SPIE. ; CARMENES is an instrument for the Centro Astronomico Hispano-Aleman de Calar Alto (CAHA, Almeria, Spain). CARMENES is funded by the German Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (MPG), the Spanish Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC), the European Union through FEDER/ERF FICTS-2011-02 funds, and the members of the CARMENES Consortium (Max-Planck-Institut fur Astronomie, Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia, Landessternwarte Konigstuhl, Institut de Ciencies de l'Espai, Insitut fur Astrophysik Gottingen, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Thuringer Landessternwarte Tautenburg, Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, Hamburger Sternwarte, Centro de Astrobiologia and Centro Astronomico Hispano-Aleman), with additional contributions by the Spanish Ministry of Science, the German Science Foundation through the Major Research Instrumentation Program and DFG Research Unit FOR2544 "Blue Planets around Red Stars", the Klaus Tschira Stiftung, the states of Baden-Wurttemberg and Niedersachsen, and by the Junta de Andalucia.

This thesis examines the effects of the concerted language policy that was developed and implemented by successive French governments in the second half of the 20th century. As a response to the perceived threat of the pre-eminence of the English language in so many different areas of modern life, the French state has, for nearly half a century, sought to secure the place of the French language in the present and the future by developing a series of commissions charged with recommending French technical terms to supplant borrowed or native forms considered to be inadequate, or name new inventions and concepts. The first part of this thesis describes the terminological planning undertaken in France and demonstrates that it is the product of a long series of interventions by the French state in matters of language. This thesis seeks to evaluate the real-world efficacy of terminological planning carried out in France, by identify the factors that facilitate or hinder the implantation of recommended terms. Drawing on similar studies on the real-world results of terminological planning activities in various specialised domains and involving different languages, a variety of different factors supposed to influence the implantation of specialised terms is identified. Methodologies developed in the literature are enhanced to provide a more nuanced and reliable appreciation of the implantation of recommended terms. The first part of this thesis concludes with the enunciation of the general and specific hypotheses and the justification of the choice of the specialised domain to which the studied terms belong. The second part of this thesis then describes the terminological and documentary corpora compiled and details the methodology by which the corpora are exploited, and the results gathered, managed and analysed.This thesis then describes the influence of different factors on the implantation of the recommended terms of space sciences and technologies. After comparing the global trends observed in the data with those observed in other studies, the influences of terminological, socioterminological and procedural factor are studied in turn. Several factors of each type are found to be involved in the successful implantation of some recommended terms, and certain factors studied are found to favour to the implantation of recommended terms, previous studies having found or supposed the opposite. No single factor examined is found to be sufficient to guarantee, alone, the successful implantation of a recommended term, implantation depending on numerous factors, their interplay and their trade-offs. ; La première partie de cette thèse décrit l'aménagement terminologique en France et démontre que cet aménagement fait la suite d'une longue série d'interventions par l'État en matière linguistique. Tirant profit des études s'intéressant aux résultats d'autres entreprises d'aménagement terminologique dans domaines et langues différents, une variété de facteurs supposés exercer une influence sur l'implantation des termes spécialisés est identifiée. Les méthodologies développées dans les études précédentes sont mises au point pour permettre des appréciations plus nuancées et fiables de l'implantation terminologique. La première partie de cette thèse se conclut par l'énonciation de notre hypothèse principale, de nos hypothèses spécifiques et de la justification du choix du domaine spécialisé auquel appartiennent les termes étudiés. Dans sa deuxième partie, cette thèse décrit les corpus terminologique et documentaire constitués ainsi que la méthodologie par laquelle ils sont exploités et les données obtenues, gérées et analysées.La troisième partie de cette thèse décrit l'influence de nombreux facteurs sur l'implantation des termes recommandés des sciences et techniques spatiales. Après avoir comparé les tendances générales dans les données avec celles des autres études, l'influence des facteurs terminologiques, socioterminologiques et procéduraux est étudiée à tour de rôle. Plusieurs facteurs de chaque type sont impliqués dans l'implantation réussie de certains termes recommandés. Il est également démontré que certains facteurs favorisent l'implantation contrairement aux constats d'autres études. Aucun des facteurs examinés n'est, à lui seul, capable de garantir l'implantation d'un terme recommandé, l'implantation dépendant de nombreux facteurs, leurs interactions et les compromis qu'ils engendrent.

This article is devoted to the interpretation of the Sintashta and Petrovka sites of the Bronze Age. The purpose of the study is to test a hypothesis regarding the appearance and functioning of a frontier in the Southern Urals between the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. This concept has undergone significant changes and is used for the analysis of not only states but also pre-state societies. A frontier should be considered as a multicultural territory, a zone of stereotypes differing from those of neighbouring groups and original traditions. The presence of conflicts is one of the most characteristic features of the phenomenon. In historical perspective, the system of cultural stereotypes can be reproduced long after the frontier itself ceases to function. The facts accumulated so far can help us reach a new level of understanding. Archaeological sources are represented by fortified settlements and burial grounds; their distribution is very compact. Various types of monuments illustrate very well the high degree of population concentration, the variability of cultural stereotypes, social heterogeneity, the development of the military sphere (including its manifestations in the ideological sphere), etc. Thus, the Sintashta sites can be viewed as a result of the functioning of a specific type of frontier, which determined the influence of traditions and their long-term reproduction. Their evolution was due to the peculiarities of adaptation; as a result, highly concentrated populations were rejected and the forms of social complexity changed. ; Работа посвящена интерпретации синташтинских и петровских памятников бронзового века. Цель исследования – тестирование гипотезы о возникновении и функционировании фронтира в период конца III – начала II тыс. до н. э. на территории Южного Урала. Установлено, что концепция претерпела существенные изменения и используется при анализе не только государств, но и догосударственных социумов. Фронтир должен рассматриваться как территория мультикультурности, зона формирования стереотипов, которые отличны от соседствующих групп и исходных традиций. Наличие конфликтов – одна из наиболее характерных черт феномена. В исторической перспективе в период существования фронтира сложившаяся система культурных стереотипов может длительно воспроизводиться после завершения его функционирования. Накопленная к настоящему времени сумма фактов позволяет выйти на новый уровень осмысления древностей рассматриваемого региона. Археологические источники представлены укрепленными поселениями и могильниками, ареал распространения которых очень компактен. Разнотипные памятники хорошо иллюстрируют высокую степень концентрации населения, вариативность культурных стереотипов, социальную неоднородность, развитие военного дела (включая его манифестации в идеологической сфере) и др. Последнее сочетается с отсутствием следов реальных военных столкновений и единичными примерами военного травматизма. Происхождение рассматриваемой группы явно миграционное, а следов взаимодействия с субстратным населением крайне мало. Таким образом, налицо совпадение признаков, сформулированных сторонниками фронтира, и археологических данных: миграционный сценарий, высокий уровень развития военной сферы, культурная вариативность. Синташтинские традиции (за вычетом яркого проявления военной сферы) нашли свое продолжение в следующий хронологический период и распространились на огромной территории. Наряду с этим, имеются и расхождения: практически нет следов реальных столкновений, следы взаимодействия с субстратным населением фиксируются минимально. По мнению автора, причин несоответствия представлениям о «классическом» фронтире несколько. Во-первых, несмотря на высокий для бронзового века уровень социальной сложности, невозможно обсуждать местные древности в терминах государства, даже с добавлениями «раннее» или «формирующееся». Во-вторых, археологический источник далеко не в полной мере отражает реалии, это неизбежно влияет на степень обоснованности заключений. Однако вполне очевидно, что рассматриваемые материалы не укладываются в рамки понятия «археологическая культура». В-третьих, свою роль сыграла конкретная историческая ситуация. Военизированная культура мигрантов оказалась избыточной в условиях минимального противодействия местного населения, имевшего принципиально иной уклад экономики и социальную организацию, которые не предполагали концентрации людских ресурсов и развития сложных технологий. Таким образом, синташтинские памятники могут быть рассмотрены как результат функционирования специфической разновидности фронтира, что определило влиятельность этих традиций и их длительное воспроизведение. Эволюция была обусловлена особенностями адаптационных процессов, в результате произошли отказ от высокой концентрации населения и изменение форм социальной сложности.

Taking into account the analysis of scientific pedagogical sources, the article summarizes the views on the formation of preschool speech therapy in the period from 1945 to 1959. The data on the main tendencies of its development in the village are specified, the problems connected with the training of speech therapy staff oriented in their work to pre-school children living in rural areas are outlined. It is noted that the development of the system of preschool education institutions, as one of the organizational forms of providing speech therapy in rural areas, in the first post-war years largely depended on the decisions of the government of the country. The position of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR wasquite active in this in the 1950s. With a view of qualitative preparation ofchildren for school the question on creation of stationary rural kindergartens was discussed. It is established that the tasks, content and methods of educational andeducational work in mass kindergartens in accordance with the guidelines for all age groups have become more specific and specific. Despite the fact that they contained sections on the development of the native language, problems ofalinguistic nature, basically, remained without attention of their workers. Logopedic preschool aid was not formed. Only here and there it was provided byeducators of mass kindergartens and speech therapy centers, aimed at providing speech therapy to schoolchildren and children of older groups of kindergartens. Work in rural area in this direction was not conducted. It was noted that the purposeful preparation of speech therapists in the higher education system of Ukraine was notcarried out. The first set of students in the specialty «Defectology. Oligophrenopedagogy and speech therapy» with the qualification of a special school teacher and speech therapist was held only in 1957–1958 school year. Preparation ofdefectologists of preschool institutions in Ukraine in the 50's was not conducted and was not planned in the near future. ; С учетом анализа научного педагогических источников в статье обобщены взгляды на процессы формирования дошкольной логопедической помощи в период с 1945 по 1959 гг. Уточнены данные об основных тенденциях ее развития на селе, очерчены проблемы, связанные с подготовкой логопедических кадров, ориентированных в своей работе на детей дошкольного возраста, проживающих в сельской местности. Установлено, что задачи, содержание и методы образовательно-воспитательной работы в массовых детских садах в соответствии с руководящими положениями по всем возрастным группам стали более конкретными и определенными. Несмотря на то, что они содержали разделы по развитию родного языка, проблемы языкового характера, в основном, оставались без внимания их работников. Логопедическая дошкольная помощь не была сформирована. Лишь кое-где еепредоставляли воспитатели массовых детских садов и логопедические пункты, ориентированные на предоставление логопедической помощи школьникам и детям старших групп детских садов. Работа в селах в этом направлении не велась. Отмечено, что целенаправленная подготовка логопедов в системе высшего образования Украины не производилась. Первый набор студентов по специальности «Дефектология. Олигофренопедагогика илогопедия» сполучением квалификации учитель специальной школы илогопед состоялся только в 1957–1958 учебном году. Подготовка дефектологов дошкольных учреждений в Украине в 50-хгг. не проводилась ивближайшее время не планировалась. ; З урахуванням аналізу наукового-педагогічних джерел у статті узагальнено погляди на процеси формування дошкільної логопедичної допомоги в період з 1945 по 1959 рр., уточнено дані про основні тенденції їїрозвитку на селі, окреслено проблеми, пов'язані з підготовною логопедичних кадрів, зорієнтованих у своїй роботі на дітей дошкільного віку, що мешкають усільській місцевості. Встановлено, що завдання, зміст і методи освітньо-виховної роботи в масових дитячих садках відповідно до керівних положень завсіма віковими групами стали більш конкретними і визначеними. Незважаючи на те, що вони містили розділи з розвитку рідної мови, проблеми мовного характеру, в основному, залишалися поза увагою їх працівників. Логопедична дошкільна допомога ще не була сформована. Лише де-не-де їїнадавали вихователі масових дитячих садів та логопедичні пункти, зорієнтовані на надання логопедичної допомоги школярам і дітям старших груп дитячих садків. Робота в селах з цього напрямку не велася. Відзначено, щоцілеспрямована підготовка логопедів в системі вищої освіти України нездійснювалася. Перший набір студентів за спеціальністю «Дефектологія. Олигофренопедагогика і логопедія» з отриманням кваліфікації вчитель спеціальної школи і логопед відбувся тільки в 1957–1958 навчальному році. Підготовка дефектологів дошкільних установ в Україні в 50-хрр. непроводилася і найближчим часом не планувалася.

In the modern world, which seeks social, national and gender equality, the problem of single mothers and homeless children is still urgent. Even though a woman of the third millennium is no longer condemned for bringing up a child without a father and not married, and such children are no longer called bastards, the presence of single-parent families still affects the development of the child's personality and the perception of his/her society. But before getting the right not to be social pariahs, single mothers had to go a long way, full of physical punishment, exile and public condemnation.The second problem that we would like to raise in the article is the appearance of the world of illegitimate children and the state's attitude to this problem. It is important to find out what was the num- ber of abandoned children in Ukraine in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, whether this was a pan-European scale phenomenon, how the state worried about such children in the shelters. The experi- ence of the past will help to find ways to solve the problem of single mothers in modern times.Pokrytka (from the word «cover», «pokryvaty» – in Ukrainian ) is the old folk name of the girl who lost her virginity («wreath»), gave birth to an illegitimate child.The peasants sharply negated the extra-marriageable fertility. If the girl had an illegitimate child, then she and her family were expected to be a shame, a hatred of fellow villagers, and if she had no family, then poverty. The mother of the sinner's parents often turned away from her and her child. Often she was forced to leave the village, move to the city, become a prostitute, throw a child or desperate to kill him/her. Women who had to give birth not from their husbands, tried to cause artificial miscarriage, often turned to harlots.In the funds of the State Archives of Zhytomyr region, we find many cases of «killing the child». Most often, a woman went on such a step, if she had intimate relations with a married man, with a master, another unmarried peasant or a servant, could not financially provide her child, etc. Russian legislation severely punished women for such steps, especially during the feud days. Russian pre-Soviet historian Ivan Janzhul noted three reasons for the increase in the number of illegitimate children in any society: 1) the degree of development and well-being of the people in connection with its laws and institutions; 2) some local customs; 3) special occasional conditions, such as: accumulation and prolonged stay of troops in a certain area, significant emigration.So, the single mother in the XIX – early twentieth century remained a social pariah in the rural envi- ronment, although the attitude towards her and the children born to her, over time, still somewhat improved. An explanation of this should be sought in the modernization processes that encompassed Russian society in the second half of the nineteenth century, the world processes of emancipation and the gradual expansion of the principles of the traditional family. Urbanization calls for single mothers in cities where the moral teachings of a traditional society are not so effective, which is not threatened with public condemnation.The problem of abandoned children in Russian and Ukrainian society became urgent in the late nineteenth century. Every issue of the newspapers was reported by the children left to their fate in Kyiv, Zhytomyr, Berdychiv, and others like that. Orphan houses and shelters did not contain such a large number of bastards, requiring expansion and repair. However, the functions of the state in regulating this issue were more formal in nature. The maximum responsibility for caring for these children was assumed by the public. ; У статті розглянуто особливості правового статусу матерів-одиначок (покриток) у ХІХ – на початку ХХ ст. крізь призму традиційного українського світогляду. Продемонстровано статистичні дані щодо чисельності підкинутих дітей у різних країнах світу. Доведено, що причини появи великої кількості позашлюбних дітей варто шукати в процесах урбанізації, індустріалізації та емансипації російського суспільства кінця ХІХ – початку ХХ ст.

We described physical activity measures and hourly patterns in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) after stratification for generic and COPD-specific characteristics and, based on multiple physical activity measures, we identified clusters of patients. In total, 1001 patients with COPD (65% men; age, 67 years; forced expiratory volume in the first second [FEV1], 49% predicted) were studied cross-sectionally. Demographics, anthropometrics, lung function and clinical data were assessed. Daily physical activity measures and hourly patterns were analysed based on data from a multisensor armband. Principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis were applied to physical activity measures to identify clusters. Age, body mass index (BMI), dyspnoea grade and ADO index (including age, dyspnoea and airflow obstruction) were associated with physical activity measures and hourly patterns. Five clusters were identified based on three PCA components, which accounted for 60% of variance of the data. Importantly, couch potatoes (i.e. the most inactive cluster) were characterised by higher BMI, lower FEV1, worse dyspnoea and higher ADO index compared to other clusters (p < 0.05 for all). Daily physical activity measures and hourly patterns are heterogeneous in COPD. Clusters of patients were identified solely based on physical activity data. These findings may be useful to develop interventions aiming to promote physical activity in COPD. ; The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: RM is supported by the National Council of Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Brazil (246704/2012-8). DB holds a Canada Research Chair, Canada. SSCK was funded by the Medical Research Council, UK. WD-CM was funded by the Medical Research Council, UK, and the National Institute for Health Research, UK. MSP was supported by an unrestricted research grant from Astra Zeneca. KCF is supported by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), Brazil. SZ, DM, SD and JDL were supported by the following foundations: 'Gottfried und Julia Bangerter-Rhyner-Stiftung', 'Freiwillige Akademische Gesellschaft Basel' and 'Forschungsfonds der Universitat Basel', Switzerland. DS was supported by GSK and by the Medical Research Council, UK (G0701628). FP is supported by CNPq, Brazil. PRE was supported by an NHMRC Research Fellowship, Australia (1042341). MIP's contribution to this manuscript was funded by the NIHR Respiratory Biomedical Research Unit at the Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation Trust and Imperial College, UK. EFMW was supported by Point-One funding from AgentschapNL, Dutch Ministry of Economic affairs, the Netherlands. AWV was supported by 'Stichting de Weijerhorst' and Point-One funding from AgentschapNL, Dutch Ministry of Economic affairs, Netherlands. MAS was supported by Point-One funding from AgentschapNL, Dutch Ministry of Economic affairs, the Netherlands. Part of the data was sponsored by GlaxoSmithKline (data from the ECLIPSE cohort sub-study). Data from Ireland was supported by Beaumont Foundation, Ireland and SwordMedical Ltd, Ireland. The Australian sites were supported by a National Health and Medical Research Grant, Australia (grant no.: 570814). Part of the data collection in the UK (data from Leicester) was supported by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Leicestershire, Northamptonshire and Rutland Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care and took place at University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, UK, and by the NIHR Leicester Respiratory Biomedical Research Unit, UK. Data from the PAC-COPD study was funded by grants from the following Spanish institutions: Fondo de Investigacion Sanitaria, Ministry of Health (FIS PI020541); Agencia d'Avaluacio de Tecnologia i Recerca Mediques, Catalonia Government (AATRM 035/20/02); Spanish Society of Pneumology and Thoracic Surgery (SEPAR 2002/137); Catalan Foundation of Pneumology (FUCAP 2003 Beca Maria Rava); Red RESPIRA (RTIC C03/11); Red RCESP (RTIC C03/09), Fondo de Investigacion Sanitaria (PI052486); Fondo de Investigacion Sanitaria (PI052302); Fundacio La Marato de TV3 (No. 041110); and DURSI (2005SGR00392); and by unrestricted educational grants from Novartis Farmaceutica and AstraZeneca Farmaceutica.

Introduction. The full functioning market economy is not possible without a developed insurance institutions that minimize the inevitable inherent market risks and contradictions. The instability of the socio-economic situation in Ukraine makes the problem of development of insurance services is urgent. Life insurance is an important focus of the vast majority of insurance markets of developed countries and an important component in the system of insurance protection interests.Purpose is an analysis of modern market of life-insurance condition in Ukraine, activity of insurance companies and exposures of problems, that restrain development of insurance.Methods that was used for writing of the article : analysis and synthesis (drawn conclusion about the state of life-insurance in Ukraine), graphic receptions (for illustration of statistical information).Results. Life-insurance was always examined as an advantageous insetting of money. Life-insurance can be defence of inheritance of insure, as gives an opportunity to envisage the consequences of the death for near and define part of inheritance that is appointed to each of them to him.The volume of gross insurance payments from life-insurance by the state on 30.06.2016 presented a 198,0 million hrn., that on 29,9%% less than as compared to the corresponding period of 2015 (by the state on a 30.06.2015 - 282,4 million hrn.).By the state on a 30.06.2016 size of change of backlogs from life-insurance presented a 317,0 million hrn., that less than in 2,6 times in comparing to the analogical period of 2015. Basic part of size of change of backlogs from life-insurance is formed on other contracts of story insurance, namely 359,4 million hrn. On other contracts of insurance of life the size of change of backlogs from life-insurance presents is a 50,4 million hrn. Thus, from data of the National commission on adjusting of markets of financial services on results And half-year of 2016 14 СК "Life" got the negative value of increase of backlogs from life-insurance on a lump sum 73,5 millions of hrn., that it is related to pre-schedule dissolution of contracts of insurance (on results And the half-years of 2015 declared a negative value 15 СК "Life" on a lump sum 15,5 millions to the hrn.). The increase of backlogs from life-insurance presented a 390,5 million hrn. the Most increase of insurance backlogs from life-insurance (more than 50 million hrn.) is declared three insurance companies "Life" in sizes 129,6 million, 85,5 million a hrn. and 51,2 million a hrn. (33,2%%, 21,9%% and 13,1%% from the general increase of backlogs accordingly) hrn.Thus, in Ukraine subzero demand on services in life-insurance it is predefined by psychological and economic factors main from that is :– a mistrust is the population, predefined by deception by knavish trust funds and firms of insurance, that disappeared with money of clients in 90-тих years;– negative influence of cyclic vibrations of economy is on insurance companies;– imperfection of the insurance system;– poverty of population of Ukraine, at that services of insurance do not behave to primary.Conclusion. Life-insurance is one of priority directions of insurance market development, in fact him further effective development will assist the increase of role private to the sector in execution the social programs and reduction of charges of the state budget. For the increase of demand of citizens of Ukraine on insurance services in life-insurance it is needed to perfect the insurance system, put right the normatively-legal base of insurance, deserve a trust in a population and strengthen marketing measures. And also obligatory is creation of competition environment for stimulation and development of insurance mediation. Positively will influence on development of insurance of adjusting of political and economic environment in a country. Actual will be also adjusting of development of regional insurance markets, with the aim of removal of noticeable territorial disproportions.

The search was conducted in 3 schools in Aksaray. During the period of developing the questionnaire a wide literature scanning was done, after all an item pool consisting 75 items was formed by asking open-end questions to parents and individuals who are specialist on Guidance Psychology Centre. The questionnaire includes question groups to determine four different parental attitudes. Subtitles which are designed as parental attitudes are:1. Authoritarian-Pressure Parental Attitude2. Protective Parental Attitude3. Apathetic Parental Attitude4. Authoritative Parental AttitudeAfter a careful study, the item amount was increased to 60 so that each attitude could be formed with per 15 items. After that, Parental Attitude Questionnaire, which was 5 degree-Likert type and had 60 items, was presented to expert view. The points which items had from the expert view were evaluated via SPSS 7,5 Statistic Packet Program and 9 of the items which increased the validity of the questionnaire were changed then the search was re-presented to expert view. Criterion became ready after getting proofs related to the validity of 5 degree Parental Attitude Questionnaire. By getting necessary permissions, the questionnaire formed was applied in 8 classes to 160 parents whose pupils were 5-6 in schools determined in Aksaray. 130 of the questionnaire sheets came back and a hundred of them were taken to the evaluation. Carrying out the questionnaire, the items were degreed between 1-3 as Agree: 3, Partly Agree: 2, Disagree: 1. In order to put forth the proof of the validity of the questionnaire, Cronbach Alpha Interior Coherence Coefficient were calculated. Cronbach Alpha Interior Coherence Coefficient was found 0,75. Reliability Coefficient calculated with another reliability evaluation technique-Split-Half Technique was 0,81. These coefficients are in the degrees accepted good by the literature.During the analyzing of the data Variance Analysis were used. Average differences between attitudes were established. 0,05 Importance level was imbibed at controlling importance of Averages difference. In order to measure the effect of parental attitudes on children's self-confidence developing Correlation Analysis was done and Pearson's Correlation Co-efficiency was calculated. The findings from research were sum up below:In the end of the Variance Analysis, significant differences between groups were established. At the questionnaire we applied, the level parents' democratic parental attitudes are higher than the other attitudes.In the end of the Correlation Analysis, it is established that democratic parental attitude has a meaningful and positive effect on self-confidence developing of children (5-6) go to pre-school education institutions.Also, it is established that other attitudes has significant and negative effect on self-confidence developing of children.Extended English abstract is in the end of PDF (TURKISH) file.AbstractBebek ile anne-baba arasındaki ilişkiden doğan güven duygusu, insanın ileride kuracağı kişiler arası ilişkilerin temelini oluşturur. Çocuklarının, kendisine önem veren, kendine yeterli davranabilen, özgüvenli bir birey olarak yetişmesinde, anne babanın tutum ve davranışlarının büyük etkisi vardır.Küçük yaştaki çocuklar üzerinde yapılan araştırmalar, yaşamın ilk üç veya dört yılında ebeveynlerin çocuk yetiştirme şeklinin bu ilk yıllarında çocuğun sahip olduğu özgüveni belirlediğini göstermiştir. Bu araştırmanın amacı, okul öncesi eğitim kurumlarına devam eden 5-6 yaş grubu çocukların özgüven duygularının gelişiminde, ana-babaların sergilemiş olduğu tutum ve yaklaşımların etkisini tespit etmektir.Araştırmaya Aksaray ilinde bulunan okul öncesi eğitim kurumlarına devam eden 5–6 yaş grubu 100 öğrenci ve bu öğrencilerin velileri oluşturmaktadır. Ana baba tutumlarının etkisini ölçmek için adı geçen öğrencilerin velilerine ana baba tutumlarını belirleme anketi (ABTBA), öğrencilerin özgüven duygularının gelişim düzeyini tespit etmek amacıyla Öğrenci Özgüven Gözlem Formu (ÖÖGF) uygulanmıştır. Varyans Analizi sonucunda gruplar arasında anlamlı bir farklılığın olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Uygulanan Anne Baba Tutumları Anketinde ailelerin Demokratik Anne Baba Tutumunu benimseme düzeyleri belirlenen Baskıcı-Otoriter, Koruyucu, İlgisiz-Kayıtsız Tutumları benimseme düzeylerinden daha yüksektir.Ana baba tutumlarının çocukların özgüven duygularının gelişimine olan etkisini ölçmek amacıyla korelasyon analizi yapılmış ve Pearson Korelasyon Katsayısı hesaplanmıştır. Korelasyon analizi sonucunda ise demokratik ana baba tutumunun, okul öncesi eğitim kurumlarına devam eden 5–6 yaş grubu çocukların özgüven duygularının gelişimine anlamlı ve pozitif yönde etkisi olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Baskıcı-Otoriter, koruyucu, ilgisiz-kayıtsız ana baba tutumlarının ise çocukların özgüven duygularının gelişimine anlamlı ve negatif yönde etkisi olduğu tespit edilmiştir.

Holidays, being in some measure a transfer between government and society, have undergone global changes. The South of Ukraine was the most politically beneficial and at the same time difficult to master. The indicated region was an ethnically colorful region with a large part of wealthy representatives of national minorities (Bulgarians, Gagauzas, Greeks, Jews, Germans, Tatars), who were acutely perceived by the Bolshevik innovations, especially those related to religion and the ritual sphere.The dominant role in the calendar structure of the pre-revolutionary calendar was occupied by the religious (having the status of state) holidays and dates related to the royal family. It was they who determined the vectors of the transformational Bolshevik festive policy in the future. The swiftness of the decisions was provoked by several reasons. Firstly, the newly formed government sought maximum support of the population, since it understood that it was harder, traditional society was difficult to bend to its side, especially since then society was negatively affected by innovations, and secondly, by the will of the public and representatives of various socio-political forces consolidate the victory of the revolution. Therefore, the first and politically motivated, was the withdrawal of any celebrations associated with the royal family. With them was terminated by the decision of the Provisional Government of March 16, 1917The second trend in the development of the Soviet festive calendar in the south of Ukraine was its gradual replenishment of holidays symbolizing the victory of the revolutionary movement and the working people (the «holiday of the revolution», May 1, November 7).We were able to identify a definitely ideological type of holiday, which was saturated with patriotic content and had to support the revolutionary spirit in the masses. A vivid sign of the holiday was the use of traditional and religious forms of celebration: religious processions, parades, prayers, worship, as well as the involvement of previously prohibited forms: rallies, demonstrations, the use of red flags, slogans that demonstrated problems and aspirations of society. ; В статье с помощью комплекса работ проанализированы общие направления обновления праздников после отречения Николаем II от престола и революционных событий 1917 г. Рассмотрены особенности проведения первых постреволюционных праздников, выделены особенности, финансовое обеспечение и их социальное восприятие на юге Украины. Продемонстрировано праздничные элементы, которые зарождались и исчезали в период политических расприй и борьбы различных политических сил. Акцентировано внимание на копировании религиозных традиций, модернизации в праздничной культуре большевиков, которая только начинала зарождаться и восприятие революционных сдвигов церковными представителями. Обнаружены первые шаги вновь власти в русле антирелигиозных сдвигов в праздничной культуре, которые получили один из первых проявлений в 1920-х гг. Прослежены взаимосвязь праздников между экономическим положением государства и векторы восприятия праздничных изменений среди населения, в том числе и национальных меньшинств. Замечено, что праздники играли роль ретрансляторов в обществе и позволяли в максимально доступной, эмоциональной форме донести ведущие политические идеи большевиков. На базе изученного материала выделен отдельный вид послереволюционного праздника изначально идеологический. ; За допомогою комплексу робіт проаналізовано загальні напрями оновлення свят після зречення Миколою ІІ престолу та революційних подій 1917 р. Розглянуто особливості проведення перших постреволюційних свят, виокремлено особливості, фінансове забезпечення та їх соціальне сприйняття на півдні України. Продемонстровано святкові елементи, які зароджувалися та зникали в період політичних чварів та боротьби різних політичних сил. Акцентовано увагу на копіюванні релігійних традицій, модернізації у святковій культурі більшовиків, яка лише починала зароджуватися та сприйняття революційних зрушень церковними представниками. Виявлено перші кроки новоствореної влади в руслі антирелігійних зрушень у святковій культурі, які отримали один із перших проявів у 1920-х рр. Прослідковано взаємозв'язок свят між економічним становищем держави та вектори сприйняття святкових змін серед населення, у тому числі й нацменшин. Помічено, що свята відігравали роль ретрансляторів у суспільстві та дозволяли в максимально доступній, емоціональній формі донести провідні політичні ідеї більшовиків. На базі вивченого матеріалу виокремлено окремий вид післяреволюційного свята – визначально ідеологічний.

Around the world, plantation economies are on the rise. Increasing concerns over food, energy, and financial security combined with a geopolitical restructuring of the global agro-food system have led to a new wave and rush to secure control over resources. Corporate-controlled agro-industrial complexes – from seed to silo – have extended their reach geographically and produced new spaces for capital to penetrate, circulate, and accumulate. New actors and forms of capital penetration have entered the countryside, transforming the forms and relations of production, property and power. Soybeans, with industrial inputs 'upstream' and storage, processing and transportation 'downstream', have become a quintessential agro-industrial 'flex crop', used as feed, food, fuel and industrial materials. This study analyzes how and the extent to which the development and expansion of the soy complex in Bolivia is transforming the countryside. New processes of productive exclusion have emerged, value-chain control and appropriation have materialized, and the very extractive character of the soy complex has severe implications for society, the economy and the environment. These dynamics of agrarian change are not unique to Bolivia nor the soy complex, but characteristic of the broader changes taking place in the global agrofood system dominated by agro-industrial complexes. This study puts forth an analytical framework referred to as the _politics of control_ which captures the new forms and mechanisms of resource control and value appropriation (or extraction) through an analysis of access rather than property or concessional rights. An analysis into the new forms of control contributes to a better understanding of class formation, differentiation, and class consciousness. These new forms of control are conceptualized as 'productive exclusion' and 'value-chain control'. The _politics of control_ also requires an analysis into the role and nature of the capitalist state. The strategic relations among state and societal actors in gaining and maintaining control over the state apparatus are analyzed in the context of the need to balance the social contradictions of capitalism which entail facilitating the conditions for accumulation and social legitimacy. Understanding these complex relations through the 'state-society-capital nexus' helps us conceptually to grasp the relations and interactions among elected and non-elected state managers and the various class fractions of labour and capital in their historic contexts. This analysis of Bolivia's soy complex is explored within its broader three-pronged neo-extractivist development strategy based on minerals, hydrocarbons, and soybeans. Within this neo-extractivist model, the soy complex is characterized as a type of 'agrarian extractivism', revealing the very extractivist social, economic and environmental dynamics associated with soybean production in Santa Cruz. 'Agrarian extractivism' not only reveals the extractive dynamics of capitalist industrial agriculture, it also challenges dominant discourses legitimating this form of production as a means to achieve rural development and food security. Within the context of Bolivia's first indigenous president, Evo Morales, and the Movement Towards Socialism (MAS) as a 'government of social movements', fundamental contradictions abound. This study ultimately argues that the new forms and mechanisms of control and extraction which characterize the soy complex are leading to a truncated trajectory of agrarian change where the rural majority are excluded from accessing the means of production without prospects for labour absorption elsewhere. The soy complex has rendered the Bolivian economy and society vulnerable to volatile commodity prices, threatening their food security with an increased dependence on food imports. The forms of exclusion and control require farmers to bear the risks of production while the corporate-controlled market oligopoly appropriates the majority of the value produced. While the majority of the excluded smallholders have maintained formal ownership over their land, this trajectory is not a pre-determined outcome but will depend on the balance of forces in society and the contested relations within the state-society-capital nexus.

International audience ; The issue of performativity reverse the classical perspective in the social sciences, for they revolve less around describing a pre-existing reality than understanding how reality is produced by intentional interventions. Yet the link between intervention and performativity is by no means automatic. On the contrary, this approach encourages us to focus on the pragmatic conditions that allow this performation to be constructed. In this sense, the aim of this article is threefold. First, it expands the field of performativity, which is structured around three dominant approaches (Austinian, Callonian and Butlerian), to encompass lesser-known research on writing and calculation. Second, it proposes a comparison between theoretical perspectives of research on performativity, and two other research trends in social science and in organizations. These, without using the term performativity, present strong similarities to it from a theoretical and methodological point of view: Foucauldian approaches and instrument-based approaches to organizations.Based on the concepts thus introduced, this article then proposes an analysis framework for performation processes in organizations, articulated around three levels of analysis: i) the study, on an elementary level, of speech acts, acts of calculation, and acts of writing organized around instrumented activities; ii) their insertion within the management dispositifs that give them meaning and contribute to defining their boundaries; and iii) the putting into perspective of these dispositifs in historical transformations in forms of governmentality. This analytical framework is applied in the case of the car project referred to as L, an instance of collaborative research in which a crisis situation characterized by the disalignment between the elementary acts studied and the management dispositif implemented by the company was examine. This case illustrates a more general phenomenon in which management dispositifs produce negative effects on the skills dynamics in a company, and on individuals' involvement in these collective projects. It also explains the infelicity of certain performative acts. ; Qu'est-ce que la performativité peut apporter aux recherches en management et sur les organisations Mise en perspective théorique et cadre d'analyse Franck Aggeri Résumé. La problématique de la performativité renverse la perspective classique en sciences sociales : il s'agit moins de décrire une réalité préexistante que de comprendre comment la réalité est produite par des interventions intentionnelles. Toutefois, le lien entre intervention et performativité n'a rien d'automatique et cette approche invite, au contraire, à s'intéresser aux conditions pragmatiques qui permettent de construire cette performation. Dans cette perspective, cet article vise un triple objectif. Il élargit tout d'abord le champ de la performativité, structuré autour de trois approches dominantes (dites austinienne, callonienne et butlérienne), à des travaux moins connus sur les actes d'écriture et de calcul. Il propose ensuite une mise en perspective des travaux sur la performativité par rapport à deux autres courants de recherche en sciences sociales et dans les organisations qui, sans utiliser le terme de performativité, présentent de fortes similitudes sur le plan théorique et méthodologique : les approches foucaldiennes et les approches des organisations par les instruments. A partir des concepts introduits, l'article propose enfin un cadre d'analyse des processus de performation dans les organisations qui articule trois niveaux d'analyse : l'étude, à un niveau élémentaire, des actes de langage oraux, de calcul et d'écriture organisés autour d'activités instrumentées ; leur insertion dans des dispositifs de management qui leur donnent du sens et contribuent à les cadrer ; la mise en perspective de ces dispositifs dans les transformations historiques des formes de gouvernementalité. Ce cadre d'analyse est mobilisé sur le cas du projet automobile L, objet d'une recherche-intervention, dans lequel une situation de crise, caractérisée par un désalignement entre les actes élémentaires étudiés et le dispositif de management mis en place par l'entreprise, a pu être étudiée. Ce cas illustre un phénomène plus général où les dispositifs de management produisent des effets pervers sur la dynamique des compétences et sur l'adhésion des individus à de tels projets collectifs et expliquent l'infélicité de certains actes performatifs.

ABSTRAK: Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui: (1) Proses Penyelesaian sengketa tanah melalui mediasi yang dilakukan oleh Kantor Pertanahan Kabupaten Takalar, (2) Faktor Pendukung dan penghambat penyelesaian sengketa tanah melalui mediasi pada Kantor Pertanahan Kabupaten Takalar, (3) Upaya yang dilakukan oleh Kantor Pertanahan Kabupaten Takalar untuk mengatasi penghambat/kendala-kendala dalam menyelesaikan kasus sengketa tanah. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif dan penelitian lapangan (field research) dengan pendekatan kualitatif, sumber data primer yang menjadi informannya adalah Kepala Seksi Sengketa, Konflik dan perkara pertanahan, Kepala Sub Seksi Sengketa dan Konflik Pertanahan, Staf Seksi Sengketa dan Konflik Pertanahan dan masyarakat yang pernah melalui proses mediasi di Kantor Pertanahan Kabupaten Takalar. Pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah wawancara, observasi dan dokumentasi. Sedangkan analisis data yang digunakan adalah analisis deskriptif. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa penyelesaian sengketa tanah melalui mediasi di Kantor Pertanahan kabupaten Takalar meliputi tahap: (1) Pra-mediasi yang meliputi: pengaduan permasalahan tanah oleh masyarakat, (2) Proses mediasi penyelesaian sengketa tanah (3) Kegiatan akhir mediasi, sedangkan penghambat atau kendala yang dihadapi dalam menyelesaiakan sengketa tanah melalui mediasi adalah: (1) Pemerintah setempat tidak datang bersaksi, (2) Pemahaman atau pendidikan masyarakat yang kurang, (3) Tidak ada iktikad baik dari para pihak yang bersengketa yaitu memberikan bukti atau keterangan yang cacat hukum, Dengan hambatan atau kendala tersebut pihak Kantor Pertanahan Kabupaten Takalar mengupayakan: (1) pelaksanaan mediasinya ditunda agar pemerintah dan para pihak bisa hadir atau dengan cara para pihak tersebut dipersilahkan untuk didampingi pihak yang dipercaya atau ahli yang terkait dengan Sengketa dan Konflik, (2) memberi saran-saran yang baik, menyampaikan agar pihak yang bersengketa memberikan keterangan atau bukti yang benar, (3) Tim penyelesaian sengketa bekerjasama dengan tim Survei, pengukuran dan pemetaan tanah serta tim Pendaftaran Tanah untuk melakukan pengkajian di lapangan/Tanah sengketa untuk mengetahui kesusaian data pelapor atau terlapor dengan kondisi di lapangan Kata Kunci: Penyelesaian, Sengketa Tanah, Mediasi ABSTRACT: This study aims to determine: (1) Land dispute resolution process through mediation conducted by the Land Office of Takalar Regency, (2) Supporting Factors and inhibiting the settlement of land disputes through mediation at the Land Affairs Office of Takalar Regency, (3) Efforts made by Land Office of Takalar Regency to overcome obstacles / constraints in solving land dispute cases. this research is a descriptive research and field research with qualitative approach, primary data source which become informant is Section Head of Dispute, Conflict and land affairs, Head of Dispute and Conflict of Land Affairs Section, Section of Dispute and Conflict Staff of Land and society ever through a mediation process at the Land Affairs Office of Takalar Regency. Data collection used is interview, observation and documentation. While the data analysis used is descriptive analysis. The results of this study indicate that the settlement of land disputes through mediation at the Land Affairs Office of Takalar district covers the following stages: (1) Pre-mediation which includes: complaints of land issues by the community, (2) mediation process of land dispute settlement (3) Mediation end activities, or obstacles encountered in resolving land disputes through mediation are: (1) Local government does not come forward to testify, (2) Understanding or lack of public education, (3) No good intentions from the parties to the conflict is providing evidence or description of the defect law, With such obstacles or constraints the Land Affairs Office of Takalar Regency seeks to: (1) the implementation of its mediation be postponed so that the government and parties may be present or in the manner that such parties are welcome to be accompanied by a trusted party or expert related to the Dispute and Conflict (2) ) give good suggestions, convey to the parties (3) Dispute resolution team in collaboration with survey team, land measurement and mapping as well as Land Registration team to conduct field survey / Land dispute to know the reporter's complaint or reported to the condition in the field Keywords: Settlement, Land Dispute, Mediation

Recent case law shows that vulnerable, previously disadvantaged private sector tenants are currently facing eviction orders – and consequential homelessness – on the basis that their leases have expired. In terms of the case law it is evident that once their leases have expired, these households do not have access to alternative accommodation. In terms of the Constitution, this group of marginalised tenants have a constitutional right of access to adequate housing and a right to occupy land with legally secure tenure. The purpose of this article is to critically analyse a number of legislative interventions, and specifically rent control, that were imposed in various jurisdictions in order to provide strengthened tenure protection for tenants. The rationale for this analysis is to determine whether the current South African landlord-tenant regime is able to provide adequate tenure protection for vulnerable tenants and therefore in the process of transforming in line with the Constitution. The legal construction of rent control was adopted in pre-1994 South Africa, England and New York City to provide substantive tenure protection for tenants during housing shortages. These statutory interventions in the different private rental markets were justified on the basis that there was a general need to protect tenants against exploitation by landlords. However, the justification for the persistent imposition of rent control in New York City is different since it protects a minority group of financially weak tenants against homelessness. The English landlord-tenant regime highlights the importance of a well-structured social sector that can provide secure, long-term housing options for low-income households who are struggling to access the private rental sector. Additionally, the English rental housing framework shows that if the social sector is functioning as a "safety net" for low-income households, the private sector would be able to uphold deregulation. In light of these comparisons and the fact that the South African social sector is not functioning optimally yet, the question is whether the South African private sector is able to provide the required level of tenure protection for struggling tenants. Recent case law shows that tenants are at liberty to lodge unfair practice complaints with the Rental Housing Tribunals on the basis that the landlords' ground for termination of the lease constitutes an unfair practice. The Court defined an unfair practice as a practice that unreasonably prejudices the tenants' rights or interests. This judicial development signifies some transformation in the private sector since it allows the Tribunals to scrutinise landlords' reasons for termination of tenancies in light of tenants' personal and socio-economic circumstances. The Tribunals are therefore empowered to weigh the interests of both parties and decide whether to confirm termination of the lease or set aside such termination. In light of this recent development, the Tribunals can provide strengthened tenure protection for destitute tenants on a case by case basis, which incorporates a flexible context-sensitive approach to the provision of secure housing rights in the landlord-tenant framework. This methodology is similar to the German approach. Even though this judicial development is welcomed, it raises some concerns with regard to landlords' property rights and specifically landlords' constitutional property rights since Tribunals are now at liberty to set aside contractually agreed grounds for termination of leases without any statutory guidance. The legislation fails to provide any information regarding legitimate grounds for termination, which might have to be rectified in future. The grounds listed in the rent control legislation should serve as a starting point to determine which grounds for termination of a lease should generally be upheld. However, German landlord-tenant law shows that a statutory ground for termination of a lease should not be imposed in an absolutist fashion but rather place a heavier burden on the tenant to prove why the lease should not come to an end.

The Preamble and Chapter 1 This contribution is intended to be the first installment of a systematic interpretation of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996. Due to the foundational and repetitive reference in the text to values, regard must constantly be had to those values when this Constitution is interpreted. Even though the preamble does not contain positive norms, is an important interpretive source of the foundations of the Constitution. An important deviation from the preamble of the 1993 Constitution, is that the term Rechtsstaat ("constitutional state") is not employed. The introduction of this notion in South African law and its meaning in general is described. With reference to relevant dicta in recent constitutional cases, the Constitutional Principles in terms of which the 1996 Constitution was formulated and the text of the Constitution itself, it is argued that this is essentially a Rechtsstaat Constitution, but that the divergence in the range of constitutional values creates the danger of the constitutional state floundering in the waters of the social state. Section 1, being the foundational provision, is not unamendable, but it is very tightly entrenched. The most profound values of the Constitution are set out in this compact formulation. The question is inevitably raised whether, where values have to compete for precedence in concrete circumstances, a hierarchy of values must be construed. An analysis of section 1 in the context of other relevant provisions of the Constitution reveals that human dignity is the primary nuclear value of the Constitution, supported by equality and freedom. Democracy, supremacy of the Constitution and the rule of law are structural and procedural values of the Constitution subordinate to the nuclear values and non-racialism and non-sexism are derived values. How it is possible for a constitution to be superior law, as section 2 provides regarding the 1996 Constitution, is analysed against the background of the social contract theory. The weaknesses of this theory are exposed and it is argued that the force external to the Constitution that guarantees its primacy, is its practical legitimacy, i.e. sufficient support or acceptance of the authority of the Constitution by the citizenry. Section 2 is phrased in strong terms and means that no juridically relevant conduct, be it of a private or public law nature, can escape the test of constitutionality. In the interpretation of section 3 the nature of citizenship and nationality is analysed with reference to international authorities and definitions of these concepts are developed. The legal implications of citizenship in the context of the Constitution are set out and the historical context of citizenship having been used in pre-constitutional times as an instrument for creating separate ethnic states, is described. The current post modern tendency in places to devalue citizenship is contrasted with the importance being attached to the notion in South Africa in the context of nation building and the employment of expatriates. Regarding sections 4 and 5 the formal regulation of the national anthem and national flag is described. The national anthem may be amended by presidential proclamation, but changes to the national flag require an amendment of the Constitution. Section 6, which deals with the complex language matter, protects linguistic diversity rather than the status of any languages. The Constitutional Court has determined that, although no express provision to this effect exists, individuals are entitled to use the language of their choice in their dealings and communications with the government. The state is required to promote "the indigenous languages of our people." This is interpreted to include the nine official indigenous African languages, Afrikaans, Khoi, Nama and San. In the determination of language policies Municipal Councils are required to take the language usage and preferences of the inhabitants into account and in the national and provincial at least two official languages must be used. Essential facts regarding language usage, demographic distribution, etc. must be taken into consideration for the determination of a language policy to conform to the Constitution.

The Palestinian Authority (P.A.) was established in 1994 as the government of the Palestinian Territories, following the Oslo Accords between the Palestine Liberation Organization (P.L.O.) and the Israeli government. From the Palestinian perspective, the P.A. was to serve as the initial stages of the state-building project, in the hopes that a sovereign semi-contiguous state of Palestine would emerge by 1999. Although this deadline came and went (by 18 years), the Palestinian leadership remains committed to the idea of statehood and continues to struggle for this objective to this day. [1] From the Israeli perspective, the Palestinian Authority was a convenient way to ease Israel's responsibility as an occupying power. Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was very clear in his support of this project, because creating the P.A. would help outsource repression of Palestinians to Palestinian security forces. [2] Thus, Israel could more easily avoid criticism from international and domestic human rights organizations. International allies, such as the United States and European Union nations, assisted in this objective by providing overwhelmingly disproportionate aid to the Palestinian security sector. [3] Palestinian critics quickly noticed the over-militarization of the P.A., and subsequent levels of repression.[4] But over-militarization and increasing repressive capacity was not the only way the Palestinian Authority grew more authoritarian in order to adhere to international pressure; co-optation was also heavily employed as a way of neutralizing Palestinian opposition. This is a common strategy used by authoritarian governments, and can include material benefits, entry into decision-making institutions, and other forms of regime control over private behavior. [5] In a similar vein since its inception, with the encouragement of international patrons, the P.A. has attempted to incorporate many of the grass-roots organizations that existed prior to its establishment. In addition to the P.A.'s own efforts, international patrons also stepped in and fostered a dynamic of "NGO-ization," which helped to neutralize popular committees into single-issue NGO's, subject to restrictions from international patrons in order to receive continued funding. [6] Thus, in the span of 23 years, a highly vibrant and mobilized independent Palestinian civil society was effectively brought under control, and lost its capacity for dissent and opposition. Previous literature has addressed the effect of P.A. intrusion on civil society; specifically, how P.A. intrusion damages trust between members of civil society organizations. But the mechanisms of P.A. intrusion into civil society have not yet been fully explored. To explain exactly how the P.A. manages control of civil society, I conducted interviews with organizers in the West Bank from a number of different groups, many from leftist organizations. Although these organizations represent a much smaller segment of society than either Fatah or Hamas, they have historically played a large role in political mobilization against the Occupation. They were integral to both social service provision and mobilization during the first intifada, and were responsible for much of the grass-roots organizing that exemplified the pre-P.A. era of Palestinian politics. [7] I also utilized qualitative data derived from the historical record to assess the impact of the Palestinian Authority's strategies on Islamist groups, and how that affected their role in civil society. This essay discusses the marginalization of civil society groups in the Palestinian Territories. It shows that this outcome was not an organic development but a calculated strategy on the part of the Palestinian Authority (P.A.) and its allies, and as a direct result of its authoritarian practices. The essay explores the ways in which the P.A. achieves this control, and explains how such a strategy affects the functioning of civil society over time. When a regime co-opts and represses civil society organizations, it breeds insularity and polarization. This makes cooperation between groups much less likely and limits the effectiveness of civil society organizations overall.