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Sommer, Sonne, Strand - Zypern ist eine Ferieninsel geworden, auf der viele Touristen Urlaub machen. In Nikosia können Tourist*innen in hippen Läden shoppen gehen, die schöne Altstadt genießen und lecker Essen gehen. Aber aufgepasst! Mitten in der Hauptstadt stehen Friedenstruppen der Vereinten Nationen und überwachen die grüne Linie. Der schöne Schein trügt und erinnert an die vergangenen blutigen Ereignisse zwischen den beiden Volkstruppen. Eine Reise nach Nikosia ist nicht nur mit Urlaub verbunden, sondern auch eine lebendige Geschichtsstunde, denn die Insel ist bis heute geteilt. Dennoch ist die Lage entspannter geworden, die Grenzen sind geöffnet und EU-Bürger*innen können mit ihrem Personalausweis problemlos den Südteil hin zum Nordteil überqueren. Der folgende Beitrag beschäftigt sich mit der Friedenssicherung durch die Vereinten Nationen. Die Friedenssicherung hat sich zu einem zentralen Auftrag der Vereinten Nationen entwickelt und soll am Fallbeispiel Zypern erläutert werden. Dabei gliedert sich die Arbeit in fünf Teile. Zu Beginn wird auf den Kontext der UN-Friedenssicherung im allgemeinen eingegangen. Anschließend wird Bezug auf die Charta der Vereinten Nationen genommen und der Prozess und die Verantwortlichkeit der Friedensmissionen geklärt. Im Folgenden werden die ersten Friedensmissionen beleuchtet und reflektiert. Dabei wird der Zypernkonflikt historisch eingeordnet. Ob die Vereinten Nationen im Fall Zypern richtig gehandelt oder den Konflikt nur auf Eis gelegt haben, ist eine Kontroverse. Um diese zu verstehen, müssen die Hintergründe des Konfliktes beleuchtet werden, welches im nächsten Kapitel geschieht. Weiter wird auf die Mitwirkung der UNO an einer Lösung des Konfliktes eingegangen. Hier sollen die Schwierigkeiten und Erfolge beleuchtet werden. Zum Schluss wird anhand von ausgewählten Praxisbeispielen der UNFICYP gezeigt, wie die Friedensmission vor Ort ablief. Die Probleme und Erfolge der Friedenstruppen werden betrachtet, ebenso werden die Konzepte der Vereinten Nationen, die in die Praxis umgesetzt wurden, auf ihre Standhaftigkeit überprüft. Friedenssicherung durch die Vereinten NationenIm folgenden Abschnitt wird das Konzept der Friedenssicherung vorgestellt und in seinen einzelnen Stufen dargestellt. Die Friedenssicherung ist, zusammen mit der Durchsetzung der Menschenrechte, ein zentraler Auftrag der Vereinten Nationen. Diese Ziele hängen direkt miteinander zusammen (vgl. Mathis, 2013). Es gibt festgeschriebene Grundsätze, die von den Mitgliedern beachten werden sollten; die folgenden stehen in unmittelbarem Zusammenhang der Friedenssicherung der Vereinten Nationen: Die Pflicht zur friedlichen Streitbeilegung, das allgemeine Verbot der Androhung und Anwendung von Gewalt und das Interventionsverbot. Ausnahme beim Gewaltverbot ist die Selbstverteidigung und die vom Sicherheitsrat erlassenen militärischen Zwangsmaßnahmen. Der UN-Sicherheitsrat nimmt hier das Gewaltmonopol ein. Durch das Interventionsverbot dürfen souveräne Staaten sich nicht in innere Angelegenheiten einmischen. Der UN-Sicherheitsrat kann deshalb nicht in innerstaatliche Konflikte und Menschenrechtsverletzungen eingreifen (Ebbing 2012, vgl. S. 3f). Dabei trägt der UN-Sicherheitsrat die Verantwortung für die internationale Sicherheit und den Weltfrieden; dieser kann bindende Entscheidungen für Mitgliedsstaaten treffen (vgl. Deutsche Gesellschaft für die Vereinten Nationen e.V.). Alle UNO-Missionen zur Friedenssicherung und die Entsendung von UN-Soldaten gingen auf die Entscheidung des Sicherheitsrates zurück. Zu betrachten ist, dass durch Menschenrechtsverletzungen Konflikte gestärkt werden und diese in bewaffneten Konflikten und Kriegen enden können. Außerdem kommt es in Kriegen zu Menschenrechtsverletzungen wie z.B. durch Folter, Ermordung von Zivilisten oder sogar Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit, wie Völkermord (vgl. Mathis, 2013). Ein zentrales Gremium für das UN- Konfliktmanagement, welches anhand der UN-Charta entscheidet, ob es sich um einen Friedensbruch oder um einen Bruch der internationalen Sicherheit handelt, ist etabliert. Hier werden Maßnahmen beschlossen, um die internationale Sicherheit und den Weltfrieden wieder herzustellen (vgl. Deutsche Gesellschaft für die Vereinten Nationen e.V.). Mathis zeigt auf, dass die Friedenssicherung eine signifikante Anzahl an Aspekten aufweist und durch das Grundprinzip nicht direkt in bewaffnete Konflikte eingegriffen wird. Zu aller erst gibt es die Prävention, wirtschaftliche Hilfe, Sicherung von Menschenrechten, Verhandlung in Konflikten, Sanktionen gegen Staaten, die völkerrechtswidrig handeln oder völkerrechtliche Vereinbarungen nicht einhalten, wie die Ablehnung von ABC-Waffen. Der Sicherheitsrat kann hierbei Empfehlungen zur friedlichen Streitbeilegung nach Kapitel VI der Charta aussprechen. Darüber hinaus kann es zu Zwangsmaßnahmen nach Kapitel VII kommen. Dabei kann es sich um nicht-militärische, aber auch um militärische Maßnahmen handeln (Deutsche Gesellschaft für die Vereinten Nationen e.V.). Hinzu kommt, dass der UN-Sicherheitsrat einen Krieg völkerrechtlich legitimieren kann (vgl. Mathis, 2013). Während eines Krieges werden Verhandlungen für einen Waffenstillstand geführt, es wird humanitäre Hilfe geleistet, und die Zivilbevölkerung wird durch UN-Soldaten zu schützen versucht. Selbst nach einem Krieg sorgen die UN-Soldaten für die Sicherung des Waffenstillstandes und die Einhaltung von Friedensvereinbarungen. Dabei steht der Schutz der Zivilbevölkerung permanent im Vordergrund. Ein Wiederaufbau, eine Entwaffnung und Abrüstung wird gefördert und schwere Kriegsverbrechen werden geahndet (vgl. ebd.). In einer Resolution wird vom Sicherheitsrat über die Größe und das Mandat einer Friedensmission entschieden, und anhand regelmäßiger Berichte durch den Generalsekretär kann das Mandat verlängert oder geändert werden (vgl. ebd.). Nun soll geklärt werden, wie genau eine Friedensmission abläuft und wer die Verantwortung trägt. Für die Friedensmissionen ist das Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) zuständig; dieses plant die Mission und führt diese durch. Dabei werden sie vom Department of Political Affairs (DPA) unterstützt, dieses beteiligt sich vor allem bei diplomatischen Bemühungen. Eine Einsatzleitung (Force Commander) vor Ort wird vom Generalsekretär bestimmt. Dieser verfügt ebenso auch über die ausführende Leitung der Friedensmission (vgl. Deutsche Gesellschaft für die Vereinten Nationen e.V). Aus Kapitel VII der Charta geht eine starke Anteilnahme der Mitgliedstaaten hervor. Diese Staaten sollen auf Grundlage von Sonderabkommen Streitkräfte zu Verfügung stellen. Dabei sollte erwähnt werden, dass noch kein Sonderabkommen zustande gekommen ist. Festzustellen ist, dass die Anforderungen von den Vereinten Nationen zu hoch und den praktischen Möglichkeiten voraus sind (Gareis/Varwick 2014, vgl. S.117). Gareis analysiert, dass das kollektive Interesse der VN-Mitgliedstaaten oft zu gering ist, um ihre Streitkräfte aus der Hand zu geben und das Leben der Soldaten zu riskieren (vgl. ebd.). Daraus folgt, dass die Vereinten Nationen kein schnelles und effektives Sicherheitssystem besitzt. Die Vereinten Nationen sind "eine unvollkommene, reformbedürftige, aber doch in vielen Bereichen eminent wichtige internationale Organisation" (ebd. S. 356). Voraussetzung für den Erfolg der Vereinten Nationen ist, dass die Staaten multilaterale Strategien zur Problemlösung bevorzugen. Nur dann können die Vereinten Nationen eine Rolle in der internationalen Politik spielen. Die Mitgliedstaaten sind in der Praxis selten bereit, ihre Außenpolitik in die Hände der Vereinten Nationen zu legen. Die großen und mächtigen Staaten neigen dazu, unilateral vorzugehen. Staaten wollen alleine und, wenn notwendig, gegen andere Staaten handeln, um ihre eigenen Interessen zu verfolgen und zu maximieren. Auch wenn nur im Einzelfall unilateral gehandelt wird, entsteht dadurch trotzdem ein Bruch und gegenseitiges Vertrauen wird schwierig (vgl. ebd.). Aufgrund dessen haben sich alternative Formen der Friedenssicherung entwickelt. Diese müssen einerseits dem veränderten Kriegs- und Konfliktgeschehen standhalten und den Souveränitätsansprüchen der Mitgliedsstaaten. Eine eigene UN-Friedenssicherung sind beispielsweise die Blauhelme, welche durch Auslegung von Kapitel VII der Charta vom Sicherheitsrat seit den 1950er Jahren entsendet werden. Dabei bestehen die Blauhelme in der Regel aus unbewaffneten bis leicht bewaffneten Truppen und Beobachtern. Zu ihren Aufgaben gehört unter anderem die Überwachung der Einhaltung von Waffenstillständen oder dem Friedensvertrag. Die Neutralität steht dabei an oberster Stelle (vgl. Gareis 2015). Die ersten Friedensmissionen der Vereinten Nationen Im Mittelpunkt dieses Abschnittes stehen die Anfänge der Friedenssicherung. Dabei wird die Entwicklung beleuchtet und reflektiert. Weiterhin findet eine Einordnung der Friedenssicherung auf Zypern statt. Die Überwachung des Waffenstillstandes nach dem ersten arabisch-israelischen Krieg 1948 war der erste große Einsatz in der Entstehungsphase der Friedenssicherungen. Die nächste größere Mission bestand aus der Überprüfung des Waffenstillstandes zwischen Indien und Pakistan. Gareis stellt fest, dass es sich ebenfalls um eine zwischenstaatliche Auseinandersetzung handelte. Diese Mission wurde vom VN-Haushalt bezahlt und dauert bis heute an. Daraus entwickelte sich eine zweite Phase der Friedenssicherung, die Behauptungsphase von 1956-1967 mit neun Einsätzen (Gareis/Varwick 2014, vgl. S.127f). In die Behauptungsphase zählte der Einsatz der Friedenstruppen in Zypern, auf den im späteren Abschnitt des Blogbeitrages eingegangen wird. "Erstmals übernahmen die UN zeitweilige Autorität über ein Territorium auf dem Weg zur Unabhängigkeit, ergänzte zivile Polizei zu einer Friedensoperation, wurde in einen Bürgerkrieg verwickelt, führte einen Einsatz im größeren Ausmaß durch und erlaubte den Blauhelmen das Tragen von Waffen." (Jett 2000, S.23f), neue Aufgaben wurden erkannt. Die Vereinten Nationen bekamen zudem immer mehr Macht, aber hatten damals schon mit ersten Problemen zu kämpfen. Das klassische peacekeeping entstand durch die erste Notstandsgruppe der Vereinten Nationen, der United Nations Emergency Force (UNEFI) beim Einsatz in Ägypten. Hier kam es zu Schwierigkeiten, es konnte im Sicherheitsrat keine einstimme Verurteilung der israelischen Aggression und der ägyptischen Verstaatlichung erreicht werden. Durch das Veto von Großbritannien und Frankreich wurde der Sicherheitsrat lahmgelegt. Die Uniting for Peace-Resolution schaltete die Generalversammlung ein, welche auf den Einsatz von Friedenstruppen drängte. Eigentlich wäre laut Kapitel VII Artikel 24 Abs. 1 der UN-Charta der Sicherheitsrat zuständig gewesen, jedoch waren die Konfliktpartien freiwillig mit einem Einsatz einverstanden. Neben Frankreich und der UdSSR verweigerten einige Staaten die finanzielle Unterstützung. Dieses Problem vertiefte sich nochmal beim Einsatz im Kongo; hier wurde die Verantwortung für die Friedenserhaltung beim Sicherheitsrat gesehen. Folglich wurde der Internationale Gerichtshof eingeschaltet, welcher sowohl dem Sicherheitsrat als auch der Generalversammlung eine Zuständigkeit zusprach (vgl. Sucharipa-Behrmann 1999). Die Autoren stellten fest, dass sich aus der Kongo-Krise ein "akzeptiertes Miteinander dieser beiden Organe" (Gareis/Varwick 2014, S.129) entwickelte, wobei "der Sicherheitsrat die Initiative und Entscheidungsbefugnis stärker an sich gezogen hatte"(Gareis/Varwick 2014, S.129). Zu erkennen war außerdem eine zunehmende Bedeutung des Generalsekretärs, welcher über mehr Spielraum verfügte. Die UNEF-Mission ging durch wichtige Grundprinzipen der Notstandsgruppe durch den Generalsekretär in die Geschichte der internationalen Friedenssicherung ein. Hinzu kam der Konsens der Konfliktparteien, welcher beschlossen wurde und besagt, dass klassische Blauhelm-Soldaten nicht gegen den Willen eines Staates eingesetzt werden dürfen. Dadurch wurde eine Toleranz der Truppen gefördert und eine Bereitschaft für eine Zurverfügungstellung der Truppen, durch die Mitgliedstaaten, geschaffen. Dies waren die Grundlagen für das Modell des klassischen peacekeeping vom Generalsekretär Hammarskjöld (vgl. ebd.). Zu diesem Zeitpunkt wurde zudem die Verantwortlichkeit durch die Leitung des Generalsekretärs beschlossen. Aufgrund dessen entstand die DPKO im VN-Sekretariat. Außerdem wurde ein Budget für jede Friedensmission festgelegt, welches durch die Mitgliedstaaten gefüllt wird. Besonders wichtig ist die Unparteilichkeit der eingesetzten Truppen, welche mit dem Konsensprinzip einhergeht. Aus diesem Grund sollten die Truppen eine ausgewogene regionale Zusammenstellung haben (vgl. Auswärtiges Amt). Darüberhinaus wurde der Einsatz von Waffen zur Selbstverteidigung und zur Durchsetzung der Mission erlaubt. Hier besteht eine Problematik, die am folgenden Beispiel gezeigt werden soll: Bei der Kongo-Operation (1960-1964) sollte für den Rückzug belgischer Truppen aus der Republik Kongo gesorgt werden. Es kam zu einer Ausweitung des Mandats, wodurch ein Bürgerkrieg verhindert und die Regierung beim Aufbau ihres Amtes unterstützt werden sollte. Dafür gab es zum ersten Mal die Legitimation der Waffengewalt im Bezug auf das auszuführende Mandat (Gareis/Varwick 2014, vgl. S.131). Das führte dazu, dass die UNEF dadurch selbst zu Konfliktpartei wurde und sich in die innerstaatlichen Konflikte verwickelte. Der Einsatz wurde im Sommer 1964 beendet, aufgrund dessen, dass die Regierung Kongos einer Mandatsverlängerung nicht zustimmte. Dabei sollte man nicht außer Acht lassen, dass die Vereinten Nationen aus diesem Einsatz ihre Konsequenzen zogen. Zum einen wurden keine großen und komplexen Missionen die nächsten drei Jahrzehnte durchgeführt (vgl. ebd.). Zum anderen waren die Ziele der Friedenssicherung fortan bescheidener. Zudem kehrte man zu den Prinzipien von Hammarskjöld zurück und sicherte sich die Zustimmung der Konfliktparteien vor einem Einsatz. Zusätzlich wurden die Friedensmissionen vom Sicherheitsrat nun beobachtet (vgl. ebd.). An dieser Stelle wird nur kurz auf den Zypern-Einsatz eingegangen, um ihn in die Geschichte der Friedenssicherung der Vereinten Nationen einzuordnen. Der Zypern Einsatz gilt als klassisches peacekeeping und hält bis heute an. Nach Bellamy und Williams versteht sich unter klassischem peacekeeping die Phase zwischen einem Waffenstillstand und dem Abschluss einer politischen Konfliktlösung. Hier gibt es eine Unterstützung der zwischenstaatlichen Friedenssicherung (vgl. ebd. S. 127). Durch eine Resolution des Sicherheitsrats wurde im März 1964 die UNFICYP-Mission eingerichtet. Eine Kampfhandlung zwischen der griechisch-zypriotischen und der türkisch-zypriotischen Volksgruppe sollte verhindert werden. Trotz der Friedensmission kam es zur Teilung der Insel, es gab einen Waffenstillstand und zahlreiche Bemühungen zur Vermittlung durch den Generalsekretär. Seit 1974 wird die Pufferzone von der UNFICYP überwacht und das Mandat ab 1964 jedes halbe Jahr verlängert. Kritik an dem Einsatz gibt es durch die permanente Anwesenheit der Soldaten, wodurch der Eindruck erweckt wird, dass es keine Notwendigkeit einer Friedenslösung gibt.Durch den Einsatz der Bewachung des Waffenstillstandes zwischen dem Irak und Iran (UNIIMOG) und dem Abzug der UdSSR Truppen aus Afghanistan (UNGOMAP), wurde "eine Renaissance des peacekeeping eingeleitet" (vgl. ebd. S.132). Gareis verweist darauf, dass diese "Gute-Dienst-Missionen" vom Sicherheitsrat nur gebilligt und nicht mandatiert wurden. Alles in allem zeigt sich ein durchwachsenes Bild der Friedensmissionen in den ersten vier Jahrzehnten. Festzuhalten ist, dass jede Mission ein Einzelfall ist und separat betrachtet werden sollte. Hinzu kommen die Vorstellungen der UN-Charta, welche in der Realität nahezu utopisch umzusetzen sind. Die Blauhelme wurden zum innovativen Instrument. Ihre Aufgabe ist die Konfliktberuhigung und nicht die Konfliktlösung. Diese Aufgabe konnte in vielen Missionen erreicht werden. Bedenklich ist, dass diese häufig nur mit einer dauerpräsenten Lösung, wie in Zypern erreicht wurden (vgl. Mathis). Durch den Brahimi- Bericht von 2000 gab es neue Perspektiven in der Friedenssicherung der Vereinten Nationen. Diese beinhalten die folgenden drei Kategorien: die Konfliktvermeidung, Konfliktmanagement und die Konfliktnachsorge. Dabei gibt es erstens eine Neuorientierung für die politischen und strategischen Rahmenbedingungen. Zweitens muss das DPKO für eine personelle und strukturelle Voraussetzung der Friedensmission sorgen. Zudem gibt es für die Mitgliedstaaten konkrete geforderte Leistungen (vgl. Gareis/Varwick 2014, vgl. S.146). Hintergründe des ZypernkonfliktsUm den Zypernkonflikt verständlicher zu gestalten, werden zunächst die politischen Hintergründe beleuchtet. Der Zypernkonflikt ist die Folge der britischen Kolonialpolitik, denn bis 1960 war Zypern eine britische Kolonie (vgl. Gürbey 2014). Der Wunsch nach "Enosis", die Vereinigung mit Griechenland, wuchs unter den griechischen Zyprioten seit dem 19. Jahrhundert. Auf Grundlage der Tatsache, dass Großbritannien die Ionischen Inseln an Griechenland zurückgab, hofften die griechischen Zyprioten auf einen ähnlichen Ausgang. Dieser Wunsch wurde jedoch nicht erfüllt und deshalb gab es schon seit 1931 größere Unruhen, welche die diktatorische Führung unterdrückte (vgl. ebd.). Großbritannien nutzte Zypern geostrategisch. Zypern wurde zum Royal-Air-Force-Stützpunkt für Atombomber und Ansatzpunkt für Spionageflüge im Kalten Krieg (vgl. ebd.). Auf Grund dieser Entwicklung war Zypern für Großbritannien unverzichtbar. Deshalb begann der Unabhängigkeitskampf, bei dem die orthodoxe Kirche eine bedeutende Rolle einnahm. Der Erzbischof Makarios III. nötigte die griechische Regierung, den Zypern-Fall vor die UNO zu bringen (Gorgé 1986, vgl. S. 130). Der britische Premierminister Eden versuchte "die griechische Ambition [...] durch türkische zu neutralisieren" (Richter 2010), also die Türkei miteinzubeziehen und damit beide Länder gegeneinander auszuspielen (vgl. Gürbey 2014). Die türkische Position war glasklar; falls sich beim Status Zypern etwas ändern würde, wäre der Friedensvertrag von Lausanne ungültig und Zypern würde wieder der Türkei gehören. 1922 wurde Frieden mit den Briten geschlossen und sie erhielten die formelle Anerkennung ihrer Herrschaft über Zypern (vgl. Gründer). Richter beschrieb, dass das taktische Manöver Londons aufging und ein neuer griechisch-türkischer Konflikt ausgelöst wurde. Es kam dazu, dass die "divide et impera" Politik Großbritanniens auf die Volksgruppe ausgeweitet wurde. Daraus folge 1956 der griechisch-türkische Minoritäten Konflikt, wobei die Opfer die Istanbuler Griechen waren. Gleichzeitig misslang das Suez-Abenteuer der Briten und Zypern verlor für sie an strategischem Wert. Des Weiteren kam Druck aus den USA, welche die NATO durch die griechisch-türkischen Streitereien gefährdet sahen. Folglich einigten sich Griechenland und die Türkei 1959 zu einer "Scheinlösung" in Zürich. Gleichzeitig wurde der Konflikt nur zwischen den NATO-Verbündeten beigelegt. Wie schon erwähnt, gelang Zypern 1960 die Unabhängigkeit; der innerzypriotische Konflikt blieb jedoch bestehen und verschärfte sich in den nächsten Jahren noch mehr (vgl. Richter 2009). Im Folgenden wird die Position der Bevölkerung verdeutlicht. Die griechischen Zyprioten fordern "Enosis" und die türkischen Zyprioten "Taksim", die Teilung der Insel. Mit der Unabhängigkeit der Insel begann der griechische und türkische Nationalismus auf Zypern (vgl. ebd.). Problematisch waren die Mütterländer, welche den Zypern-Konflikt als nationale Frage ansahen und deshalb enormen Einfluss hatten. Dieser Einfluss wurde durch den Schutz der eigenen Volksgruppe legitimiert (Gorgé 1986, vgl. S. 130f). Zum einen gab es die Strategie von Griechenland; diese war eine Internationalisierung des Konfliktes, um den Druck gegen die Türkei aufzubauen. Dem gegenüber wollte die Türkei den Teilungsprozess forcieren und in seinem Bestand sichern. Ab 1963 gab es blutige Unruhen, weil die griechisch-zypriotische Führung die Verfassungsrechte der türkischen Zyprioten einschränken ließ. An diesem Punkt griffen die USA und die Vereinten Nationen ein und verhinderten eine Eskalation (vgl. Gürbey 2014). Mitwirkung der Vereinten Nationen an einer Lösung des KonfliktesAb 1964 gab es ein Friedensmandat der Vereinten Nationen, durch das eine Sicherung des Burgfriedens gewährleistet werden sollte. Das Wiederaufflammen von Kämpfen sollte verhindert werden, um die Kommunikation der beiden Volksgruppen zu ermöglichen. Die Friedenstruppe UNFICYP wurde vom Sicherheitsrat gesendet und sollte "nach besten Kräften eine Wiederaufnahme von Kämpfen zu verhindern und, soweit notwendig, zur Erhaltung und Wiederherstellung von Recht und Ordnung und zur Rückkehr normaler Lebensbedingungen [in Zypern] beizutragen" (Menning 1974, S.172). Dabei wurde für die Friedenstruppen die zypriotische Nationalgarde und die reguläre türkische Armee zum Konfliktpartner, nicht die bewaffneten Volksgruppen. Außerdem musste die UNFICYP aufpassen, dass lokale Befreiungsversuche nicht als Einmischungsversuche oder Provokation aufgefasst wurden.Festzuhalten ist, dass von 1964 bis Juni 1974 die UNFICYP ein erfolgreicher Vermittler der beiden Volksgruppen war, sodass 1973 eine Kürzung des Mandats stattfand. Auch weil Griechenland und die Türkei einwilligten, dass sie schlichtend auf ihre Volksgruppe einwirken (Menning 1974, vgl. S.172). Der Konflikt spitze sich jedoch wieder zu, im Halbjahresbericht von 1974 erklärte der Generalsekretär, dass weiterhin Misstrauen und Kampfbereitschaft herrscht. Ein Klima von trügerischer Sicherheit war entstanden, die Friedenstruppen wurden als Friedensersatz wahrgenommen, obwohl das Problem ungelöst blieb (Menning 1974, vgl. S.173). Dabei hatte Waldheim in seinem Jahresbericht 1973/74 darauf hingewiesen, dass Friedenseinsätze nicht als Selbstzweck der Vereinten Nationen dienen sollten und "daß eine Friedenssicherungsaktion nicht zu einem Nachlassen der Bemühungen, eine Lösung zu finden, führen dürfe, denn wenn die Konfliktursachen nicht beseitigt werden, könnten sie schließlich das Fundament, auf dem sich die Friedenssicherung aufbaue, zerstören." (Menning 1974, S.173). So kam es 1974 zu einem Putschversuch der Griechen, um die Insel an Griechenland anzubinden. Dieser wurde von dem griechischen Militär ausgelöst und richtete sich gegen die Regierung unter Präsident Makarios. Es gab Differenzen zwischen ihm und der Militärjunta, weil Makarios linksgerichtet war und einen individuellen Kurs mit Zypern vorhatte. Dabei reagierte die Türkei mit einer Invasion. Die Situation eskalierte und die Türkei eroberte fast 40 Prozent der Insel. Die UNFICYP konnte die Angriffe der türkischen Truppen nicht abwehren. Dennoch konnten einige lokale Angriffe auf die Bevölkerung verhindert werden. Außerdem blieb die "Green Line" bestehen und die Kontrolle der Hauptstadt aufrechterhalten. Zudem wurde auf die Forderung von Waldheim eingegangen, welcher in seinem halbjährlichen Bericht Verstärkung angefordert hatte. Im Jahr 1974 stockte die UNFICYP die Zahl der Soldaten von 2.188 auf 4.400 auf. Die Minimierung seit 1971 bis Mitte 1974 war im Nachhinein ein sicherheitspolitischer Fehler der Vereinten Nationen. Nach dem Krieg legte die UNFICYP zwei separate Waffenstillstandslinien fest. Eine UN-Pufferzone wurde von Morphou bis nach Famagusta eingerichtet (vgl. Lugert 2018). Aufgrund dieser Tatsachen war eine Konsolidierung einer Teilung der Inseln der einzige Ausweg. Von nun an gab es einen griechisch-zypriotischen Süden und einen türkisch-zypriotischen Norden. Die Türkei rief 1983 die Unabhängigkeit Nordzyperns aus, dieser Teil wird immer noch nur von der Türkei als Staat anerkannt und wirtschaftlich und politisch gefördert. Der UN-Sicherheitsrat erklärte die Unabhängigkeitserklärung für ungültig und rief andere Staaten dazu auf, dasselbe zu tun (vgl. Gürbey 2014). Faustmann brachte zum Ausdruck, dass Zypern der Ruf als "Friedhof der Diplomatie" (vgl. Faustmann 2009) zusteht. Wie er zu dieser Aussage kam, wird im Weiteren erklärt. Schon im November 1974 forderte die Vereinten Nationen eine Resolution, welche zunächst einen Rückzug der auswärtigen Truppen und die Rückkehr von Flüchtlingen beinhaltete. Darüber hinaus forderten beide Volksgruppen eine Verhandlung unter dem Schutz der Vereinten Nationen. Faustmann wies darauf hin, dass eine Rückkehr zur Verfassungsordnung von 1960 unmöglich für beide Parteien war (vgl. ebd.). Beide Parteien hatten klare Vorstellungen, so forderten die türkischen Zyprioten eine politische Gleichheit als Grundprinzip, allerdings wollte die griechische Seite auch eine Berücksichtigung ihrer prozentualen Bevölkerungsmehrheit von 82% Prozent (vgl. ebd.). In drei Verhandlungsrunden trafen sich die Konfliktparteien unter der Schutzherrschaft der Vereinten Nationen in New York. Nach zähen Verhandlungen kam es 1977 zu einem Abkommen und 1979 zur Erweiterung des Dokuments (vgl. Gürbey 2014). Das Abkommen umfasst die Grundprinzipien einer Wiedervereinigung, die High Level Agreements. Darin wird postuliert, das Zypern als bizonale, bikommunale Föderation wiedervereinigt und entmilitarisiert werden sollte. Außerdem wurden Grundfreiheiten, wie Bewegungs- und Niederlassungsfreiheit und ein Recht auf Eigentum bestimmt. Das Abkommen gestand den türkischen Zyprioten dabei ein einheitliches Territorium zu, wobei die Größe strittig blieb (vgl. Faustmann 2009). Die Ergebnisse der Abkommen zusammengefasst, wird deutlich, dass eine Vereinigung mit Griechenland und eine Teilung ausgeschlossen wurde. Trotz der Unterzeichnung des High Level Agreements kam es zum Stillstand der Verhandlungen. Erst durch die Bemühungen der Vereinten Nationen fanden erneute Verhandlungen statt.Der griechisch-zypriotische Präsident Kyprianoú setzte auf die eigene Internationalisierungskampagne und die Vereinten Nationen. Denktaş forderte die Unabhängigkeit Nordzyperns, sein Streben wurde bestärkt, als eine Resolution der Vereinten Nationen zugunsten der griechischen Seite entschied (vgl. ebd.). Erkennbar wird, wie schwer es für die Vereinten Nationen ist, neutral zu bleiben und beiden Seiten gerecht zu werden. Denktaş führte die türkische Lira als Währung ein und errichtete eine Zentralbank, weiterhin blieb er bei seiner Forderung von einer Unabhängigkeit Nordzyperns. Es kam dazu, dass er am 15. November 1983 die Türkische Republik Nordzypern ausrief. Erst als sich die Beziehung zwischen Griechenland und der Türkei verbesserte, konnten 1988 neue Verhandlungen auf Basis der High Level Agreements beginnen (vgl. ebd.). Man erkannte die wichtige Rolle der beiden Mutterländer, die enormen Einfluss auf die Verhandlungen und die Situation nahmen. Außerdem ließ man eine zu große Einmischung der Vereinten Nationen auch nicht zu, mit den "Set of Ideas" von Generalsekretär Boutros Boutros-Ghali war Denktaş nicht einverstanden. Er forderte Verhandlungen ohne die Vereinten Nationen, weil diese kein Recht für solch umfassende Lösungsvorschläge hätten. Jedoch kam es nie zu Verhandlungen ohne die Vereinten Nationen. Erneute Gespräche endeten 1990, weil die Republik Zypern der EU betreten wollte. Denktaş und die Türkei glaubten, dass die EU keine Konfrontation mit Ankara wollte und der Beitrittsantrag kein Erfolg haben würde, dennoch drohten sie mit einer Annexion des Nordens. Als klar war, die EU würde Zypern auch ohne Lösung des Konflikts aufnehmen, fanden 2002 erneute Verhandlungen unter der Schirmherrschaft der Vereinten Nationen statt. Zugunsten kam diesen die neue AKP-Regierung unter dem linken Oppositionspolitiker Mehmet Ali Talat, welche von der status-quo-Politik abwich und auch Denktaş und seine Nachfolger verschwanden mehr und mehr. Auf türkischer-zypriotischer Seite entstand erstmalig eine moderate Politik. Die griechische Seite wählte mit Tassos Papadopoulos einen Hardliner zum Präsidenten (vgl. ebd.). Dennoch wurden erstmals umfassende Kernpunkte eines politischen Lösungsplans erarbeitet, welcher Anfang 2004 freigestellt wurden, der sogenannte Annan-Plan. Dieser beinhaltete folgendes: "Vom Parlament gewählte Regierung, bestehend aus vier griechischen und zwei türkischen Zyprioten; kollektive Führung mit Vetorechten für beide Volksgruppen; Zwei-Kammern-Parlament nach 1978er Modell; 27 Prozent des Territorium für den Norden; Ambivalenz: Gründung eines neuen Staates durch zwei gleichberechtigte Staaten (wie von der türkischen Seite gefordert, von der griechischen Seite aber als möglichen Ausgangspunkt für eine spätere Abspaltung abgelehnt) oder Umwandlung der bestehenden Republik Zypern in einen neuen Staat (wie von der griechischen Seite gefordert); Ambivalenz: Föderation oder Konföderation; Rückkehr von mehr als der Hälfte der Flüchtlinge unter griechisch-zypriotischer Verwaltung und Umsiedelung von mehreren zehntausend türkischen Zyprioten; Staatsangehörigkeit für mehr als 45 000 türkische Einwanderer, erhebliche und dauerhafte Beschränkungen bei der Rückkehr der griechischen Flüchtlinge und der Niederlassungsfreiheit im Norden; Dauerhafte griechische und türkische Militärpräsenz; Griechenland und die Türkei bleiben zusammen mit Großbritannien Garantiemächte mit Interventionsrecht." (ebd.). Im April 2004 stimmten beide Volksgruppen über den Wiedervereinigungsplan ab. Diese Gelegenheit wurde verpasst, denn 76 Prozent der griechischen Zyprioten stimmten dagegen, weil einige von ihnen hofften, durch den Beitritt in die EU ein besseres Abkommen zu erhalten (vgl. Gürbey 2014). Demgegenüber stand allerdings das türkisch zypriotische Ergebnis des Referendums, welches mit 65 Prozent für eine Wiedervereinigung stimmte. Die Vereinigung Zyperns scheiterte und damit auch der Annan-Plan. Trotzdem trat am 1.Mai 2004 der griechisch Zypriotische Teil der EU bei. Allerdings stellt völkerrechtlich gesehen ganz Zypern EU-Territorium dar, wobei der nördliche Teil ausgegrenzt ist (vgl. ebd.). Seitdem werden immer noch Verhandlungsprozesse unter Aufsicht der Vereinten Nationen geführt. Espen Barth Eide ist seit 2014 der Sonderbeauftragten für den Zypernkonflikt,. Durch ihn gab es eine Einigung, dass eine dritte entscheidende Verhandlungsphase geführt werden soll. Dennoch ging die letzte Verhandlungsrunde für eine Lösung des Zypernkonflikts am 07.07.2017 ohne Ergebnis zu Ende. Hier waren auch die Repräsentanten der sogenannten Garantiemächte Griechenland, Großbritanniens und der Türkei mit dabei. Nun sollen auf Empfehlung von VN-Generalskretär Guterres erstmals eigene Vorstellungen betreffend einer Fortführung des Verhandlungsprozesses gebildet werden (vgl. Auswärtiges Amt 2018). UNFICYP- Praxisbeispiel für die Leistungen und Probleme der Friedenssicherung Zypern wird durch eine 180 Kilometer lange grüne Line geteilt, welche auch durch die Hauptstadt Nikosia verläuft. Diese Pufferzone wird von den Friedenstruppen der UNFICYP überwacht. Die Waffenstillstandslinie wurde hart umkämpft, sodass sie vor allem in Nikosia nicht gerade verläuft, sondern vor- und zurückspringt. Dadurch ist die Überwachung des Status quo für die UN-Soldaten noch mehr erschwert (Ehrenberg 1991, vgl. S. 1). Seit dem Bürgerkrieg von 1963/64 gab es auf Zypern lange keinen dauerhaften Frieden. Wie schon beschrieben, haben die Sonderbeauftragten des UN-Generalsekretärs schon seit 1964 viele Verhandlungen gestartet, aber immer noch keinen dauerhaften Frieden erreicht. Dabei kam immer wieder der Vorwurf auf, die Vereinten Nationen würden den Kern des Problems nur auf Eis legen und damit könne kein Frieden entstehen (vgl. Gürbey 2014). Unter diesen Umständen versuchen die Friedenstruppen, der Bevölkerung so viel Normalität wie möglich zu gewährleisten. Die Hoffnung, dass durch einen Generationenwechsel sich das Problem von selbst lösen würde, trat nicht ein. Das zeigte sich gerade auf der griechisch-zypriotischen Seite; hier waren die Jugendlichen ernüchtert, weil sich der politische Stillstand nicht überwinden ließ (Ehrenberg 1991, vgl. S.1f). Ein Beispiel hierfür war die Versammlung von 3000 Schülern im November 1988 an der Pufferzone. Sie wollten gegen die türkischen Truppen demonstrieren. Dabei durchbrachen einige von ihnen die grüne Linie, konnten dann aber von UN-Truppen gestoppt werden, bevor sie die türkisch-zypriotischen Truppen erreichten (vgl. ebd. S. 2). Die Jugendlichen bewarfen die UN-Soldaten dabei mit Steinen, Flaschen, Holzstücken und Dachziegeln. Die griechisch-zypriotische Polizei griff erst nach Kommando der UNFICYP-Oberkommandanten ein und räumte mit den UN-Truppen den Platz. Hier ist kritisch anzumerken, dass in der Presse nicht die UN-Soldaten die Helden waren, sondern die Schüler, welche ihr Land zurückerobern wollten. Dabei sollte nicht außer Acht gelassen werden, dass auch die türkisch-zypriotische Seite der UNFICYP die Schuld gab; diese hätten nicht rechtzeitig reagiert (vgl. ebd. S. 2). Demonstrationen wie diese waren kein Einzelfall zu dieser Zeit, ein halbes Jahr später kam es zu einer Frauendemonstration, bei der die UNFICYP noch machtloser war. Auch hier verhielt sich die griechisch-zypriotische Polizei sehr passiv. Die UN-Soldaten wurden von Männern, die am Rand standen, angegriffen. Zudem hatten sich griechisch-orthodoxe Kirchenmänner unter die Frauen gemischt (vgl. ebd. S. 2). Insgesamt zeigt sich, wie schwierig es die Friedenstruppen hatten. Sie mussten sowohl Blutvergießen verhindern und die Konfliktparteien auseinander halten als auch ihre eigene Akzeptanz aufrechterhalten. An diesem Beispiel wird auch deutlich, dass die Friedenstruppen ungerechtfertigte Kritik einstecken mussten. Im folgenden Beispiel wird auf den Waffengebrauch eingegangen. Wie kritisch dieser ist, zeigte sich anhand der Todesschüsse in Athienou Ende Mai 1988. Die Waffen dürfen nur zur Selbstverteidigung gebraucht werden, zum Schutz für das Leben anderer UN-Angehöriger oder Personen, die zu verteidigen sind. Dafür ist immer die Zustimmung des ranghöchsten Soldaten vor Ort nötig (Gareis/Varwick 2014, vgl. S. 117). Athienou gehörte zur griechisch-zypriotischen Seite, war zur damaligen Zeit aber ein umstrittenes Gebiet. Ein türkischer Soldat nahm eine Familie in ihrem Haus als Geiseln. Bevor die UN-Soldaten überhaupt eintrafen, bewegten sich zwei Nationalgardisten auf das Haus zu. Der Geiselnehmer schoss auf die beiden, sodass einer schwer verletzt liegen blieb. Die Nationalgardisten forderten Verstärkung an, ohne Rücksprache mit der UNFICYP. Währenddessen bargen die UN-Soldaten den Verletzten. Die türkischen Streitkräfte wurden nicht über die Geiselnahme informiert. Die UN-Soldaten räumten das Feld, als die griechisch-zypriotische Anti-Terror-Einheit eintraf. Diese stürmte das Haus und tötete den türkischen Soldaten gezielt, obwohl die Geiseln zu diesem Zeitpunkt schon geflohen und in Sicherheit waren (Ehrenberg 1991, vgl. S.3). Ehrenberg erklärte, die UNFICYP hätte eingreifen können. Ob es so klug gewesen wäre, die griechischen Zyprioten mit Androhung von Waffengewalt an der Verletzung der Pufferzone zu hindern, stellt er in Frage. Hieraus ergab sich die Konsequenz, dass die Erwartungen an die UNFICYP viel zu hoch waren, nur aufgrund der Tatsache, dass sie bewaffnet waren. Hier stellt sich die Frage, ob der Waffengebrauch die Sicherheit erhöht und dadurch die Funktion der UN-Soldaten entlastet. Außerdem konnte man beobachten, dass die UN-Friedenstruppen oftmals mindestens einer Konfliktpartei unterlegen waren. Dabei sollte kritisch hinterfragt werden, inwiefern militärische Überlegenheit die politischen und diplomatischen Absichten von Friedenstruppen fördern würde. Dies scheint fraglich, denn würde militärische Übermacht diese nicht eher zerstören (vgl. ebd. S.3ff)? FazitFestzuhalten bleibt, dass die Friedenssicherung als zentraler Auftrag der Vereinten Nationen gesehen werden kann. In direktem Zusammenhang mit der Durchsetzung der Menschenrechte, weil diese Ziele untrennbar sind und einander beeinflussen. Durch das Interventionsverbot wird eine Einmischung in innere Konflikte durch die Charta ausgeschlossen. Der Sicherheitsrat kann deshalb nicht in innerstaatliche Konflikte und Menschenrechtsverletzungen eingreifen. Daraus folgt, dass es zu aller erst zu Präventionsmaßnahmen kommt; daneben kann der Sicherheitsrat Empfehlungen zur friedlichen Streitbeilegung nach Kapitel VI der Charta geben. Es kann aber auch zu Zwangsmaßnahmen nach Kapitel VII kommen. Dementsprechend steht der Schutz der Zivilbevölkerung permanent im Vordergrund. Allgemein und in Bezug auf die Friedenssicherung gilt für die Vereinte Nationen, dass das Verhalten der Mitgliedstaaten entscheidend ist. Die Vereinten Nationen bieten zwar einen Rahmen, bei dem sich Staaten und ihre Interessen annähern können, aber die Staaten müssen diesen nutzen, um durch Lernprozesse Fortschritte zu machen. Darüber hinaus dürfen die Vereinten Nationen nicht zu viel versprechen; dies gilt gerade im Punkt der Friedenssicherung. Ihre Ankündigung ist oftmals höher als die Möglichkeiten und Aspiration der Mitgliedsstaaten. Andersherum dürfen die Erwartungen an die Vereinten Nationen nicht abwegig sein, sie sind keine Weltregierung. Dennoch bilden sie einen Rahmen für gemeinsame Lösungsansätze. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es ebenfalls zu erklären, wer für die Friedenssicherung zuständig ist. Dabei wurde festgestellt, dies geschieht durch das Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO), welches die Missionen plant und durchführt. Unterstützt werden sie vom Department of Political Affairs (DPA), welches sich vor allem um diplomatische Bemühungen kümmert. Durch eine Einsatzleitung (Force Commander) vor Ort gibt es noch eine ausführende Leitung der Friedensmission. Deutlich wird die Problematik, dass die Vereinten Nationen keine eigenen Streitkräfte haben. Es kam noch nie zu einem Sonderabkommen in Bezug auf die Streitkräfte. Hier wird deutlich, dass die Anforderungen der Vereinten Nationen an ihre Mitgliedsstaaten zu hoch und den praktischen Möglichkeiten voraus sind. Dafür entwickelten die Vereinten Nationen alternative Formen, wie z.B. die Blauhelme. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass es eine Entwicklung bei der Friedenssicherung der Vereinten Nationen gab. Eine Zuständigkeit für die Friedenserhaltung wurde durch den Internationalen Gerichtshof dem Sicherheitsrat und der Generalversammlung zugesprochen. Durch die vergangenen Einsätze wurde außerdem beschlossen, dass die Friedensmissionen vom Sicherheitsrat beobachtet werden. Und die Bedeutung und Verantwortung des Generalsekretärs nahm immer mehr zu. Durch Generalsekretär Hammarskjöld sind wichtige Grundprinzipen der Notstandsgruppe in die Friedenssicherung eingegangen. Daraus folgt der Konsens der Konfliktparteien, wodurch klassische Blauhelm-Soldaten nicht gegen den Willen eines Staates eingesetzt werden dürfen. Dieser Konsens führt dazu, dass die Mitgliedstaaten ihre Truppen eher bereitstellen und die Toleranz der Blauhelme gestärkt wird. Festgestellt wurde außerdem die Wichtigkeit von einer ausgewogenen regionalen Zusammenstellung der Truppen, damit die Unparteilichkeit gewahrt werden kann. Zielsetzung der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, die Friedenssicherung anhand vom Zypern-Konflikt zu schildern, dafür wurden die die politischen Hintergründe beleuchtet. Hier kann man festhalten, es gab unheimlich viele beteiligte Parteien. Zum einen Großbritannien, weil Zypern bis 1960 eine britische Kolonie war und geostrategisch genutzt wurde. Dann Griechenland, die Türkei und die griechischen und türkischen Zyprioten. Es ist zu erkennen, dass Großbritannien die beiden Mütterländer gegeneinander ausspielte. Sie sahen den Zypern-Konflikt als nationale Frage und übten deshalb enormen Einfluss aus, dieser wurde durch den Schutz der eigenen Volksgruppe legitimiert. Durch die Unabhängigkeit Zyperns ab 1960 wurde der innerzypriotische Konflikt nicht gelöst, sondern noch mehr verschärft; dieser endete in blutigen Unruhen. Seit 1964 gibt es ein Friedensmandat der Vereinten Nationen, wodurch das Wiederaufflammen von Kämpfen verhindert werden soll. Wie dieser Blogbeitrag gezeigt hat, musste die UNFICYP darauf achten, dass lokale Befreiungsversuche nicht als Einmischungsversuche oder Provokation aufgefasst wurden. Von 1964 bis Juni 1974 war die UNFICYP ein erfolgreicher Vermittler der beiden Volksgruppen, sodass es 1973 eine Kürzung des Mandats gab. Diese Kürzung erzeugte aber ein Klima von trügerischer Sicherheit, wobei die Friedenstruppen als Friedensersatz wahrgenommen wurden, obwohl das Problem ungelöst blieb. Hier wirft man den Vereinten Nationen vor, dass es zu einem Nachlass der Friedensbemühungen kam und die Friedenseinsätze als Selbstzweck genutzt wurden. Deshalb kam es für viele überraschend, als die Griechen 1974 durch einen Putschversuch die Insel an Griechenland anbinden wollten. Man stellte fest, dass die Minimierung der Blauhelme seit 1971 bis Mitte 1974 als sicherheitspolitischer Fehler der Vereinten Nationen gesehen werden kann. Offen bleibt die Frage, ob die Vereinten Nationen den Krieg 1974 hätten verhindern können. Nach dem Krieg war eine Konsolidierung, eine Teilung der Insel der einzige Ausweg.Von Faustmann bekommt Zypern den Titel "Friedhof der Diplomatie". Festhalten lässt sich, dass es etliche Verhandlungen durch die Vereinten Nationen gab und der Konflikt bis heute nicht gelöst wurde. Auch ein Grund dafür sind die klaren Vorstellungen der beiden Parteien, so forderten die türkischen Zyprioten eine politische Gleichheit als Grundprinzip und die griechische Seite eine Berücksichtigung ihrer prozentualen Bevölkerungsmehrheit. Ein Abkommen konnte im Jahre 1977 erreicht werden und eine Erweiterung 1979, hier wurden die Grundprinzipien einer Wiedervereinigung, die High Level Agreements festgehalten. Es kam immer wieder zum Stillstand der Verhandlungen, welcher meistens erst durch die Bemühungen der Vereinten Nationen unterbrochen wurde. Die Regierungen der beiden Volksgruppen trugen auch dazu bei, dass sich die Verhandlungen so schwierig gestalteten. Erkennbar wird, wie schwer es für die Vereinten Nationen war, neutral zu bleiben und beiden Seiten gerecht zu werden. Erneute Gespräche brachen 1990 ab, weil die Republik Zypern der EU beitreten wollte. Als klar war, die EU würde Zypern auch ohne Lösung des Konflikts aufnehmen, fanden 2002 erneute Verhandlung unter der Schirmherrschaft der Vereinten Nationen statt. Es gab einen Erfolg, denn es wurden erstmals umfassende Kernpunkte eines politischen Lösungsplans erarbeitet, welcher Anfang 2004 fertiggestellt wurde, der sogenannte Annan-Plan. Im April 2004 wurde in den beiden Volksgruppen über den Wiedervereinigungsplan abgestimmt. Diese Gelegenheit verpasste man, weil die griechischen Zyprioten dagegen stimmten. Die Vereinigung Zyperns scheiterte und damit auch der Annan-Plan. Die stille Hoffnung, dass durch ein Generationenwechsel sich das Problem von selbst lösen würde, trat nicht ein. Festzuhalten ist, dass die Friedenstruppen den Zivilisten soviel Normalität wie möglich gewährleisten wollen. Die UN-Soldaten mussten in der Vergangenheit viel einstecken, sie wurden z.B. bei Demonstrationen attackiert oder in der Presse schlecht dargestellt. Insgesamt zeigt sich, wie schwierig es die Friedenstruppen haben. Sie müssen sowohl Blutvergießen verhindern als auch die Konfliktparteien auseinander halten und zum anderen ihre eigene Akzeptanz aufrechterhalten. Ebenso im Zypern-Konflikt wurde die Erlaubnis zum Gebrauch von Waffen zur Selbstverteidigung kontrovers diskutiert. Dadurch waren die Erwartungen an die UNFICYP teilweise zu hoch. Umstritten bleibt, ob der Waffengebrauch die Sicherheit erhöht und dadurch die Funktion der UN-Soldaten entlastet. Hinzu kam die Tatsache, dass die UN-Friedenstruppen oftmals mindestens einer Konfliktpartei unterlegen waren. Dabei stellt sich die Frage, inwiefern militärische Überlegenheit die politischen und diplomatischen Absichten von Friedenstruppen fördert. Die Vereinten Nationen geben den Konflikt nicht auf und führen immer noch Gespräche, nun auch mit der Beteiligung von den sogenannten Garantiemächten Griechenland, Großbritannien und der Türkei. Wünschenswert wäre eine Lösung des Konfliktes, hierfür reicht nicht allein das Engagement der Vereinten Nationen, sondern der Wille und ein Einsatz auf beiden Seiten ist notwendig. Dennoch gibt es eine Freizügigkeit trotz der Trennung. Die Trennungslinie ist keine Außengrenze, sondern hier wird die Freizügigkeit der Bürger*innen gewährleistet. Dadurch können EU-Bürger*innen und somit auch griechische und türkische Zyprioten*innen diese Linie an sieben Übergängen mit dem Personalausweis passieren. Literaturverzeichnis:Textquellen:Auswärtiges Amt: ABC der Vereinten Nationen. Edition Diplomatie, hg. Von Günther Unser, 7. Auflage, Berlin 2011, S. 57.Ehrenberg, Eckhart (1991): Die UNFICYP: Praxisbeispiel für Leistungen und Probleme der Eriedenssicherung vor Ort, In: Vereinte Nationen 1/1991, vgl. S.1-6.Gareis, Sven Bernhard/ Warwick, Johannes (2014): Die Vereinten Nationen, hg. Verlag Barbara Budrich Opladen & Toronto, 5.Auflage, vgl. S.111-148.Gorge, Remy (1986): Zypern und die Mutterländer, In: Vereinte Nationen 4/86, vgl. S.130-134.Jett, Dennis C. (2000): Why Peacekeeping Fails, In: New York, vol. S.23f.Menning, Gerhard (1974): Zypern-Mitwirkung der UNO an einer Lösung des Konflikts, In: Vereinte Nationen 6/74, vgl. S.172-176.Sucharipa-Behrmann, Lilly (1999): Die friedenserhaltende Operation der Vereinten Nationen, In: Cede/Sucharipa-Behrmann 1999, vgl. S. 232-239.Internetquellen:Auswärtiges Amt (2018): Aktuelle Lage im Zypernkonflikt, unter: https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/aussenpolitik/laender/zypern-node/-/210292 (eingesehen am 26.09.2020).Auswärtiges Amt (2020): UN-Friedensmissionen und deutsches Engagement, unter: https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/aussenpolitik/internationale-organisationen/uno/04-friedensmissionen-un/205586 (eingesehen am 26.09.2020).Deutsche Gesellschaft für die Vereinte Nationen: Organe der UN-Friedenssicherung, unter: https://frieden-sichern.dgvn.de/friedenssicherung/organe/ (eingesehen am 26.09.2020).Faustmann, Hubert (2009): Die Verhandlungen zur Wiedervereinigung Zyperns: 1974 - 2008, unter: https://www.bpb.de/apuz/32118/die-verhandlungen-zur-wiedervereinigung-zyperns-1974-2008 (eingesehen am 26.09.2020).Gareis, Sven Bernhard (2015): UNO – Stärken und Schwächen einer Weltorganisation, unter: https://www.bpb.de/izpb/209686/uno-staerken-und-schwaechen-einer-weltorganisation?p=1 (eingesehen am 26.09.2020).Gürbey, Dr. Gülistan (2014): Der Zypernkonflikt, unter: https://www.bpb.de/internationales/europa/tuerkei/185876/der-zypernkonflikt (eingesehen am 26.09.2020).Lugert, Alfred (2018): Der Fall Zypern - Teil 3, unter: https://www.truppendienst.com/themen/beitraege/artikel/der-fall-zypern-teil-3/#page-1 (eingesehen am 26.09.2020).Mathis, Edeltraud: Friedenssicherung als zentraler UN Auftrag, unter: https://www.brgdomath.com/politik-wirtschaft/gerechtfertigter-krieg-tk19/uno-und-un-weltsicherheitsrat/ ( eingesehen am 26.09.2020).Mehr zu den Wiedervereinigungs-Verhandlungen (2010), unter: http://friedensbildung.de/inhalt-der-ausstellung/zypern/verhandlungen/ (eingesehen am 26.09.2020).Richter, Heinz (2009): Historische Hintergründe des Zypernkonflikts, unter: https://www.bpb.de/apuz/32116/historische-hintergruende-des-zypernkonflikts?p=all (eingesehen am 26.09.2020).
COVID-STORM Clinicians Giuseppe Foti1, Giacomo Bellani 1, Giuseppe Citerio1, Ernesto Contro1, Alberto Pesci2, Maria Grazia Valsecchi3, Marina Cazzaniga4 1Department of Emergency, Anesthesia and Intensive Care, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, San Gerardo Hospital, Monza, Italy. 2Department of Pneumology, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, San Gerardo Hospital, Monza, Italy. 3Center of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, San Gerardo Hospital, Monza, Italy. 4Phase I Research Center, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, San Gerardo Hospital, Monza IT ; COVID Clinicians Jorge Abad1, Sergio Aguilera-Albesa2, Ozge Metin Akcan3, Ilad Alavi Darazam4, Juan C. Aldave5, Miquel Alfonso Ramos6, Seyed Alireza Nadji7, Gulsum Alkan8, Jerome Allardet-Servent9, Luis M. Allende10, Laia Alsina11, Marie-Alexandra Alyanakian12, Blanca Amador-Borrero13, Zahir Amoura14, Arnau Antolí15, Sevket Arslan16, Sophie Assant17, Terese Auguet18, Axelle Azot19, Fanny Bajolle20, Aurélie Baldolli21, Maite Ballester22, Hagit Baris Feldman23, Benoit Barrou24, Alexandra Beurton25, Agurtzane Bilbao26, Geraldine Blanchard-Rohner27, Ignacio Blanco1, Adeline Blandinières28, Daniel Blazquez-Gamero29, Marketa Bloomfield30, Mireia Bolivar-Prados31, Raphael Borie32, Cédric Bosteels33, Ahmed A. Bousfiha34, Claire Bouvattier35, Oksana Boyarchuk36, Maria Rita P. Bueno37, Jacinta Bustamante20, Juan José Cáceres Agra38, Semra Calimli39, Ruggero Capra40, Maria Carrabba41, Carlos Casasnovas42, Marion Caseris43, Martin Castelle44, Francesco Castelli45, Martín Castillo de Vera46, Mateus V. Castro37, Emilie Catherinot47, Martin Chalumeau48, Bruno Charbit49, Matthew P. Cheng50, Père Clavé31, Bonaventura Clotet51, Anna Codina52, Fatih Colkesen53, Fatma Çölkesen54, Roger Colobran55, Cloé Comarmond56, David Dalmau57, David Ross Darley58, Nicolas Dauby59, Stéphane Dauger60, Loic de Pontual61, Amin Dehban62, Geoffroy Delplancq63, Alexandre Demoule64, Jean-Luc Diehl65, Stephanie Dobbelaere66, Sophie Durand67, Waleed Eldars68, Mohamed Elgamal69, Marwa H. Elnagdy70, Melike Emiroglu71, Emine Hafize Erdeniz72, Selma Erol Aytekin73, Romain Euvrard74, Recep Evcen75, Giovanna Fabio41, Laurence Faivre76, Antonin Falck43, Muriel Fartoukh77, Morgane Faure78, Miguel Fernandez Arquero79, Carlos Flores80, Bruno Francois81, Victoria Fumadó82, Francesca Fusco83, Blanca Garcia Solis84, Pascale Gaussem85, Juana Gil-Herrera86, Laurent Gilardin87, Monica Girona Alarcon88, Mònica Girona-Alarcón88, Jean-Christophe Goffard89, Funda Gok90, Rafaela González-Montelongo91, Antoine Guerder92, Yahya Gul93, Sukru Nail Guner93, Marta Gut94, Jérôme Hadjadj95, Filomeen Haerynck96, Rabih Halwani97, Lennart Hammarström98, Nevin Hatipoglu99, Elisa Hernandez-Brito100, Cathérine Heijmans101, María Soledad Holanda-Peña102, Juan Pablo Horcajada103, Levi Hoste104, Eric Hoste105, Sami Hraiech106, Linda Humbert107, Alejandro D. Iglesias108, Antonio Íñigo-Campos91, Matthieu Jamme109, María Jesús Arranz110, Iolanda Jordan111, Philippe Jorens112, Fikret Kanat113, Hasan Kapakli114, Iskender Kara115, Adem Karbuz116, Kadriye Kart Yasar117, Sevgi Keles118, Yasemin Kendir Demirkol119, Adam Klocperk120, Zbigniew J. Król121, Paul Kuentz122, Yat Wah M. Kwan123, Jean-Christophe Lagier124, Bart N. Lambrecht33, Yu-Lung Lau125, Fleur Le Bourgeois60, Yee-Sin Leo126, Rafael Leon Lopez127, Daniel Leung125, Michael Levin128, Michael Levy60, Romain Lévy20, Zhi Li49, Agnes Linglart129, Bart Loeys130, José M. Lorenzo-Salazar91, Céline Louapre131, Catherine Lubetzki131, Charles-Edouard Luyt132, David C. Lye133, Davood Mansouri134, Majid Marjani135, Jesus Marquez Pereira136, Andrea Martin137, David Martínez Pueyo138, Javier Martinez-Picado139, Iciar Marzana140, Alexis Mathian14, Larissa R. B. Matos37, Gail V. Matthews141, Julien Mayaux142, Jean-Louis Mège143, Isabelle Melki144, Jean-François Meritet145, Ozge Metin146, Isabelle Meyts147, Mehdi Mezidi148, Isabelle Migeotte149, Maude Millereux150, Tristan Mirault151, Clotilde Mircher67, Mehdi Mirsaeidi152, Abián Montesdeoca Melián153, Antonio Morales Martinez154, Pierre Morange155, Clémence Mordacq107, Guillaume Morelle156, Stéphane Mouly13, Adrián Muñoz-Barrera91, Leslie Naesens157, Cyril Nafati158, João Farela Neves159, Lisa FP. Ng160, Yeray Novoa Medina161, Esmeralda Nuñez Cuadros162, J. Gonzalo Ocejo-Vinyals163, Zerrin Orbak164, Mehdi Oualha20, Tayfun Özçelik165, Qiang Pan-Hammarström166, Christophe Parizot142, Tiffany Pascreau167, Estela Paz-Artal168, Sandra Pellegrini49, Rebeca Pérez de Diego84, Aurélien Philippe169, Quentin Philippot77, Laura Planas-Serra170, Dominique Ploin171, Julien Poissy172, Géraldine Poncelet43, Marie Pouletty173, Paul Quentric142, Didier Raoult143, Anne-Sophie Rebillat67, Ismail Reisli174, Pilar Ricart175, Jean-Christophe Richard176, Nadia Rivet28, Jacques G. Rivière177, Gemma Rocamora Blanch15, Carlos Rodrigo1, Carlos Rodriguez-Gallego178, Agustí Rodríguez-Palmero179, Carolina Soledad Romero180, Anya Rothenbuhler181, Flore Rozenberg182, Maria Yolanda Ruiz del Prado183, Joan Sabater Riera15, Oliver Sanchez184, Silvia Sánchez-Ramón185, Agatha Schluter170, Matthieu Schmidt186, Cyril E. Schweitzer187, Francesco Scolari188, Anna Sediva189, Luis M. Seijo190, Damien Sene13, Sevtap Senoglu117, Mikko R. J. Seppänen191, Alex Serra Ilovich192, Mohammad Shahrooei62, Hans Slabbynck193, David M. Smadja194, Ali Sobh195, Xavier Solanich Moreno15, Jordi Solé-Violán196, Catherine Soler197, Pere Soler-Palacín137, Yuri Stepanovskiy198, Annabelle Stoclin199, Fabio Taccone149, Yacine Tandjaoui-Lambiotte200, Jean-Luc Taupin201, Simon J. Tavernier202, Benjamin Terrier203, Caroline Thumerelle107, Gabriele Tomasoni204, Julie Toubiana48, Josep Trenado Alvarez205, Sophie Trouillet-Assant206, Jesús Troya207, Alessandra Tucci208, Matilde Valeria Ursini83, Yurdagul Uzunhan209, Pierre Vabres210, Juan Valencia-Ramos211, Eva Van Braeckel33, Stijn Van de Velde212, Ana Maria Van Den Rym84, Jens Van Praet213, Isabelle Vandernoot214, Hulya Vatansev215, Valentina Vélez-Santamaria42, Sébastien Viel171, Cédric Vilain216, Marie E. Vilaire67, Audrey Vincent35, Guillaume Voiriot217, Fanny Vuotto107, Alper Yosunkaya90, Barnaby E. Young126, Fatih Yucel218, Faiez Zannad219, Mayana Zatz37, Alexandre Belot220* ; Imagine COVID Group Christine Bole-Feysot, Stanislas Lyonnet*, Cécile Masson, Patrick Nitschke, Aurore Pouliet, Yoann Schmitt, Frederic Tores, Mohammed Zarhrate Imagine Institute, Université de Paris, INSERM UMR 1163, Paris, France. *Leader of the Imagine COVID Group. ; French COVID Cohort Study Group Laurent Abel1, Claire Andrejak2, François Angoulvant3, Delphine Bachelet4, Romain Basmaci5, Sylvie Behillil6, Marine Beluze7, Dehbia Benkerrou8, Krishna Bhavsar4, François Bompart9, Lila Bouadma4, Maude Bouscambert10, Mireille Caralp11, Minerva Cervantes-Gonzalez12, Anissa Chair4, Alexandra Coelho13, Camille Couffignal4, Sandrine Couffin-Cadiergues14, Eric D'Ortenzio12, Charlene Da Silveira4, Marie-Pierre Debray4, Dominique Deplanque15, Diane Descamps16, Mathilde Desvallées17, Alpha Diallo18, Alphonsine Diouf13, Céline Dorival8, François Dubos19, Xavier Duval4, Philippine Eloy4, Vincent VE Enouf20, Hélène Esperou21, Marina Esposito-Farese4, Manuel Etienne22, Nadia Ettalhaoui4, Nathalie Gault4, Alexandre Gaymard10, Jade Ghosn4, Tristan Gigante23, Isabelle Gorenne4, Jérémie Guedj24, Alexandre Hoctin13, Isabelle Hoffmann4, Salma Jaafoura21, Ouifiya Kafif4, Florentia Kaguelidou25, Sabina Kali4, Antoine Khalil4, Coralie Khan17, Cédric Laouénan4, Samira Laribi4, Minh Le4, Quentin Le Hingrat4, Soizic Le Mestre18, Hervé Le Nagard24, François-Xavier Lescure4, Yves Lévy26, Claire Levy-Marchal27, Bruno Lina10, Guillaume Lingas24, Jean Christophe Lucet4, Denis Malvy28, Marina Mambert13, France Mentré4, Noémie Mercier18, Amina Meziane8, Hugo Mouquet20, Jimmy Mullaert4, Nadège Neant24, Marion Noret29, Justine Pages30, Aurélie Papadopoulos21, Christelle Paul18, Nathan Peiffer-Smadja4, Ventzislava Petrov-Sanchez18, Gilles Peytavin4, Olivier Picone31, Oriane Puéchal12, Manuel Rosa-Calatrava10, Bénédicte Rossignol23, Patrick Rossignol32, Carine Roy4, Marion Schneider4, Caroline Semaille12, Nassima Si Mohammed4, Lysa Tagherset4, Coralie Tardivon4, Marie-Capucine Tellier4, François Téoulé8, Olivier Terrier10, Jean-François Timsit4, Théo Trioux4, Christelle Tual33, Sarah Tubiana4, Sylvie van der Werf34, Noémie Vanel35, Aurélie Veislinger33, Benoit Visseaux16, Aurélie Wiedemann26, Yazdan Yazdanpanah36 1Inserm UMR 1163, Paris, France. 2CHU Amiens, France. 3Hôpital Necker, Paris, France. 4Hôpital Bichat, Paris, France. 5Hôpital Louis Mourrier, Colombes, France. 6Institut Pasteur, Paris, France. 7F-CRIN Partners Platform, AP-HP, Université de Paris, Paris, France. 8Inserm UMR 1136, Paris, France. 9Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative, Geneva, Switzerland. 10Inserm UMR 1111, Lyon, France. 11Inserm Transfert, Paris, France. 12REACTing, Paris, France. 13Inserm UMR 1018, Paris, France. 14Inserm, Pôle Recherche Clinique, Paris, France. 15CIC 1403 Inserm-CHU Lille, Paris, France. 16Université de Paris, IAME, INSERM UMR 1137, AP-HP, University Hospital Bichat Claude Bernard, Virology, Paris, France. 17Inserm UMR 1219, Bordeaux, France. 18ANRS, Paris, France. 19CHU Lille, Lille, France. 20Pasteur Institute, Paris, France. 21Inserm sponsor, Paris, France. 22CHU Rouen–SMIT, Rouen, France. 23FCRIN INI-CRCT, Nancy, France. 24Inserm UMR 1137, Paris, France. 25Centre d'Investigation Clinique, Inserm CIC1426, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris, France. 26Inserm UMR 955, Créteil, France; Vaccine Research Instiute (VRI), Paris, France. 27F-CRIN INI-CRCT, Paris, France. 28CHU de Bordeaux–SMIT, Bordeaux, France. 29RENARCI, Annecy, France. 30Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris, France. 31Hôpital Louis Mourier–Gynécologie, Colombes, France. 32University of Lorraine, Plurithematic Clinical Investigation Centre Inserm CIC-P; 1433, Inserm U1116, CHRU Nancy Hopitaux de Brabois, F-CRIN INI-CRCT (Cardiovascular and Renal Clinical Trialists), Nancy, France. 33Inserm CIC-1414, Rennes, France. 34Institut Pasteur, UMR 3569 CNRS, Université de Paris, Paris, France. 35Hôpital la Timone, Marseille, France. 36Bichat–SMIT, Paris, France. ; CoV-Contact Cohort Loubna Alavoine1, Karine K. A. Amat2, Sylvie Behillil3, Julia Bielicki4, Patricia Bruijning5, Charles Burdet6, Eric Caumes7, Charlotte Charpentier8, Bruno Coignard9, Yolande Costa1, Sandrine Couffin-Cadiergues10, Florence Damond8, Aline Dechanet11, Christelle Delmas10, Diane Descamps8, Xavier Duval1, Jean-Luc Ecobichon1, Vincent Enouf3, Hélène Espérou10, Wahiba Frezouls1, Nadhira Houhou11, Emila Ilic-Habensus1, Ouifiya Kafif11, John Kikoine11, Quentin Le Hingrat8, David Lebeaux12, Anne Leclercq1, Jonathan Lehacaut1, Sophie Letrou1, Bruno Lina13, Jean-Christophe Lucet14, Denis Malvy15, Pauline Manchon11, Milica Mandic1, Mohamed Meghadecha16, Justina Motiejunaite17, Mariama Nouroudine1, Valentine Piquard11, Andreea Postolache11, Caroline Quintin1, Jade Rexach1, Layidé Roufai10, Zaven Terzian11, Michael Thy18, Sarah Tubiana1, Sylvie van der Werf3, Valérie Vignali1, Benoit Visseaux8, Yazdan Yazdanpanah14 1Centre d'Investigation Clinique, Inserm CIC 1425, Hôpital Bichat Claude Bernard, APHP, Paris, France. 2IMEA Fondation Léon M'Ba, Paris, France. 3Institut Pasteur, UMR 3569 CNRS, Université de Paris, Paris, France. 4University of Basel Children's Hospital. 5Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, Utrecht, Netherlands. 6Université de Paris, IAME, Inserm UMR 1137, F-75018, Paris, France, Hôpital Bichat Claude Bernard, APHP, Paris, France. 7Hôpital Pitiè Salpétriere, APHP, Paris. 8Université de Paris, IAME, INSERM UMR 1137, AP-HP, University Hospital Bichat Claude Bernard, Virology, Paris, France. 9Santé Publique France, Saint Maurice, France. 10Pole Recherche Clinique, Inserm, Paris, France. 11Hôpital Bichat Claude Bernard, APHP, Paris, France. 12APHP, Paris, France. 13Virpath Laboratory, International Center of Research in Infectiology, Lyon University, INSERM U1111, CNRS UMR 5308, ENS, UCBL, Lyon, France. 14IAME Inserm UMR 1138, Hôpital Bichat Claude Bernard, APHP, Paris, France. 15Service des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales; Groupe Pellegrin-Place Amélie-Raba-Léon, Bordeaux, France. 16Hôpital Hotel Dieu, APHP, Paris, France. 17Service des Explorations Fonctionnelles, Hôpital Bichat–Claude Bernard, APHP, Paris, France. 18Center for Clinical Investigation, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Bichat-Claude Bernard University Hospital, Paris, France. ; Amsterdam UMC Covid-19 Biobank Michiel van Agtmael1, Anna Geke Algera2, Frank van Baarle2, Diane Bax3, Martijn Beudel4, Harm Jan Bogaard5, Marije Bomers1, Lieuwe Bos2, Michela Botta2, Justin de Brabander6, Godelieve de Bree6, Matthijs C. Brouwer4, Sanne de Bruin2, Marianna Bugiani7, Esther Bulle2, Osoul Chouchane1, Alex Cloherty3, Paul Elbers2, Lucas Fleuren2, Suzanne Geerlings1, Bart Geerts8, Theo Geijtenbeek9, Armand Girbes2, Bram Goorhuis1, Martin P. Grobusch1, Florianne Hafkamp9, Laura Hagens2, Jorg Hamann10, Vanessa Harris1, Robert Hemke11, Sabine M. Hermans1, Leo Heunks2, Markus W. Hollmann8, Janneke Horn2, Joppe W. Hovius1, Menno D. de Jong12, Rutger Koning4, Niels van Mourik2, Jeaninne Nellen1, Frederique Paulus2, Edgar Peters1, Tom van der Poll1, Benedikt Preckel8, Jan M. Prins1, Jorinde Raasveld2, Tom Reijnders1, Michiel Schinkel1, Marcus J. Schultz2, Alex Schuurman13, Kim Sigaloff1, Marry Smit2, Cornelis S. Stijnis1, Willemke Stilma2, Charlotte Teunissen14, Patrick Thoral2, Anissa Tsonas2, Marc van der Valk1, Denise Veelo8, Alexander P.J. Vlaar15, Heder de Vries2, Michèle van Vugt1, W. Joost Wiersinga1, Dorien Wouters16, A. H. (Koos) Zwinderman17, Diederik van de Beek4* 1Department of Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 2Department of Intensive Care, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 3Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 4Department of Neurology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 5Department of Pulmonology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 6Department of Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 7Department of Pathology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 8Department of Anesthesiology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 9Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 10Amsterdam UMC Biobank Core Facility, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 11Department of Radiology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 12Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 13Department of Internal Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 14Neurochemical Laboratory, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 15Department of Intensive Care, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 16Department of Clinical Chemistry, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 17Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 18Department of Neurology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands. *Leader of the AMC Consortium. ; COVID Human Genetic Effort Laurent Abel1, Alessandro Aiuti2, Saleh Al Muhsen3, Fahd Al-Mulla4, Mark S. Anderson5, Andrés Augusto Arias6, Hagit Baris Feldman7, Dusan Bogunovic8, Alexandre Bolze9, Anastasiia Bondarenko10, Ahmed A. Bousfiha11, Petter Brodin12, Yenan Bryceson12, Carlos D. Bustamante13, Manish Butte14, Giorgio Casari15, Samya Chakravorty16, John Christodoulou17, Elizabeth Cirulli9, Antonio Condino-Neto18, Megan A. Cooper19, Clifton L. Dalgard20, Alessia David21, Joseph L. DeRisi22, Murkesh Desai23, Beth A. Drolet24, Sara Espinosa25, Jacques Fellay26, Carlos Flores27, Jose Luis Franco28, Peter K. Gregersen29, Filomeen Haerynck30, David Hagin31, Rabih Halwani32, Jim Heath33, Sarah E. Henrickson34, Elena Hsieh35, Kohsuke Imai36, Yuval Itan8, Timokratis Karamitros37, Kai Kisand38, Cheng-Lung Ku39, Yu-Lung Lau40, Yun Ling41, Carrie L. Lucas42, Tom Maniatis43, Davoud Mansouri44, Laszlo Marodi45, Isabelle Meyts46, Joshua Milner47, Kristina Mironska48, Trine Mogensen49, Tomohiro Morio50, Lisa FP. Ng51, Luigi D. Notarangelo52, Antonio Novelli53, Giuseppe Novelli54, Cliona O'Farrelly55, Satoshi Okada56, Tayfun Ozcelik57, Rebeca Perez de Diego58, Anna M. Planas59, Carolina Prando60, Aurora Pujol61, Lluis Quintana-Murci62, Laurent Renia63, Alessandra Renieri64, Carlos Rodríguez-Gallego65, Vanessa Sancho-Shimizu66, Vijay Sankaran67, Kelly Schiabor Barrett9, Mohammed Shahrooei68, Andrew Snow69, Pere Soler-Palacín70, András N. Spaan71, Stuart Tangye72, Stuart Turvey73, Furkan Uddin74, Mohammed J. Uddin75, Diederik van de Beek76, Sara E. Vazquez77, Donald C. Vinh78, Horst von Bernuth79, Nicole Washington9, Pawel Zawadzki80, Helen C. Su52, Jean-Laurent Casanova81 1INSERM U1163, University of Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France. 2San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy. 3King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. 4Kuwait University, Kuwait City, Kuwait. 5University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. 6Universidad de Antioquia, Group of Primary Immunodeficiencies, Antioquia, Colombia. 7The Genetics Institute, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center and Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel. 8Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA. 9Helix, San Mateo, CA, USA. 10Shupyk National Medical Academy for Postgraduate Education, Kiev, Ukraine. 11Clinical Immunology Unit, Pediatric Infectious Disease Departement, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Averroes University Hospital; LICIA Laboratoire d'Immunologie Clinique, d'Inflammation et d'Allergie, Hassann Ii University, Casablanca, Morocco. 12Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden. 13Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA. 14University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. 15Medical Genetics, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy. 16Emory University Department of Pediatrics and Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, USA. 17Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Victoria, Australia. 18University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. 19Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA. 20The American Genome Center; Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA. 21Centre for Bioinformatics and System Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, UK. 22University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA. 23Bai Jerbai Wadia Hospital for Children, Mumbai, India. 24School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA. 25Instituto Nacional de Pediatria (National Institute of Pediatrics), Mexico City, Mexico. 26Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland. 27Research Unit, Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria, Canarian Health System, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain. 28University of Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia. 29Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Northwell Health USA, Manhasset, NY, USA. 30Department of Paediatric Immunology and Pulmonology, Centre for Primary Immunodeficiency Ghent (CPIG), PID Research Lab, Jeffrey Modell Diagnosis and Research Centre, Ghent University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium. 31The Genetics Institute, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel. 32Sharjah Institute of Medical Research, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE. 33Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA, USA. 34Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA. 35Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA. 36Riken, Tokyo, Japan. 37Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece. 38University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia. 39Chang Gung University, Taoyuan County, Taiwan. 40The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China. 41Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China. 42Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA. 43New York Genome Center, New York, NY, USA. 44Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. 45Semmelweis University Budapest, Budapest, Hungary. 46KU Leuven, Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Transplantation, Leuven, Belgium. 47Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA. 48University Clinic for Children's Diseases, Skopje, North Macedonia. 49Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark. 50Tokyo Medical & Dental University Hospital, Tokyo, Japan. 51Singapore Immunology Network, Singapore. 52National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA. 53Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Rome, Italy. 54Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome "Tor Vergata," Rome, Italy. 55Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland. 56Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan. 57Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey. 58Laboratory of Immunogenetics of Human Diseases, Innate Immunity Group, IdiPAZ Institute for Health Research, La Paz Hospital, Madrid, Spain. 59IIBB-CSIC, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain. 60Faculdades Pequeno Príncipe e Instituto de Pesquisa Pelé Pequeno Príncipe, Curitiba, Brazil. 61Neurometabolic Diseases Laboratory, IDIBELL–Hospital Duran I Reynals; Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA); CIBERER U759, ISCiii Madrid Spain, Barcelona, Spain. 62Institut Pasteur (CNRS UMR2000) and Collège de France, Paris, France. 63Infectious Diseases Horizontal Technology Center and Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science Technology (A*STAR), Singapore. 64Medical Genetics, University of Siena, Siena, Italy; Genetica Medica, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Senese, Italy; GEN-COVID Multicenter Study. 65Hospital Universitario de Gran Canaria Dr. Negrín, Canarian Health System, Canary Islands, Spain. 66Imperial College London, London, UK. 67Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. 68Saeed Pathobiology and Genetic Lab, Tehran, Iran. 69Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA. 70Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain. 71University Medical Center Utrecht, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 72Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, Australia. 73The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. 74Holy Family Red Crescent Medical College; Centre for Precision Therapeutics, NeuroGen Children's Healthcare; Genetics and Genomic Medicine Centre, NeuroGen Children's Healthcare, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 75Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, College of Medicine, Dubai, UAE; The Centre for Applied Genomics, Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 76Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Neurology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 77University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA. 78McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Canada. 79Charité–Berlin University Hospital Center, Berlin, Germany. 80Molecular Biophysics Division, Faculty of Physics, A. Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznanskiego 2, Poznań, Poland. 81Rockefeller University, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Necker Hospital, New York, NY, USA. *Leaders of the COVID Human Genetic Effort. ; NIAID-USUHS/TAGC COVID Immunity Group Huie Jing1,2, Wesley Tung1,2, Christopher R. Luthers3, Bradly M. Bauman3, Samantha Shafer2,4, Lixin Zheng2,4, Zinan Zhang2,4, Satoshi Kubo2,4, Samuel D. Chauvin2,4, Kazuyuki Meguro1,2, Elana Shaw1,2, Michael Lenardo2,4, Justin Lack5, Eric Karlins6, Daniel M. Hupalo7, John Rosenberger7, Gauthaman Sukumar7, Matthew D. Wilkerson7, Xijun Zhang7 1Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, Division of Intramural Research, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA. 2NIAID Clinical Genomics Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA. 3Department of Pharmacology & Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA. 4Laboratory of Immune System Biology, Division of Intramural Research, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA. 5NIAID Collaborative Bioinformatics Resource, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick, MD, USA. 6Bioinformatics and Computational Biosciences Branch, Office of Cyber Infrastructure and Computational Biology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA. 7The American Genome Center, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA. ; Clinical outcome upon infection with SARS-CoV-2 ranges from silent infection to lethal COVID-19. We have found an enrichment in rare variants predicted to be loss-of-function (LOF) at the 13 human loci known to govern TLR3- and IRF7-dependent type I interferon (IFN) immunity to influenza virus, in 659 patients with life-threatening COVID-19 pneumonia, relative to 534 subjects with asymptomatic or benign infection. By testing these and other rare variants at these 13 loci, we experimentally define LOF variants in 23 patients (3.5%), aged 17 to 77 years, underlying autosomal recessive or dominant deficiencies. We show that human fibroblasts with mutations affecting this pathway are vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2. Inborn errors of TLR3- and IRF7-dependent type I IFN immunity can underlie life-threatening COVID-19 pneumonia in patients with no prior severe infection. ; We thank the generous donation from Fisher Center for Alzheimer's Research Foundation for our research. The Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases is supported by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the Rockefeller University, the St. Giles Foundation, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (R01AI088364), the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), NIH Clinical and Translational Science Award (CTSA) program (UL1 TR001866), a Fast Grant from Emergent Ventures, Mercatus Center at George Mason University, the Yale Center for Mendelian Genomics and the GSP Coordinating Center funded by the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) (UM1HG006504 and U24HG008956), the French National Research Agency (ANR) under the "Investments for the Future" program (ANR-10-IAHU-01), the Integrative Biology of Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratory of Excellence (ANR-10-LABX-62-IBEID), the French Foundation for Medical Research (FRM) (EQU201903007798), the FRM and ANR GENCOVID project, ANRS-COV05, the Square Foundation, Grandir - Fonds de solidarité pour l'enfance, the SCOR Corporate Foundation for Science, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), the University of Paris. The French COVID Cohort study group was sponsored by Inserm and supported by the REACTing consortium and by a grant from the French Ministry of Health (PHRC 20-0424). Regione Lombardia, Italy (project "Risposta immune in pazienti con COVID-19 e co-morbidità"), and the Intramural Research Program of the NIAID, NIH. The laboratory of Genomes & Cell Biology of Disease is supported by "Integrative Biology of Emerging Infectious Diseases" (grant no. ANR-10-LABX-62-IBEID), the "Fondation pour la Recherche Medicale" (grant FRM - EQU202003010193), the "Agence Nationale de la Recherche" (ANR FLASH COVID project IDISCOVR cofounded by the "Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale"), University of Paris ("Plan de Soutien Covid-19": RACPL20FIR01-COVID-SOUL). IM is a senior clinical investigator with the FWO Vlaanderen; IM and LM are supported by FWO G0C8517N – GOB5120N. The VS team was supported by "Agence Nationale de la Recherche" (ANR-17-CE15-0003, ANR-17-CE15-0003-01), and by Université de Paris "PLAN D'URGENCE COVID19". LK was supported by a fellowship from the French Ministry of Research. VS-S is supported by a UKRI Future Leaders Fellowship (MR/S032304/1). SZA-M is supported by the Elite Journals Program at King Saud University through grant number PEJP-16-107. JM lab is supported by Columbia University COVID biobank and grant: UL1TR001873. Work in the Laboratory of Virology and Infectious Disease was supported by NIH grants P01AI138398-S1, 2U19AI111825, and R01AI091707-10S1, a George Mason University Fast Grant, and the G. Harold and Leila Y. Mathers Charitable Foundation. JLP is supported by a European Molecular Biology Organization Long-Term Fellowship (ALTF 380-2018). Work at the Neurometabolic Diseases Laboratory received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No 824110 (EasiGenomics grant COVID-19/ PID12342) to A.P., and Roche and Illumina Covid Match Funds to M.G. C.R.G and colleagues are supported by cInstituto de Salud Carlos III (COV20_01333 and COV20_01334), Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, with the funding of European Regional Development Fund-European Social Fund -FEDER-FSE; (RTC-2017-6471-1; AEI/FEDER, UE), and Cabildo Insular de Tenerife (CGIEU0000219140 and "Apuestas científicas del ITER para colaborar en la lucha contra la COVID-19"). D.C.V. is supported by the Fonds de la recherche en santé du Québec clinician-scientist scholar program. Helen Su is adjunct faculty at the University of Pennsylvania. A-L.N. was supported by the Foundation Bettencourt Schueller. The Amsterdam UMC Covid-19 Biobank was funded by the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMw, NWO-vici 91819627), The Corona Research Fund (Amsterdam UMC), Dr. J. C. Vaillantfonds, and Amsterdam UMC. Work on COVID-19 at the AG-S lab is partly supported by NIH supplements to grants U19AI135972, U19AI142733 and R35 HL135834, and to contract HHSN272201800048C, by a DoD supplement to grant W81XWH-20-1-0270, by DARPA project HR0011-19-2-0020, by CRIP (Center for Research on Influenza Pathogenesis), a NIAID funded Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance (CEIRS, contract HHSN272201400008C), by an NIAID funded Collaborative Influenza Vaccine Innovation Center (SEM-CIVIC, contract 75N93019C00051) and by the generous support of the JPB Foundation, the Open Philanthropy Project (research grant 2020-215611(5384)) and anonymous donors. The Virscan analysis presented in fig. S11 was performed with financial support from Sidra Medicine ; Peer reviewed
Innovation is a core topic for the social and administrative sciences concerned with organizations management. Hence the name of our journal: INNOVAR, depicted as action and reflection. Insights about innovation are diverse, ranging from the importance of change in production techniques pointed out by Marx, to the structural vision by Schumpeter and the Neo-Schumpeterians about creative destruction as one of the drivers of capitalist development (Chang, 2016). In recent decades, innovation has been gaining an increasingly prominent role in economic and organizational processes due to the emergence and consolidation of the so-called "knowledge-based society" (Drucker, 1994; Castells, 1996; Dubina, Carayannis & Campbell, 2012).Innovation demands the confluence of multiple factors and dimensions, such as creativity, science and technology, the interactions between University, business and society, as well as competition, the role of the State and innovation financing, among others. Precisely, the intersection between the role of the State and innovation financing has been one of the research interests of the Italian economist Mariana Mazzucato. In her book The Entrepreneurial State - Debunking Public vs. Private Sector Myths, Mazzucato (2016) advocates for a change in the understanding of the role of the State within innovation processes. Using empirical evidence from the sectors of communications technology (exemplifying companies like Apple), renewable energies and the pharmaceutical sector, Mazzucato points out to the active and paramount role of the State in contemporary innovation, considering that states have been investors and executors of projects in the base of innovations such as the touch screen, the cps, the Internet or Siri, which were later exploited by private companies. Whether in the field of military defense, aeronautics or the energy sector, investments by the State and the resulting projects have been vital for the conception and subsequent diffusion of innovations. The characteristics of high-risk investments that can be undertaken by the State added to the way it brings together and articulates multiple capacities and institutions, constitute transmission chains that are essential for innovation.Mazzucato's contribution is questioning a series of myths around innovation that suggest this phenomenon arises only by the activities of private entrepreneurs and investors. This perspective, now dominant, demands a downsized State focused on encouraging private forces, so that the invisible hand and competition promote the emergence of new knowledge leading to innovations. Mazzucato's book (2016) opens wide paths for research since it does not deny the relevance of companies and innovative entrepreneurs, but it calls to recognize, characterize and assess the importance of public organizations and projects in the dynamics of innovation. All of this encourages the academic research interests of INNOVAR, to which we summon Ibero-American academic community of the Management Sciences.Our current issue is made up by four of our traditional sections: Strategy and Organizations, Marketing, Human Factor, and Business Ethics. These gather ten papers by Colombian and international partners.Three research papers are published in Strategy and Organizations section.As a results of an international cooperation, Professors Julio César Acosta, from Externado de Colombia University, Mónica Longo-Somoza, from the Council of Education of the Community of Madrid - Spain, and María Belén Lozano, from the University of Salamanca - Spain, introduce their work "Does Family Ownership Affect Innovation Activity? A Focus on the Biotechnological Industry". This work tried to identify the profile of innovative firms in order to analyze whether family ownership is a feature related to innovation initiatives and processes. For that purpose, a hierarchical cluster analysis is performed in a sample of 243 Spanish companies within the biotechnology sector. It is concluded from the study that innovative Spanish firms belonging to this sector are non-family-owned firms. The negative relationship between innovation and family ownership could be explained by the conservative behavior of family-owned companies, which avoid taking the risks demanded by innovation.Professors Valentin Azofra, from the University of Valladolid - Spain, Magda Lizet Ochoa, from the Autonomous University of Tamaulipas - Mexico, and Begoha Prieto and Alicia Santidrian, from the University of Burgos - Spain, present the paper "Creating Value through the Application of Intellectual Capital Models". This research aims to link both the adoption level and the use of intellectual capital models with the creation of value in companies under a long-term perspective. Empirical work involved the selection of companies showing commitment towards the use of information systems on intellectual capital. Based on information from 79 Spanish companies a model was developed and then applied in order to relate the variables of growth in sales, productivity per employee and intellectual capital index, among others, to the adoption level and use of indicators on intellectual capital. Results show that companies with higher levels of intellectual capital models report better indexes related to aforementioned variables, which represent, in turn, greater creation of value.Additionally, independent researcher Giuseppe Vanoni and Professor Carlos Rodriguez from the National University of Colombia authored the paper "Growth Strategies Implemented by Economic Groups in Ecuador (2007-2016)", a study intended to identify growth strategies of 132 economic groups in Ecuador during the time frame previously stated. After a complete literature review and the introduction of the conceptual notions of "economic group" and "growth strategy", empirical work shows that a specialization-based concentration strategy prevails among the studied groups. Furthermore, this work allowed concluding that Ecuadorian economic groups belong to some specific families, and that the economic stability experienced by this country over the course of the period under study had a direct influence on the concentration strategy by specialization adopted by economic groups.Marketing section in this issue of INNOVAR introduces four papers.Brazilian researchers Celso Ximenes and Josemeire Alves, and Professors Gabriel Aguiar, from the Faculdade Mauricio de Nassau, and Danielle Miranda de Oliveira, from the Uni-versidade Estadual do Ceará in the city of Fortaleza - Brazil, take part in this issue with the work "You Solved my Problem, but I Won't Buy from You Anymore! Why Don't Consumers Want to Go Back Doing Business in Online Stores?". This study set as its main goal to understand the motives driving online consumers not to make new purchases when experiencing troubles with purchase processes, even when inconveniences were solved. Following a qualitative approach and based on a sample of 200 complaints over four e-commerce enterprises, a descriptive focus allowed classifying the possible problems and solutions deployed by companies. Results point that consumers manifest their wish of not making further purchases with the same company due to problems with logistics as well as delays with problemsolving and handling complaints.From the University of Seville in Spain, Professors Carlos Javier Rodríguez and Encarnación Ramos add to this current issue the paper "Influence of Religiosity and Spirituality on Consumer Ethical Behavior", whose objective is to analyze consumers' ethical behavior. For this reason, a model of structural equations relating the scales of religiosity and spirituality and contrasting the results of 286 surveys to Spanish citizens is developed. The study implied resizing the Consumer Ethics Scale based on the results found in the literature in order to fit the purposes of this work. The paper concludes by presenting evidence on the existence of a relationship between religiosity-spirituality and the ethical behavior shown by consumers.Professors Alejandro Tapia, associated to the University Loyola Andalucía, and Elena Martín Guerra, from the University of Valladolid, both institutions in Spain, are the authors of "Neuroscience and Advertising. An Experiment on Attention and Emotion in Television Advertising". This paper presents the results of a neuroscience experiment applied to advertising, whose purpose was to study how attention and the generation of emotional responses influence the recall of w spots. The experiment was carried out in a group of 30 students aged 18-22, who were exposed to advertising spots of the University of Valladolid. Results from this exercise show important aspects influencing attention and emotion towards the spots, both positively and negatively, among them: comic content, language, loudness or negative and sad contents, and some others.From the Center of Economic and Management Sciences at the University of Guadalajara - Mexico, Professors José Sánchez, Guillermo Vázquez and Juan Mejía sign the work "Marketing and Elements Influencing the Competitiveness of Commercial Micro, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises in Guadalajara, Mexico". This study seeks to state the correlation between different key marketing elements that impact micro, small and medium-sized enterprises of clothing items in Guadalajara, Mexico. Based on structural equation modelling, strategies, knowledge and planning in marketing were identified as determinants for the competitiveness of this type of companies. Empirical work used a sample of 380 companies of the retail-clothing sector. The results confirm a positive and significant correlation between key marketing factors and competitiveness, where marketing factors are decisive for companies within the sector, which have been regarded as the weakest link in Mexican economy.Our Human Factor section gathers two studies derived from research processes.We include the paper titled "Subjectivity and Power in Business Organizations: A Case Study", authored by Adriana Valencia Espinosa, Professor at the University of Valle -Colombia. This work was praised as one of the best lectures presented during the First International Congress on Organizations Management that was venued at the National University of Colombia. The objective of this research was to understand the impact of business organizations on the subjectivity of employees, emphasizing the implications of labor breakdown (the termination of a contract). The case study is carried out at a renowned company in Valle del Cauca - Colombia, whose core business, among other lines, is mass printing and editorial processes. This paper addresses testimonies by key participants, that is, workers who experienced labor ruptures with the company. The article also identifies some mechanisms deployed by the organization in the process of sensemaking and the creation of meaning for subjectivity mobilization.Professors Matias Ginieis, María Victoria Sánchez and Fernando Campa from the Rovira i Virgili University, in Spain, present in this issue the paper "How much is the Staff According to the Type of Airline and its Geographical Location in Europe? A Comparative Analysis". This research study was aimed at determining the link between the costs per employee, the types of airlines (traditional or low cost) and the different geographical locations of the headquarters of the studied airlines (Western Europe, Eastern Europe, the United Kingdom and the Nordic countries). A total of 152 airlines were analyzed during the period 2008-2013. Based on statistical correlation tests it was possible to determine there is no relationship between the type of airline and staff-related costs.Last but not least, our Business Ethics section presents a research paper for this issue of INNOVAR.At the University of Zaragoza in Spain, Professors Francisco José López and Ana Bellosta contribute to this issue with the work titled "Corporate Social Responsibility and Good Corporate Governance practices in Spanish Ethical Mutual Funds: Analysis of Investee Companies". This paper studies the type of firms composing the portfolio of Spanish ethical mutual funds, characterizing such companies on the basis of the Corporate Governance model they follow, their organizational structure and some of their economic and financial variables. Different models of Corporate Governance by investee companies and their relationship with financial variables are presented and then evaluated. Results show that companies under the German corporate governance model are preferred by ethical mutual funds, followed by those companies with Anglo-Saxon corporate governance models, which means that, for allocating resources, ethical mutual funds take an interest in companies that involve different stakeholders in their governance processes.We are sure these contributions will be of great interest for the academic community of the Social and Management Sciences both in Colombia and abroad. ; La innovación es un tópico medular para las ciencias sociales y administrativas preocupadas por la gestión de las organizaciones. De allí el nombre de nuestra publicación: INNOVAR, expresado como acción y reflexión. Las concepciones sobre la innovación son diversas y van desde la importancia del cambio en las técnicas de producción, señalado por Marx, hasta la visión estructural de Schumpeter y de los neoschumpeterianos, según la cual la destrucción creativa es uno de los motores del desarrollo capitalista (Chang, 2016). En las últimas décadas, la innovación ha venido ganando un lugar cada vez más protagónico en los procesos económicos y organizacionales, por el surgimiento y consolidación de la llamada "sociedad del conocimiento" (Drucker, 1994; Castells, 1996; Dubina, Carayannis y Campbell, 2012).La innovación requiere la confluencia de múltiples factores y dimensiones, como la creatividad; la ciencia y la tecnología; las relaciones entre universidad, empresa y sociedad; la competencia; el papel del Estado, y la financiación de la innovación, entre otros. Precisamente, la intersección entre el papel del Estado y la financiación de la innovación ha sido uno de los temas de investigación de la economista italiana Mariana Mazzucato. En su libro El Estado emprendedor. Mitos del sector público frente al privado, Mazzucato (2016) aboga por un cambio en la comprensión del papel del Estado en los procesos de innovación. Con evidencia empírica de los sectores de tecnología de las comunicaciones (ejemplarizando con empresas como Apple), las energías renovables y del sector farmacéutico, Mazzucato señala que el Estado ha tenido un papel activo y determinante en la innovación contemporánea, debido a que ha sido inversor y ejecutor de proyectos que están en la base de innovaciones como la pantalla táctil, el CPS, Internet o Siri, que luego son aprovechadas por empresas privadas. Bien sea en el campo del sector defensa, el aeronáutico o el energético, las inversiones del Estado y los proyectos que ejecuta han sido vitales para la gestación y posterior difusión de las innovaciones. Las características de las inversiones de riesgo, que puede ejecutar el Estado, y la forma como congrega y articula múltiples capacidades e instituciones se constituyen realmente en cadenas de transmisión vitales para la innovación.La aportación de Mazzucato (2016) consiste en cuestionar una serie de mitos sobre la innovación, que plantean que tal proceso emerge solo en virtud del actuar de emprededores e inversores privados. Desde esa mirada, hoy dominante, se reclama un Estado mínimo, concentrado en incentivar las fuerzas privadas, para que la mano invisible y la competencia promuevan el surgimiento de nuevos conocimientos que desemboquen en innovaciones. El libro de Mazzucato (2016) abre un sinfín de oportunidades de investigación, puesto que no niega la relevancia de la empresa y los emprendedores innovadores, sino que nos convoca a reconocer, caracterizar y evaluar la importancia de las organizaciones y los proyectos públicos en la dinámica de la innovación. Todo ello alienta la investigación académica que interesa a INNOVAR, y a la que convocamos a la comunidad académica de las ciencias de la gestión en Iberoamérica.La presente edición está organizada en cuatro de nuestras tradicionales secciones: Estrategia y Organizaciones, Marketing, Factor Humano y Ética Empresarial, en las que publicamos diez artículos de nuestros colaboradores nacionales e internacionales.En la sección de Estrategia y Organizaciones, se publican tres trabajos, resultado de investigación.Fruto de una colaboración internacional, los profesores Julio César Acosta, de la Universidad Externado de Colombia; Mónica Longo-Somoza, de la Consejería de Educación de la Comunidad de Madrid, España, y María Belén Lozano, de la Universidad de Salamanca, España, aportan el trabajo titulado "Does family ownership affect innovation activity? A focus on the biotechnological industry". Este trabajo buscó identificar el perfil de las empresas innovadoras, para analizar si la propiedad familiar es una característica que se relaciona con las iniciativas y procesos de innovación. En la investigación se realiza un análisis clúster jerárquico con una muestra de 243 empresas españolas del sector de la biotecnología. Se concluye que las empresas españolas que innovan en este sector no son empresas de propiedad familiar. La relación negativa que se encuentra entre innovación y propiedad familiar, puede ser explicada porque las empresas familiares en tal industria son conservadoras y evitan tomar riesgos como los que la innovación reclama.Los profesores Valentín Azofra, de la Universidad de Valladolid, España; Magda Lizet Ochoa, de la Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, México, y Begoña Prieto y Alicia Santidrián, de la Universidad de Burgos, España, aportan el artículo "Creando valor mediante la aplicación de modelos de capital intelectual". La investigación pretende vincular el nivel de implantación y uso de modelos de capital intelectual con la creación de valor en la empresa, desde una perspectiva de largo plazo. Para el trabajo empírico se seleccionaron empresas que muestran compromiso hacia la utilización de sistemas de información sobre el capital intelectual. Con base en información de 79 empresas españolas, se realizó y aplicó un modelo para relacionar las variables de crecimiento en ventas, productividad por empleado, índice de capital intelectual, entre otras, con el nivel de uso e implantación de indicadores sobre capital intelectual. Los resultados evidencian que las empresas con mayores niveles de implantación de modelos de capital intelectual presentan mejores índices de productividad, crecimiento en ventas y eficiencia del capital intelectual, es decir, mayor creación de valor.Por otra parte, en una colaboración interinstitucional, el investigador independiente Giuseppe Vanoni, y el profesor Carlos Rodríguez, de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia, suscriben el artículo titulado "Estrategias de crecimiento implementadas por los grupos económicos del Ecuador (2007-2016)", con la que se pretende identificar las estrategias de crecimiento de 132 grupos económicos en el Ecuador, durante el periodo señalado. Luego de una importante revisión de la literatura y de la definición conceptual de "grupo económico" y de "estrategia de crecimiento", el trabajo empírico muestra que prevalece una estrategia de concentración, basada en la especialización. Se concluye que los grupos económicos en Ecuador son pertenecientes a familias concretas. La estabilidad que vivió el país en los años del estudio influyó en la estrategia de concentración por especialización de los grupos económicos.La sección de Marketing del presente número de INNOVAR está conformada por cuatro artículos.Los investigadores brasileños Celso Ximenes y Josemeire Alves, y los profesores Gabriel Aguiar, Facultade Mauricio de Nassau, y Danielle Miranda de Oliveira, de la Universi-dade Estadual do Ceará, en Fortaleza-Brasil, participan con el trabajo "Resolveram meu problema, porém nao compro mais! Por que os consumidores nao desejam voltar a fazer negócios com Lojas Virtuais? El trabajo se planteó como objetivo comprender los motivos que llevan a los consumidores online a no realizar nuevas compras, cuando tuvieron problemas en el proceso, pese a que tales problemas hubiesen sido resueltos. Desde un enfoque cualitativo, con base en 200 quejas de cuatro empresas que venden sus productos en Internet, se realizó un trabajo descriptivo y cualitativo que permitió categorizar los posibles problemas y las soluciones desplegadas por las empresas. Los consumidores expresan su voluntad de no realizar otra compra con la misma empresa por problemas logísticos, demora en resolución del problema y demora en la atención de la queja.De la Universidad de Sevilla, España, los profesores Carlos Javier Rodríguez y Encarnación Ramos aportan a esta edición el artículo titulado "Influencia de la religiosidad y la espiritualidad en el comportamiento ético del consumidor". El objetivo de la investigación es analizar el comportamiento ético del consumidor, para lo que realiza un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales que relaciona las escalas de religiosidad y espiritualidad, y que contrasta los resultados de 286 encuestas realizadas a ciudadanos españoles. La investigación implicó redimensionar la Consumer Ethics Scale, con base en los resultados encontrados en la literatura y con el propósito de ajuste perseguido en el trabajo. Se concluye el artículo presentando evidencia de la existencia de una relación entre la religiosidad-espiritualidad y el comportamiento ético del consumidor.Los profesores Alejandro Tapia, vinculado a la Universidad Loyola de Andalucía, y Elena Martín Guerra, de la Universidad de Valladolid, ambas instituciones en España, son los autores de "Neurociencia y publicidad. Un experimento sobre atención y emoción en publicidad televisiva". El artículo presenta los resultados de un experimento en neuro-ciencia, aplicado a la publicidad. El propósito era estudiar cómo la atención y la generación de respuesta emocional influyen en el recuerdo de una cuña publicitaria (spot) en televisión. El experimento se desarrolló con un grupo de 30 estudiantes de entre 18 y 22 años, que fueron expuestos a cuñas publicitarias de la Universidad de Valladolid. Los resultados muestran que existen condiciones importantes que impactan en la atención y la emoción hacia los spots, tanto positiva como negativamente, entre ellos, el contenido cómico, el idioma, la fuerza del sonido, la presencia de contenidos negativos y tristes, entre otros.Desde el Centro Universitario de Ciencias Económico-Administrativas, de la Universidad de Guadalajara, México, los profesores José Sánchez, Guillermo Vázquez y Juan Me-jía suscriben el trabajo "La mercadotecnia y los elementos que influyen en la competitividad de las mipymes comerciales en Guadalajara, México". El artículo busca establecer la correlación que existe entre los diferentes factores clave de mercadotecnia que impactan en las micro, medianas y pequeñas empresas de prendas de vestir en Guadalajara, México. A partir de un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales, se establecieron como factores clave las estrategias, el conocimiento y la planeación, todos de mercadotecnia, como variables determinantes de la competitividad de la mipyme. Para el trabajo empírico, se usa una muestra de 380 empresas del sector de prendas de vestir al menudeo. Los resultados verifican que existe una correlación positiva y significativa entre los factores clave de marketing y la competitividad, por lo que resultan determinantes para estas empresas, consideradas por muchos como el eslabón más débil de la economía mexicana.La sección de Factor Humano recoge dos trabajos, resultado de procesos de investigación.Publicamos el artículo titulado "Subjetividad y poder en la organización empresarial: un estudio de caso", de la profesora de la Universidad del Valle, Colombia, Adriana Valencia Espinosa, y que fue una de las mejores ponencias presentadas en el Primer Congreso Internacional de Gestión de las Organizaciones, realizado en la Universidad Nacional de Colombia. El objetivo del trabajo de investigación fue comprender la incidencia de la organización empresarial en la subjetividad de los empleados, enfatizando en las implicaciones de la ruptura laboral (la finalización del contrato). El estudio de caso se realiza en una reconocida empresa del Valle del Cauca, dedicada, entre otros negocios, a la impresión masiva y los procesos editoriales. Se abordan relatos de participantes clave, trabajadores que vivieron rupturas laborales con la empresa. El artículo identifica algunos dispositivos desplegados por la organización en el proceso de creación de sentido y producción de significado que moviliza la subjetividad.De los profesores Matias Ginieis, María Victoria Sánchez y Fernando Campa, de la Universitat Rovira i Virgili, España, en esta edición se publica el artículo "¿Cuánto cuesta el personal según el tipo de aerolínea y su ubicación geográfica en Europa? Un análisis comparativo". La investigación se planteó establecer la relación existente entre los costos por empleado, los tipos de aerolíneas (tradicionales y de bajo costo) y las diferentes zonas geográficas de ubicación en Europa en que están domiciliadas las aerolíneas (Europa occidental, Europa del este, Reino Unido y países nórdicos). Se estudiaron 152 compañías áreas, en el periodo comprendido entre el 2008 y el 2013. A partir de pruebas estadísticas de correlación, se estableció que no hay una relación entre el tipo de aerolínea y el costo del personal.Finalmente, la sección de Ética Empresarial para este número de INNOVAR recoge un artículo de investigación.Desde la Universidad de Zaragoza, España, los profesores Francisco José López y Ana Bellosta aportan el trabajo "Corporate Social Responsibility and Good Corporate Governance Practices in Spanish Ethical Mutual Funds: Analysis of Investee Companies". El artículo analiza los tipos de compañías que conforman el portafolio de los fondos mutuos de inversión ética españoles, caracterizando tales empresas desde el modelo de Gobierno corporativo que siguen, su estructura organizacional y algunas de sus variables económicas y financieras. Se presentan y evalúan diferentes modelos de Gobierno corporativo de las empresas en que se invierte y su relación con variables financieras. Los resultados muestran que las empresas que siguen un modelo de gobierno corporativo alemán son las preferidas por los fondos mutuos de inversión ética, seguidas de las empresas con modelos de Gobierno corporativo anglosajones. Es decir, a los fondos mutuos de inversión ética les interesa que las empresas en que invierten incluyan diferentes grupos de interés en sus procesos de gobernanza.Confiamos en que estos trabajos resulten de interés para la comunidad académica en ciencias sociales y administrativas a nivel nacional e internacional.
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Gabrielle Hecht on Nuclear Ontologies, De-provincializing the Cold War, and Postcolonial Technopolitics
This is the fourth in a series of Talks dedicated to the technopolitics of International Relations, linked to the forthcoming double volume 'The Global Politics of Science and Technology' edited by Maximilian Mayer, Mariana Carpes, and Ruth Knoblich
Nuclear power has formed a centerpiece of Cold-War IR theorizing. Yet besides the ways in which its destructive capacity invalidates or alters the way we should understand questions of war and peace, there are different powers at play in the roles the nuclear assumes in global politics. Through careful investigations of alternative sites and spaces of nuclear politics, Gabrielle Hecht has uncovered some of the unexpected ways in which what one can call the 'nuclear condition' affects politics across the globe. In this Talk, Hecht, amongst others, explores what it means to 'be nuclear'; explains how we need to deprovincialize the Cold War to fully grasp its significance in global politics; and challenges us to explore technopolitics outside of the comfortable context of OECD-countries.
Print version of this Talk (pdf)
What is according to your view the most important challenge facing global politics and what is/should be the central debate in the discipline of International Relations (IR)?
I think one of the most important challenges in global politics is the question of planetary boundaries. In the 1970s the Club of Rome published the report 'the Limits to Growth' (read PDF here), which addressed the finite quality of the planet's resources. It exposed the problems that the ideology (and practice) of endless economic growth posed for these limits. The question of climate change today really is all about planetary boundaries. We have already exceeded the CO2 level that is safe for the planet to sustain human life: We have just passed 400 parts per million; the desirable level is rated at 350 parts per million; the pre-industrial level of CO2 was 270 parts per million. So we have already produced more CO2 than is sustainable. And that is just one indicator. There are all kinds of other planetary boundaries at play—energy supply being the most salient one in terms of climate change. How can we even produce enough energy to maintain the lifestyles of the industrialized north? What about the requirements of the so-called 'rest'?
Obviously this is a huge issue and there are many parts to it. One part of this—the piece that I have studied the most—is nuclear power. Many people are enthusiastic about nuclear power as a solution to climate change. Some prominent environmentalists have been converted, because they believe nuclear power offers a way to produce a large amount of energy with a very small amount of matter, and because they see it as carbon free. (That's pretty clearly not the case, by the way, though nuclear power certainly produces less carbon than fossil fuels.) But are the human health and environmental costs worth the savings in carbon? Do the resources poured into nuclear power—some are predicting a thousand new reactors in the next few decades—take away resources from other forms of energy production, forms that could potentially address the emissions problems more rapidly and with lower costs for the environment and for human health? Moreover, nuclear power in any one location ends up becoming a global issue. So in that sense nuclear power in China, in India or in Japan is inherently a global problem. And the industry everywhere certainly needs global regulation—at the moment, there is none. The International Atomic Energy Agency is not a regulator. These are serious questions for international relations, and should be fodder for analysis.
One can obviously put this into perspective by comparing the death toll from nuclear power with that related to coal—would one then actually have to be against the use of coal? The numbers of coal-related deaths are astonishing. But the first, most obvious point to make is that being against coal doesn't require being in favor of nuclear power! It's also extremely important to realize that death and morbidity figures for nuclear power are highly contested. Take the figures concerning Chernobyl. The IAEA and WHO put Chernobyl deaths at 4,000. A study published by National Cancer Institute in the United States puts the deaths at something like 43,000. A meta-analysis of 5,000 Slavic language scientific studies estimates the total number of Chernobyl deaths (some of which are yet to come) at 900,000. These discrepancies have a lot to do with controversies over the biological effects of low-level radiation, and also with the technopolitics of measurement and counting. Comparing the two energy technologies is much more complicated than merely counting coal deaths vs. nuclear power deaths.
How did arrive where you currently are in your thinking about these issues?
Actually, the real question is how I came to study politics. I got my bachelor's degree in physics from MIT in the 1980s. The two biggest political issues on campus at that time were Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative and Apartheid in South Africa (specifically, a move to divest American corporate interests in South Africa, the very corporations that were funding MIT research and for which MIT students would work when they graduated). I got interested in both, and along the way I came to realize that I was much more interested in the politics of science and technology than I was in actually doing physics. So I took some courses in the field of science and technology studies (STS), and decided to attend graduate school in the history and sociology of science and technology.
I had also always had a morbid fascination with nuclear weapons. I'd read a lot of post-apocalyptic science fiction when I was a teenager. All of these things came together for me in graduate school. I first hoped to study the history of Soviet nuclear weapons but quickly realized that would be impossible for all kinds of reasons. I ended up studying French nuclear power after I realized that nobody had researched it in the ways that interested me. I had lived in France in the 1970s, when the nuclear power program was undergoing rapid expansion. So it was a good fit. After I was done with that project, I became interested in rethinking the so-called nuclear age from a colonial and post-colonial perspective.
What would a student need to become a specialist in global studies or understand the world in a global way?
Travel, learn languages. Remain attentive to—and critical of—the political work done by claims to 'global' purview. Learn history—you won't understand international relations in any depth at all if you remain rooted in the present.
Then, for those want to start exploring the global politics of science and technology, two books come immediately to mind. Timothy Mitchell's (Theory Talk #59) Carbon Democracy, on the global technopolitics of fossil fuels. And Paul Edwards's A Vast Machine, on the relationship between data and models in the production of knowledge about climate change. Both are must-reads.
The world is permeated with technological artifacts and systems—in what ways is this relevant for approaches to global politics? Where is the conceptual place for technologies within IR?
First, I should make clear that I am not an IR specialist.
That said, I think it does not make sense to think about international relations (lower case) without thinking about the technologies, systems, and infrastructures that make any kind of global movement possible. The flows of people, of products, of culture, political exchanges—these are all mediated through and practiced in the technological systems that permeate our globe. So are the interruptions and absences in such 'flows'. I draw attention to the specific political practices that are enacted through technological systems with the notion of technopolitics. I initially used this concept in my work on nuclear power in France to capture the ways in which hybrid forms of power are enacted in technological artifacts, systems and practices. There I used the term in a rather narrow sense to talk about the strategic practices of designing technologies to enact political goals. My paramount example was that of the French atomic weapons program. In the early 1950s, France's political leaders insisted that France would never build atomic weapons. But engineers and other leaders in the nascent nuclear program were designing reactors in a way that optimized the production of weapons-grade plutonium rather than electricity. When politicians finally signed on, the technology was ready to go. This example problematizes the very notion of a 'political decision'. Instead of a single, discursive decision, we see a complex process whereby political choices are inscribed into technologies, which subsequently favor certain political outcomes over others.
In this example, both engineers and politicians consciously engaged in technopolitics. By contrast, Timothy Mitchell has used the hyphenated term 'techno-politics' to emphasize the unpredictable and unintended effects of technological assemblages. Over the last fifteen years, I have also developed a broader notion of the term, particularly in its adjectival form, 'technopolitical'. I find this to be a useful shorthand for describing both how politics can be strategically enacted through technological systems, and also how technological systems can be re-appropriated for political ends in ways that were unintended by their designers. The point, really, is to highlight the myriad politics of materiality.
Do the particular characteristics of nuclear technologies and related research programs make it impossible to apply the lenses of 'high politics'?
I think a high-politics approach to understanding nuclear weapons decision-making is extremely impoverished. It's not that there aren't high politics, of course there are. But they cannot offer a sufficient or straightforward explanation for how or why any one particular country develops a nuclear program. A focus on high politics implies a focus decision makers and moments. But that's really misleading. In pretty much every case, the apparent 'moment' of decision is in fact a long process involving a tremendous amount of technopolitical, cultural, and institutional work, rife with conflicts and contingencies of all kinds. I think a more productive approach is to try to understand nuclear capacity-building.
Itty Abraham has done some fantastic work on India's nuclear program, which helps us think about other cases as well. For example, he analyzes the symbolic importance of the nuclear test, noting that IR uses 'the test' as kind of 'aha!' moment, the moment in which one knows that a country has nuclear weapons. Instead, Abraham sees the test as a process for the cultural production of meaning: a process in which certain meanings get fixed, but by no means the most important moment for understanding the actual technology and politics behind the production of nuclear weapons.
Your book Entangled Geographies (2011) explores a plethora of places, people, and technical networks that sustained the US and Soviet empires. Here, as in Being Nuclear (2012), you insist on investigating the Cold War as transnational history. What difference does this move make?
In Entangled Geographies, my colleagues and I build on the work of Odd Arne Westad, whose book The Global Cold War was an argument for understanding the non-superpower, non-European dimensions of the Cold War. We give that a technopolitical spin, which offers a de-provincializing of the Cold War that's complementary to Westad's. By focusing on places like Saudi Arabia, or Zimbabwe, or Brazil, or South Africa, we show how even the central struggles of the Cold War were intimately bound up in 'northern' relationships to colonial and post-colonial worlds, and in the imaginaries that characterized those relationships.
In Being Nuclear I focus on uranium from Africa—more specifically South Africa, Namibia, Gabon, Madagascar, and Niger. Uranium from Africa has long been a major source of fuel for nuclear power and atomic weapons, including the bomb dropped on Hiroshima, but it has been almost completely absent from accounts of the nuclear age, whether scholarly or popular. This changed in 2002, when the US and British governments claimed that Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein 'sought significant quantities of uranium from Africa' (later specified as the infamous 'yellowcake from Niger'). Africa suddenly became notorious as a source of uranium. But that did not admit Niger, or any of Africa's other uranium-producing countries, to the select society of nuclear states. Nor did it mean that uranium itself counted as a nuclear thing. My book explores what it means for something—a state, an object, an industry, a workplace—to be 'nuclear'. I show that such questions lie at the heart of today's global order and the relationships between 'developing nations' and 'nuclear powers'.
Being Nuclear argues that 'nuclearity' is not a straightforward scientific classification but a contested technopolitical one. In the first part of the book, I follow uranium's path out of Africa and analyze the invention of the global uranium market. In the second part, I enter African nuclear worlds, focusing on miners and the occupational hazard of radiation exposure. In both parts, I show that nuclearity requires instruments and data, technological systems and infrastructures, national agencies and international organizations, experts and conferences, and journals and media exposure. When (and where) nuclearity is densely distributed among these elements, it can offer a means of claiming expertise, compensation, or citizenship. It can serve as a framework for making sense of history, experience, and memory. When (and where) network elements are absent, weak, or poorly connected, nuclearity falters, fades, or disappears altogether, failing to provide a resource for people claiming remediation or treatment. Nuclearity in one register doesn't easily transpose to another: geopolitical nuclearity doesn't automatically translate into occupational nuclearity. Yet these domains remain connected. African uranium miners depend on the transnational movement of nuclear things, but that movement also depends on African miners. Ultimately, I conclude, nuclear security must be considered in tandem with other forms of human security—food and health and environmental and political security. By placing Africa in the nuclear world, and the nuclear world in Africa, the book seeks to remake our understanding of the nuclear age.
I should note that it's not only uranium production that connects the colonial and postcolonial spaces with nuclear things. (Also: African countries weren't the only such places where uranium was produced. Much of the rest of the world's uranium came from the Navajo nation in the United States, Aboriginal territories in Australia, First Nation territories in Canada, colonized spaces in the Soviet Empire, etc.) French nuclear weapons were tested in the Algerian desert and French Polynesia; the United States tested its weapons on the Bikini Islands; Britain tested its weapons in Maralinga, in Aboriginal Australia; the Soviet Union tested its weapons on the planes of Kazakhstan. And so on.
So, understanding the history of the Cold War—even its most iconic technology, nuclear weapons—as a form of transnational history really calls attention to spaces that have previously been considered marginal, even perhaps not fully nuclear. Ultimately, it should provoke us to problematize 'the Cold War' as a frame for global or transnational history (and social science).
Looking at those colonized and semi-colonized spaces of mining, testing and monitoring infrastructures gives us not necessarily an answer to the question of why the Cold War ended, but it does enable you to ask different and possibly more interesting questions. It can lead you, for example, to place the Cold War within the framework of imperialism (rather than the other way around). A longer historical view questions whether the Cold War really represents historical rupture. What political work is done by such claims to rupture? How does that work differ in different places? What are its material consequences?
Why are science and technology hardly ever studied in the postcolonial world from a STS perspective?
I think there are a number of reasons why STS has paid relatively little attention to the postcolonial world. One is that in STS—like many disciplines—the prestige of the subject matter maps onto the prestige of the researcher. So STS researchers who study cutting-edge science or large-scale technological systems seem somehow to be getting at 'harder' topics, ones that that focus on active creation. Engineering and other acts of creation appear more prestigious than acts of maintenance, or acts of dismantling. Even studying small-scale creation seems to confer more prestige than studying mundane practices. This brings us back to the theme of rupture vs. continuity: studying or proclaiming rupture seems somehow sexier—and certainly more radical—than studying continuity.
Another, more trivial answer is just that most STS researchers so far have come from Europe and North America, and they tend not to be trained in area studies.
Does the constant ontological insecurity of nuclear things mean that the 'nuclear' is purely a matter of social and political construction?
No, definitely not. But I think to explain what I mean by all this we should take a few steps back and start with what I like to call nuclear exceptionalism. This is a technopolitical claim—emerging immediately after the end of World War II—that there was something radically unique about nuclear things. From 1945 onward, both cold warriors and their activist opponents cultivated this nuclear exceptionalism. Atomic weapons were portrayed as fundamentally different from any other human creation. The bomb was the ultimate geopolitical trump card, and it was imagined as replacing empire in one fell swoop. You see nuclear scientists and engineers gaining prestige, power, and funding far beyond their colleagues in conventional research. In the meantime, anti-nuclear groups make their own claims to exceptionalism by talking about the unprecedented dangers posed by nuclear things. Everywhere you see nuclearity and morality intertwined. Nuclear things either represent salvation or moral depravity… or the apocalyptic end of mankind. But regardless of where you stood politically, this notion of nuclear exceptionalism rested on the sense that the difference between nuclear and non-nuclear things was transparent---ultimately a clear-cut, physical matter of radioactivity.
The nuclear thus emerges not just as a category, but also as a universal and universalizing ontology, one that seems to apply in the same way all over the globe. And frankly, historians, political scientists, anthropologists, and sociologists have reproduced that nuclear exceptionalism. (I did it myself in my first book, The Radiance of France.)
All of which has made it hard to see that what I call nuclearity—the process by which something comes to count as a "nuclear" thing – has a history, a politics, and a geography. Things that count as nuclear in one time and place might not count as nuclear at another. Rendering something as nuclear and exceptional is a form of technopolitical claims-making. It follows that insisting that certain things are not especially nuclear, or that they are banal, is also a form of technopolitical claims-making.
You can see this in the response of the nuclear industry to activist opponents. In the late 1960s and over the course of the 1970s, the nuclear industry began to represent nuclear power not as a life-saving technology for the human race, but as simply another way to boil water. Radiation was just another industrial risk. Such representations seek to banalize nuclear things.
Nuclearity could thus get made, unmade and remade. My favorite example comes from a 1995 US government report on nuclear proliferation. The appendix has a table that summarizes the nuclear activities of 172 nations. Neither Gabon, nor Niger, nor Namibia are listed as having any nuclear activities, despite the fact that those nations together, during that very year, produced something like 25% of the world's uranium. So when does uranium count as a nuclear thing? When does it lose its nuclearity? And what does Africa have to do with it?
The argument is not that radioactivity doesn't have to do anything with nuclearity, or that nuclearity has nothing to do with the technologies and physical processes we typically associate with the word. Rather, I argue that nuclearity is one thing, and radioactivity and fission are another; sometimes they are co-terminus, but not always and not necessarily. Understanding where (and why) they don't map onto each other is politically revealing.
Which kind of interdisciplinary exchanges do we need between your discipline and IR to deepen our understanding of global technopolitics?
Science and technology studies (STS) is really good at exploring practice, and especially at calling attention to the differences between principles and practice—for example, between regulation on the one hand, and the actual practices that regulations are meant to control (without ever entirely succeeding). STS can bring to IR an understanding of how the intimate details of practice matter politically—of how everyday technopolitical and techno-scientific exchanges can be more important loci for politics than treaties, diplomacy, and other forms of what you called high politics.
I can also answer this question wearing my historian's hat. The IR scholarship on nuclear weapons that I'm familiar with (and again, I'm not an expert!) seems to be quite focused on producing models—on using history to produce predictive models that will in turn serve to shape international policy on nuclear weapons regulation. But if history tells us one thing, it is that models are basically useless for understanding how countries develop nuclear weapons. Instead, history and STS both teach us about which questions to ask (in this instance, about nuclear development). Identifying the important questions—rather than prescribing the applicable model—leaves open the list of possible answers. It also leaves open solutions and policies, letting us be more attentive to the specificities and uniqueness of individual cases.
Final question. Let's take the example of Iran's nuclear program. What alternative question about the issue would lenses of nuclear exceptionalism bring us?
Nuclear technology has played an important role in shaping modern Iranian national identity. This began in the 1970s under the Shah, who – with the support of the US – developed a grandiose plan to build a fleet of nuclear reactors. It took a different turn after the 1979 Iranian revolution. For a while, the new regime sidelined the nuclear program as an unwelcome manifestation of western corruption. But after a few years leaders reappropriated nuclear development and sought to invest it with Iranian-ness. The dynamics of nuclear exceptionalism have operated in Iran much the same way they did in France and in South Africa. Nuclear exceptionalism has served to give material form to national identity. And materialized national identity is most emphatically not something that you can negotiate away in the P5+1 talks.
Gabrielle Hecht is Professor of History at the University of Michigan, where she also directs the Program in Science, Technology, and Society and serves as associate director of the African Studies Center. She recently published Being Nuclear: Africans and the Global Uranium Trade (MIT Press and Wits University Press, 2012), which has received awards from the American Historical Association and the American Sociological Association, as well as the 2013 Susanne M. Glasscock Humanities Book Prize and Honorable Mention for the African Studies Association's 2013 Herskovits Award. She is also the author of The Radiance of France: Nuclear Power and National Identity after World War II (MIT Press 1998 & 2009) and editor of Entangled Geographies: Empire and Technopolitics in the Global Cold War, editor (MIT Press, 2011). Hecht is embarking on a new book project on technology and power in Africa, as well as new research on transnational toxic trash. She has held visiting positions at universities in Australia, France, Norway, South Africa, and Sweden.
Related links
Hecht's faculty profile at the University of Michigan Read Hecht's Introduction to Entangled Geographies (MIT Press 2011) here (pdf) Read Hecht's The Power of Nuclear Things (Technology & Culture 2010) here (pdf) Read Hecht's Nuclear Ontologies (Constellations 2006) here (pdf) Read Hecht's Rupture-Talk in the Nuclear Age (Social Studies of Science 2002) here (pdf)
Print version of this Talk (pdf)
0 0 1 3775 21518 School of Global Studies/University of Gothenburg 179 50 25243 14.0
IMPROVINGSEVENTHGRADERS'ABILITYOF MTs MANBAULULUMKWANYARINWRITINGPROCEDURE TEXTTHROUGHESTAFETGAME Nur Fadilah S1- English Education, Language and Art Faculty, Surabaya State University, nurfadilah.annamirah@gmail.com Esti Kurniasih, S.Pd., M.Pd English Department, Languages and Arts Faculty, State University of Surabaya estikurniasih87@yahoo.com Abstrak Menulis merupakan kecakapan yang perlu dipelajari. Akan tetapi, menulis itu tidak mudah (Scott & Ytreberg, 1990). Preliminary study yang telah dilaksanakan menunjukkan bahwa menulis menjadi masalah bagi siswa, apalagi jika siswa diminta menulis dengan menggunakan genera atau tipe tulisan tertentu seperti teks prosedur. Menulis merupakan sebuah proses mencipta, mengorganisasi, menulis, dan mempoles/mengedit (Hague, 2003). Menulis tidak dapat langsung dikuasai oleh siswa tingkat Sekolah Menengah Pertama/SMP. Oleh karena itu, mengajar menulis seharusnya dilakukan dalam atmosfer kelas yang nyaman dan menyenangkan semisal menggunakan permainan. Apalagi, menggunakan permainan dalam proses belajar mengajar dapat membuat kelas menjadi nyaman (Uberman, 1988). Dalam studi ini, proses belajar mengajar dilakukan dengan menggunakan sebuah permainan yang disebut Estafet game/permainan Estafet. Estafet game/permainan Estafet adalah sebuah permainan yang di adopsi dari permainan olahraga. Focus studi ini adalah tentang memperbaiki kemampuan menulis siswa dalam menulis teks prosedur melalui permainan Estafet. Adapun tujuan studi ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan bagaimana permainan Estafet memperbaiki kemampuan menulis siswa dalam teks prosedur. Pendeskripsian tersebut meliputi: (1) bagaimana pelaksanaan permainan Estafet dalam pengajaran menulis teks prosedur pada siswa kelas 7 MTs Manbaul Ulum Kwanyar, (2) bagaimana hasil menulis siswa kelas 7 MTs Manbaul Ulum Kwanyar dalam pengajaran menulis teks prosedur selama dan setelah pelaksanaan permainan Estafet, dan (3) bagaiman respon siswa kelas 7 MTs Manbaul Ulum Kwanyar dalam pengajaran menulis teks prosedur setelah pelaksanaan permainan Estafet. Dalam menganalisis data, peneliti menggunakan melakukan beberapa proses, yaitu: (1) pendeskripsian dan (2) sense making. Di tingkat pendeskripsian, peneliti mereview data-data yang sudah dikumpulkan sebelumnya. Sedangkan dalam tingkat sense making, peneliti menorganisasi data berdasarkan pertanyaan penelitian. Peneliti menyortir data menjadi data yang relevan dan yang tidak relevan kemudian mengelompokkannya sesuai dengan pertanyaan penelitian. Penelitian dalam studi ini dilakukan dalam 2 siklus. Siklus pertama dilakukan dalam 3 pertemuan. Hasil dari siklus pertama tidak menunjukkan adanya perbaikan sehingga penelitian dilanjutkan dengan siklus ke 2. Siklus ke 2 dilakukan dalam 2 pertemuan. Dan hasil dari siklus ke 2 menunjukkan adanya perbaikan dalam tulisan siswa selama dan setalah pelaksanaan permainan Estafet. Jawaban siswa dalam kuesioner pun mengalami perbaikan. Kata kunci: kemampuan menulis, teks prosedur, permainan estafet, kelas tujuh. Abstract Writing is a skill which is necessary to learn. However, writing is not always easy (Scott & Ytreberg, 1990). Preliminary study which was conducted showed that writing becomes the problem of students, moreover if the writing is based on a specific genre such as procedure text. Writing is a process of creating, organizing, writing, and polishing (Hague, 2003). It cannot easily be mastered by students of Junior High School level. Therefore, teaching writing should be done in an enjoyable atmosphere such as using game. In addition, using game in teaching and learning process can create a relaxing atmosphere in the classroom (Uberman, 1988). In this study the teaching and learning process was done by using a game which is called Estafet Game. Estafet Game is a sport game which is adopted into teaching. This study focuses on improving students' ability in writing procedure text through Estafet Game. The purpose of this study is to describe how Estafet Game improves students' ability in writing procedure text. The description includes: (1) how the implementation of Estafet game in teaching writing procedure text to the seventh graders of MTs Manbaul Ulum Kwanyar, (2) how the students' writing results of procedure text during and after the implementation of Estafet game in teaching writing procedure text to the seventh graders of MTs Manbaul Ulum Kwanyar, and (3) how the students' responses after the implementation of Estafet game in teaching writing procedure text to the seventh graders of MTs Manbaul Ulum Kwanyar. In the data analysis, the researcher does some processes of analysis, they are: (1) description and (2) sense making. In description stage, the researcher reviewed the data that had been collected before. While in sense making stage, the researcher organized the data based on the research questions. The researcher sorted the data into relevant and irrelevant data for the research and grouped the relevant data based on the research questions. The research was done in two observations. The first observation was done in three meetings. The result of the first observation did not show improvement, so that the study was continued with the second observation. The second observation was done in two meetings. And the result of the second observation showed improvement in students' writing both during and after the implementation of Estafet Game. It also showed improvement in students' writing results, and the result of students' answers in the questionnaire. Keywords: writing ability, procedure text, Estafet Game, seventh graders. INTRODUCTION English is a tool to communicate in oral and written form (Depdiknas, 2004). It is used by more than half of the world population. Because of its importance, English is also studied at schools as students' preparation to face the global world. Communicating using English can be in the form of oral, and written. Written observation consists of reading and writing while oral observation consists of listening and speaking. From the four skills above, writing is an essential skill to be mastered. Writing is a productive skill in which someone shows his/her thoughts through written words. According to Nunan (2003), writing is the mental work of inventing ideas, thinking about how to express them, and organizing them into statements and paragraph that will be clear to readers. Writing is not only writing something. Writing is a process of creating, organizing, writing, and polishing (Haque, 2002). As Halliday (in Nunan, 1995) says that in the modern world, written language serves a range of functions in people's life such as for action (for example, public signs, product labels, television and radio guides, bills, menus, telephone directories, ballot papers, computer manuals), for information (for example, newspapers, current affair magazines, advertisements, political pamphlets), and for entertainments (for example, comics strips, fiction books, poetry and drama, newspaper features, and film subtitles). Seeing the importance of writing skill above, it is necessary to learn writing. It is said in the 2006 English Standard Competence that Junior high school students have to master and be able to compose a short functional text, and procedure, and descriptive essays. Related to writing procedure text, the researcher found that students of MTs Manba'ul Ulum Kwanyar got difficulty to compose and write the text. Therefore, the researcher collaborated with the English teacher of the school to overcome the problem by teaching using Estafet Game as a technique in teaching writing. However, teaching English as foreign language in Indonesia is not simple, it is caused by the Indonesian students who do not have similarities between learning English and learning their mother tongue (Scott and Ytreberg, 1990). Therefore, teachers should find out a solution to the problems through getting interesting techniques, such as using game to make students motivated and interested in the lesson during the teaching and learning process. Teaching by using game has been promoted and applied for many years to help students understand the various aspects of languages. As Uberman states that games are highly motivating and they can give shy students more opportunities to express their opinion and feeling (Uberman, 1988). In addition, games provide an opportunity for real communication although within artificially defined limits, and thus constitute a bridge between classroom and the real world (Hardfield, 1990). Thus, suitable games are needed to help teachers in delivering the materials and to encourage students to be active in class such as Estafet game. Estafet game is a game which is adopted from estafet race. The meaning of the word estafet itself is 'connected to each other'. In this study, estafet game is made as a technique in teaching English. The researcher chose the game as a technique because it is appropriate to be conducted in her research to solve the problems the teacher has in classroom. When the researcher had a school visit to MTs Manba'ul Ulum Kwanyar, she found that students in one classroom were not motivated and interested in learning English. She asked the teacher why the students were not motivated and interested in English class. The teacher said that maybe the students do not like the situation of the classroom in which the teacher only explains the lesson, asks the students to read and answer the questions that follow the passage. The researcher also asked several students in the classroom and she found that most of students were not satisfied and did not really understand the teacher's explanation about the lesson. Therefore, they were not motivated and interested in the lesson. From the problem above, the researcher has an initiative to conduct a research to solve the problem in the classroom. She suggested the teacher to use Estafet Game during the teaching and learning activity. The game is done by making a group of five or ten students. Then each group should make a rank from the first to the last students in each group. When they are ready for the game, the teacher gives each group a board marker. After that, the teacher counts for the start of the game. The game begins when the teacher blows the whistle. Then the first student in the first line comes forward brings the board marker and writes the sentence he/she has on the whiteboard. After the first student finished, it is continued by the second student and so until the last student. If each member in a group has gotten their turn to write their sentence on the whiteboard, the turn should be given to the first student, then the second and then the next student to write all sentences they have until the sentences are all written on the whiteboard. This work team can create a fun situation in the classroom, so that the students can be motivated and interested in learning English. The researcher expected that by using this game as a technique in teaching writing, students' writing ability can improve better. Hopefully, this study can help teachers to find more interesting games to be used in class in order that the teaching and learning process does not run monotonously. METHODOLOGY The aim of this study was to report the implementation of Estafet Game in improving students' ability in writing procedure text, the students' writing result during and after the implementation of Estafet Game, the students' responses toward the implementation of Estafet Game in teaching writing procedure text of MTs Manbaul Ulum Kwanyar.In line with the aim of the study above, a classroom action research was used in this study. Since this study belongs toclassroom action research, the researcher should take an action in the classroom which was in the form of teaching. However, because the researcher was not a teacher yet, she collaborated with the teacher of the classroom in conducting her research. Therefore, the researcher only became the observerduring the teaching and learning activities in the class.She conducted the research in two observations which was said in the study as observation, so that, there were two observations in this study. The first observation was done in three meetings, they were on 12th, 20th, and 26th of January while the second observation was done in two meetings, they were on 2nd, and 3rd of February 2014.At the end of the second observation, the researcher found that the students' writing improved during and after the implementation of Estafet Game. And the students' answers in the questionnaire also showed improvement so that the research ended at the fifth meeting. The instruments that the researcher used to collect the data were observation check list, field-note, students' writing task, and questionnaire. Observation check list and field-notes were used as the instruments to answer the first research question. The observation check list is in the form of yes and no answer, while field note was in the form of words and sentences that contained teachers' and students' activities in classroom from the beginning until the end of the meeting. During observation, the researcher wrote the descriptive and reflective part of the field note to ease to find the answer of the research question. Writing task was used to answer the second research question. This instrument was in the form of writing which was given at the end of each observation. And the questionnaire was used to answer the third research question.There were eight questions and three to four choices of answers of each question in the questionnaire. It was used to collect the data about the students' responses toward the implementation of Estafet Game in teaching writing procedure text. The questionnaire was given at the end of the observation in order that the students could answer all the questions. After collecting all of the data which were gotten from the observation checklist, field-note, students' writing task, and the questionnaire, the researcher then analyzed them descriptively. In analyzing the data of this research, the researcher did two stages of analyzing the data namely, description and sense making(Ary, Jacobs, & Sorensen, 2006). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results The researcher did the observation in two observations in which there were three meetings of first observation and two meetings of second observation. The first meeting was on January 12th, 20th, and 26th, 2014 while the second observation was on February 2nd, and 3rd, 2014. On the second meeting of first observation and the first meeting of the second observation, the teacher implemented Estafet game in teaching writing procedure text. He implemented the game by asking students to make a group of five to seven students. Since the students' number was thirty four, there were four groups with seven students and one group with six students. Each student in a group should write a sentence based the given title. Then they should stick their sentence which they wrote on a long piece of paper on the whiteboard. The students stuck the longpiece of paper in the third counting from the teacher. The students who have gotten the turn should move backward to ease the next students in taking their turn writing the sentence until the complete text are all written on the carton. Then the teacher corrected the students' writing and asked some of the students to write the correct sentence on the blackboard. On the third meeting of the first observation and the second meeting of the second observation, the teacher gave the students writing task and the questionnaire. Discussion This part presented the discussion of the study which included the discussion of the first observation and the discussion of the second observation. The Discussion of the First Observation The meeting of this study was done in five meetings in which three meetings were done in the first observation and two meetings were done in the second observation. In the first observation, the first meeting was used as material explanation because the time was very limited. The class began late.Though it was late, the teacher could explain the material completely to students and the students responded well to teacher's explanation. Before the teacher explained the material, he gave a printed procedure text to students. The printed material was given in order that the students had an understanding to the lesson they would study and as sample of procedure text. The teacher asked them to read the text then gave them some questions related to the text. After that, the teacher explained the lesson. During the explanation, the students listen to the teacher's explanation well. They were also very active. It was seen when the teacher gave them several questions related to procedure text in the printed text, most of them raised their hands and tried to answer the questions.Because the lesson was for writing skill, the teacher asked students to write their answers on the blackboard. It was to make students used to writing. The Discussion of the Implementation of Estafet Game in the First Observation The second meeting in the first observation was for implementing Estafet Game. The game was used to create a positive atmosphere in class. As stated by Uberman (1998) in chapter II that games are used to create a relaxing atmosphere in the classroom.Students tended to be tense and clumsy in English class, especially when they were asked to make writing in English. So that using games iseffective since they motivate the students, lower students' stress, and give chances to use and practice the language (Deesri, 2002).One of the games that was used in the classroom to motivate and give students chances to practice the language was Estafet Game. In fact, Estafet Game is one of the games in athletic competition (Indarto, 2013). However, the researcher adopted it into a game which could be used in teaching and learning process in the classroom.Moreover, Estafet Game has been applied in other field of education, so that the researcher could have more references on how the game was used. Seeing the possibility of Estafet Game that can be used in teaching English, the researcher took it to be used during her study. During the implementation of Estafet Game, students were very enthusiastic. They could have a situation of learning in which they could learn while playing a game that made them felt enjoy and relax during the teaching and learning process. During the implementation of the game, each student was asked to write a sentence based on the given title of procedure text in group. This aimed to make students enjoy the lesson during the teaching and learning process. The implementation of Estafet Game in the first observation was not really successful if it was seen from the result of students' writing during the implementation of the game. The other thing that influenced the success of the implementation of the game was time management which was needed to implement the game, including the time which was needed by students in building the complete text with their group. The teacher gave evaluation to the result of students' writing which was done in group during the implementation of the game. And the students were not afraid when the teacher evaluated their writing because the teacher had told them that it was only a game for learning not a game for competition. The Discussion of the Result of Students' Writing Task in the First Observation And after the implementation of the game, the students were given a writing task. It was given at the third meeting of the observation. This writing task aimed to measure students' ability in writing procedure text. The students' writing were measured by five writing components which are proposed by Heaton (1988) – content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanic. Each of these components has criteria which could be used to decide whether students' writing was excellent or poor. There are four criteria for each component, they are excellent to very good, good to average, fair to poor, and very poor. However, the main point which was measured in this writing was the three criteria which must exist in procedure text, they are goal, materials, and steps. This was based on the problem which the researcher found during the preliminary study that was the students got difficulty in composing and writing procedure text. After the students' writings were analyzed, the researcher found that their writings were not improved yet. There were several mistakes in students' writing which pervaded the incomplete generic structure of the procedure text. The procedure text should have the complete generic structure as Anderson (1998) has proposed that the structure of a procedure text should consist of goal, materials, and steps. However, students' writing in this first observation did not fulfill the structure yet. Besides, the mistake also came from the organization of sentences which were written by the students which were confusing, the vocabulary which was used were mostly and essentially translation from Indonesian into English, language use, and the mechanics which were used in writing the procedure text. The Discussion of the Result of Questionnaire in the First Observation After being given the writing task, the students were also given questionnaire to find out their responses toward the implementation of Estafet Game. However, students' answers in the questionnaire did not reach the standard minimum that the researcher made, that is eighty. Therefore, the researcher and the teacher were in an agreement to repeat the observation with the second observation. The Discussion of the Second Observation The second Observation was done in two meetings. The first meeting was done on February 2nd, 2014. This meeting was used to implement Estafet Game, since it was not successful yet in supporting students to improve their writing in the first observation. In this observation, students more understood about how to play the game, so that it did not take a long time to give them explanation on how to play the game. Because of that, the teacher could compress the time needed to implement the game. Besides, the students looked more ready than the first observation. It was because the students had known everything that should be done during the game from the first observation. During the game, the result of students' writing was better than in the previous one. It was shown by the mistake which was less than the first observation. In addition, the result of students' writing task also showed a better improvement than the previous one. It was also supported by students' answers in questionnaire that reached the standard minimum 80 for the class average. This questionnaire was used to know students' responses toward the teaching and learning process during the study. As stated by Harmer (2007) that student's responses are different students' reactions in the same class activities and tasks which are given by the teacher. From the results of both students' writing results and the students' answers in the questionnaire, it was concluded that Estafet Game was successful in improving students' ability in writing procedure text. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Conclusion Based on the results of the data in the previous chapter, the researcher made a conclusion that the implementation of Estafet Game could improve seventh graders' ability in writing procedure text. The research was conducted by the researcher and the teacher in classroom in which the teacher taught the students while the researcher took data during the teaching and learning process. The research was conducted in five meetings, three meetings in the first observation and two meetings in the second observation. The result of the first observation did not show improvements both in the result of students' writing task and the questionnaire. But then in the second observation, the result of students' writing showed improvement both during and after the implementation of Estafet Game. The students' answers in the questionnaire also showed better responses than the first observation. From the five of both of the observation, it was shown that the implementation of Estafet Game could make students more interested and motivated in learning English. Therefore, it could be concluded from the finding of the research that using Estafet Game in teaching and learning process in the classroom could make the students' writing ability improve. Suggestions From result of the data of the research, the researcher made some suggestions related to the study, they are: the teacher should have come on time to the class. In addition, the teacher should pay more attention to situation of teaching learning process which includes the students' need and interest in learning, the teacher should change his way of teaching once in a while such as using game. Monotonous way of teaching could make students not interested and motivated to the lesson which causes students could not master the skill that becomes the objective of the lesson, for other researchers who will conduct an action research, it is better to be well-prepared in everything which is needed for the research such as media, time preparation, and the instrument for the research. And if the research has been successful, it is not necessary to add another observation of the research. REFERENCES Depdiknas. ( 2006). Standar Isi dan Standar Kompetensi Lulusan: Mata Pelajarn Bahasa Ingggris (SD/MI, SMP/MTs, SMA/MA, MA/MAK). Jakarta: Depdiknas. Agustien, HelenaI.R. The English Curriculum in Nutsell (paper): presented at national seminar. Teaching Esl in Indonesia a reflection. Malang 2 Oktober 2004. Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching. England: Pearson Education Limited. Scott, Wendy A and Ytreberg Lisbeth H. (1990). Teaching English to Children. London: Longman Heaton, J. B. (1975). Writing English Language Test.London: Longman McMillan, J. H. (1992). Educational Research: Fundamental for the Consumer. Virginia: Harper Collins Publishers Depdiknas 2004. Kurikulum 2004: Standar Kompetensi Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris Sekolah Menengah Pertama dan Madrasah Tsanawiyah. Jakarta: Balitbang Depdiknas Heaton, J. B. (1988). Writing English Language Tests. New York: Longman Group UK Limited. Aouladomar, Farida, Leila Amgoud, Patrick Saint-Dizier. (2006). On Argumentation in Procedural Texts. http://www.unicaen.fr/poc/ecrire/preprints/preprint0022006.pdf retrieved on December 2013. Gatzke, Lourie. (2003). Procedural Text. http://www.data.tp.ac.id/document/texts (retrived on December 2013) Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Sorensen, C. (2006). Introduction to Research in Education (8th Edition ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth. Hague, A. (2003). The Essential of English. New York: Pearson Inc. Indarto, H. D. (2013). Analisa Lari Estafet Retrieved February 10th, 2014 Scott, W. A., & Ytreberg, L. H. (1990). Teaching English to Children. New York: Longman Group UK Limited. Uberman, A. (1988). The Use of Game for Vocabulary Presentation and Revision (Vol. XXXVI). Forum: 1st January.
Lærere er svært viktige for barns oppdragelse og sosialisering inn i samfunnet. De underviser og bedømmer våre fremtidige samfunnsborgere, og lærernes kompetanse, evner og ferdigheter har en klar effekt på barns skoleprestasjoner. Det har også vist seg at andre aspekter ved læreres undervisning, slik som læreres adferd, oppførsel og tro på egne ferdigheter har stor betydning for elevenes resultater. Nyutdannede lærere er ikke nødvendigvis sosialisert eller innordnet i skolens og profesjonens tradisjoner og vaner, men må likevel opprettholde profesjonelle standarder for lærerarbeid. Å rette oppmerksomheten mot nyutdannede lærere gir derfor en mulighet til å peke på hva som er spesielt for lærerprofesjonen. Gjennom mange år har lærere og lærerutdanning blitt viet mye oppmerksomhet, og lærerutdanning har blitt reformert og endret i mange land i den hensikt å bedre lærernes prestasjoner. At norske elever har prestert under gjennomsnittet og dårligere enn forventet på internasjonale sammenligninger, har gjort at oppmerksomheten mot lærernes kvalitet og kompetanse har blitt enda større. For lærerne sin del blir overgangen fra studier til arbeidsliv ofte gjenstand for kritikk. Forskning har vist at nyutdannede lærere er lite tilpasningsdyktige og regelstyrte i sin undervisning. Overgangen beskrives som vanskelig, til og med som et sjokk. Forskningsspørsmålet i denne avhandlingen er: Hva kjennetegner nyutdannede læreres tanker, handlinger, mestring og deres kunnskapsforståelse? Avhandlingen består av et innledende essay og fire artikler. Det teoretiske rammeverket i prosjektet er hentet fra profesjonssosiologiske teorier og det man med en samlebetegnelse kan kalle læringsteori. De profesjonssosiologiske tilnærmingene gir mulighet for sammenligninger på tvers av profesjoner. Felles for de profesjonssosiologiske tilnærmingene er at de ser profesjoner som kunnskapsbaserte yrker som utøver spesifikke oppgaver i det moderne samfunn. På bakgrunn av sine kunnskaper og vilje til å arbeide til fellesskapets beste er profesjonene gitt en stor grad av autonomi i sitt arbeid. Dette gjelder både den individuelle profesjonsutøver og profesjonen som helhet. Spørsmålet om hvordan profesjonsutøverne blir tilstrekkelig kvalifiserte for sitt arbeid er lite diskutert i profesjonssosiologien. Dette er derimot et kjernespørsmål i teorier om læring. Mange har diskutert forholdet mellom teori og praksis, overføring og rekontekstualisering av kunnskap, og forholdet mellom lærerutdanning og klasseromarbeidet. Mange av de læringsteoretiske tilnærmingene og den tidligere forskningen på lærere har mangler: metodologisk har de sjelden et design som gjør det mulig å kunne diskutere spørsmål omkring validitet og generaliserbarhet; de er sjelden longitudinelle og kan derfor ikke si noe om konkrete sammenhenger mellom lærerutdanning og arbeid i skolen; og de kan ofte karakteriseres som forskning på lærerutdanning fra innsiden av lærerutdanningen. I fire artikler går jeg derfor i dybden på fire mer konkrete forskningsspørsmål: 1. Hvordan opplever nyutdannede lærere sin autonomi, service‐orientering og profesjonskunnskap, og hva kan dette fortelle om lærerprofesjonen? 2. Hva kjennetegner nyutdannede læreres strategier for læring i arbeidslivet? 3. Hvordan vurderer nyutdannede lærere sin mestring, og hvordan er mestring relatert til samarbeid og støtte i arbeidslivet? 4. Hva vurderer nyutdannede lærere som viktig kunnskap for å lykkes som lærer, og hvordan vurderer de normative sider av lærerarbeidet? I alle de fire artiklene brukes begrepene fra profesjonssosiologien (kunnskap, autonomi og vilje til å jobbe til samfunnets beste) som analytiske begreper, og operasjonaliseres på forskjellige måter. Læringsteori og tidligere forskning på lærere brukes til å utvikle det analytiske rammeverket videre og diskutere funnene. Den metodiske fremgangsmåten er hovedsakelig bruk av forskjellige spørreskjemaundersøkelser. I artikkel 1 og 2 brukes StudData, som følger studenter fra ulike profesjonsutdanninger fra starten av utdanningen, gjennom utdanningen og ut i arbeidslivet. Dette gjør det mulig å koble utdanning og arbeidsliv empirisk. Nyutdannede lærere sammenlignes med nyutdannede sykepleiere (artikkel 1) og leger (artikkel 2). Sammenligningen gjør det mulig å diskutere de spesifikke trekkene ved lærerprofesjonen. I artikkel 3 og 4 brukes LU‐data, en spørreskjemaundersøkelse av lærerutdannere og lærere ved praksisskoler i lærerutdanningen. Lærerutdannere, nyutdannede lærere og erfarne lærere har blitt stilt de samme spørsmålene, og dette gjør det mulig å sammenligne gruppene. I tillegg er det benyttet data fra intervjuer og observasjoner i skolen i artikkel 3. Artikkel 1 heter Aspects of professionalism. Collective nursing–personalized teaching? I denne artikkelen diskuteres service‐orientering og profesjonskunnskap som grunnlaget for profesjonsutøvernes autonomi. Den empiriske undersøkelsen sammenligner sykepleier‐ og lærerprofesjonens autonomi, service‐orientering og profesjonskunnskap. Både lærere og sykepleiere kan beskrives som svært orienterte mot å hjelpe andre under studiene, og de får også i stor grad utløp for dette i sitt arbeid som nyutdannede. Nyutdannede lærere oppgir å ha mer kontroll over eget arbeid enn sykepleiere. Det argumenteres for at dette til en viss grad kan sees som uttrykk for forskjellen mellom skoler og sykehus som arbeidsplasser, men at svaret også kan finnes i utviklingen av sykepleie og læreryrket som profesjoner. Opplevelsen av en høy grad av autonomi hos den individuelle lærer kan også sees som et uttrykk for individualiseringen av lærerarbeidet, som er et trekk ved organiseringen av skolen som har blitt påpekt jevnlig i undersøkelser av læreres arbeid. Lærere holdes individuelt ansvarlig for sin egen faglige utvikling, og bruker i liten grad kollegaer som faglig støtte. Dette har man forsøkt å endre gjennom reformer og andre tiltak, men norske og internasjonale undersøkelser viser fortsatt at lærersamarbeid ofte foregår på en faglig lite forpliktende måte. I artikkelen kommer dette også til uttrykk i diskusjonen omkring kunnskap hos nyutdannede lærere og sykepleiere. I starten av utdanningen ser lærere fagkunnskap som lite viktig for profesjonsutøvelsen, og enda færre anser det som viktig mot slutten av utdanningen. Flere av sykepleiestudentene anser fagkunnskap som viktig i starten, og enda flere anser det som viktig mot slutten av studiene. Det diskuteres i artikkelen hvorvidt dette kan sies å gjenspeile en generell holdning til fagkunnskap i de to yrkene, og hvorvidt dette også kommer til uttrykk i artikkelens siste funn: mangelen på oppfølging av nyutdannede lærere i arbeidslivet. Mer enn 50 % av lærerne sier at de ikke har mottatt noen form for oppfølging som nyutdannede i skolen, mens kun 25 % av sykepleierne oppgir det samme. Lærere, i motsetning til sykepleiere, har heller ikke et lovpålagt krav om faglig utvikling og oppdatering. Forskning har også vist at lærernes profesjonsorganisasjoner har hatt en strategi der praksisbasert og personlig kunnskap har blitt vektlagt, i tillegg til å sikre en høy grad av autonomi over eget arbeid. Strategien har vært tilbakeskuende, i det at oppmerksomheten har vært rettet mot å gjenreise læreryrkets tidligere status og innflytelse. Artikkel 2 heter Teachers' learning activities in the workplace: How does education matter? Spørsmålet som undersøkes er hvilken rolle nyutdannede selv kan spille i sin egen profesjonelle utvikling, og hvor mye arbeidsplassfaktorer betyr. Tidligere forskning på læreres arbeidslivslæring har ikke kommet frem til klare resultater på hvilke faktorer som har betydning, og det undersøkes hvorvidt dette kan skyldes at individuell læringsorientering og utbytte fra lærerutdanningen har vært utelatt. Individuell læringsorientering kan også sees som noe lærerutdanningen kan være med på å påvirke og utvikle. Nyutdannede læreres læringsaktiviteter (hva de gjør når de trenger mer kunnskap for å løse krevende situasjoner) sammenlignes med nyutdannede legers. Betydningen av opplevde krav, kontroll og støtte fra kollegaer og ledelse på jobben sammenlignes med betydningen av studiestrategier under utdanningen og opplevd utbytte av utdanningen. Nyutdannede lærere er jevnt over mindre aktive enn nyutdannede leger, noe som kan tenkes å være uttrykk for både trekk ved arbeidet og arbeidets organisering, samt også en svakere kunnskapsorientering i lærerprofesjonen, slik det diskuteres i artikkel 1. Ved å ta inn studiestrategier i analysene blir modellene sterkt forbedret, noe som peker på at lærerutdanning kan spille en viktig rolle i å danne fremtidige lærere som er aktive kunnskapssøkere i sitt eget arbeid. Artikkel 3 heter Novice teachers and how they cope. Nyutdannede læreres møte med arbeidet som lærer i skolen beskrives ofte som en vanskelig opplevelse, og til og med som et sjokk. I artikkelen sammenlignes nyutdannede og erfarne læreres mestring av yrket ved hjelp av kvantitative og kvalitative data. En teoretisk modell for mestring av læreryrket utvikles og testes i artikkelen, og resultatene viser, i motsetning til hva man kunne forvente fra tidligere forskning, at nyutdannede og erfarne læreres mestring ikke skiller seg mye fra hverandre, og beskrivelsen av et sjokk støttes ikke. De detaljerte analysene viser at støtte fra kollegaer er viktig for både nyutdannede og erfarne, men viktigst for nyutdannede. Samarbeid med kollegaer, derimot, påvirket nyutdannede læreres mestring negativt, men erfarne læreres mestring positivt. I de kvalitative datakildene fremkom det at dette kunne være et resultat av nyutdannede læreres manglende evne til å uttrykke sine egne profesjonelle behov, og at dette gjør det stressende og vanskelig å involvere seg med kollegaer på en faglig forpliktende måte. Skoleledelsen var også viktigere for erfarne læreres mestring enn nyutdannedes. Samarbeid som ikke var faglig krevende eller forpliktende var mest vanlig. I artikkelens siste del drøftes det at når forholdet mellom utdanning og arbeidsliv ikke diskuteres skapes det forventninger om at nyutdannede skal være i stand til å gjøre det samme som sine erfarne kollegaer fra første stund. Dette kan også se ut til å være en forventning nyutdannede lærere i skolen møter. Artikkel 4 heter The valuation of knowledge and normative reflection in teacher qualification. A comparison of teacher educators, novice and experienced teachers. Lærerutdanningen beskrives ofte som i utakt med kravene som stilles i skolen. Nyutdannede og erfarne læreres vurdering av hva som er viktig kompetanse for lærere sammenlignes i artikkelen med lærerutdanneres vurdering. Læreres beslutninger er også formet av deres normative vurderinger. Gruppenes syn på et av de viktigste normative dilemmaene i skolen, inklusjon av elever med særskilte behov i ordinær undervisning, sammenlignes derfor også. Resultatene viser at lærerutdannerne hadde et noe mer positivt syn på inklusjon, men alle tre gruppene fremholdt at både fagkunnskap og praktiske ferdigheter var svært viktige for å være en god lærer. Det var altså få indikasjoner på utakt mellom lærere i skolen og lærerutdannere på disse spørsmålene, selv om noen forskjeller ble funnet. Nyutdannede lærere var noe likere sine erfarne kollegaer enn lærerutdannerne, noe som kan tyde på at de nyutdannede raskt er sosialisert inn i skolekulturen, eller at de aldri har vært like sine lærerutdannere. Lærerne i skolen var noe mer praktisk orientert og opptatt av å holde kontroll enn lærerutdannerne, som på sin side i større grad vektla å kunne begrunne sine valg og vurderinger, og læreplananalyse. Til tross for disse forskjellene er hovedinntrykket at beskrivelsen av lærerutdannerne som i utakt med den virkelige verden i skolen må nyanseres. Et viktigere spørsmål er hvorvidt lærerutdanningen bør være i takt med kravene i skolen på alle områder? I artikkelen diskuteres det om lærerutdanningen kan ha en viktig rolle ved å vektlegge områder og tema som lett blir skjøvet til side i en hektisk skolehverdag, og om endringer og reformer i skolen og lærerutdanning skjer på bakgrunn av forskningsutviklingen eller andre initiativ. Jeg argumenterer for at det viktige spørsmålet ikke er hvor store forskjellene mellom utdanning og arbeidsliv er, men hvilke forskjeller som er passende og hvilke som ikke er det. I alle fire artiklene diskuteres det om idealene som møter nyutdannede lærere er realistiske. Ideen om at en nyutdannet skal kunne gjøre alt det en erfaren lærer kan gjøre kan knyttes til et tradisjonelt bilde av læreren: Kunnskap sees som det eneste formålet med utdanningen, og moral og normative vurderinger knyttes til tradisjonelle forestillinger om dyd og kall. Hvis dette er forventningene nyutdannede møtes med, er det lett å finne bekreftelse på at lærerutdanningen er utilstrekkelig eller ute av takt. Dersom andre læreridealer gjøres gjeldende, vil også nye perspektiver på forholdet mellom utdanning og arbeidsliv, og på kvalifisering av lærere, bli mulige. De profesjonssosiologiske kjernebegrepene gir et rammeverk som gjør det mulig med komparative studier av profesjoner og dermed få frem de spesifikke trekkene ved læreryrket. I avhandlingen trekkes det frem at læreryrket kan se ut til å ha en svak kunnskapsorientering, og dette er igjen med på å undergrave de nyutdannede lærernes mulighet til å utføre sitt profesjonelle arbeid på et tilfredsstillende vis. De profesjonssosiologiske begrepene blir nyttige analytiske verktøy i studiet av lærerkvalifisering og lærerprofesjonen. Samtidig har profesjonssosiologien også sine klare begrensninger, fremfor alt i at forholdet mellom utdanning og arbeidsliv i liten grad er gjenstand for diskusjon. Læringsteorier utfordrer og kritiserer dette, og diskuterer hvordan ferdigheter for profesjonell yrkesutøvelse utvikler seg i forskjellige kontekster til forskjellige tider. I avhandlingen kan artikkel 2 trekkes frem som et spesielt tydelig, empirisk, eksempel på dette. Det longitudinelle designet gjør det mulig å undersøke den spesifikke påvirkningen fra lærerutdanningen, samtidig som arbeidsplassens betingelser for læring tas hensyn til. ; Teachers are among the main agents of socialisation and upbringing. They are the ones who teach, judge and evaluate the future citizens of our society, and their competence, abilities and skills affect the outcome and experience of an individual's education. Their behaviour and belief in their own abilities influences student performance. To learn more about how the teaching profession and teachers organize and develops their work, the spotlight is thrown at novice teachers. Novices are more clearly exposed to the specific characteristics of the organization and profession, as they are new and not necessarily socialized or aligned with the habits of the profession and organization, at the same time as they have to uphold professional standards. Research has indicated that novice teachers tend to adopt inflexible, rule‐based ways of teaching so as to cope with the uncertainty of their work. The meeting with work in schools is often characterised as troublesome or even as a shock. The main empirical research question in this thesis is: How do novice teachers think, act, cope and perceive knowledge? The thesis consists of an introductory essay and four papers. How novice teachers think, act, cope and perceive knowledge is seen as expressions of professionalism, and how professionalism is accommodated in teaching. Sociological approaches to professions and professionalism provide a comparative framework, and have in common the understanding that professions are knowledge‐based occupations that perform specific tasks in modern societies. Professionalism is seen as a normative‐value system, where professionals are granted autonomy to perform their work (individually and collectively) as they are competent performers with a will to use their competence for the common good. Professionalism is at the same time also an ideological tool, providing professions with opportunity to develop and strengthen their position (professionalism from within), but also using the arguments of professional standards and accountability to steer professions in certain directions in line with broader political trends and reforms (professionalism from above). Qualification (the development and acquisition of professional knowledge, skills and values, and the relationship between education and work in terms of preparing for specific tasks) is rarely discussed in sociological traditions. This is a key omission, given that education and professional knowledge is seen as the important vehicle for upholding a status as professions. In theories of professional learning, in which most research on teachers finds its theoretical framework, the nature of knowledge and learning is more frequently questioned, and different theoretical positions and metaphors have been used to frame the problems that novice teachers face. Some have referred to this issue as an encounter with the difference between theory and practice. Others have referred to the problems of transferring knowledge, or recontextualising knowledge, from teacher education to the classroom. Research has also suggested that teaching as a profession lacks a knowledge base that can support teachers in their work and provide teachers with the necessary tools. Although much research has been undertaken on novice teachers, and the research‐based knowledge has accumulated steadily, it has it has been pointed out that there is a need to address challenges in terms of validity and generalisability, and to approach teaching as a research subject with new theories and methodologies not inherent to teacher education. The main empirical research question of this thesis is analysed through four papers, addressing four more specific research questions: 1. How do novice teachers report on their self‐assessed levels of autonomy, service orientation and professional knowledge, and what can this tell us about characteristics of the teaching profession? 2. What characterises novice teachers' professional development strategies? 3. How do novice teachers' assess their own coping, and how is coping related to collaboration and support? 4. What do novice teachers perceive as important knowledge and how do they value the normative aspects of teachers' work? In paper 1 and 2, StudData is used, a survey following teacher students from the end of their education and into their first few years of work. This makes it possible to examine novices' situation and experiences, while also empirically linking together the education and the subsequent working career of the respondents. Teaching is compared to nursing (paper 1) and medicine (paper 2) in order to point out the specific characteristics of teaching as a profession. In paper 3 and 4 TeData is used, a survey of teacher educators and teachers in school. Teacher educators, novice teachers and experienced teachers are compared, making it possible to point out any differences or similarities between the groups. Interviews and observational data are also included in paper 3. Paper 1 is called Aspects of professionalism. Collective nursing—personalised teaching? The results showed that both teachers and nurses can be described as service‐oriented or other‐oriented during their studies, and both groups find opportunities to realise these other‐oriented values in their work. The results also showed that teachers have more control over their own work (i.e., technical autonomy) than do nurses. The paper argued that this result could be explained in part by the differences in work organisations (mostly hospitals versus schools) and in the development of teaching and nursing as independent professions. High technical autonomy could also be interpreted as being in line with the individualism that is typical in teaching, i.e. the teacher is held individually responsible for his or her own professional development, and seldom seeks advice from colleagues. This is partly due to the legacy of teacher work, which traditionally has been undertaken by one teacher in one classroom, reinforced by the architecture of schools. Although efforts have been made to change the way teacher work is organised, it is again and again pointed out that collaborative teacher work, however fruitful, is rare and often not undertaken in a binding way. Finally, the concept of professional knowledge, or expertise, in teaching and nursing was also discussed. Previous research has shown that teachers beginning their education place a low value on formal knowledge, and the percentage of students who value formal knowledge actually decreases during education. By contrast, nursing students placed a high value on theoretical knowledge at the start of their studies, and even more nurses deemed it important at the end of their studies. The paper suggested that this disparity reflects a general difference in the understanding of professional competence in teaching and nursing. This difference was also manifest in a systemic lack of follow‐up and professional training programmes for novice teachers. More than 50% of the teachers reported having received no systematic training during their first three years, whereas only 25% of the nurses reported the same. Unlike nursing, teaching has no statutory provision for CPD. The professional association of teachers has chosen a professional development strategy that emphasises practicebased and personal knowledge, as well as individual autonomy and individual decision making, and a restorative strategy that focuses on reinstating lost power and influence. Paper 2 is called Teachers' learning activities in the workplace: How does education matter? and focused on questions of professional knowledge and development. Novice teachers' role in their own professional development was examined and compared with workplace characteristics. How are variables describing autonomy and collegiality (support) related to what is referred to as knowledge strategies, i.e. what novices do when in need of additional knowledge to handle situations at work? Ambiguities and a lack of conclusive results in a specific line of research on teachers' learning are addressed. The models used by others were developed further, mainly by the inclusion of educational outcomes and study strategies during education. Novice teachers were shown to be overall less active than novice physicians in seeking out new knowledge, suggesting a difference in the professional knowledge culture. The inclusion of study strategies in the analyses of workplace learning substantially improved the explanation of workplace learning behaviour, also in the knowledge‐weak teaching profession. This points out a role for teacher education in terms of preparing teachers as knowledge seekers, and it also emphasises the effect of individual knowledge orientation that goes beyond professional boundaries. Paper 3 is called Novice teachers and how they cope. A novice teacher's first encounters with working as a teacher are often referred to as a shock or as a particularly troublesome experience. In this paper, novice teachers' ability to cope with their work was compared with that of more experienced teachers, using both quantitative and qualitative methods. A model for coping with teaching (measured as perceived self‐efficacy and teacher certainty) was developed. The most striking finding, contrary to common reports of a shock among novices, is that novice teachers do not differ much from their experienced colleagues in self‐efficacy, and have only slightly lower certainty. These small differences do not support an interpretation that novice teachers have extra low levels of coping, which is assumed to be implicit in the description of a shock. It may very well be that novice teachers experience the transition from education to work as stressful in the initial phases, but the effect seems to diminish rather fast. Collegial support, an important coping tool for experienced teachers, was found to be even more so for novice teachers. Collaboration with colleagues was found to decrease coping in novices but had a more positive effect among experienced teachers. The observations and interviews suggested that this might be because of the novices' lack of ability to express themselves professionally, which makes interaction with colleagues stressful. Superiors at the school seemed to become more important for coping as teachers gained experience. Lower commitment forms of teacher collaboration were also more common than forms demanding more involvement (such as deliberation on the consequences of teaching instead of just organising and sharing the workload). Newer contributions in learning theory have theoretically discussed and analysed the potential troubles when individuals cross the boundaries between the different contexts of education and work. The metaphor of a shock seems to rest on expectations that novice professionals should be able to perform their work as well as their more experienced colleagues, and neglect the fact that these troubles are an inherent part of the transition from education to work. They also implicitly suggest that problems are due to a teacher education that did not prepare them sufficiently. The responsibility of schools for introducing novices in an appropriate way should not be neglected, and the findings indicate that colleagues are an important factor in these processes. Again, as supported by the findings in paper 1, novice teachers seem to receive less attention than novices in other professions. Paper 4 is called The valuation of knowledge and normative reflection in teacher qualification, and is a comparison of teacher educators, novice and experienced teachers. As teachers' professional practice also is dependent upon normative judgement, the views of teacher educators and teachers on one of the important normative dilemmas in teaching — the inclusion or exclusion in classes of students with learning challenges — was compared, along with their understanding of what kind of knowledge and skills are important for working as a teacher. Surprisingly, and again contrary to common reports and beliefs, also within research on teaching, the differences between the groups on their understanding of what constitutes important knowledge in teaching were very small. The description of teacher education as being "out of step" with the real world of teaching should be nuanced. Furthermore, the often‐discussed tension between an academic discipline orientation and a practical occupational orientation was examined at an individual level, and the findings indicated that both teacher educators and teachers in schools saw both parts of the professional knowledge base as important. The clearest difference found was that teacher educators generally had a more positive view on inclusion than did novice teachers and experienced teachers. School teachers were somewhat more practically oriented and more concerned with keeping control in the classroom than were teacher educators, whereas teacher educators emphasised being able to give reasons for choices, actions and curriculum analyses. The discussion was framed by pointing out the tension between ideals and goals for teacher education set from the outside (such as the introduction of the Qualifications Frameworks) and the integrative purpose of teacher education in terms of developing academic knowledge, practical skills and ethical/normative judgment in the students. It was argued that the goals for teacher education should be set with such integration as a goal, not on transferability, compatibility, measurability and transparency primarily. Thus, the paper highlights an area where a battle between professionalism from within and professionalism from above might take place in the future, by pointing out the importance of setting the right goal for teacher education. ; Doctoral thesis without published articles
Issue 30.6 of the Review for Religious, 1971. ; EDITOR R. F. Smith, S.J. ASSOCIATE EDITOR Everett A. Diederich, S.J. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS EDITOR Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Correspondence with the editor, the associate editors, and the assistant editor, as well as books for review, should be sent to I~VIEW FOR RELIGIOUS; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis, Missouri 6:31o3. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's Church; 321 Willings Alley; Philadelphia, Pe.nnsylvania 191o6. + + REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Edited with ecclesiastical approval by faculty members of the School of Divinity of Saint Louis University, the editorial offices being located at 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis, Missouri 63103. Owned by the Missouri Province Edu-cational Institute. Published bimonthly and copyright ~) 1971 by REVIEW 'VOg RELIGIOUS. Published for Review for Religious at Nit. Ro\'al & Guilford Ave., Baltimore, .Xld. Printed in U.S.A. Set'ond class postage paid at Baltimore, .Maryland and ,at addithmal mailing offices. Single copies: $1.25. Subscription U.S.A. and Canada: $6.00 a year, $11.00 for two years: other countries: $7.00 a year, $13.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be accompanied by check or money order paya-ble to REVIEW POg RELIOIOGS in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Change of address requests should include former address. Renewals and new subscriptions should be sent to REviEW FOR RELIGIOUS; P. O. Box l 110; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Manuscripts, editorial correspondence, and books for re-view should be sent to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS; 619 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louts, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to the address of the Questions and Answers editor. NOVEMBER 1971 VOLUME 30 NUMBER 6 JOSEPH F. GALLEN,.S.J. Decree on Confessions of Religious. In a decree dated December 8, 1970, effective immedi-ately, and confirmed by the Pope on November 20, 1970, the Sacred Congregation for Religious and Secular Instb tutes made the following.changes in the canon law on the sacrament of penance for religious, especially religious women, and on exclusion from a religious institute of one in temporary vows because of ill health. These provisions will remain in force until the new Code of Canon Law is effective. Number 4, e), of the Decree states that the pre-scriptions of the present canon law that are contrary to the new provisions, incompatible with them, or which because of them no longer apply, are suspended. Any provision of the Decree that~ affects novices will apply to those in a temporary commitment other than temporary vows. The numbering of the Decree has been retained in the following explanation. 1-2. The Decree exhorts religious to value highly the sacrament of penance as a means of strengthening the fundamental gift of metanoia or conversion to the king-dom of Christ, and to esteem in the same way the fre-quent use of this sacrament, which debpens ~true knowl-edge of self and humility, provides spiritual direction, and increases grace. These and other wonderful effects, according to n. 2, contribute not only to daily growth in virtue but are highly beneficial also to the common good. 3. All religious, men and women, clerical and lay, ex-empt and nonexempt, should strive to receive the sacra-ment of penance frequently, that is, twice a month. Supe-riors are to encourage this frequency and make it possible [or the members to go to confession at least every two weeks and even oftener, if they wish to do so. In the past, canon law did not oblige religious to go to confession at least once a week. The canonical obligation extended onl~ to superiors, who had to make it possible for their subjects to confess at least once a week. How-÷ ÷ ÷ Joseph F. Gallen, s.J., writes from St. Joseph's Church at 321 Willings Alley; Philadelphia, Penn-sylvania 19106. VOLUME 30, 1971 4" 4" J. F. Gallen, S.J. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 944 ever, the Code of Canon Law presupposed that an obliga-tion of weekly confession, existdd at least from custom, and very universally the constitutions obliged religious to confess at/east once a week. 4, a). "All women religious and novices, in Order that they may have proper liberty, may make their confession validly and licitly to any priest approved for hearing confessions in the locality. For this no special jurisdiction or designation is henceforth required." The first sentence of this number" gives all women reli-gious and novices, in orders, congregations, or societies of common life, the right always to go to confession validly and licitly to any priest of their choice, whether he is diocesan or religious, who is approved for confessions in the locality of the partic.ular confession. Furthermore, as this number of the Decree also states, the confessor does not have to be designated or appointed, for religious women.' Even in the past there were no canonical norms on the confessions of men or women postulants, who were regulated canonically by the same laws on confession as secular men and women. Religious women and novices are therefore .no longer obliged to go to ordinary or ex-traordinary confessors, eveh when such confessors exist for their houses. The special confessor of a particular reli-gious woman of canon 520, par. 2, no longer exists be-cause a religious woman may go, even habitually or al-ways, to any confessor of her choice. The same reason excludes the supplementary confessors (c. 521, par. 2), the occasional confessor (c. 522), and the confessor of seri-ously sick religious women (c. 523). Number 8, e), of the recent norms on the papal enclosure of nuns permits the following: "A priest [even if he possesses no jurisdiction for confessions] may likewise be admitted to assist those religious suffering from a chronic or greave illness." Mere spiritual direction, unlike absolution, does not require jurisdiction for confessions. Because of the sus.pended canons listed above in this paragraph, canon 2414, the last canon in the Code, is also suspended. This canon reads: If a superioress acts against the prescriptions of canons 521, par. 3, 522, and 523, she shall be admonished by, the local or-dinary; if again delinquent, she shall be punished by removal from office, and the Sacred Congregation of Religious is to be immediately informed of the matter. By reason of the second sentence of this number, spe-cial jurisdiction is no longer required for the valid or licit confessions of professed women religious or novices, whether in orders or congregations, nor for those in the analogons states of societies of women living in common without public vows (c; 675). All of these are now ab-solved in virtue of the same jurisdiction as secular women. Priests ordinarily possess jurisdiction for the con-fessions of the faithful ol~ both sex~esf@hey may therefore, in the locality for which they posses such jurisdiction, valid!y absolve the religious women listed" above any-wherd, in the confessional or outside of it. They may licitly do the latter in a case of sickness or for any other reason of like import (c. 910, par. 1). In the pa.st, to absolve validly and licitly the~ same religious women listed above, special jurisdiction was nec-essary. The jurisdiction was special becfiuse it "~as not contained in the jurisdiction granted for the faithful of both sexes~or for women. It had t3 be given expressly for religious women (c. 876, par. 1). The pres.ent suspension of the necessity of special jurisdiction also implies the suspension of the necessity of the designation of a special spiritual director (c. 520, par. 2) by the local ordinary or the regular superior. The i'eason for the necessity of this designation was that special jurisdiction for confession was granted to such a spiritual director. Lay religious institutes o[ men. According to n. 5 of the Decree, the applicable norms of n. 4 on women appertain~ also to lay institutes of men. Therefore, all religious and novices of such institutes may go to confession to any confessor, as explained above for women (n. 4, a). Be-cause of this right of choice, the special ordinary ~onfes-sor of professed °(c. 528), for whom the permission of the religious superior was° required, no longer exists," as is true also of the supplementary confessors of novices in the same institutes (c. 566, par. 2, n. 3),'and likewise of the occasional confessor of both professed and novices (c. 519). All of canon 566, par. 2, on confessors of novices in lay and clerical institutes of men is also suspended. Clerical institutes o[ men. Nothing is said directly in the Decree on the confessions of members of clerical or-ders' or congregations except that they too Should go to confession twice a month (n. 3). However, the applicable provisions on the confessions of women religious and nomces must also apply to clerical institutes. Otherwise, their members would be in an inferior condition to that of religious women and of the members of lay institutes of men, which has not been their status thus far in the laws of the Church. It is also the sufficiently evident intention of the Sacred Congregation to simplify the law on confes-sion [or religious and to grant greater liberty, and these are also desirable in the laws affecting clerical institutes. Therefore, all religious and novices in clerical institutes may make their confession to any confessor, as explained above [or women (n. 4, a). It would be incredible that clerical religious alone would be excluded from the pre-ceding concession. As above for lay institutes of men, the occasional confessor of both professe.d and novices (c. 519) ÷ ÷ ÷ Conlesslons VOLUME 30, 19TI 945 ~. l~. Gallen, $.~. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 946 no longer exists nor the supplementary confessors for novices of canon 566, par. 2, n.3. 4, b). An ordinary confessor must be named for monas-teries of contemplative nuns, for houses of formation of women, and for large houses of women. An extraordinary confessor is to be named at least for the first two types of the preceding houses. The women religious and novices are not obliged to present themselves to either such ordi-nary or extraordinary confessors. The provision for the monasteries of contemplative nuns should in practice be extended to nuns who are doing immediate apostolic work, for example, conducting schools within their monasteries, and also to the houses or monasteries of contemplative congregations of sisters, for example, the Sisters Adorers of the Precious Blood, who have monasteries in the archdiocese of Portland, Oregon and in the dioceses of ~Brooklyn, Lafayette, Indi-ana, Manchester, Ogdensbu?g, Portland, Maine, and To-ledo Houses of formation of women include novitiates and juniorates, although the small number of novices and juniors and other circumstances can in some cases render the appointment of ordinary and extraordinary confessors impractical. There is no canonical definition of a large religious house. The determination of such houses should be made hy the local ordinary after a considera-tion of all the circumstances and even by consultation of its members. It could happen that the members of a very large house in a city can and prefer to go to any confes-sor. The presence or absence of members who cannot go outside the house for confession is obviously an impor-tant factor. Nor is consideration for the confessor to be forgotten, for example, an ordinary confessor who would come every two weeks and find nothing to do. In some cases a priest such as the one Or" ones who celebrate daily Mass in a larger house may be able to handle readily the few confessions that will occur. The fact that no religious woman or novice is obliged to present herself to any of these ordinay or extraordinary confessors follows from the general principle of the decree in n. 4, a), that all women religious and novices may make their confession validly and licitly to any priest approved for hearing confessions in the locality. This number of the Decree commands merely [he appointment of an extraordinary confessor, that is, the confessor who frequently, not neces-sarily at least for times during the year, is accessible that the members of the community may have the opportunity of confessing to another than the ordinary confessor. This was the definition of the same wording in canon 528 on the extraordinary confessor for professed religious in lay institutes of men. The Code explicity commanded the extraordinary confessor of professed religious women and novices (c. 521, par. 1)and of novices in institutes qf men' (c. 566, par. 2, n. 4) to be available atleast four times a year, but this provision is suspended by the Decree, In a liouse of ~formati0n, ord_i.nary .and extraordipar.y_, confeS, sors are to be app0intedl only for those in formation unless, with regard to an ordinary confessor, tbe other members of the house are sufficient to constitute a large house. This doctrine is evident from the fact that ordi-nary and ~xtraor,dinary confessors would not be ap-pointed [or these other members if they were in another house. Therefore, for example, in a novitiate house these confessors are appointed for the novices, not [or the mem-bers of the generalate or provincialate staff residing in tbe same house of formation. 4, c). "For other co.mmunities [in additition to the monasterieg of nuns, houses of formation, and large houses of n. 4, b) immediately above] an ordinary confes-sor may be named at the request of the community itself or after consultation with its members if, in the judgment of tlie ordinary, special circumstances justify such an ap-pointment." The "special circumstances" will be at least very com-monly those that prevent the religious women of a house fi'om going to confession twice a month unless an ordi-nary confessor is appointed. This can arise from the pres-ence in the house of religious who cannot go out for confession, from the location of the house that makes access to other confessors difficult, or that allows such access to only one confessor, for example, the sole priest in the one parish in a small town, and so forth. Lay and clerical institutes oJ men. With the exception of that on monasteries of nuns, the provisions of n. 4, b) and c) immediately above apply also to lay institutes of men by reason of n. 5, and to clerical institutes in virtue Of the arguments given under n. 4, a). It would again be incredible that ordinary contessors would continue to have to be appointed for all houses of clerical institutes (c. 518, par. 1) but only for the restricted number of houses of religious women and lay institutes of men ac-cording to n. 4, b) of the present Decree. Houses of for-mation in Clerical institutes include also houses of study (C. 587) and houses for the apostolic year and tertianship (see Sedes Sapientiae, nn. 48, 51). The judgment on the existence of a large house and on the special circumstan-ces tbat justify the appointment of ordinary confessors in houses that are not houses of formation or large apper-tains in clerical orders and congregations to the religious superior who has the right of appointing ordinary confes-sors according to the constitutions 0f the particular insti-tute. 4, d). "The local ordinary should choose confessors 4. 4. 4. ~. F. Gallen, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 948 ~arefully. They should be priests of sufficient maturity and possess the other necessary qualities. The ordinary may determine the number, age and term of office of the confessors and may name them or renew their appoint-ment after consultation with the community concerned." This paragraph of the decree commands the local ordi-nary to choose the ordinary and ektraordinary confessors of women religious and novices of the tw9 preceding sections with care. The suitability of priests for these two duties appertains to the judgment of the local ordinary. For example, it is no longer required that these confessors be 'forty years of age (c. 524, par. 1). The local ordinary also determines the number of such confessors, and it is no longer demanded that per se only one ordinary and extraordinary confessor be appointed for each house (cc. 520, par. 1; 521, par. 1). The local ordinary may but is not obliged to determine the duration of the term of office of these confessors, for example, two year.s, and may reappoint them immediately and indefinitely after con-sultation with the community concerned. He may also, with the same consulation, immediately appoint an ordi-nary coiafessor as extraordinary of the same commun.ity (see c. 524, par. 2). Clerical and lay institutes o[ men. The ordinary and extraordinary confessors in these institutes from the na-ture of the matter are to be priests suitable for the office. The provisions, however, of n. 4~, d) of the Decree imme-diately above apply only to institutes of women both from their wording, which is based on the canons on confessors of religious women, and from the fact that the present canon law prescribes no qualities for the ordinary and extraordinary confessors in institutes of men, whether clerical or lay. It is evidently permitted to follow such a provision as the previous consultation of the com-munity concerned. The following are the canons specifically on confessors of religious that remain in force: Can. 518, par. 1. In . every clerical Institute there shall be deputed. [ordinary] confessors with power, if it be ques~ tion of an exempt Institute, to absolve also from the cases re-served in the Institute. Par. 2. Religious Superiors, having faculties to hear confes' sions, can, in conformity with the law, hear the confessions of their subjects who spontaneously and freely approach them for that purpose, but they may not without grave reason hear them habitually. Par. 3. Superiors must take care not to induce, personally, or through others, by force, by fear, or by importunate persua-sion, or by any other means, any of their subjects to confess his sins to them. Can. 524, par. 3. The confessors, whether ordinary or extra-ordinary, of religious women are not, in any manner, to inter- fere either in the internal or external government of the com-munity. Can. 525. For all houses of religious women immediately subject to the Apostolic See or to the local Ordinary, the latter selects both ordinary an.d extraordinary ,confessor;. ~o~" those subject to a Regular Superior, this Superior presents the con-fessors to the'Ordinary who will grant them the approval to hear the confessions of'the nuns; the Ordinary also shall supply, if necessary, for the negligence of the Regular Superior, Can. 527. According to the terms of canon 880, the local Ordinary can, for a serious~ cause, remove both the ordinary and extraordinary confessor of religious women, even when the monastery is subject to Regulars and the confessor himself a Regular, nor is the Ordinary bound to make known the reason for the removal to anyone except to the Holy See, if it should require the reason from him; he must, however, if the nuns are subject to Regulars, inform the Regular Superior of the removal. Can. 875, par. 2. In an exempt lay Institute, the Superior proposes the confessor, who, however, must receive jurisdiction from the Ordinary of the place in which the religious house is situated. The preceding are taken from the authorized but unof-ficial translation, Canonical Legislation concerning Reli-gious. Canon 891, which also remains in force, is ~not contained in this translation. It reads as follows: Can. 891. The master of novices and his socius, the superior of a seminary or of a college may not hear the sacramental con-fessions of his students residing in the same house with him, unless the students spontaneously request this in particular cases for a grave and urgent reason. The canons therefore specifically on confessors of reli-gious that remain are part of canon 518, par. 1, and all the rest of this canon; all of canons 524, par. 3, 525, 527, 875, par. 2, and 891. "II The final clause of canon 637 is to be understood in the sense that a religious in temporary vows who, because of physical or mental illness even if contracted after pro-fession, is judged by the competent superior with the consent of his council, on the basis of examinations by physicians or other specialists, to be incapable of living the religious life without personal harm or harm to the institute, may be refused admission to renewal of vows or to final profession. The decision in such cases is to be taken with charity and equ!ty." According to canon 637 a professed of temporary vows could be excluded from the renewal of temporary vows or from making perpetual profession because of ill health ofily if it was proved with certainty that the ili health had been contracted and fraudulently concealed or dissi-mulated before the first profession of temporary vows. The same principle is true of the dismissal of a professed of temporary vows (c. 647, par. 2, n. 2). These canons are not completely logical. The time of temporary vows is Confessions 949 4. 4. 4" J. F. Gallen, S.J. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 950 one of probation; the canons permit exclusion or dis-missal of such professed for other inculpable causes; and canon 637 otherwise requires only .just and reasona-ble causes for exclusion and canon 647, par. 2, n. 2, only serious reasons for dismissai. These canons also caused serious and, without recourse to the Holy See, even insol-uble problems. This was verified especially with regard to psychological disorders when the subject would not vol-untarily leave the institute. His retention could cause great difficulty to the institute, even intensify his own condition, and cases occurred in which superiors could not in conscience admit such subjects to further profes-sions, particularly to perpetual profession~ It is evident that the decision in these cases of physical or psychologi-cal health is to be made with proper regard and considera-tion for the subject, and, as the Decree states, with char-ity and equity (see REVIEW I~OF RELIGIOUS, 16 [1957], 218-9, 271; 25 [1966], 1104-5). In virtue of the present legislation in II, an exclusion from further temporary or perpetual profession because of physical or psychological illness, even if contracted after the first temporary profession, may be made by the competent superior with the consent of his or her council if they judge, on the basis of examinations by physicians or other specialists, that the subject is incapable of living the religious life without personal harm or harm to the institute. The subject should ordinarily at least be first encouraged to leave voluntarily and this as soon as such a condition is sufficiently ascertained. The new legislation is concerned only with an exclu-sion from further profession; it does not extend to the dismissal of a professed of temporary vows in the same case. This can cause a serious difficulty if the case comes to a head when a considerable part of a temporary profes-sion is unexpired, for example, in the early part of the second year of a three-year profession, and the subject will not leave voluntarily. This case, when it occurs, may be proposed to the Sacred Congregation for a solution. Practical summary o[" the Decree. The~ norm'~f fre-quency of confession is every two weeks. All religious may always confess to any confessor in the locality. Spe-cial jurisdiction is not required for religious women. The only confessors proper to religious are ordinary confessors in monasteries Of nuns and in the following houses of men and women: houses of f6rmation, large houses, and other houses in special circumstances, and extraordinary confessors in the same monasteries and houses of forma-tion. Such confessors of women do not have to be forty years of age. A professed of temporary vows may be ex-cluded from further professions because of physical or psychological illness. CHRISTOPHER KIESLING, O.P. Ministry in the Schools of the Church Religious should get out of Catholic schools. Such schools should not exist.The Church should not be in the business of education, but should devote its resources to the social problems of our day. Moreover, Church schools serve the affluent middle and upper classes more than the oppressed minorities. Religious, ther~efore, should go into other ministries in which they can serve the world, especially the underprivileged. Undoubtedly it is good that religious are venturing into nev~ ministries besides ~eaching or administration in schools of the Church. It is good for sisters and brothers because some have temperaments, inclinations, interests, and talents which equip them much better for other min-istries titan that of the church school. It is good for the Chnrch and the world because both have grave needs which can be met only by the service of highly motivated and generous people such as religious. But while some religious should be encouraged to enter into new forms of apostolate, it would be most unfortu-nate if others were not encouraged to enter Or Continue in the apostolate of the schools of the Church. This apos-tolate is extremely important and even assumes, a ni~wness today by virtue of the many changes taking place in both the Church and the w6rld. As is well known, these schools are threatened with extinction today. The demise of the schools of the Church, however, is a most grievous set-back to the emergence of mature Christian laymen in the life and apostolate of the Church and hence in the Church's mission to the world, especially to the world's social problems. Vatican II expres'~d the int.egral mission of the Church with special clarity. It was compelled to do tiffs in its efforts to describe p, ositively the place, digni_ty, and role of the laity in the Church. The Decree on the Apostolate o] the Laity, for instance, says: 4- 4- Christopher Kies-ling, O.P., is a fac-ulty member of Aquinas Institute School of Theology in Dubuque, Iowa 52001. VOLUME 30, 1971 951 + C. Kiesling, O.P. REVIEW I:OR REI.IGIOUS 952 Christ's redemptive work, while of itself directed toward the salvation of men, involves also the renewal of the whole tem-poral order. Hence the. mission of the Church is not on!y to bring to men tlie message and grace of Christ, but also to pene-trate and perfect the temporal sphere with the spirit of the Gospel (n, 5). Tlie missiofi of the Church, in other words, is not to rescue men from this world for salvation in another world, but to unite men to God in this world and through them permeate human activity, culture, and his-tory with fl~e spirit of Christ, thus cooperating with God in bringing all creation to its divinely intended goal: eternal life and resurrection of the body for men in a new heaven and a new earth. Every member of the Church participates in her mis-sion: For this the ChurCh was founded: that., she might bring all men to share in Christ,s saving redemption; and that through them the whole world might in actual fact be brought into relationship with him. All activity of the Mystical Body directed to the attainment of this goal is called the apostolate, and the Church carries it on in various ways through all her members. For by its very nature the Christian vocation is also a vocation to the apostolate (ibid., n. 2). The Church is the whole body of baptized believers, sent by Christ into the world to bring men his truth and grace and to work for the divinely willed perfection of creation. In order to accomplish this mission, baptized believers nfinister to one a~aother, building up the whole Body of Christ in truth and grace for service to the world for the glory~of tlte Father. Some ministries are purely charismatic, the fruit of the Spirit's quickening believers to particular services to fellow members of Christ's Body for their joint mission to the world. Some ministries are also institutional, that is, in addition to the call of the Spirit, they have a more or less per.manent place and a more or less defined [unction in the structure of the Chnrch as ordained by God in Christ or by the Christian community in the course of history; consequently, these ministries appear in the canon law of the Church. But whether institutional or not, all these ministries are in-cludetl in the Spirit-inspired serf-help which the members of Christ's Body give to one another for the vigorous life of His Body and for its continuing mission and ministry to the world. What is required of the members of Christ's Body if they are to fulfill their apostolic vocation? They need articulate faith, a keen appreciation of the meaning and value of creatures, and zeal coupled with skill for building a better world of truth, justice, love, and freedom for every man, woman, and child. By "articulate faith" is meant a faith with some under- standing of the assertions.of faith, .including recognition of the difficulties which these assertions present to human intelligence today, their historical conditioning, and their need for continual reinterpretation and restatement if they are going to remain vali'd'expression~ of'~tuthentic faith in the midst of constantly changing human con-sciousness of reality. More importantly, articulate faith is aware of itself as.an adventure into ineffable mystery and personal communion with the living God, for which faith's assertions are a means not an end: a gateway, not the end of the road. Articulate faith also includes the willingness, ability, and c6nfidence to talk about what one believes. Because faith is a great adventure toward the fulfillment of men's deepest longing, one is willing, even eager, to discuss matters of faith; and one does not shy away from such discussion for fear of being wrong, because one is aware that faith is response to a loving Person who is more interested in drawing men to per-sonal communion with Him than He is in theological niceties. Vatican II expects the members of the Church to have such articulate faith, in accord with their capacity for it. According to the Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity, "the apostolate of the Church and of all her members is designed primarily to manifest Christ's message by words and deeds and to communicate his grace to the world" (ibid., n. 6). Noteworth~ in this statement is that all mem-bers of the Church are to manifest Christ's message by words, as well as deeds, and to communicate His grace. The ministry of teaching and sanctifying is not restricted to the clergy's ministry of the word and the sacraments. The decree proceeds to note that one of the ways in which the laity exercise their apostolate of "making the Gospel known and men holy" (ibid.) is through the testi-mony of a good life. But it goes on to say that "an aposto-late of this kind does not consist only in the witness of one's way of life; a true apostle looks for opportunities to announce Christ by words addressed either to non-believ-ers with a view to leading them to faith, or to believers with a view to instructing and strengthening them, and motivating them toward a more fervent life" (ibid.). ¯ In other words, the laity, as well as the clergy and religious, are responsible for building up the Body of Christ in truth and love and [or implementing its teach-ing and sanctifying mission. To fulfill this responsibility, laity, as well as clergy and religious, need articulate faith. A second need which each member of Christ's Body has is for a keen appreciation of the meaning and value of creatures: The Lord wishes to spread his kingdom . In this kingdom, creation itself will be delivered out of its slavery to corruption 4- 4- 4- Schools VOLUME 30, 1971 4" 4" 4" C. Kiesling, O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 954 and into the freedom of the sons of God (cf. Rom. 8:21) . The faithful, therefore, must learn the deepest meaning and the value of all creation~ and how to relate it to the praise of God. They must assist one another to live holier lives even in their daily occupations. In this way the world is permeated by the spirit of Christ and more effectively achieves its purpose in justice, charity, and peace (Constitution on the Church, n. 36). In the light of revelation,, baptized believers must see and appreciate creatures in their original goodness and in their relationship to the Incarnation and the eschaton; They should perceive and treasure creatures as the poet does, with awe and reverence for the uniqueness and beauty of each. They should not view them simply with the detached, calculating eye of the technician. Yet tech-nology too is a creature of God, so that Christians should understand and evaluate rightly its place and products in the scheme of things. Especially must the Christian be aware and appreciative of man and the mysteries of his being: the human body, feeling and emotion, love and sex, work and play, community and celebration, art and science, the aspirations of the human spirit~and the long-ings of the human heart--all bathed in the light of God's gracious love. Thirdly, the members of Christ's Body need zeal cou-pled with skill for building a better world: By their competence in secular fields and by personal activity, elevated fr6m" within by the grace o[ Christ, let them labor vigorously so that by human labor, technical skill, and civic culture created goods may be perfected for the benefit of every last man. Let them work to see that created goods are more fittingly distributed among men and., in their own way lead to general progress in human and Christian liberty (ibid.). Baptized believers should also "by their combined efforts remedy any institutions and conditions of the world which are customarily inducements to sin, so that all such things may be conformed to the norms of justice and may favor the practice of virtue rather than hinder it" (ibid.). They need to "imbue culture and human activity with moral values" (ibid.). The question now arises: By what means are the mem-bers of Christ's Body going to develop articulate faith, appreciation of the meaning and value of creatures, arid zeal with skill for building a better world? Can weekly liturgies of the word (including homily) and the Eucha-rist accomplish this end? Even supposing the Scriptures are well read, the homilies well prepared and delivered, and the celebration well carried through, weekly liturgies alone hardly seem capable of generating the qualities which Christ's members ought to have to fulfill their apostolic vocation. CCD classes are not going to yield the needed qualities. They are limited in time. They p~vide little sustained interaction between mature Christians and growing ones over a wide spectrum of life. Their very organization fosters the idea of faith as a gegment of life, [,or Which one sets aside a piece of time each week. Finally, they are impeded in effectiveness by the forced and often chaotic conditions under wliich .they operate. Newman Centers too are very limited in what they can do to develop the necessary qualities in the members of Christ's Body beyond a small circle. Courses in "religiqus studies" are far from adequate means. They are by definition uncommitted, objective examination of religion and religions. They are highly intellectual, speculative, whatever existential and subjec-tive use an individual student may make of them. They are also limited in the amount of time given to them and, being a self-cOntained part of a curriculum, they convey the impression that religion also is a self-con-tained part of life, rather than~a dimension of all life. Adult education does not appear to be the solution. The competition for adults' time and attention is ex-tremely intense. Moreover, dae qualities required of a mature Christian should be well developed before he reaches the age at which l~e would enroll in adult educa-tion courses that are more than remedial. The answer is not Catholic newapapers, magazines, and books. People who love and profit from reading are relatively few in our activist culture, and are becoming even fewer in this post-linear age of happenings and tele-vision in the global village. The Church's recourse to happenings and television will not be much more fruitful than literature for achieving the necessary goal. Once people are gathered, happenifigs and television can be extremely effective instructors, but the problem is pre-cisely gathering the people. Unless people are already rather strongly motivated religiously, they are not going to prefer religious happenings and television programs to their secular coi~nterparts. As for parents as the source of the needed Christian maturity, parents are limited in what they Can do for their children. They cannot ,.lead their children to an articulate faith much beyond their own. They will find themselves limited especially when they come to helping their children develop that keen appreciation of the meaning and value of creation which Vatican iI urges for all members of Christ's .Body. Parents may be able to foster such apl~reciation for the simpler things of life, but they may be at a loss in matters of biology, the physical universe, history, poetry, drama, music. Parents' social consciousness and involvement may or may not be very highly developed, and will almost always be limited in 4- 4- 4- Schools VOLUME .'30, "1971 955 + 4. 4. C. Kiesling, O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 956 scope because of family responsibilities and finite human energies. Social services of the Church are not ordered, by defini-tion, to the development of mature Christians, but to relieving the pressing needs which men and women have in their personal and social lives, in order that their lives may meet basic standards of health, decency, dignity, and happiness. It is difficult to imagine any project of the Church which offers the opportunities that schools do for p.ro-viding the members of Christ's Body with the develop-ment of faith, .appreciation of creation, and apostolic zeal and know-how which they need and to which they have a right. Several points are to be noted about this affirma-tion. First, it does not mean that schools alone do the whole job. There is still need for good liturgies, adult educa-tion, and all the rest. Secondly, the schools referred to are not only elementary schools. High schools and colleges are more important. Thirdly, the assertion speaks of schools for providing the needed qualities of articulate faith, appreciation of creation, and apostolic zeal with skill. It does not speak simply of religion courses in schools operated by the Church, though such courses have their rightful place. It is not a matter of the Church going into the education business, so that it can, with ease, slip religion courses into the curriculum. It is, rather, a matter of providing a Christian milieu in which learning to live a full life can Occtlr. Finally, the argument is not based on the actual con-duct or achievements of the Church's schools in the past. Whatever judgment is rendered on the past, the situation has changed so much since Vatican II that the schools of the Church today constitute an entirely new set of oppor-tunities. In recent years new methods of teaching have evolved which make learning boi:h more exciting for students and more in contact with life in society. Lay teachers have become a familiar part of the faculties of the Church's schools. Priests' and religious' styles of life have changed, bringing them into closer contact with ordinary life and with the laity, particularly their students. The ghetto mentality has largely disappeared, so that Church schools are less prone to be instruments of defense and more liable to be openings to the world. The ecumenical spirit enables Protestant, Anglican, and Orthodox Christians, as well as Jews and men of other beliefs, to have some place in the education that goes on in the schools of the Church. Administrators, faculties, and students are more aware of the school's obligations to the civic community in which it exists, All these new [actors mean :that the value of the Church's schools today cannot be judged on the basis of their past conduct and achievements. The opportunities which the schools of the: Church offer do not consist only or even mainly in the possibili-ties for religion courses or religious pract~ices. They con-sist in the possibilities for the young to develop articulate faith, a keen appreciation of creatures, and zeal with com-petence for building a better world by close association in learning and doing with mature Christians who them-selves have such faith, appreciation, and zeal. There is a difference, I would maintain, between what a youth derives from a course in English literature taught with competence and enthusiasm by a Christian whose faith permeates his life, and what he derives from such a course taught by someone else. A course in English litera-ture well taught by a Christian tells a young person that Christianity embraces all of life, that it is willing and able to learn from human experience as well as from revela-tion, that it recognizes the Spirit of God working in the world and speaking to men through human events, per-sonal and social. Besides this non-verbal communication, there can be explicit comparisons between the views of life in English literature and the view of the gospel. These comparisons are opportunities to develop articu-late faith without indoctrination. But even without any explicit mention of Christian faith, this course in English literature is a Christian ministry. As Vaticap II affirmed, Christians should have a deep sense of the meaning and value of all creation. The Church, therefore, has a duty to provide for its members to learn about creation through the arts and sciences illumined by the gospel. It is a precious gift which a Christian teacher gives to a student in patiently helping him to appreciate-a poem, even though faith is not explicitly referred to. If this Christian teacher of English literature is also aware of the world's and ldcal community's problems; if he is involved outside the school in trying to build a better world, if he lets this be known to his students and even involves his students in his social concern outside the classroom, his students will be made aware of another dimension of the Christian vocation and will even gain some knowledge of what they can do concretely to build a better world. If the administrators and teachers in a school of the Church are articulate in their faith, if they treasure God's creatures, if they are socially concerned and involved, if they constitute the nucleus of a genuine, open Christian community into which they assimilate their students, that school offers unparalleled opportu.nities for developing in the members of Chris,t's Body the qualities nece~ssary for + ÷ + Schools VOLUME 30, ].971 957 + 4. + C. Kiesling, O,P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 958 their sharing the mission of the Church to mankind and the world. But, it may be objected, should not such a Christian teacher of English literature or physics or sociology or mathematics be in apublic school? Could he not perform a most valuable Christian ministry there Yes, he could; and such Christian teachers--lay, religious, cleric-- should be in public schools. They would be fulfilling the Church's apostolic mission to the world in a most excel-lent way. But could his pupils derive as much benefit from him in the public school as they could in a school of the Church---or of the Churches, as some would propose in this ecumenical age? In a public school, his pupils could only rarely, and then with the greatest circumspection, explicitly view the subject with the teacher in the light of the gospel. Never could they celebrate their Christian awareness of the subject in worship, liturgical or other, unless they met outside the school and school time. This condition raises the complex problem of finding a con-venient opportunity for such celebration; and it intro-duces a division into the public school community, which could Iead to all sorts of unpleasant complications: More-over, students in a public school would not experience their learning within a known Christian milieu and hence would not see it as part of Christian life and Chris-tian life as embracing it. But is this not the age of anonymous Christianity? Is it necessary for students to examine explicitly a subject in the light of the gospel, to celebrate it in worship, and to see it as part of Christian life and Christian life as em-bracing it? Recourse to the concept of anonymous Christianity is a way Christians have adopted to take the sting out of the widespread de-christianization and secularization that has occurred in modern times. But anonymous Christianity, though a good thing in comparison to being altogether outside the influence of God's grace,'is a humanly imper-fect thing. To be human is to have self-awareness. Man is not only conscious as animals are, but reflectively con-scious; he is aware of himself as animals are not. If man's self is actually graced by God, then his self-awareness should include that fact, otherwise he is not fully self-aware, not fulIy human. Hence it is important, not only for Christian education but for the human education of the Christian, that he see what he learns as part of Chris-tian life and Christian life as embracing it. When one reads carefi~lly the documents of Vatican II in regard to its ideal of what Christian laymen should be in the life and mission of the Church, one cannot help asking how they are ever going to achieve that ideal, and how clergy and religious are going to help them in fulfill- ment of their priestly and religious responsibilities to serve their fellow members in the building up of Christ's Body. What i~ called for is not comprehended under the labels of religious instruction or religious practices. Nor is it adequately described as handing on, preserving, or nourishing Christian faith, What is required is education in the fullest sense of the word, education of the whole man for the whole of life, bnt education with a'Christian quality to it. Of all the Church's projects, its schools offer the most opportunities for such education. With such education, Catholic laymen would exercise their role in the mission of the Church, not by contributing money to a Human Development Fund, of which the hierarchy is the banker, but by becoming involved in human development in the neighborhood, city, state, nation, and the world. This latter is the more authentic fulfillment of the Christian apostolate by which the members of Christ's Body partici-pate in its mission to the world. The schools of the Church will very likely be fewer in number in the future. But they remain unique opportun-ities for building up the Body of Christ for its mission. Abandonment of the struggle to maintain them and, still more important, to exploit their new possibilities under the conditions, which have arisen since Vatican II will grievously set back the emergence of the layman and the mission of the Church to the world. It will promote the tendency of the Church to be identified with the clergy and religious rather than the whole People of God, and to become a club for fellowship in subjective re_ligious experience rather than the leaven in the dough ~of his-tory. Religious' involvement in the schools of the Church remains both~an important and challenging ministry. Schools VOLUME $0, '].97~ 959 SISTER MARY JEANNE SALOIS, R.S.M. Opinions of the Laity on Changes in Religious Life Sister Jeanne is director of research services at the Sis-ters of Mercy Gen-eralate at 10000 Kentsdale Drive, Box 34446; Be-thesda, Maryland 20034. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 960 Literature concerning recent developments in the re-ligious life provide little information on the effects of these developments on the laity. Since the prima.ry pur-pose of adaptation and renewal as stated in the docu-ments of Vatican II is to become more effective in promoting the kingdom of God on earth---"That this kind of life and its contemporary role may achieve greater good for the Church, this sacred Synod issues the following decrees" 1--it should be helpful to know how a section of this kingdom feels about the adaptation they are observing. Such knowledge should contribute sub-stantially to an honest evaluation of the changes being made. This article summarizes the thinking of lay people on adaptation in religious life in seven parishes distributed geographically from the New England coast to mid-western United States. A random sampling of 60 families from each of the parishes listed in Table 1 participated in this study. Treatment o[ the Data: The investigator sent an in-strument entitled "Opinionnaire to Obtain the Lay-man's Assessment of Religious Women in the Church Today" to 420 randomly selected persons. Of these, 220 responded, constituting 53.4 percent returns. Distribu-tion of respondents is shown in Table 2. Eighty-three men and 137 women responded to this opinionnaire. Of these only One was black, the others being white. Age of respondents varied as indicated be-low: 1Walter M. Abbott, S.J., ed., The Documents o[ Vatican II, "Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of the Religious Life," n. 1. Age of Re~#ondent Number in Category Percent 20-29 16 7 30-39 59 27 40-49 77 35 50-59 42 19 60-69 19 9 70- 7 3 Approximately half of the respondeqts attended a Catholic grade and high school and most of them at-tended college. Most of the respondents indicated they were professional or sell-employed with very few saying they were semi or unskilled workers. TABLE :1 Parishes Participating in Study to Obtain Opinions of Laity on Changes being' Made in Religious Congregations Parish* City and State Our Lady of the Assumption St. Joseph Immaculate Heart of Mary Sacred Heart Immaculate Conception St. James Gate of Heaven Atlanta, Georgia Denver, Colorado Detroit, Michigan Hattiesburg, Mississippi Memphis, Tennessee New Bedford, Massachusetts Dallas, Pennsylvania * Parishes were selected at random from the total list of parishes being served I~y a religious congregation of women. TABLE 2 Distribution of Laymen Who Responded to Opinionnaire New Denver, Bedford, Hatties- Dallas, Colorado burg, Atlanta, Detroit, Memphig, Penn~yl, chusettsMassa" Mississippi Georgia Michigan Tennessee vama No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % ~o. % No.! % 17 58.3 26 43.3 41 68.3 28 46.6 37 62.7 36 Findings from Opinionnaire: Items and comments of respondents will be summarized under the three headings on the instrumefit: (1) The individual's personal contacts with sisters, (2) the religious life, and (3) sisters' aposto-lates. Personal Contacts with Religious Sisters Almost three-fourths (72%) of the respondents at-tributed most of the credit for helping them become religious persons to their parents. Twenty-six percent credited the sisters for having provided them with in-spiration, and 9 per cent mentioned the clergy. When asked how much influence for good religious sisters had exerted on them, participants responded as 4. 4- 4. Laity Opinion VOLUME 30, 1971 961 Sister 1eanne REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 962 follows: A mount of Influence Number Percent Very great influence 58 '26 I~reat influenc'e 54 24 Some influence 63 29 A little influence 29 13 No influence 13 6 Thus, 50 percent of respondents indicated that re-ligious sisters had influenced them greatly for good and 29 percent said sisters had influenced them some. Most of the respondents consider sisters friendly and easy to meet (192 or 88%). Nineteen respondents (13%) consider the sisters unaware of people around them, and four persons said they were unfriendly. When asked if they would go to a sister for help if they had some personal religious problem, 106 (48%) said they would go rarely, 71 (32%) said they would never go, and 38 (17%) said they would usually go to a sister for help. Most respondents feel that sisters show respect for them as persons (all do--61%; some do--36%). Ninety percent of respondents indicated that the sisters they have known spend most of their time in the educa-tion of children. Ninety percent are pleased with this effort, 6 percent are indifferent, and 3 percent are un-happy. Most respondents believe that sisters manifest an in-terest in the welfare of people in general (78%), and 18 percent don't know. Two percent said that sisters do not manifest an interest in the welfare of others. When asked to express their thinking on the age distribution of the sisters serving them, 81 respondents (37%) said age is not important, 74 (34%) s.aid the age distribution was about right, 25 (11%) said they did not have enough younger sisters, and 5 (2%) said they did not have enough older sisters. The Religious Life Two-thirds of the respondents believe there is no difference between the religious life and mariage in so far as thei~ comparable merits are concerned. Seventeen percent believe the religious vocation more pleasing to God, and 25 respondents (11%) said they didn't know. One hundred and twenty-five respondents (57%) said they would respond favorably if they had a daughter who wanted to become a religious, 77 (35%) would be neutral, and 15 (7%)would respond unfavorably. Most of the respondents (93%) said the sisters they have known seem to be happy. Respondents were widely distributed in their thinking on the economic level of religious living. One hundred and nine (50%) of the respondents believe that the sisters are living on the same or better economic level than they are. Sixty-nine (31%) believe they are living more comfortably than~ the sisters, and 41 ~(19%) said they don't know. When asked whether the sisters seem more progressive since Vatican 11, 161 (73%) said they were either out-standing or quite progressive. About 10 percent found them too progressive and approximately the same per-centage considered them not progressive at all. Almost three-fourths (70%) of the respondents pre-ferred to see religious women living in a convent espe-cially designed for them. Fourteen percent prefer to see ~them in a middle-class residence near their employment. Only two persons said they prefer to see sisters in a home in a poor neighborhood, and three persons said in an apartment. Thirty-eight respondents (17%) said they didn't care. Fewer than half (44%) of the persons responding in-dicated that they like to see religious dressed in a habit which includes a veil. About one-third (32%) like to see religious in conservative attire which does not include a veil, and 7 percent like to see them in contemporary clothing with accessories identical to lay women. Four-teen percent don't care what religious wear. Two-thirds of the respondents like to see sisters par-ticipating in all parish activities. Twenty-four percent-wish religious to participate in all parish activities ex-cept those which are purely social, such ,as dances. Seventeen respondent,s (8%) prefer that sisters attend only those activities related to the school, such as home-school meetings. Apostolic Services When asked how they would react if the sisters would decide to withdraw entirely from the school in order to do other works in the parish, 72 percent said they would respond unfavorably. Eighteen percent said they would be neutral, and 9 percent said they would respond fa-vorably to such a decision. Respondents .were asked if they thought the sisters should be 'more active in working with the poor. Re-sponses were evenly distributed with 68 (31%)in the affirmative, 70 (32%) in the negative, and 72 (33%)with no opinion on thismatter. Responses to items which attempted to find out which apostolaies seemed most necessary to the laity left no room for doubt. They strongly endorse the Catholic school concept and wish sisters would continue in this endeavor. In response to an item concerning the services they 4- 4- 4" 4" 4. Sister Jeanne REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 964 would prefer sisters provided for them if they were .in need of such services, 68 percent said they wished them to teach children. Other services given some priority by respondents were to administer to the sick in institutions (12%), administer to the sick in homes (5%), and teach adults (4%). Only one percent wish sisters to teach poor children only. Respondents were asked which apostolic works, if any, sisters should discontinue in which they are presently engaged. Each respondent could list three works. Results follow. Campus Ministry on Secular Campus 32 Diocesan services 92 Social work 19 College 16 High School I 1 Elementary school 10 Hospital 9 Religious Education 5 Respondents were asked to list in order of priority the works which they believed sisters should be engaged in at the present time and in the future. The following priorities were established by.averaging the ranks of the 220 respondents. 1. Teaching religion in Catholic school 2. Administrator in Catholic school 3. Teaching secular subjects in Catholic school 4. Teaching in Religious Education Program 5. Administrator of Religious Education Program in parish 6. Serving in Parish Ministry working with families 7. Staff position in health institution 8. Administrator in health institution 9. Social worker in inner city 10. Rehabilitation of drug addicts 11. Serving in Campus Minstry on secular campus 12. Administrator or staff position in public institution Comments of Laity on Adaptation and Rerlewal of Sisters In their comments on the adaptation they are observ-ing in religious communities, participants expressed di-verse opinions, presenting a kaleidoscopic view of re-ligious congregations. Many respondents praised the sisters for some of the changes they are making and for their continued dedication. Some, accustomed as they are to uniformity within religious communities, are using similarity of dress and dutifulness to t~aditional occupations as the criteria for evaluating renewal in religious life. Some are using normal standards of ac-ceptable behavior and are surprised and scandalized at the extremes to which some sisters are going in their new freedom. To the laity, these sisters seem immature and insincere, wanting the best of two worlds. Thus, much of the renewal effort is suspect to some of the laity, both that being made by large groups of sisters attempting to renew sincerely in keeping with the changing needs of the world and by the small group of extremist whose actions the layman is questioning. The comments below are typical of those made by many respondents. I don't think the'sisters are'adapting to the needs of the Church. Some sisters are radical; some are conservative: Some are in habits; some are not. Some are worldly; some are not. They seem to be divided among themselves. Some seem to act as immature young women wanting the best of both worlds. They ~vant the respect due to religious and the fun and entertainment of single women. They are mainly interested in satisfying their own desires. Opinions concerning the habit differed with many respondents reluctantly accepting the demise of" the traditional habit in favor of some lesser form of identifica-tion. Many emphasized the, importance of a religious identity and regret the loss of respect which the habit has always commanded. On careful analysis, responses seem to set forth the .primacy of "habit" over "person" in the thinking of some lay persons. I feel the sisters should have uniform attire~ even if it is a simple colored dresg with a large cross. They are married to God and should be proud of their vocation. They would also command more respect and be more useful, as people would be aware of their vocations and ask for help seeing the gar-ment, not the per.son. It was surprising to see how the laity identify religious with the traditioffal professions to the extent of con-sidering new occupations completely incompatible with the vocation itself. Sisters should either be in the religio~as vocation, or if they want to do soc.ial work they should not do it under the guise of a religious. Religious have pushed into social care areas where .they are not qualified. They have given scandal, betrayed their com-munity life and their origina! vocation. Sisters should work where they can influence and strengthen the faith and morals of young Catholics. Let others care for their social and physical needs. The laity continues to look for the dedicated, hard-working sister wh6 spends her time going from her work to her prayers in the convent where her physical, and social needs are met. They are surprised when they see sisters becoming more like other women in their use of leisure and in the external manifestation of their fem-ininity. They feel that the purpose o[ religious women was + + + Laity Opinion VOLUME 30, 1971 965 ÷ ÷ Sister Jeanne REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 966 and is to stay in the classroom and teach their children, and that to betray this purpose is to betray their calling as religious. Sisters should do what they have done for many years--see to the education of our future citizens. Most of God's work is just that--hard work--and this is probably the main thing I have always admired about the nuns I have known. They were committed and worked hard with little thanks or praise, and I'm sure they were often discour-aged and unsure of their accomplishments. Some of the laity are interpreting the trend to leave the traditional apostolates as a sign of individualism which prompts one to wish to "do her own thing." I find it disturbing that some sisters, when given the op-portunity to work in the world today, become concerned with their own needs or interests under the guise of making money for their order. Since Vatican II, I feel that many nuns are confused and at odds with their own previous commitment. Teaching sisters now seem to feel social work is their bag, nursing nuns feel that teaching would be more appropriate, etc. Confusion stems, I believe, from a lack of the whole spirit we used to know as dedication to God's work. It is being replaced today in all of society by a personal need to do your own thing. A change very pleasing to the laity where it has taken place is the updating observed in methods of teaching and curriculum. They praise the sisters who are more understanding of child nature than they used to be and who are ready to meet the explosion of knowledge which today's children are experiencing. They complain if these changes are not taking place. Unfortunately, older nuns are not adjusting methods, cur-riculum, and themselves personally to many facts, namely,. that today's children know much more in space and science study than is in textbooks and they often know more than the the teacher herself. The teacher's attitude often becomes bel-ligerent rather than pleased that children are this way. Some personal evaluation seems necessary. The older nuns seem to adapt to the needs of the Church. Younger nuns could learn from them. It is no longer a voca-tion to them, it is ajob. Some middle class lay people feel that religious are now prejudiced against them. They argue .that their needs for the services of religious are as great as those of any other segment of society. We who are just ordinary people--working, living, and .dying--also need the help and example of the religious sister in today's world. We feel that what's the use when our lives and struggles are treated with disdain. We don't want to be applauded, but we feel that by living an honest and decent life and ever-striving to do the works of Christ, that we ought to be considered at least as human as the girls who have il-legitimate babies who you would think had won the grand prize for all the attention they are given. In short, love us too, even though we have never broken a law. I believe ~many sisters aye giving up "their 6wn" to work in the inner cities and for social causes. A poor soul is not .Primarily found in a poor person--the person may be rich, middle 'class or ~poor. We should try to help all equally so all can be saved. Another change taking ~place among religious women which is greatly appreciated by the laity is the attitude of considering all persons as equals. They are happy that sisters have come down from their pedestal and no longer seem to expect deference from the laity. The sisters, I believe, are progressing to include all persons with whom they come in contact as equals. I used to. feel the sisters considered themselves.very special and should be looked up to by all. I think they are more aware of people's needs than previ-ously. They are more sensitive and less untouchable. Some have lost self-respect by playing down to the laity too much. Much of the advice given to religious by respondents argued for the maintenance, of balance in the matter of adaptation and warned against extremes. Don't go overboard! Keep attire and sense of misSio~a in line with Catholic beliefs. If the sisters participate in secular affairs, I feel they should remember they are sisters and uphold the traditions and reputation Catholic sisters have always had. General impressions reported by respondents include the following: I get the feeling they are not of the Church but of the world. Instead of giving up things of the world they are acquiring things of the world. Nuns, in general, appear ito be departing from a way of life which identified them as religious, and as a result of ,this proc-ess, society appears tO have less respect for religious orders. I think sisters are doing a fine job. This is a time for all people to join t.ogether and to remember that God is the father of all, not just the white man, Many so-called Christians have forgotten this. General Statements on Opinions of Laity From the many ideas expressed by the laity responding to this opinionnaire, a few generalizations can be stated: There is little evidence at this time that the changing needs of society, for example, the rapid increase of Catholic students on the secular university campus, have penetrated the thinking of: lay people to any great extent. Criteria used by most of the laity for judging sisters remain the. same today as before Vatican II in spite of the shift toward greater personal freedom and more leisure in society as a whole~ However, a few of .the respondents 4- 4- + Laity Opinion VOLUME 30~ 1971 967 Sister Jeanne REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 968 do seem to comprehend rather accurately the reasons for change in religious congregations. A few religious who, in the eyes of the laity, have seemingly lost sight of the meaning of religious vocation are impeding acceptance of the necessary changes large numbers Of religious women are making. There are certain paradoxes in the thinking of the laity concerning religious sisters at present. The laity are happy that sisters consider them as equals, no longer expecting deference; yet they lament the elimination of' external signs, such as the habit, which commands special respect. The laity give major credit to their parents for being the grea.test influence for holiness in their lives; yet they insist that the sisters are essential to growth of holiness in their children. The laity are happy that sisters have stepped down from their pedestal to walk among them; yet they wish to continue admiring them at a distance when they need help in the solution of their personal religious problems. In summary, respect for religious among the laity in this sample has decreased as a result of the changes made by religious congregations since Vatican II. This loss of respect can be attributed to a failure on the part of laymen to understand the reasons basic to change and their failure to recognize new needs in society for the services of religious women. It is also the result of unwise individual choices which some religious are making in their personal lives. The laity need the assistance of sisters if they are to understand the motives for their new behaviors. Perhaps the greatest need of the laity, as well as of religious, is familiarity with social doctrines of the Church and the emphasis given to these doctrines in the documents of Vatican II. Reflections of the Writer Religious congregations are attempting to implement the new emphases of Vatican II. The laity, familiar with the old structure, fail to understand the inevitable re-suits "of implementing such documents as "Declaration on Religious Freedom" from Vatican II, and Mater et Magistra, the encyclical letter of Pope John XXIII. An example of this implementation is the attention religious congregations are now giving to the dignity of the human person. In Mater et Magistra (215) we read, Whatever the progress in technology and economic life, there can be neither justice nor peace in .the world, so long as men fail to realize how great is their dignity; for they have been created by God and are His children. According to the social teachings of the Church, society is at~the, service of the human person to respect his dignity and allow him to attain his end and his full human development: "Society is made for man and not man for society.''2 Plus XII s~aid: "Man is a personal being, endowed.with intelligent& and free will;" ~a~ being who has the final choice of what he will or will not do," s Enhnciating this principle of the dignity of the human person, the ""Document on Religious Freedom" from Vatican II states: God calls men to serve Him in spirit and in truth. Hence they are bound ih consdence but they standunder n0: Com-pulsion. God has rbgard for :the dignity of the human person who.m He himseff created; man is to be guided by his own judgment and he is to enjoy freedom. . In contemplating these teachings concerning the basic freedoms o[ man and applying them to herself, a religious may conclude that she does not relinguish her innate freedom to govern herself when she enters a religious congregation. She believes that she is responsible to God alone for her actions and that she is responsible for keeping these actions in line with the life she has com-mitted herself to live. If this reasoning is correct, obe-dience in religious life needs to find its meaning apart from the responsibility of one person to govern the life of another. If religious growth takes place through responsible choices made freely, each person must be free to choose in matters pertaining to her personal life. In their efforts to implement tile new emphasis on the dignity of the person and_ her freedom of choice, religious congregations are eliminating rules which formerly gov-erned the personal life o[ each member. Remove pro-hibitive rules designed to channel actions according to a certain pattern which all members are exp6cted to observe and they are going to act as do all other members of the human race uniquely and differently. Some per-sons are going to make unwise choices as is true of persons in other walks of life. Freed from rules which prevent extremes, religious women are going to demon-strate their good taste or lack of it in their external appearance, their behavior, their use of leisure, and in their professional activities. But the end of this process is good the coming to being of a religious who is interiorly motivated to govern herself in a manner suited to her commitment as a woman who has dedicated her life to Christ and the service of His kingdom on earth. The new religious will come to r~alize as never before th~it she has been made = Plus XI,'Divini Redemptoris. a Pius xIi, "Allocution to the Sixth International Congress on Criminal Law," October 15, 1954, + Laity Opinion VOLUME 30, 1971 969 Sister Jeanne REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 970 in God's likeness to imitate His perfection, His goodness, and His love and mercy for men. She will realize that sh~ must 'lift herself up to God freely if she wishes to l~articipate with Christ in life eternal, in the divine life of God and of the Blessed Trinity. This is the destiny of all men, the religious included, and all must freely choose to follow this path, for with Christ there is no coercion, no forcing, no want of freedom. Surely every adult' outside of a religious community reaches the period in her life when she is no longer told what to wear and where to go. The fully committed re-ligious woman who has dedicated her life to Christ and to the service of his kingdom on earth should "be equally capable of" exercising her God-given freedom and of assuming the responsibility for her actions and her destiny. Lay people need to understand that they will be observing some evidence of poor taste as religious use the freedom they now have. Poor judgment is not a monopoly of the laity; it can also be expected of religious. Unless the formation period in the life of young re-ligious provides an understanding of how the gospel message is translated into daily living as a religious, sisters cannot be expected to make decisions in keeping with their form of life. In their uncertainty regarding the preparation which best prepares individual religious to exercise greater freedom, some congregations are ab-dicating their responsibility fbr the formation of young religious. To supose that new members who have not developed an understanding of the religious life will make personal decisions in keeping with it is a rash assumption. If religious congregations are to make wise choices. during this period of renewal and adaptation, they must take time to study the past and realize Gully the import of char~ge on the present and future. Unless changes are in line with the purposes for which the congregation was formed in the first place, the congregation will give way to a new entity or disintegrate completely. In-dividual members of apostolic religious congregations in the past realized their service of Christ in His Church through service of the congregation whose corporate end was this divine service. Today, many religious see them-selves as groups of dedicated individual members with a diversity of tasks. If religious retain the apostolic dimension of their original commitment, the transfer from corporate to individual commitment may be a change of means rather than ends. However, if the apostolic dimension of one's service is lost, the primary purpose of apostolic religious congregations in the Church no longer exists. When no unifying purpose is present, organizational structure becomes meaningless. It has been the purpose of this study to provide some insight on the reaction of the laity to observed change in religious congregations in the year 1971, Hopefully, the opinions expressed in this report will be.helpful to religious congregations as they chart their c0urse'for the future. + 4- 4- Laity Opinion VOLUME ~0, 1971 97! SISTER MARY JOHN MANANZAN, O.S.B. Must I Love You for God's Sake? ÷ ÷ .I. Sister John is a graduate student of the Gregorian Uni-versity and resides at Via dei Bevilac-qua, 60; Rome, Italy (00165). REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 972 Read the title without a pause and with the correct intonation lest you miss the point of this article, it is not an exasperated exclamation like "Must I put up with you, for heaven's sake?" The article concerns itself rather with the question whether we should love others "for the sake of God." This phrase has been so misinterpreted in the past and still also in the present that the word "char-ity" has fallen into disrepute or at least it has acqui~?ed a cold, antiseptic atmosphere. People say "I don't want your charity"--"I will not be an object of charity." In the stu-dent house where I lived while I was studying in Ger-many, the girls were very wary of "nuns" doing things for charity. Once an Idonesian girl living in another house got sick. A German friend of mine announced her inten-tion of driving over. I spontanously exclaimed: "I'11 go with you." She looked at me and cautiously asked: "Are you doing it for charity?" The reason for such wariness is that doing things for charity or for God's sake is taken to mean something like: "Actually you are a nasty fellow and for yourself I wouldn't lift a finger. But I am doing this because I see Christ in you." I don't tbink for a moment that Christ is at all pleased with such pious prattle. And the person concerned rightly feels himself an "object" of charity--a means to some altruistic, humanitarian or still worse to a spiritual ideal. C. S. Lewis in his delightful book Four Loves gives a punchy example of an "unselfish . self-sac-rificing" mother who "just lived for her family." In a remarkable self-deception she literally worked herself to the bone for them but actually what she managed to do was to suffocate each member of her family, because she did not actually see them as persons and did not really consider their real needs; She looked through them to work for her image of being an ideal mother. She used them as means to fulfill her need to be needed. In a similar manner "loving others for God's sake" has some-how taken on the meaning of disregarding the individual person. On this point one can learn a great deal from Kant who has been accused of having never written a word on love. But he actually offers a very solid foundation for what we call "love of neighbor" in his famous (infa-mous?) categorical imperative. This principle has also suffered a very one-sided treatment. The frequently cited formulation is the one that approximates the Golden Rule wearing a grim duty-conscious facial expression. A less quoted formulation however reads: "Act in such a way as to treat humanity whether in yourself or in others never only as a means but always also as an end/' Kant's moral theory is based on the absolute valuation of the person. A person is for him an autonomous subject. He alone possesses the dignity to be happy (Wtirdigkeit, glficklich zu sein). For this reason, a person may never be regarded only as a means but should be willed as a good-in- himself. This absolute valuation of a person manifests itself first and foremost in doing one's duty towards him. Again on this point Kant is frequently misinterpreted. No less than the great German poet Schiller is guilty of this shallow interpretation of Kant when he writes: Gladly I serve my friends but alas I do it with pleasure Hence I am plagued with doubt that I am not a virtuous person. This is answered by a similarly poor interpretation of Kant and a worse poetry: Sure your only recourse is to despise them entirely And then with aversion do what your duty enjoins you. Kant did not mean at all that interest and affection would detract from the moral worth of an action. His term "duty" is a limiting term. It simply isolates the factor which accounts in the last analysis for the moral worth of an action. But once this is ascertained, one can embellish one's action with all the affection one is capa-ble of. I think it is important that Kant makes this em-phasis. There are really people who lavish their affection here and there and everywhere but neglect their elemen-tary duty towards these same persons. It is this forgetfhl-ness of Kant which is responsible for the benevolent tyr-anny in many lands suffering from social injustice, where the rich landlords or employers give to their exploited laborers "in charity" what they owe them in justice. The elementary duty of "love of neighbor" is thus to take the person as an'end in himself and never a means for anyone or anything. Truly? Not even for God? No, not even. God needs no means. He is His own End. He ÷ ÷ Love VOLUME 30, 1971 973 doesn't rely on any means to reach it. What then does loving others "for God's sake" mean? If it means anything at all, it means: one must take the other in his totality. Man is essentially a relation. A per-son is most a person in his relation to God. One can give him absolute value because he has already been radically affirmed by an absolute Person, He is worthy to be loved because he has already been radically loved. One can therefore love him for his own sake if one regards him in the totality of his being rooted in God. But the totality of man also means his being an individual distinct person. Therefore "love of neighbor" means taking this concrete person beside me for what he is and loving him with all his quirks. I think it is one of the characters of Peanuts who said: "I love humanity; It is people that I cannot stand." To love another is to see him. It is to love him "interestedly." "Disinterested love" is no love. It is too pretentious. It is being in love with one's perfectly selfless way of loving. This is the reason why I think foreign aid to developing countries miserably fails in arousing the gratitude of the people it helps. It is literally disinter-ested. There is no interest in the people as persons. No wonder they feel insulted and are resentful. They do not feel loved--they feel that they are objects of love. The same is true in individual relationships. One wants to be loved,' becau'se one is lovable. A boy who tells a girl "I love you, because of your pug nose" is not necessarily being superficial. Maybe he grasps the point of love better than if he were to enumerate the noblest .motives in the world. I think the art of loving is to find something very concrete .in someone (be it a pug nose, a crooked smile, a naughty left eyebrow--whatever it is. There is one in every person aching to be discovered!), to discover this recapitulation of his personality and in this burning focal point of his being, to love him intensely. 4- + Sister John REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 974 TENNANT C. WRIGHT, s.J. A Note on Poverty This is simply a report on a mode of poverty lived at one Jesuit house in Mexico City. The report is drawn from a conversation with several members of the commu-nity there, including the Father Minister who was influ-ential in setting up the program and helps with its ad-ministration. The program seems particularly enlightening at this moment when there is such discussion of poverty and how it fits with a religious' psychological need to feel economically productive and responsible. The Mexican community is made up of Jesuits who receive a salary at one of the Universities (non-Jesuit) in Mexico City. The salary i.s paid by the University directly to the individual Jesuit~ It is turned over by the Jesuit to the community. The community treasury, derived from the salaries, is then divided into three parts: First, there is a common fund for the community, out of which comes such general expenseg as house upkeep, and the room and board of the Jesuits living there. Second, there is a monthly personal amount returned to each Jesuit, an equal amount to each, no matter what his salary from the University. Out of the monthly "allowance" the Jesuit is expected to take care of his or-dinary personal items, such as clothes, recreation, the or-dinary personal necessities of his study and work, his ordinary travel. Third, there is a fund retained by the community for emergencies. As I understand it, the emergencies are gen-erally of two types, each handled differently. There is that personal emergency which arises from the unexpected, for example, an accident, a particularly large medical bill. Such personal emergency expenses are met by the community in a direct payment (not a loan) out of this emergency fund. But this third fund also covers those personal but more expensive items needed by some but not all. For instance, if one of the Jesuits in the course of his work needs some particularly expensive equipment or books or a car, then the community lends to this Jesuit the money to buy the T. C. Wright is a faculty member of the University of Santa Clara; Santa Clara, California 95053. VOLUME .30, 1971 975 special item. The loan is made without interest, but it is gradually paid back to the community out of the individo ual's monthly allowance. This question of loans to the individual for special expenses is crucial. The Mexican community is clear that this is not a case of dominion, of true ownership. Rather it is a more sophisticated way of responsible use. The special item is only purchased after consultation with the superior. The ultimate decision remains with the supe-rior. Although the item is used with the responsible dis-cretion of the individual, when and if his need for it is no longer present it is sold and the money returned to the community fund. Although this three-fold scheme of community use of [unds seems simple and clear in presentation, Father Minister and other members of the Mexican Jesuit com-munity emphasized that the implementation of this mode of poverty has more difficulties and is more complex than its simple outline indicates. 4- 4- 4- T. C. Wright REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 976 W. L. L~CROIX,.S.J. The New Property" and the of PovertY In the past ten years there has taken place a consider-able change in the attitudes of many vowed to the reli-gious life with respect to their "having" material goods. At times, this change in attitude has been reflected by attempts to patch the tearsin earlier lived interpretations of the vow of poverty by talk of a "vow of common life," or something of the sort. By these patchwork efforts, peo-ple have tried to bring within a reflective understanding of the vow such new lived interpretations of poverty that permit individuals to have exclusive control over many more material items (from transistor radios to individual vacations) than were ever previously found acceptable. In this brief essay, I would like to suggest that these efforts are of secondary consequence. I submit that there is a much more pressing problem for the practice of vowed poverty in contemporary America. This more pressing problem emerges from the recent, qualitative leap taken in the lived interpreta)ion of property. If the vow of poverty at all concerns some deliberate taking up of a life style that is designated by its extraordi-nary attitude toward property (this does seem to be the "matter" of the vow), then it is of major importance to talk about that which a political economist might call today the "new property." This concept is both simple and subtle, so let me briefly try to present what lines of thought are involved, and then appraige the implications of "new property" for what I will call the positive "thrust" of the vow of poverty. The "'New Property" Property may be described as a socially acknowledged relation that a person has to what is considered, in the broadest sense, an item of value. Now what is considered of value (except for subsistence in food, clothing, shelter) is to a great extent determined by the concrete attitudes W. L. LaCroix, S.J., is a faculty member of Rock-burst College; 5225 Troost Avenue; Kansas City, Mis-souri 64110. VOLUME 3~0, 1971 ÷ ÷ ÷ W. L. LaCroix REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 978 within a cultural milieu. And what are the manifold ways in which, ordinarily understood, one may acquire rela-tion to items of value are familiar to us all. And so we have our ordinary image of what we talk about when we use the term "property." But this imagining is so easy only because so few have done serious reflection on some significant socio-economic developments of the last fifty years. Many people today. continue to be undisturbedly at ease with talk about property exclusively under the rubric of the individual's possession, use, and control of "permanent" and fixed (real property) or of manipulable or consumable items of value (personal property). In fact, however, with the growth of a corporate society in America, some are able to argue convincingly that this familiar rubric of prop-erty has become at least partially obsolete, and that the part where it is obsolete is the more important part. One major indication of the need for a new rubric is that, in, our society heavily toned by business relation-ships, political economists and businessmen now are will-ing to say that, for most of the large business corporations, there are capital investors, there are top and middle man-agers, there are employees, customers, unions, the govern-ment, and the society at large that are related to the corporate organization, but there are no owners. That is, there are none except the impersonal (albeit legal) entity of the corporation itself. Certainly one reason here is that the business corporation is no longer an item compassa-ble by any individual who might attempt personally to organize and control it, that is, to "possess" it, to have it as private property. This growth to bigr~ess is one that has moved not only vertically in the size of an individual corporation, but hlso horizontally to interlace organizations of diverse kinds into one corporate society. Qualitative alterations have taken place in how and by whom social relation-ships are determined within the individual private orga-nization, in the relations between the individual private organizat~ions, and between these organizations, govern-mental bodies, and the social community itself. Corpora-tional businesses today act less with attention to the com-petitive market and more with attention to a mutual self-interest of the leading businesses, or even at times with a mixture of this and "public interest." Government does not hesitate to curtail initiative from a "private" firm for the sake of "public interest," or, conversely, to subsi-dize private sector business for the "public interest," or to contract out to business and to educational institutions some "public interest" undertaking. Educational institu-tions concern themselves with good relations with the business community and government for financial assist- ance; and with accreditation agencies for professional prestige. In a society composed of such interlaced organ~izations, the sharp distinctions between the public and the private sectors of activities have faded (I will suggest a test for this further on), and all members of society have been drawn into new and manifold relations to all the organi-zations. This means that those items of value, or wealth, which the individual can have as "private property" have become secondary in social significance. From Locke to World War I in Anglo-American thought these items have been the key to civic freedom, self-identity, and individual capacity to initiate effects in society. Now the socio-economic fi'eedom, identity, and initiative--in one word, the social power---of the private property holder are minimal. As a society we have entered an era where the initiative comes from organizations which act for or-ganizational or for "public" interest. And the "public" interest today means .less and less each individual's inter-ests and more and more only organized interests~ As part of a growing consensus on the relations of persons to new items of value today, A. A. Berle, Jr., has spoken of the divorce from older property of the socio-ec-onomic power to make determinations in society. He terms this the distinction between "individual possessory holdings" and "power systems." What is at stake here :is not merely the separation of ownership from socio-eco-nomic control, but the "increasing elimination of pro-prietary ownership itself and its replacement by, substan-tially, a power system." Charles A. Reich has spoken of the new form of wealth which one obtains in a corporational social structure through the relationships one has to various organiza-tions. These relationships gain for one a place in the interlaced socio-economic system of organizations. The new marriage of wealth and power is a union within the blood line of the power structure itself, for the wealth is itself new power. One has this new wealth of socio-eco-nomic place, or power status, in so far as one has actively functional relations to the power systems. As active within the power systems, one individually has the socio-economic power without the need of property in the tra-ditional sense of individual possessory holdings, One only needs to obtain a place, a status in the power systems. To clarify how this change brings in new dimensions in the question of poverty, let me develop briefly how one acquires this power, what the power is, why it is special today, and whether it is legitimate. ~ (How acquired) One enters a place of power not by ownership, but by the possession of whatever credentials the people presently with an active function in an organi- 4- "New Property" VOLUME 30, 1971 979 ÷ ÷ ÷ W. L. LaCroix REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 980 zation designate as required. They in turn designate what matters are required in response to the organization's demand in view of~ its present strength and future fate in the interlaced system. These admission credentials are supposed to, and often do, signify the possession of some expertise, some "know how" in terms of the functions and goals of the organization. One's relations to active power status in an organiza-tion is always conditional. It is forever a trial marriage and lasts only as long as the person's power decisions make things function well for the organizational system. In turn, one is subject to those interchanges of power which constitute the organization to which he belongs directly, and to those interchanges of power by which his organization is interlaced within the American corporate system. One is tied to his organization's fate, which itself is precarious, by one's personal credentials, which are constantly under test. For brevity~s sake, let us call one's conditional relations to this new wealth of power status the "new property" (even though I have modified Reich's use of the phrase). Some kind of status in a community or in a private orga-nization, of course, is nothing new. But the status now at point is no longer simply a social by-product of possessory holdings, ancestry; or profession. The new status is a place of socio-economic power within active organiza-tional power. (What is power) As Berle has noted, we are still philo-sophically immature in reflections on power. For our pur-poses here, let us be satisfied with a simple concept: power allows the wielder to initiate decisions on the transmission, use, and determinations of socio-economic assets for the lives of persons. One who holds power has a "scope of significant choice" (Carl Kaysen) open to his decisions within a corporational social structure that widely and significantly affect the determinations of how one himself and others experience and express human values. Today we have large social and economic organi-zations which depend upon and which generate power to their members. These organizations are managed by non-owners whose decisions and instructions, by the mecha-nism of the organization, are made causative at distant points of application, both inside and outside the indi-vidual organization. Normally one distinguishes "power to do things" and "power over persons," but this distinction often is only in the relative immediacy of the results of power's exercise. And the exercise of "power over" brings a reduction for those affected in the range of personal alternatives in socio-economic activities, and an increase in dependence on the power's exercise. (Why special) As society's organizations become more complex, they become more interlaced and thereby more counterbalanced in their scope of initiative action. This primordial counterbalance, however, is less in terms o~ conflict and more in terms of agreement. As a result, as organizations grow to need each other, they become less counterbalanced in the consequent effects o~ their actions in the public arena. This is an important point. It any-one subject to a function of organizational power is still ultimately free to disassociate himself from .the power, with some but with no drastic repercussions in his total li~e style, then the "power over" that person may be said to be private. Sucb a freedom of the one subjected to private "power over" presupposes other, significantly dis-tinct sources of "power to do" things which produce real options for the one subject to the power system at hand. But if the disassociation, if possible at all, from one power would at best only bring about the substitution o[ tbe one by another qualitatively the same source of 'power over," then the "power over" may be said to be public. From this test of the distinction of the public and tbe private sector o[ society, one sees that the real c~runch of the "new property" power is that, more and more, its consequent effects can no longer be balanced out by deci-sions made by others with power. It is so far forth public. Power status is thus one's place in the organizationally active determination of the quality of people's lives. As holders of "new property," individuals exercise the resultant social power to determine some relations that others will have to the organization or to its products, and thereby to the corporateI society. With an ethical vocabulary based on the old p, roperty rubrics, many sta-tus power people still speak ofI these determinations they bring about in tbe lives of ot[~ers only in terms of privi-leges or options, and not in terms of rights and basic human values. They thereby presume that to deny a rela-tion to the orgamzat~on or to deny a cr~uc~sm of its products is merely to deny a lprivilege or to deny tbe immediate value of certain options. There is no wonder that umvers~t~es, for example, st~ll ~ns~st that students are there not by right but by privilege. When orgamzauons were private, such talk was movie acceptable ethically. But today, when org~inizations both decide upon and, in their interlaced stance, supply thos~ credentials which deter-mine a person in the roles he b~ts in tbe corporate society, the subject's relation to them i~ now public and nearly or completely in the area~of rigltts. We are less and less a society o~ persons who receive entrance into "private" organizations by privilege or lwho use the products of organizations by option. Simp,ly stated, the "new prop-÷ ÷ ÷ "New Property" VOLUME 30, 1973. 981 ÷ ÷ ÷ W. L. LaCroix REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 982 erty" gives not only "power to do," but, more signifi-cantly for human and Christian values, direct "power over" persons. " (How legitimate) Such "power over" persons requires justification. One must question such power that can "make things happen" in respect to basic values in a society and ask if it is legitimate. The question is raised today for non-owned economic organizations and is espe-cially vital for all organizations which by the interlacing of society have had their power effects take on the "pub-lic" quality noted above. Power is a fact, but the persons concerned can ask for the rights to its possession and to its use. By "legitimate" I signify that there are good answers in terms of human values to the questions "How come such and such has power" and "For what purpose does such and such have power." Such questions ask for standards by which to judge the possession and use of power which are extra-neous to the power itself. In a society of fre6 persons, power can legitimately be obtained and legitimately be used only under the aegis of some expression of "public consensus." Berle has sug-gested two phases in any legitimization. (1) People get control, within an organization's power mechanism by some inner organizational ritual established by the orga-nization and accepted at least passively by the public consensus. (2) Such people use socio-economic power le-gitimately if the organizati6n has a [unction to perform within the values of the full society which is acknowl-edged by consensus, and if their use of the power is appropriate to that function. (Of course, few such func-tions are well-defined, but public consensus has positive though vague ideals here of what is acceptable.) Let us stipulate that, ambiguous as it is, power over persons can be legitimate. And let us for convenience designate anybne with legitimate power over persons in our corporate society as one who has "authority," but let us call such authority in the socio-economic structure "authority (P)." By this authority (P) ~ person rightfully can affect others in societal relationships by making things happen [or them, and thus can determine them in respect to some of the values in their lives. Given that individuals are persons, non-counterbal-anced power to affect their lives will be legitimate ulti-mately only if it positively contributes to their develop-ment as individual and as social persons. In our corporately interlaced society, this legitimacy will imply that those who have power will be accountable to all per-sons whose lives the exercise of the power affects. In summary, then, the argument is that today "new property" is identified with the exercise of "power over" in the socio-economic field, d one's "power over" activ-ities, one's authority (P),g ~"ves one's social identity and one's social initiative.°Keep in]mind that, in a true sense, one need not "own" anything [in order to have this "new property." " [ I do not wish to argue here that the concept of "new property" is accurate. This h~s been done forcefully by the political economists. All I need is this brief and un-doubtedly inadequate overview in order to ask for Some reflection on the relation of ~his advent of "new prop-erty" to the vow of poverty in ~eligious life. / The Vow ol Poverty In every activity within the[ corporate society, ,persons make and express their selves as they transact with other persons. Thus each one in deeds gives answers to those questions which are either exp!icitly or at least implicitly in every personal encounter: "~Who are you?" and "What do you mean for me?" ,, The social power that is theI new property' makes one respond in terms of status and function: "I am one who has tlus place m the social sttqucture and "I determine these values for you." Let me at once contrast withlthese responses what I call the positive thrust of the vow of poverty and suggest that tt ~s that wluch would permit one to respond: I am the human being Ch~'ist has made !me, are you such a human being, too?" On~ thereby expresses the message and the challenge of the Good News by one's very life style itself. Usually in activities we express a functional connection between some parts of ourselves and some parts of the supporting socio-economic system. We are teachers, pro-fessors, administrators at such and such an educational institution; we are experts and on such and such commit-tees; we have such ahd such training, such and such de-grees, such and such publications to our credit; thereby we are in such and such relationships to this organization within the complex of interlaced organizations. That is "who we are." By this part-function'ality we conceptually merge a re-sponse to "Who are you" with the response to "What do you do?" or even more broadly "How do you fit into the socio-economic system?" Thus when .asked "Who are you?" or when we ask of others "Who is that?" we really change the meaning of the question in,our minds and then employ functional categories "to handle" other per-sons in our thoughts and to have identification as we are "handled" in the thoughts of others. (We must be taught to do this: a little girl at the border, when asked if.she was an American, replied, "No, my daddy is an Ameri-can. I'm a girl.") 4- 4- + "New Property" VOLUME 30, 1971 983 ÷ ÷ ÷ W. L. LaCroix REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 984 Generally then, and perhaps more especially in a "new property" milieu, one's functional roles in the corporate society determine one's self identity. And this identity is more and more dependent upon the fate of one's immedi-ate organization within the corporate society, and upon. one's acceptance by functional peers and one's perform-ance among functional inferiors. Thus the primary con-cern of the person with "new property" must be organiza-tional. This is antithetical to the thrust of vowed poverty. A second, equally significant factor from "new prop-erty," the socio-economic power endemic to organiza-tional place also jabs at the thrust of vowed poverty. One with "new property" determines the lives of others Jor them because, as functional within and dependent upon socio-economic power, one exercises "power over" per-sons. Those who consider the vow of poverty as significant for Christian religious life can no longer ignore the con-tradiction that occurs when one points only to one's "min-imal individual possessory holdings" and Overlooks one's "new property" holdings. Since many religious in the United States are in education, let us use an example from this organizational area to put the problem strik-ingly. Let us ask: Can one who has a vow of poverty act consistently if he becomes the president of a uniyersity? Even if he lives a most frugal and Spartan private life, one stripped of all but the immediately necessary mate-rial items, can he in deeds live the thrust of the vow of poverty, since 'he has willy-nilly status wealth in the pub-lic socio-economic system and acts constantly with "power over" persons? Can he express the message and challenge ¯ of the Good News in any continuous form coming from his life style itself if he so connects himself with the interlaced set of organizations whose basis is a power to determine for other persons items basic to their values in life? The same questions can be put to the tenured profes, sor, the high .school principal, and so on. Perhaps a test for an opposition to vowed poverty would be: Do the respect and consideration one has from peers and inferi-ors in societal transactions come primarily from one's "new property" functions or not? Some have argued that poverty does not mean the neg-ative "not using material items of value," but rather the positive "sharing of the effects and experiences resultant from any possession and use with the concrete religious community." These values are one's talents, the experi-ences of one's apostolate, as well as the gifts one receives, one's former individual possessory holdings, and so forth. Thus they might argue that one can also use the "new property" consistently without effect on poverty in reli-gious life. I suspect that such an argument misses the qualitative newness of the "new property.~" It also un~terplays the positive thrust in the rentmciation of the old property, suggested in this section's opening. I will stipulate that some of the inward thrust of pov-erty may be in terms of mutual sharing with the commu-nity. But the vow must be ultimately for the life of the Good News in the mission of the whole Christian com-munity. It cannot have for its final term the limited reli-gious community: And ~he outward thrust (and part of the inward thrust itself) of poverty is precisely so that one can respond to contact with others as a (Christian) human person and challenge the others also to be (Chris-tian) human persons. Poverty has been an attempt to remove those identification handles which passively ob-struct the transmission of the Good News which chal-lenges others to be in, deeds what Christ has made them. Perhaps more importantly in our time and place, poverty seeks to remove that public power which actively ob-structs others from determining for themselves their free response to the challenge of the Good News. This mission of the Good News one legitimately .ob-tains and legitimately exercises by the action of the Trin-ity in human history. Let us for convenience designate anyone with the legitimate mission to challenge others with the Good News as one who has Christian authority, but let us call this challenging authority "authority (C)." By this authority (C), a person in encounter~ can legiti-mately challenge others to be consistent with themselves as individual and social persons, but the challenger has no power to determine the others in respect to their values as human persons, because the thrust of one's Christian mission is to leave the others confronted with the Gospel challenge but free to determine themselves, As there is authority (P) which is legitimate power to challenge others by determining to some extent human values for them, so here there is authority (C) ~hich is the mission to transmit a legitimate challenge but with-out any power to determine for the one c.hallenged. Those who live a vow of poverty would seem to want to specialize in ~some continuity of deeds and life style in this Christian authority (C). Of course, it is not impossible for one tO have status property and to exercise the consequent determining power and still,, in addition, to transmit by authority (C) the challenge of the Good News. Christians who do not vow poverty do it every day. But they do not attempt to specialize in a continuity of deeds .which emphasize au-thority (C). 4- "New Property" VOLUME 30, 1971 985 ÷ ÷ W, L, LaCroix REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 986 Some would argue that those with the vow of. poverty also can utilize the "new property" and its logically con-seqt~ ent authority (P) as a means in their life style. They argue that religious do not rest in this "new property" but can have it and remain true to the thrust of the vow because, for example, they use the "new property" to make professional contacts vital to the universalization of the Good News. Let us reflect here not on the strengths of such a defense, and there are some, bnt on its weaknesses. A. Some would say that religious need the status, which is the wealth of the "new property," in order to contact the important people in a society organized around power status on their own level. From the "new prop-erty" gained by administrative, academic, or other cre-dentials, religious can contact the organizational profes-sions of the clay and influence them. But do religious as status members speak to others as trans-status human beings or as co,possessors of power status? Do religious who contact as holders of "new property" contact the whole person and challenge the other with authority (C)? Must religious not necessarily, if they are fellow "new property" holders, speak to others pronouncedly as fun-damental co-members who are equally bound to the power and th'e fate of the structure in dominance in today's corporate society? Remember, unlike the old property, one never "owns" the "new property;" One is always conditionally and precariously subject to the orga-nizations which generate the active power place. One keeps the p.lace only by somehow contibnting actively to a successful exercise of socio-economic "power to do" and "power over." B. Why was not a parallel argument valid for religious to have the "old" property? If it was not valid, what value did Christians place on the vow of poverty in the past that made it so? Was it simply the release from worry over those things which other people must daily worry about? Certainly not. Christians held [or some rea-son that religious vowed to poverty could give a special continuity to the use of authority (C) lrom the very form their life style gave to all their activities. Religious could give this special continuity to the use of authority (C) if they were not the equals of others as holders of individ-ual possessory property, if they encountered the others not in a role of co-wielders of social power from that property, but radically as persons unconnected with a social function category. Can this thrust be realized if religious with a vow of poverty are equal co-holders of social economic public power from the "new property" of today? It is not easy to answer this with a simple "no." Many seem successful in their mission with the Good News to challenge others t(; be "the persons Christ has made them even though these present challengers, vowed religious, or lay Christians, are co-holders with the chall~n~ged of the "new property." X~'hether such success is limited to this period of transi-tion, wherein few are fully .aware of the i.mplicationS of "new property," is a good question. But whether even such success continues to make a religious vow of poverty meaningful is a better one~ ÷ ÷ ÷ "New Property" VOLUME 30, 1971 987 ROBERT OCHS, S.J. Experiments for Closing the Experience Gap in Prayer ÷ ÷ ÷ Robert Ochs is a faculty member of Bellarmine School of Theology; 5't30 South University Avenue; Chicago, Il-linois fi5615. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 988 "Speaking exactly as one friend speaks to another"- these are the words with which Ignatius Loyola character-izes what he calls "colloquies," conversations with the Father, Christ, or Mary which conclude so many of the exercises which make up his Spiritual Exercises. This prayer of conversation, explicitly evoking a personal part-ner, is not the whole of prayer. To try to make it such, to focus on the divine Thou in all our prayer, is a strain which can cut us off from other avenues of divine contact. Trying to force all prayer irito a conversational mold can even short-circuit what it intends to further, by making us hurry past the "impersonal" world of divine power and energy, fire and spirit, not to mention Silence and nothingness. Yet to turn our back on it would be to lose a vital dimension of religious experience. Prayer as conversation, dialogue, or encounter with God has recently become much harder for increasing numbers of Christians, as they have rediscovered God both as transcendent mystery and as immanent Spirit. But, I submit, neither our new awareness of God's tran-scendence or of his immanence is the real cause of our inability to meet God in a face to face encounter. For some reason we are not bold enough, or realistic and imaginative enough, in our use of dialogal prayer. Prayer of colloquy is not nearly "colloquial" enough. Speaking with God "exactly as one friend to another," as Ignatius flatly states it, has yet to be really explored, partly out of a misplaced fear of anthropomorphism, partly because our personal relationships themselves have become so bland that we have forgotten exactly how intimate friends do speak to one another. (I sometimes feel Dr, George Bach's paperback, The Intimate Enemy: How to Fight Fair in Love and Marriage, would be a better aid to prayer nowadays than many books directly on prayer,) Underlying our lack of imagination is a peculiar mind set of ours which renders any boldness in encountering God all but impossible. Until we alter this mind set about where and how God is encountered, about the mediurn of any encounter with God, any modeling of our encounter with God on the model of human encounters will look merely like improved make-believe. The Spiritual Exercises speak a great deal about this medium, what Ignatius calls creatures or .simply "all things." Early in the text~ the so-called "Principle and Foundation" insists on "indifference" to things, using them "in as far as" they help find God. And toward the end, the "Contemplation to Attain Love" reminds us that love manifests itself in deeds and consists in a mutual sharing of goods. Between these two exercises, which span the whole Ignatian retreat, the effort is to make things a vehicle of mutual communication instead .of an obstacle, to make them a locus of encounter and matter for shar-ing. As an introductory school of prayer the Exercises teach us to find God in all things, so that things become the means of exchange for dialogue. The whole effort to encounter God involves us therefore in a vast transforma-tion of our view of things. All this sounds terribly obvious. And yet the shift in point of view we are called on to effect in ourselves is enormous, and if we could do it we could pray. The effort involves, for a Christian who supposedly "already believes in God" but does not yet really live in faith, the overcoming of an attitude about God and things which is perhaps the great obsta_cle to encounter with God in our lives, an attitude I Choose to call Deism. Deism sounds at first a harmless enough term, and that is partly why I have chosen it. Giving a harmless name to what one feels is The Great Obstacle has the advantage that it opens us to look for the obstacle to prayer within ourselves and our own pale Christianity. For much that goes by the name of Christianity is no more than Deism, and Deism is as far removed from Christian faith as ag-nosticism or atheism. At any rate, Deism stands along with agnosticism and atheism on the opposite side of the line dividing belief from unbelief. And it is perhaps more dangerous than those two, because it apes Christianity and obscures it own lack of faith. After all, is it not at least theistic, admitting the existence of God? But it ad-mits a God with whom one does not deal, an inaccessibld God with whom one does not argue or wrestle. From the viewpoint of faith the Deist is worse off than the atheist who seeks an accessible God but cannot find him. It is not true that believing in a Deistic God is better than + ÷ ÷o VOLUME 30, 1971 989 ÷ ÷ ÷ Robert Ochs REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 990 believing in none at all, because to believe in a God who does not enter into intimate relationships with men im-plies giving him certain personal attributes opposed to such relationships, making him aloof, arbitrary, uncon-cerned. While faith says He is our Father. Deism is far from harmless. It is religion without reli-gious experience, religion without encounter and without prayer. It declares God inaccessible. It views the world of things precisely as providing no access to God. It would be profitable to read Ignatius' "Contemplation to Attain Love" as an overcoming of Deism, seeing God dwelling in creatures, "conducting Himself as one who labors" for us in all creatures on the face of the earth. The "Contempla-tion" is the effort to see deeds as potential manifestations of 10ve and all goods as material for mutual sharing. I somewhat regret having to use the term Deism, be-cause it sounds too exclusively associated with the ages of' enlightenment and rationalism. What I mean by it is less a theological position than a state of mind, one which is still very much with us. Deism is a whole sensibility impeding our prayer. One could almost define it as the opposite of finding God in all things, as finding things and supposedly finding God, but not putting these two together except in an awkward juxtaposition. It is what modern thinkers are trying to overcome when they talk of transcendence in immanence and of encountering God in the world. We are Deists when we find God in religion and' not in secular things, and when we admit that reli-gion is more important but more boring than life. We are Deists in our inability to talk about God without using pale language divorced from life, language made more and not less abstract when it becomes pious. We are Deists when we live out our own human growth Odyssey without relation to our spiritual Odyssey. These are old accusations. We are no doubt overfami-liar with these aspects of our Deism. Accordingly, in the following pages I propose taking a look at certain things in which we are not used to finding God. We do not look for God in these things because we think He is already there. We are already aware of the problem of finding God in matter, in the secular, in the ugly. But the things I want to look into with the reader are, briefly, the will of God, our thoughts (especially our religious thoughts), and our images of God and ourselves as we engage God in dialogue. If we looked more for God in these things, .we would be much more able to pray. The best way to take this look is not by direct description, but by watch-ing our spontaneous reactions provoked by certain thought experiments. This way we can uncover the var-ious Deistic mind sets we are caught up in. We should not be surprised by this procedure. The Exercises them- selves proceed often in this same fashion, asking us, for example to imagine three classes of men or to imagine ourselves at tile hour of deatli, or to enter in fantasy into a gospel scene and then ',reflect On myself." The itinerary through the Exercises proceeds as much by uncovering and then healing attitudes of unbelief as by appropriat-ing attitudes of belief. God Present in the Things .That Are His will The second is that love consists in a mutual sharing of goods, for example the lover give and shares with the be-loved what he possesses, or something of that which he has or is able to give: and vice versa, the beloved shares With the lover. Hence, if one has knowledge, he shares it with the one who does not possess it; and' 'so also if one has honors, or riches. Thus, one always gives to the other.--Spiritual Ex-ercises, n. 231. Let us start hy a look at our will-of-God-talk. There is, in fact, a curious anomaly in much recent will-of, God-talk. This anomaly can be expressed in different ways. For example, we seem to be theists in our discei:ning process, and secularists in our carrying out process (and therefore Pelagian Deists all round: Discern as if every-thing depended upon God; act as if everything depended on you). Our talk of discerning God's will sounds more convincing than our talk of God's will once discerned. We do talk rather convincingly (that is, convincedly; with words that at least sound as if we were convinced of the reality we were talking about) about finding God'S will, but our handling of God's will once we have supposedly found it seems to give the lie to such talk. It is not iust that we fail in performance, that we are slow to fulfill what we think we must do, as Christians have always felt themselves to be. It is that the talk that accompanies our efforts to fulfill the wi.l,1 of God sounds as if we were~less than convinced that there was any such thing as a will of God manifested in discernment. In short, our talk gives the impression that we aim at doing more than merely discerning "What the situation calls for," because we in-sist on giving it a theological dimension. And yet once we have discerned "the will of God," we carry on as if this theological dimension were sheer ideology. Various Symptoms point to this, especially Our vacilla-tion and our regrets (and recriminations). Our vacillation during the process of discernment, weighing and search-ing our motives, 'indicates that we take seriously what we are doing. But vacillation after the moment of deciSion indicates rather the opposite. Again, it is not so much vacillation in performance I am talking about, but a kind of vacillation in the belief which governs the perform-ance. (If you are going to believe in a will-of-God uni-verse, an agnostic observer might say, at least take the ÷ ÷ ÷ Prayer VOLUME 30, 1971 991 ÷ ÷ ÷ Robert Ochs REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 992 advantages as well as the onus of your world view, and taste a bit of the joy and enthusiasm that ought to accom-pany such a belief.) For example, a line of action em-barked upon as a result of discernment will be aban-doned with a lightness incompatible with the discern-ment talk which launched it. The project is not adjusted in the light of new circumstances, discerned anew, as we say, but is changed without recourse to any discernment process at all. A project may be entered upon with some sense of vocation, and then abandoned with neither a sense of infidelity to any call, nor a sense of a new version of the call. If it does not work out, it is simply dropped as a misguided enterprise shot through with human fallibil-ity. After this, curiously enough, the whole discernment process may be started again, with'hopes inexplicably undimmed of finding this time the will-of-God project that will not turn sour. This phenomenon makes one wonder if any genuine discernment was ever done at all, especially when one considers that true discernment does not just provide the knowledge of what to do, but the grace to carry it out, the grace not to forget for long that one is about the Lord's business. Nadal remarks that what struck the early companions about Ignatius was his single-mindedness once he had adopted a course of action through discernment. Ignatius especially deplored the failure of spiritual nerve or what he called courage in difficult enterprises. Another index is regret. We have pursued a course under the aegis of God's will, expended our energies on it, and it does not work out, or works only tolerably well. Hindsight reveals all the deficiencies of our original choice--it looks dated, it is not what we would have chosen if we knew then what we know now. We regret, we recriminate, we think rather quickly .that we have been duped, wasted our efforts, labored under a very human delusion. Even though when we made the deci-sion we claimed to be aware that we had no choice but to choose, further postponement of decision being a worse choice than the one we made, yet we have no sense of accomplishment, no sense of having done God's will or even qf having done our best trying. For another index, let us observe our reactions to the account, in Chapter I of Acts, of the drawing of lots to fill up the vacancy left in the Twelve by Judas' betrayal. Matthias and Barsabba
Issue 22.2 of the Review for Religious, 1963. ; EVODE BEAUCAMP, O.F.M. Sin and the Bible Throughout1 the New Testament the work of Christ is presented as a victory over sin. To speak of sin in this connection is to evoke an agelong experience which is highly complex and which can not be neglected if one wishes to comprehend the matter in all its extent and fullness. The word sin is a familiar one to us; yet it is no older than the Greek of the Septuagint. Before the Sep-tuagint there can not be found in the sacred text a single word exactly corresponding to it. The Alexandrian trans-lator has included under this single word the varying nuances of a number of terms; through this word he has thereby evoked all the forms which were taken through the course of centuries by the resistance of Israel to the salvific activity of God. There can be no question of giving here a study of sin in the Bible; for that is a problem entirely too large. We shall simply mark out the essential lines in order that we might have a better understanding of the problem of sin and that as a consequence we may be able to provide a catechetical presentation of sin that will be more richly nourished by the vitality of the Bible. The God of the Bible ancl the Problem o] Good anti Evil Like all the surroundin~ peoples, Israel united into one word evil and unhappiness on the one hand, goodness and happiness on the other. The first of these words is simultaneously disorder, deceit, emptiness, and death; the second is virtue, fullness of life, and peace. Every deed carries within itsel~ its own consequences: evil in-volves unhappiness while goodness implies happiness: Do no evil, and evil will not overtake you; avoid wickedness, and it will turn aside from you. Sow not in the furrows of in-justice, lest you harvest it sevenfold (Sir 7:1-3). Moreover, one finds in the Bible different ways of ex-pressing the same proverb: This article is translated with permission from the magazine Catdchistes, n. 49 (January 1, 1962), pp. 5-19. The magazine is pub-lished by Procure des Frhres; 78, rue de Shvres; Paris 7, France. 4. 4. Evode Beaucamp O.F.M., a Scripture scholar, lives at Via di Decima Kin. I; Rome, Italy. VOLUME 22, 1965 129 4. 4. ÷ Erode Beaucnmp, O.I~.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 130 Those who conceive malice bring forth emptiness; they give birth to failure (Jb 15:35). They sowed the wind, and they shall reap the whirlwind (Hos 8:7). What is original in the Bible is the teaching that good-ness, physical as well as moral, has only one source: God. "O Lord," cries the Psalmist, "thou art my welfare; there is none beside thee." And for Amos the two expressions "to seek God" and "to seek the good" are perfectly identi-cal; both the one and the other offer the secret of life (Amos 5:4-14). The successful issue of human existence is found on the way which Yahweh points out and only there: For this reason will all go well with us, because we obeyed the voice of our God (Jer 42:6). You must keep his commands., that you may prosper, and your children after you, and that you may live long . (Dt 4:40). You must do what is right and good in the sight of the Lord that you may prosper (Dr 6:18; see also 12:25 and 28). The Law given by Yahweh to His people is the way of happiness: "You must keep my laws and ordinances, by the observance of which man shall find life (Lv 18:5).'° This is a point which is important to remember when the idea of the Law is presented; the love of the Jews for the Torah is incomprehensible if it is not realized that Yah-weh is legislator precisely insofar as He is father, bene-factor, shepherd, and defender of His people. Moreover, this throws light on the well-known problem of reward. The Bible does not say that happiness is received as a recompense for goodness but that happiness is the fruit of goodness and that it is to be found at the end of the way. Evil is not treated in the same way as is goodness; the God of the Bible never attributes to Himself a paternir.y with regard to evil. For the Psalmists, evil is the absence of God; and it is towards Him that one must turn to be freed from it. Nevertheless, it is in relationship to God that evil is defined: evil is the reverse of what He wills, of the course of :action that He teaches. As the author of Chapters Three and Four of Genesis has carefully sho~qn, the evils which weigh on humanity are not imputable to the Creator; the responsibility falls on man who has at-tempted to find his happiness outside of God, to flee his dependence on Yahweh by himself possessing the key of good and evil. Man has set himself on the desperate route that leads far from Paradise: Woe to them that have wandered away from reel (Hos O Lord, thou hope of Israel, all who forsake you shall be put to shame; those who prove faithless to you in the land shall be brought to confusion, because they have forsaken the Lord, the fountain of living water (Jer 17:13). Let us remark in passing that the God of the Bible never reproaches man for his thirst for greatness and happiness; what is reproached is the attempt to satisfy this outside of God. Unlikei the gods of Surher and Baby-lon, Yahweh has the intention of giving His creature the fullness of life and happiness, but He teaches that this must be done by Him: If my people would but listen to me, if Israel would only walk in my ways, I would quickly humble their foes . he would be fed with the finest of the wheat; and with honey from the rock would I satisfy you (Ps 81:13-14, 16). Although man punishes himself by separating himself from God (see Jb 22:3 ft.), the Bible, nevertheless, does not hesitate to show us Yahweh personally intervening to punish with all the power of His anger. It is He who hardens the pharaoh, as it is He who brings evil upon His unfaithful people: I am watching over them for evil and not for good (Jet 44:27). I will set my eye upon them for evil, and not for good (Amos It is curious to observe how the inspired writers can com-plain both that Yahweh hides His face and remains dis-tant from His chosen ones (Ps 88:14) and that He turns His face against them (Jer 44:11): "The face of the Lord has scattered them; he no longer regards them" (Lain 4:16). And some of the sacred writers are heard to cry out: Will you never take your eye off me, nor let me alone till I swallow my saliva? (Jb 7:19). Turn your gaze away from me, that I may be glad (Ps 39:13). Yahweh never ceases to assert His exclusive right to bestow good on His chosen ones even when they turn away from Him to their own loss. In the evils which then beset them, there can always, be detected the avenging pursuit of a cheated love: So I will be unto them like a lion; or like a leopard by the road I will lurk. I will rend them like a bear robbed of its cubs; and I will tear off the covering of their heart (Hos 13:7-8). Pursued by the love he has denied, the sinner sees him-self abandoned by all: "Thou has put friend and com-panion far from me" (Ps 88:18). He is abandoned even by the earth which bears and nourishes him: I am bringing upon them a disaster which they shall not be able to escape (Jet 11:11). I will rend and be gone; I will carry off, with none to rescue (Hos 5:14). Sin VOLUME 22, 1963 13! + + + Evode Beaucamp, O.F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Behold, I am going to make a groaning under you (Amos 2:13). Unlike the Egyptian god Aten, Yahweh is not indif. ferent when He distributes life and happiness. His gifts are always made from a personal and jealous love. Hence He can not but react vigorously when man prefers deceit, nothingness, and ruin to His love. The blows which He deals as well as His tragic silence can lead the wanderer back to the road of return: I withdraw to my own place, until they realize their guilt and seek my face, searching for me in their distress (Hos 5:15). And yet it is necessary that this appeal be heard and followed: It was I that gave you cleanness of teeth in all your cities . it was I that withheld from you the rain, three months before the harvest . I laid waste your gardens and your vineyards . I sent a pestilence like that of Egypt among you . But you did not return to me (Amos 4:6-10). When sin is presented as disobedience to the Law of God, it is necessary to realize that this Law is the path marked out by God and leading to life and happiness; to disobey it is to wish to conduct one's life by oneself and to run towards one's own ruin. The God whose love has been scorned will not be content to let us leave; He will inexorably bar the way that leads to peace just as formerly He posted the cherubim with their swords of fire to pre-vent Adam and his descendants from access to the Para-dise that had been lost: They are a people who err in their hearts, and do not know my ways. So that I swore in my anger that they should not enter into my rest (Ps 95:10-11). The Special Demands o[ the Covenant The Bible is not satisfied with presenting man in con-frontation with God; for the Bible the heart of the matter is the elect one in confrontation with the God who has chosen him. The peace dreamt of by the Jews of old, peace between the members of. one community, peace with the external world and the earth where men liv~.~- this peace is the fruit of the covenant of Sinai (see Lv 26:3-13; Dt 11:13-15). From the viewpoint of the history of religions, one of the most original characteristics of this alliance is the tact that the initiative belongs exclusively to God and not at all to the people; it is Yahweh who has chosen Israel and not Israel who has chosen Yahweh. From the beginning to the end of the Bible, Yahweh repeatedly emphasizes the absolute liberty of His choice, a liberty that gives Him the right to demand obedience without reserve or mur-mur. The elect one should adjust his conduct to the direc- tives given by his God; he must seek that "which is right in the eyes of Yahweh"; he must "march perfectly before Him" without "swerving" from the way "either to the right or the left." Hence.the existence of Israel was constitute~ by the acceptance of these demands;~and these;demands were unceasingly renewed nor were they ever fully completed at any given moment of history. The more Israel, through a better understanding of the obligations of the covenant, wished to submit to them, the larger the number of them grew. In its always unsatisfied thirst to stay perfectly close to the divine will, the chosen people never ceased to develop the principles at the base of the Mosaic legis-lation of the Decalogue (Ex 20:3-17; Dt 5:6-21) and of the code of the covenant (Ex 20:22-26) into the different priestly codes and the enormous growths of the rabbinical tradition. Since there existed this demand for a perfection never perfectly attained ("You must be holy; for I, the Lord your God, am holy" fLy 19:2]; "Be perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect" [Mt 5:48]), an exhaustive list of sins is nowhere to be found in the Bible; prophets, Psalmists, and wise men give us but certain ones among many. In every epoch and in all circumstances, the obli-gations of the covenant remain unlimited; the human party of the covenant never succeeds in rising to the level of the demands of the divine party. Basically, the sin of later Judaism will be to pretend to arrest this movement of divine improvement by attempting to imprison the divine will within the walls of a definitive and rigid tra-dition. There is no need to emphasize that the same dan-ger lies in wait for every spiritual life, that there will always be a tendency to substitute for the unlimited de-mands of Christian perfection a code of limited rules which each person can hope some day to fulfill com-pletely. The covenant not only implies the demands of a bond faithfully maintained between God and His people, but it also includes the demands of a union between the in-dividual members of this people. Yahweh expects that His people should practice among themselves the justice and mercy which He has bestowed on them. The pious Israelite must never forget to share his joy with the stranger, the orphan, the widow; for, as Deuteronomy puts it: "You must remember that you were once a slave yourself in Egypt" (Dt 16:12). For the same reason it is forbidden to retain one's brother in the state of slavery (Lv 25:55; Dt 15:15); nor ought one to treat a stranger with scorn (Lv 19:34; Dt 24:17). In this principle can be seen the first outline of the thought of the Master: "Love each other as I have loved you." ÷ ÷ ÷ Sin VOLUME 22, 1963 4. + Evode Beaucamp, O.F.M. REVIL~V FOR RELIGIOUS Hence it is that along with the infidelities of the people towards God, the absence of social justice appears as the chief accusation directed by Yahweh against Israel. From the beginning of prophetism (for example, with Elijah), the struggle is waged on two fronts: opposition to the introduction of foreign cults and the respect for the rights of the weak (Naboth's vineyard, 1 K 21). As the Lord Himself emphasized, the entire legislation of Israel re. volves around this double commandment: to love God with one's whole heart and one's neighbor as oneself. The same is to be found in the warnings of the prophets, the Psalmists, and the wise men: You have been told, O man, what is good and what the Lord requires of you'. Only. to do l'ustice, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly wtth your God (Mi 6:8; see also Jer 7:5-11). It will not be useless to insist somewhat on this capital point; since we have too great a tendency to distinguish sins against God and sins against neighbor, it is necessary to show how every sin against God leads to injustice with regard to neighbor and how every sin against one's neigh-bor is a blow struck against the rights of God. The first chapters of Genesis in the Yahwist and priestly redac-tions already present evil under this double dimension. The murder of an innocent person follows the act by which Adam made himself independent of his Creator, while the union of the sons of gods with the daughters of men (probably an allusion to sacred prostitution) in-volves the unleashing of violence upon the earth. In a more general way, the Bible unites under the single He. brew word resha' the idea of both impiety and evil-doing, The person who so acts is frequently referred to through-out the Psaher; he is a person who intends to do without God and to live his life entirely by himself and who, in consequence, makes use of force, deceit, and lies: The fool says in his heart: There is no God. Such men are corrupt; they do abominable deeds; there is not one who does good (Ps 14:1; see also Ps 9; 10; 12; 52; 62; and so forth). His adversary and his victim is the just man, the man who expects salvation and justification from God alone and who therefore does not seek to take the law in his own hands nor do himself justice at the expense of others. The life of David furnishes an excellent illustration of these two cases of the evil man and the just man. Sens-ing that Yahweh would give to him the crown of Saul, David steadfastly refused to touch the sacred person of the king; for he intended to owe his royalty: to Yahweh alone and he did not wish to do things wrongly. Accord-ingly, through terrible execution or a no less terrible curse, he decisively disassociated himself from all those who wished to hasten the event by doing violence to Saul or his son or the general of his army (2 S 1:15; ~:28 ft.; 4:10 ft.). In contrast to the dynasties of, usurpers, the dynasty of David was not in its origin tainted by blood (2 K 2:5). But in the affair of Uriah, the king of Jerusalem took a completely opposite c#ur.se; here he acted,asian impious and evil person. Nathan" recalled to the guilty monarch everything that Yahweh had done for him and pointed out to him how He was still ready to do more. But David had lacked confidence; he had chosen to take care of him-sell and this he did at the expense of one of his own subjects. There is, then, no rejection of God which does not eventually turn into injustice, just as there is no in-justice which is not a disregard of the power of the God of :the covenant. For a Christian, to sin is not only to disobey the eternal laws of the Creator; it is also a refusal of the covenant and a scorning of the love of the Father of all. Human Resistance and God's Final Victory The covenant supposes a history; it is at the center of a plan that develops by stages. At each of these stages man tries to block the plan, but his actions do not prevent God from having the final word. It is interesting to follow step by step the resistances of those who were the bene-ficiaries of the covenant, for in them are to be found all the possible forms which man's refusal of God's offer can take. 1. The choice of the elect from the midst of a humanity immersed in sin. Because the human race had turned from Him and had obstinately buried itself in evil, Yah-weh drew forth from it Israel in the desire to make of it a people who would follow His directives. Hence the election of Abraham is presented in the Yahwist tradition of Genesis as the last effort made by Yahweh to prevent His creation from going to perdition apart from Him. This evil had begun when Adam, in his desire for in-dependence, had lost Paradise. Nevertheless, Yahweh did not abandon this fugitive from Him; He gave him the hope of a future victory over the evil in which he had immersed himself; He had even covered the nakedness that the guilty couple had become aware of. To the first couple, punished by their pride, there succeeded a gen-eration of murderers: Cain and his descendants. Once more Yahweh intervened to prevent fallen humanity from disappearing, from the earth under the inexorable blows of the curse of blood. The union of the sons of the gods with the daughters of men provoked such a release of violence that Yahweh decided on the complete de-struction of His work. Nevertheless, He saved from the catastrophe a just man with whom He concluded a cove- 4- 4- 4- VOLUME 22, 1963 4, 4, 4, Erode Beaucamp, O.F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 136 nant. This was not yet the last act of the drama; the last scene of the beginnings of the human race is the episode of the tower of Babel, the dispersion of the sons of Adam after their aborted attempt to construct a tower that would reach to heaven. Nevertheless, the efforts of Yahweh to arrest man in his vertiginous descent into the abyss were not in vain; for, after the episode of the tower of Babel, a new history begins: the vocation of Abraham, the epic of the patri-archs, the covenant of Sinai. To the first scene of a uni-versal invasion of evil, there succeeds that of the increas-ingly solicitous enterprise of God with regard to a people whom He would choose for His own. Under different forms the same idea is found almost everywhere in the Old Testament. To explain the fact that Israel had taken the place of the Canaanites, the legal texts, for example, tell us that the latter were chased from their land because they had done "what was evil in the eyes of Yahweh"; He had determined to give their land to a people who would agree to live according to His will. But misfortune would come to this people if they ever dared to imitate the conduct of their predeces-sors; He would not hesitate to deprive them of the land. The falling back into the world of sin from which Yah-weh had drawn them led Judah to its ruin, as Jeremiah and Ezekiel emphatically pointed out. The sin of the elect is in fact a return to the sin of the nations after having been freed from it. Each election is pictured as a rupture: Leave your country, your relatives, and your father's house (Gn 12:1), Forget your people and your father's house (Ps 45:11). The call of God implies an ascent towards Him by the practice of what is "right in His eyes" and by a renuncia-tion of "what is evil in his eyes." This initial break must continue throughout the course of time; this requires a constant effort at disencumbrance, for the surrounding world never ceases to exert pressure on the elect to make them fall back under its law. This is the drama of every vocation, not only to religious life but to Christianity self. 2. Resistance to the hand that guides. After He had led the people from Egypt, Yahweh made them cross the desert before bringing them to the Promised Land. The desert is the sign of temptation, a testing of faith. In other words, Yahweh would not give the land of Canaart to the Hebrews unless they abandoned themselves to Him without reserve by remaining faithful to the memory of the marvelous act of liberation by which they left Egypt. But hunger, thirst, and fatigue quickly overcame the faith of the former slaves of the pharaohs. They soon forgot the extraordinary epic of the Exodus; they mur-mured and rebelled against Moses and Aaron; they be-came enraged at seeing themselves in a venture which seemed to be pointless; and they dreamed nostalgically of the onions of Egypt. They refused to march forward on the grounds that the:.P~-omised Land W~s~'fi0t good enough and because the enterprise was to their minds a doomed one (Nm 14). This lack of confidence induced the people of Moses to attempt to assure themselves of the protection of their God by placing Him at their service and by forcing His hand as they wished. This is what the Bible calls "tempt-ing God." Instead of Yahweh "tempting" and trying the people in order to make them proceed according to His will, it was Israel who tempted its God, attempting to bring Him into the service of human caprice. Hence when Moses delayed coming down from the mountain and Yahweh made them wait for His answer, the He-brews made the golden calf, a material representation of their God which would allow them to control Him and to"make Him advance according to their desires at the head of their army. This recalcitrant attitude of the elect blocked the entire matter of the election and prevented their entering the rest of God (Ps 95:11). The intercession of Moses effected a compromise: the rebellious generation died in the desert and only their children possessed the right to the heritage of the God of the covenant. 3. Profanation of God's gift. The covenant gift of the land of Canaan should have created the indissoluble bonds of a steadfast love between Israel and God. Unfortunately, Israel, once it was secure and satisfied, was quick to forget: I led them to pasture; with food came satiety, and with satiety pride; and with pride came forgetfulness of me (Hos 13:6; see also Dt 32:15). The riches of the land of Canaan, instead of constantly recalling to the people the solicitude of Yahweh, drove Him from their mind and nurtured in them the illusion of being able to escape the jealous influence of their God. With the products of their land, they attempted to buy protection abroad; this was a seeking after "lovers"--the famous theme of prostitution. Often this theme is con- [used with the closely related one of adultery. The idea of prostitution certainly includes the notion of unfaith-fulness, but it is wider than that; it is not only the betrayal of love, it is also the profanation of the gifts of love: But you trusted in your beauty, and played the harlot on your reputation; you lavished your harlotries on everyone who passed by. You took off your garments, and made yourself gaily decked shrines, on which you played the harlot. You took also your splendid ornaments of gold and silver, which I had given 4- 4- VOLUME 22, 196;1 4. 4" Erode Beaucamp, O.F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 138 you, and made yourself images of men, with which you played the harlot. And you took your embroidered robes, and wrapped them in these. My oil and my incense you set before them; my bread which I had given you-~the choice flour, oil, and honey with which I had fed you--you set before them as a soothing odor (Ez 16:15-19). The Chosen People made use of what Yahweh had given them in order to curry the favor of the baals or to buy alliances with the peoples that surrounded them. Resistance to the hand that Ied them or profanation of the gift received represent two aspects of the rebellion of the children of God. However, none of the stages of the history of salvation exists in an absolutely pure state. Hence it is that throughout the length of our Christian life sin can put on the form of a refusal to proceed in the desert and of a prostitution when one, for his own pur-poses and independently of God, makes use of the gift which he has received from His love. The Old Testament leaves us with a vision of a check-mate: God is not able to regain the human race which from the beginning had plunged itself into sin and sepa-rated itself from Him. Unless God would make a new heart for men, they would never be able to rise up to the level of the divine demands. Even the Law which Yahweh had given His elect in an attempt to free them from the surrounding evil came in the end only to increase sin (Rom 7:7-25). The cross of Christ and the gift of the Spirit are necessary in order that we might escape the in. fernal cycle. It is then that there appears that new man according to the heart of God whom the prophets Jere-miah and Ezekiel had predicted: I will give you a new heart, and will put within you a new spirit; I will remove the heart of stone out of your flesh, and will give you a heart of flesh; and I will put my spirit within you, and make you follow my statutes and be careful to observe my ordinances (Ez 36:26-27). There is no need to emphasize that one must not present the Law of Christ which alone can make us pleasing to God without adding that this Law is impractical if Christ Himself does not communicate to us His power so that we might fulfill the demands of the Law. Fundamental Aspects o[ the Discord Between God and Man Throughout the Old Testament the resistance of man to the work of God is presented under three clearly dis-tinguished aspects; it is essential to guard against con-fusing these three when the idea of sin in the Bible is analyzed. 1. Opposition to the work of divine justice. The prin-cipal adversary of divine justice is an individual whom the Hebrew language terms rasha', a term which is usu-ally translated by the word impious or wicked. This rasha' enters into association with the "makers of iniq-uity," "the proud," "the mockers," and the "men of blood." His weapons are cunning, lies, violence; he is constantly thinking of i~i~l~'ity"in his he;irt~ li'~ Sets traps for the innocent; his hands are soiled with blood and he is given to drink. His opposition to justice is shown in two ways: it is, first of all, undisguised hostility towards God who is thought to be too distant to'react against it; and, secondly, it is a merciless war against the just whose violated rights the God of the covenant is pledged to de-fend. For practical purposes, the rasha' and his satellites coincide with the adversaries of the covenant; for the justice they oppose is at the center of the preoccupation of the parties of the covenant. They appear from the very beginning of the human race, but more ~usually they ap-pear as the enemies of the Chosen People; in every case they constantly menace the stability of the work of God in the cosmos and in history. Gradually the distinction between the just and the impious is found within the nation itself; it is at this time that the realization of a qualitative Israel necessitates a distinction between the faithful and those who are traitors and apostates. None of the faithful aligns himself with the: rasha': Drag me not away with the wicked, with those who do wron.g, who speak of peace to their neighbors though evil is in their hearts (Ps 28:3). On the occasion of the demands of the wicked, the just man frequently prays for justice from God; this im-plies that he is the victim not the accomplice of the wicked. If the good man wishes to be heard by Yahweh, he must disassociate himself as completely as possible from the perverse machinations of the artisans of evil: "I hate the assembly of evil~toers, and with the wicked I will not sit down" (Ps 26:5). It is only on this condition that he can cry out: "Judge me"; "Do me justice" (Ps 26:1; 43:1). In the matter of justice, then, the Old Testament knows only negative confessions (Ps 5; 26; 139; Jb 31) like those that the dead recite for their justification be-fore the tribunal of Osiris. There is no avowal of an atti-tude of present opposition to justice, an attitude that the God of the covenant would have to punish; only past sins are confessed the consequences of which are already or about to be felt. This is evidently insufficient for Chris-tians. We not only have to present to the Father our past errors but also a heart which even now is evil and which we ask Him to transform. There can be no doubt that ÷ ÷ ÷ Sin VOLUME 22, 1963 139 ÷ .I. ÷ Erode Beaucamp, O~F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS such a prayer supposes a pure intention, and this is the profound significance of our negative confessions. Man can not pray to God while desiring evil; nevertheless, pure intentions do not effect that we see exactly what God wants nor even that we feel the power to accomplish it. Our pure intentions require from us only that we aban-don ourselves,to Him in order that we might see and will the perfection which He expects from us: For I do not the good that I wish, but the evil I do not wish, that I perform . Unhappy man that I aml Who will deliver me from the body of this death? (Rom 7:19 and 24). 2. A state of rupture with God. The three Hebrew roots which are ordinarily translated by such words as sin, transgression, iniquity, fault, and so forth express, though each with different nuances, the idea of a state of rupture with the God of the covenant: The Lord's hand is not .too short to save, nor his ear too dull to hear; but your iniquities have been a barrier between you and your God. And your sins have hidden his face, so that he could not hear you (Is 59:1-2). This state is a present situation the cause of which is a definite past act; hence one goes from the awareness of the rupture to an appreciation of its origin: "I have sinned." This is equivalent to saying that if God aban-dons me to my lot, I can blame only myself; it is my own fault: O Lord, the great and revered God, who keeps loving faith with those who love him and keep his commandments, we have sinned . To us, O Lord, pertains confusion of face . but to the Lord our God pertain compassion and forgiveness (Dn 9: 4-5, 8-9). The awareness of sin, then, is the awareness of being abandoned by God through one's own fault; the sinner is like a child experiencing the feeling of no longer being loved by his mother; he feels himself cut off from the one who is his source of life: My anger shall blaze against them, and I will forsake them~ and withhold my favor from them; they shall become a thing to be consumed, and many evils and troubles shall befall them, so that they will say at that time: Is it not because God is not in our midst that these evils have befallen us? (Dt 31:17). By the fact of sin--and this holds true for the relations between man and man as well as for the relations be-tween God and man--the Protector finds Himself re-leaged of His obligation 'towards His proteges; in particu-lar He is no longer bound to see justice done them and He can consider them as His enemies: We look for redress, but it comes not; for salvation, but it remains f~r from us. For many are our sins before you, and our faults bear witness against us (Is 59:11-12). Abandoned by his God and even pursued by His ill will, the sinner is sooner or later doomed to death. In the case of an individual he will use up his strength in a dis-ease that is without hope; in the case of a country it will perish under the blows of epidemics, famines, and wars. For sin breaks not only~th@,~bbnds betwe~en,~n~fi and his God; it also isolates man frbm society and even from the earth, since peace with God is the condition of peace with one's fellow men and with the entire world. In his dereliction and total loneliness, the sinner possesses only one resource: to throw himself into the arms of the One he has offended. On the whole, the Old Testament attaches more im-portance: to this state of rupture than to the nature of the acts which provoke it. Contrary to the confessions of Babylon which attempted to exorcise evil by interminable lists of all possible sins, the Bible generally reduces its inventory to the simple assertion: '~I have sinned." For the Bible, it is God, not sin, that is of interest; it is God that is considered. A sense of sin that is not a sense of God and does not suppose the experience of a valued intimacy is a false sense of sin which can lead to the greatest catastrophes as the history of Luther and Jansen-ism have shown. 3. Impurity, the state of incompatibility with the divine presence. The notions of purity an~l impurity are among the most common and primitive ones in the his-tory of religions. In them is found everywhere the same confusion between taboos of a ritual nature and ethical prescriptions in the proper sense. Sexual pollutions, for example, whether licit or illicit, make one impure, just as the shedding of blood, whether justly or unjustly, profanes the earth. And the contagious nature which is attributed to such impurity makes the notion even more difficult for the modern mind. There has been a mis-understanding of the place which the Bible gives to such a primitive category of thought in later books like Leviti-cus; many see in this a reaction to the effort made by the prophets to form the moral conscience of Israel. But presented in this way, the problem is wrongly placed. Impurity is on a completely different level than that of sin, the rupture with God. It is not concerned with the difficulties and blocks that can lessen the rela-tions of man with God but with that which appears in-compatible with the maintenance of the divine presence in the midst of the country: Because the Lord your God moves within your camp to rescue you and to put your enemies at your mercy, your camp must be clean, so that he may not see anything indecent with you, and turn away from you (Dr 23:14). If the Bible attaches a great importance to this notion sin VOLUM£ 22, 1963 141 ÷ ÷ ÷ E~ode Benuc~mp, O.F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 142 of impurity, it is because for it the question is not re-ducible to the simple fact of not offending God; it is the much more profound matter of living with Him in His presence. The sense of purity is the awareness of the holiness which election requires, a holiness that must ex-tend to everything which conditions the existence of the elect: I am the Lord your God; consecrate yourselves, therefore, and be holy; for I am holy; so you must not defile yourselves with any kind of insect that crawls on the earth. For I am the Lord who brought you up out of the land of Egypt to be your God, and so you must be holy; for I am holy (Lv 11:44-45). You must be holy to me; for I, the Lord, am holy, and have separated you from other peoples to be mine (Lv 90:26). As long as Israel remained a political and sociological reality, the community of life between Yahweh and His people had necessarily to preserve a character that was both interior and exterior, implying demands both of a physical and a moral order. This combination should not, then, be surprising. It is necessary to wait for the Gospel in order that the problem of purity be elevated to a properly spiritual level, for then the kingdom of God becomes an interior reality which is not involved in the social and material conditions of the life of the elect: "It is what pr6ceeds from a man that makes him impure" (Mk 7:20). All cases of impurity, however diverse, have this in common that they create a cultic incompatibility and make the approach to the divine dangerous. But it is dif-ficult to find how this incompatibility flows from a single principle; this is a world of different and heterogeneous elements which it would be a waste of time to attempt to unify. So, for example, one type of impurity consisted of any attempt to violate a reality that was initially sacred: harvesting, the gathering of fruits, marriage, and so ford~. But impurity was likewise involved when a being was possessed by foreign divinities; the sinner fell into this category when, being rejected by his god, he became the prey of demons. Finally, every act is impure which lessens the essential integrity of a being, especially a consecrated one: the loss of blood or of seminal fluid, the cutting of the hair of a Nazirite, the cutting of a stone intended for an altar, the putting to work of an animal destined to carry a sacred object, and so forth. All this is common to the ancient world; and the Bible in this matter originates nothing, though it should be noted that matters such as sicknesses, curses, various ca-lamities, blood crying for vengeance, cadavers awaiting burial figure here as simply malefic rather than being at-tributed to foreign divinities or demons. Furthermore, it seems to us that a global impression emerges from all this chaos: a being cannot support the presence of God if its existence is diminished or threatened either by an acci-dental loss of substance or by subjection to some other power. Not being fully himself, man in such a case cannot offer himself to his God. If this interpretation is correct, then the need for purity calls out for the idea of the In-carnation, for the Priest without stain who can enter the sanctuary of the God of the covenant; this is the perfect man who has attained the fullness of his stature: "Be perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect." Before the majesty of the King-God who was revealed to his eyes, Isaiah becomes frightenedly aware not of his sin but of his impurity: Woe to me, for I am lost; I am a man of unclean lips. and my eyes have seen the King, the Lord of hosts (Is 6:5). It is not sin but impurity which impedes the vision of God: "Blessed are the pure of heart, for they shall see God." Whatever may have been for primitive man the deep roots of the notes of impurity, the idea should not be suppressed but moralized and spiritualized. From this an-cient notion, two elements should be kept for the profit of our own Christian life: first, our Christian life is truly a life with God, and it supposes a full realization of our stature as the "new man" according to Christ and a full posses-sion of ourselves that withholds nothing from the in-fluence of God; secondly, every lessening of our personal vitality is a lessening of the vitality of the community; every lessening of our charity detracts from the global charity of the Church, and it tarnishes her purity, since impurity by its nature is contagious, always passing from individuals to the collectivity. Solutions to the Discord Between God and Man 1. The judgment of the wicked. A victorious judgment of the God of the covenant will put an end to the opposi-tion of the wicked man. This judgment, however, is never purely negative. The wicked man is a dangerous individ-ual, and his downfall affects the salvation of the just: The righteous shall rejoice that he has seen vengeance; he shall wash his footsteps in the blood of the wicked. And men shall say: There certainly is a reward for the just; there cer-tainly is a God who judges on earth (Ps 58:10-11). As we have seen, the wicked man is generally con-sidered as unable to be converted; this is why his disap-pearance appears as the only solution to the evil of which the just man is a victim; the world will regain its peace only when God has caused this evil to fall on its authors. Gradually, however, other conceptions of the matter came into existence. Jeremiah and especially Ezekiel envisage ÷ ÷ ÷ VOLUME 22° 1963 ÷ Evode Beaucamp, O.F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS the case of a wicked man who abandons his wickedness to practice "judgment and justice": As I live, says the oracle of Yahweh, I have no pleasure in the death of the wicked, but rather in this that the wicked man turn from his way and live. Turn, O turn, from your evil waysl Why should you die, O house of Israeli (Ez 33:11). This view of the conversion of the wicked is a direct preparation for the Gospel. Christ will proclaim that He has come not for the just but for the wicked---the publi-cans and adulterers who without conversion would fall beneath the blows of the avenging anger of God. The great revolution of the Gospel is the distinction between evil and evil men; in the Our Father it is from evil that we ask to be freed and not from our enemies, as was done in the Psalms. As long as a man has not drawn his last breath, he is never to be identified with evil and we must always hope for his eventual conversion. The venge-ance of the just is no longer the extermination of the wicked but their penance and reparation. 2. The pardon of the sin. The one who has culpably lost communion with God can only hope for the gratui-tous act of clemency and pity Which the One offended can grant or not grant when pardon is asked of Him. In the rupture man took the initiative, but the initiative in the matter of reconciliation belongs exclusively to God. More than in any other case there apears here the impos-sibility of forcing His hand. Sin, the rupture of relations between God and man, is an intolerable weight from which the sinner cannot free himself by his own effort; it is a weight that only the One offended is in a position to lift: For, day and night, your hand lay heavy upon me . I said: I will confess my transgressions to the Lord, and you forgave the guilt of my sin (Ps 32:4-5). The Babylonians, in order to have greater certainty of their restoration to favor, frequently attempted to have another friendly divinity intervene with the angered god. In the Bible, as is evident, man is without the possibility of such a mediation. He must directly approach the God he has offended and throw himself at His feet while de-claring "I have sinned"; he must rely entirely on God's mercy. It is clear that such an act implies conversion; it is the return of the prodigal son to his Father's house. While the Bible does not permit the sinner to avoid encountering the God he has angered, still it does not leave him without arguments by which he can plead his case. He can, for example, invoke the glory of the God of the covenant whose name he still continues to bear: What will the nations think of Yahweh if He continues to leave his people defenseless? (Ps 79; 80; Ez 32:11-14). He can also invoke His justice: In abandoning His own, does not Yahweh yield to His enemies? (Ps 41). Finally, he can appeal to the shortness of life--life which a pro-lUonngfoedrt uabnsaetnelcye, owf eG coadn m naokte ds eelmayp thye aren du ,s epngsne~le sths e(Pses 9a0rg).u-ments which still retaiii,:th~ir~, validity for, oi~i~ prayer as Christians. We have already pointed out that the penitent does not dwell upon an analysis of his culpable act but keeps his eyes on the God the lack of whom he suffers and in whom he sees his only hope; the simple fact of the rupture is al-ready virtually the presence of death and it constitutes for the sinner the deepest kind of punishment than which nothing greater is to be feared. The penitent calls on the judgment and justice of Yahweh as a grace the right to which he has lost by sin. He awaits the moment of pardon which will reestablish him in the friendship of His God so that once again he will be protected in the midst of a hostile world: The anger of the Lord must I bear--for I have sinned against him--until he shall take up my case and do me justice (Mi 7:9). Once pardon h.as been granted, the remembrance of the sin disappears in the remembrance of the victorious love of Yahweh, a love which is capable of overpowering all offenses and which in its profundity and total gratuitous-ness leaves the soul of man in confusion (Ps 103); here already there is almost found the felix culpa of St. Au-gustine. Moreover, the world which the divine mercy re-constructs is always more beautiful than the one de-stroyed by sin. To illustrate this law, it is sufficient to reflect on the messianic prophecies which for the most part are prophecies of pardon (Ps 85; Is 40-55; 60; Ez 34; and so forth). 3. Purification of Defilement. Having been excluded from worship, the defiled man must purify himself be-fore coming into the presence of God.'It is a co.mmon idea among all the ancient religions that the gods have given men ritual materials and formulas that are capable of purifying them, their temples, and their country. In particular, there are appropriate rites that permit the expulsion from the impure being of the evil spirits and demons who have taken possession of him; thus, for ex-ample, spells and curses which had victimized a person were made to pass on to the body of animals wh~ch.~:were then driven far away or burned. In the Bible this liturgi-cal transfer has left only a few traces, the most notable ex-ample of which is that of the scapegoat of the D~y of Atonement (Lv 16). This animal, loaded with the sins of Israel, was not offered to Yahweh but driven far aw~iy to Azazel. 4, 4, VOLUME 22, 1963 ÷ ÷ ÷ Erode Beau~arap, O.F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 146 In place of this image of a transfer, the Bible has pre-ferred that of cleansing through ablutions and sprinkling with blood and water. This symbol is simultaneously negative and positive: at the same time as it removes the uncleanliness, the water restores all the freshness of life. This is also, as it seems to me, the function of the blood in the atonement rite and in the sin sacrifices. But we shall not delay here on this difficuh and debated point; we will content ourselves with giving our own personal opinion. Blood seems to have as its effect the protection of the things and persons which it covers; it protects them from the various evils which are the sequel of sin just as the blood of the paschal lamb did at the Exodus (Ex 12:1-15). But to this negative effect there is added a posi-tive action; for blood is life, and it is by reason of the life that is in it that Yahweh has given it as an effector of atonement (Lv 17:10-12). Thanks to it, persons, cult ob-jects, and the country that is the abode of Yahweh find their fullness of life, their first integrity which impurity had caused to be lost. The application of this Biblical rite to our Christian life is not difficult. The sin of a Christian can be con-sidered as a stain that not only changes our personal re-lations with God but also diminishes the vital potentiali-ties of the Church and impairs her charity. Reparation, therefore, is a social duty just as it was in ancient Israel. God has given us the Blood of Christ as an inexhaustible source of love so that we can preserve for the Church the immaculate appearance which her divine Spouse initially bestowed on her: He wished to summon into his presence the Church in all her beauty, with no stain, wrinkle, or any disfigurement; she. was to be holy and spotless (Eph 5:27). Conclusion By way of conclusion, let us synthesize the results of our inquiry. In order that the notion of sin preserve all the force that the Bible gives it, it must include three ele-ments: deterioration of the order of creation; rupture with God, the source of life; and impurity which hinders all commerce with the divine. All this is what is repre-sented by the word sin at the time of the New Testament~ it is all this that Christ has come to restore, heal, and purify. Under these three aspects, sin is a flight from God, the only source of life and happiness; it represents the contrary of all the effort God has made throughout his-tory to draw us to Him; it is a return back to a past from which He has drawn us; it is our refusal to allow ourselves to be led by Him blindly; it is our squandering of the gifts we have received. To depart from God is to depart from other men and finally to find oneself alone in a hostile world: And it has brought you. w " as reconciled . ,_ o ~;. ¯ - uom~ wron~ ;-,- - "-' holiness a~a t__ )vu mrough dying, ;,,~.:_ . 6 ~-o.ugn now (Col 1:2'1_~)."ee ~rom reproa~c h. .or ~Ta~'e,'~'~vt~uas op~rensve nbcoedy) ia Sin VOLUME 22, 1963 PAUL W. O'BRIEN, S.J. The Weekly Confession of Fervent Religious ÷ ÷ Paul W. O'Brien, S.J., is the rector of the Pontifical Semi-nary in Dalat, Viet-nam. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 148 The word "fervent" in the title is not meant to frighten away those good religious for whom the article is actually written, but who usually hesitate to think of themselves as fervent. It is used rather to indicate the limited perspective of the article, a perspective however which we trust is representative of religious and hehce applicable to many. It is not unusual to find religious who have a problem with their weekly confession--a problem that seems to arise not from their being tepid but rather from their being fervent. They are serious about their religious life. They would rather do anything than deliberately offend God in the smallest thing. And yet they find a certain uneasiness, tedium, even difficulty with their weekly con-fession. Time and again they have consulted the classical authors to find ways of refreshing this exercise, but usu. ally with only transitory success. The considerations pro-posed in these manuals, while excellent and fundamental and helpful to a certain point, do not really fit. For the religious we have in mind does not come to his weekly confession as an enemy of God; he does not come with mortal sins; he has no need of being "reconciled" to the Church, much less of having divine life "restored" to his soul. His confession is not one of obligation, and con:;e-quently there is nothing that he is obliged to confess (supposing always that to ensure the validity of his con-fession, he mentions his past forgiven sins, at least in a general way). In fact he rarely (more likely never) brings unforgiven sins to the confessional. For to say nothing of the many ways that venial sins can be forgiven out-side the sacrament, his daily communion is constantly purifying his soul, and his habit of immediately turning to God in loving sorrow for any fault committed, plus the. contrition that he excites before confession, brings him to the confession with really no unforgiven matter. Clearly the basic considerations of the purgative way, which may once have applied to him, and whose grateful memory will always remain with him, are not sufficient. There is need of a ditter~ent perspective~a .,shifting of emphasis, if his confession ~is" to produce the,, fruit ex-pected by the Church. ' ¯ ~. ~ For the Church is greatly concerned about these fre-quent confessions. When som~ younger members of the clergy were diminishing esteem for the frequent confes-sion of venial sins, claiming that it was useless, consumed too much time of busy pastors, and was actually un-known in the early Church, Pope Plus XII spoke out clearly and strongly against them (Mystici Corporis 87): Equally disastrou~s in its effects is the false contention that tile frequent confession of venial sins is not a practice to be greatly esteemed. Therefore those among the young clergy who are diminishing esteem for frequent confession are to know that the enterprise upon which they have embarked is alien to the Spirit of Christ and most detrimental to the Mys-tical Body of our Savior. For a constant and speedy ad-vancement in the path of virtue, we highly recommend the practice of frequent confession, introduced by the Church under the guidance of the Holy Spirit; for by this means we grow in a true knowledge of ourselves and in Christian hu-mility, bad habits are uprooted, spiritual negligence and apathy are prevented, the conscience is purified and the will strengthened, salutary spiritual direction is obtained, and grace is increased by the efficacy of the sacrament itself. In the following lines it is not my purpose to touch on all the above advantages nor to give a form to confession nor to enter into the aspect of spiritual direction in the confessional. I wish merely to redistribute the emphasis of certain aspects and thus perhaps help towards a solu-tion of our problem. Sacrament of Loving Sorrow One of the areas that calls for reappraisal and a pos-sible reshifting of emphasis concerns our habitual way of looking on the sacrament. There is danger that a way of speaking will induce a way of thinking. Because of our ordinary practice of speaking of the sacrament of pen-ance as "confession," we may develop a wrong emphasis. Now I am not advocating a change in our traditional terminology, but we must be careful lest our way of speaking throw everything out of focus. For the actual "confession" of sins, in the type of confession we are dealing with, is one of the least important elements of the sacrament. And yet it is frequently the main source of trouble for the fervent religious: "What to say?" Such a preoccupation is understandable when there is ques-tion of the integrity of an obligatory confession of mortal sins, but how completely out of place it is in our con- 4- 4- 4- Weekly onlession VOLUME 22, 1963 ]49 P. W. O'B~i~, $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS fessions. I wonder if our exact catechetical training, given chiefly in view of a form of obligatory confession, is not unduly transferred to confessions of devotion. At any rate, it is not rare to find the problem of confession be-coming more acute as the religious becomes more fer-vent, the problem of "what to say" becoming so empha-sized as to bring on uneasiness. But even when we think more exactly in terms of the "sacrament of penance," we must still be on our guard. The very word "penance" can become a source of mis-understanding. The Latin word paenitentia of which our English "penance" is a translation, has been well-chosen and in its real meaning of "sorrow with purpose of amendment" is quite appropriate. But in English we do not think that way. For us "penance" is associated with fasting and disciplines; and even though we have been taught that true interior penance consists in sorrow for our sins, this is not our habitual association with the word "penance." Would that the translating fathers had given us something like "sacrament of sorrow." It would have helped us put the emphasis where it belongs. The emphasis then in this "sacrament of sorrow" should be on sorrow; but a sorrow that is a free and meritorius act. This should immediately put us on our guard against certain counterfeits. It is a free act; hence always in my power. I can make it on Monday; I can make it on Friday. I can make it when I am depressed; I can make it when I am as dry as a stick. Evidently its value does not and cannot depend on emotional inten-sity (which is not in my power). It is a movement of the will detesting sin because of my conviction (intellectua! appreciation) that God's will is above all. Its efficacy measured not by the accompanying emotion or affection. (if there is any) but by the strength derived from my conviction. Now for the fervent religious this conviction has become habitual. It is constantly operative in his daily life as is evidenced by his care in avoiding all that is against God's will. But it can well be that this con-viction has.become so settled in his life that it sets up no emotional resonance. He must not be surprised then when he finds that his sorrow in the confessional reta~ins the same strong voluntary but unemotional tendency that characterizes his daily life. He detests sin and all his failings because he truly loves God and has made will the supreme norm of his life. Here the question of motive enters. It is this that sets the tone to our sorrow and our confession. The faithful religious does not come to God in fear but in love,~,as to his Father. The Little Flower puts it simply: I have long believed that the Lord is more tender than a mother. I know that a mother is always ready to forgive trivial, involuntary misbehavior on the part of her child . Children are always in trouble, falling down, getting themselves dirty, breaking thing~but all this does not shake their parent's love for them. We come to God as His dearest children, sharing His very life, coming with th.e loving sorrow .of asofi; to be reassured that all, all has b&fi forgiven;' to i:eceive the embrace of the Father. Sacrament ol Purification One of the perspectives of the sacrament that opens up a rich vein of thought and deserves to be emphasized by the faithful religious is the aspect of purification-- purification not in the sense of liberation from the guilt of actual sins and faults--but rather a deeper purifica-tion that penetrates to the roots of those faults, to the habitual tendencies which cause them, and to the reli-quiae peccati which are their results. The sacrament be-comes (if you will pardon the expression) a sort of radio-therapy of our deep wickedness. We expose our wounds, visible or not, with a certain reasoned eagerness and joy to the curative influence of the sacrament. We are not so much preoccupied about our past actual faults. We have sorrowed over them and know that they have been wiped out through God's mercy. It is rather the deep of our soul, the roots of the faults, which give promise of bring-ing forth again their fruit of death--it is these roots which disturb us. And here precisely is where the "grace of the sacrament" comes into play--a grace which the Council of Florence describes as a grace of purification, a grace of healing: "Through penance we are spiritually healed" (DB 695). This grace reaches beyond the actual sins, forgiven by the absolution, to reach deep into our nature into the causes of those sins. This purifying influence acts not only on the soul but also on the body. I believe we may find an analogy in the effects of the sacrament of extreme unction which is usually considered as the complement of penance. Its influence in strengthening soul and body during serious sickness should give us some clue to the purifying action of penance. For we may well believe that the effects of this sacrament are but the "finishing touches" to a proc-ess begun and carried on through other sacraments throughout one's life. All the sacraments, even Holy Eucharist, have a purifying influence on the whole per-son, body and soul. Now one of the effects of the sacra-ment of extreme unction is to weaken the effects of con-cupiscence, to restore some part of our original integrity which was lost through Adam's sin. St. Thomas explains our inability to avoid all indeliberate venial sins by concupiscence together with the slowness of our percep- + + + Weekly Con]ession 151 ÷ ÷ ÷ P. W. O'Bden, $.L REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS tion of good, the changeableness of our will, and the frequency of temptation (S. T. 1, q 109, a 8). Now in re-ducing concupiscence, extreme unction restores order to man's strivings, subordinating the sensitive to the spirit-ual and the spiritual to God; it helps put a man in true possession of himself, so that he is able to dominate not only those positive urges of soul and body that escape control but also the oppressive weight of dead inertia by which the sensitive life impedes the striving of the will toward God. From this precious purifying and strengthening action of extreme unction, we may gather some idea of what takes place in the sacrament of pen-ance, not precisely in view of a serious sickness but look-ing rather to the progressive purification of our soul as it weakens concupiscence, counteracts sluggishness, or-ders our passions, and restores us to spiritual liberty. Awareness of Sinfulness Now it is precisely this grace of purification that draws religious to the sacrament of penance. (Perhaps I should say "drives," for there is no question of an emotional attraction, but rather the compelling force of a reasoned conviction based on faith.) It is this that explains the daily confessions of so many saints--St. Catherine of Siena, St. Ignatius, St. Francis Xavier, St. Peter Claver, St. Charles Borromeo, St. A1phonsus Liguori. Surely they were not deliberately sinning nor were they scrupulous. But they understood better the holiness of God. St. Francis Borgia was accustomed to confess twice a day, once in the morning before saying Mass and again in the evening before retiring. By this I do not mean that daily confession, where possible, is a goal to be aimed at. It may be helpful regularly for some persons, or for others at particular times of special grace or difficulty. This is a problem to be determined with one's confessor. I merely mention these examples to illustrate one of the great motives of frequent confession--the desire for pu-rity. This desire of the saints for purity is shared by ,~11 faithful souls according to their grace. For as the reli-gious strives to lead his life more generously, avoiding as far as he can all deliberate failings, he participates more abundantly in God's light. The effect is twofold: he be-gins to understand more clearly who God is, and in the same measure he becomes more aware of his wretched-ness. He finds himself in an attitude of soul similar to that of Eliphaz, one of Job's friends, who tells .us that his hair stood on end when in vision a spirit passed be-fore him. "I heard the voice as it were of a gentle wind: Shall man be justified in comparison with God, or shall a man be more pure than his Maker? Behold. in his angels he found wickedness." (Jb 4:15 ft.). Isaiah re-cords a similar state of soul, the result of his great vision of the holiness of God. "Woe is me because I am a man of unclean lips, and I dwell in the midst of a people that hath unclean lips and I have seen with my eyes the King, the Lord of hosts" (Is 6:l-5)~The religious~in~tlle light of God s hohness becomes painfully consc,ous, I will not say of "sin," but of sinfulness. He longs to bring his sins to the confessional, but what sins? Here precisely is the trouble. The sins that are clear have long since been sub-mitted to the sacrament in sorrow. He knows that they are forgiven and blotted from the sight of God. But the daily failings? Truly they are not deliberate sins. He would rather do anything than displease God. He cannot pin down his failings. And yet he is painfully conscious of a mass of selfishness, insincerity, sensuality, but deep in the soul where he cannot reach. He realizes that this wickedness penetrates all that he does, but it is not in acts where it can be grasped. And he also realizes that this is not an illusion; the wickedness is really there. This creates a problem for him--a problem that per-haps increases with the fidelity of the soul--and which often accounts for much of the difficulty experienced in approaching the sacrament. It seems such hypocrisy to have nothing to say. And yet no matter how long the ex-amination of conscience is prolonged, nothing more spe-cific is discovered. He has only wasted precious time that could have been more profitably spent on deepening his loving sorrow. Nor is this due simply to negligence of the soul. Perhaps most natures do not have the per-spicacity to analyze and draw out into the clear these deep tendencies of the soul. The light that is given them is not so sharp. Nor need it be; for its purpose of hu-miliation and purification is equally accomplished by the confused and painful acceptance of what the soul perceives confusedly. According to One's Light Fortunately, in this type of confession, the accusation is one of the least important parts. Hence very little time should be spent on the actual examination of conscience. The daily examination of conscience faithfully made will guarantee the religious against negligence, and a quick glance will usually reveal where he has displeased God. Hence if within a few minutes nothing specific is dis-covered, he should stop his inquiry and be satisfied with a general accusation: "I accuse myself of all the sins of my past life, especially for my sins of pride, sensuality, or against some commandment." Father Saint-Jure, S.J., gives this directive: Those (venial sins) which we should seek out and confess Weekly ¢onlesslon VOLUME Z2o '1'963 153 4. 4. 4. P. W. O'Brien, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ]54 with more c~ire are those which weigh most heavily on us, and those which cause us more embarrassment and shame, pro-vided that we are able to confess them with honesty a~d de-cency; likewise those which ~hinder us most from attaining the perfection to which God calls us, or which are contrary to the virtue to. which we are particularly devoting our efforts for that week or month. And since among venial sins there are some which arise from mere weakness, which escape us as by surprise, and others from malice, which we commtt with full knowledge, coldly, understanding what we are doing and with full consent, of these latter none should be omitted in con-fession. As for the others, one should leave them to the mercy of God, and confess them in general, all-inclusive terms: If the soul is sufficiently. . .pure so that it commits only these sins of weakness, let zt ~ndzcate some of them" (On the Knowledge and Love of our Lord Jesus Christ, Bk 3, c 10, ~9). Hence we may give as a practical rule: I may accuse myself of whatever God gives me the light to see as dis-pleasing to Him (no matter how trivial it may seem in itselD. If I see specific failings clearly, it is well to accuse myself at least of some of them; if I see them only.in a confused way, as tendencies, I should be content to ac-knowledge them in this general way (paying particular attention to one or another of them for a few weeks at a time)--adding, however, a general accusation of past forgiven sins to insure the validity of the confession. This awareness of sinfulness and inability to reach it through our own efforts is often given by spiritual writers as a reason for God's intervention through the passive purification of the soul. We read of "dark nights of the soul" in which God's purifying action goes deep where the active effort of the soul cannot penetrate, purifying the roots of our evil inclinations, attacking the basic self-ishness of the soul. This, type of purification is usually associated with trials in prayer that fall to the lot of con-templatives. We know, however, that God's purifying action can take many forms, that his apostles are often purified through the trials inherent in their apostolate. Surely a most powerful means of purification and one which is often overlooked is the very sacrament of purifi-cation instituted by Christ, which accomplishes in the soul much the same work as the "dark nights" and apos-tolic trials: namely, the progressive submission of our lower nature to the higher and the higher to God, the liberation of our soul from the weight of its wicked in-clinations and its consequent gradual transformation in God. Building up the Body oI Christ As the religious grows in his vocation, he should grow also in a sense of his solidarity with the Churcli, the Mystical Body. He begins to see his sin and sinfulness in their social aspect. While clearly realizing that his sin is his own, for which he alone is responsible, he is more aware of the consequences of his sin on the organism of which he is a member--and this apart from the harmful effects that may come through bad example, coopera-tion, and so forth. He understands that the life that is in him is a shared lif~e; ~w, eakened with 'his'.~weakness, strengthened with his strength. It.is true that our liturgy today does not give such prominence to the social aspect of penance as in the old days when the penitent, after a period of public penance, was restored on Holy Thurs-day to the family life of the Church so that he might share the Paschal Bread of life with the other members of his family, the Church. Nor is there question of our religious being "restored" to the Church. But he begins to feel deeply his corporate responsibility, He is ashamed of the sinfulness that he brings to the immaculate Spouse of Christ. Aware of the lessening of love, as sin drains this Body anemic, he strives to replenish the blood ;stream with his love. He understands the general disappearance in the world of a sense of sin and rushes with his loving sorrow to make amends. If he be a priest whose mission it is to destroy sin in the world, he finds an added joy both in receiving and administering the sacrament. He offers God a soul in which He may work more purity, and thus "build up the Body of Christ" (Eph 4.9). And with this consciousness of his unity in the Mystical Body, a new dimension is added to his examination Of con-science, or rather a more acute awareness of his already existing obligation: his duty of charity; his responsibility for the spread of God's kingdom; his sins of omission through cowardice, selfishness, love of ease; the primacy of love. Meeting with the Three One beautiful but rarely stressed aspect of this sacra-ment is our meeting with the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. While it is true that the glorified humanity of Jesus is the instrument of all our grace, it is still the Word of God who takes away sin. "Who can forgive sin but God alone?" (Lk 5:21), Every sacramental absolution is then the action of Jesus, the great high priest, acting through His representative, a man chosen from amongst sinners. And in receiving that absolution, I come in vital contact with Jesus. Here He bestows on me the grace of redemption. Jt is for this that He came into the world, as He prolongs into my soul the efficacy of His redemp-tive sacrifice. -The life that He gives, He won in His blood. It is this that causes such joy in heaven, more than over the ninety-nine just, this prolongation of the rich mysteries of His death and glorification, for me a new 4- 4- 4- Weekly Conlession VOLUMF 22, 1963 155 + ÷ ÷ P. W. O'Brien, SJ. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 156 baptism, as plunged into His death, I rise to a new or richer life. But often we are inclined to forget the part of the Father and the Holy Spirit. If there is pardon in the sacrament and grace of purification, it is because the Father loves us beyond all telling. "God [the Father] so loved the world that he gave his only-begotten Son." (Jn 3:16). In the pardon of the Son, I meet the love of the Father. And if there is life in the sacrament, it is because the Father, in giving His Son, gives us also the Holy Spirit who pours forth the charity of God into our hearts (Rom 5:5), this Spirit who cleanses, who burns away the impurities of our soul in the fire that He is. All this is brought out strikingly in the very institution of this sacrament of peace. It is as though the glorified Christ can hardly wait to begin pouring out the effects of His loving sacrifice. The very eve of Easter Sunday, He must come to His frightened Apostles in the upper room to give them power to forgive sin, First He shows them His wounds, the price of the sacrament, and the proof that it is really the glorified Christ in His human-ity. And then: " 'Peace be to you. As the Father has sent Me, I also send you.' When He had said this, He breathed upon them and said to them, 'Receive the Holy Spirit; whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them; and whose sins you shall retain, they are retained' " (Jn 20:21- 23). The Father is there, prolonging in Jesus and through Jesus in the apostles, the love that fathered the redemp-tion. The Son is there, in His glorified humanity, com-municating the fruits of His redemptive offering. But first the Spirit must be given, for it is in the Spirit that the soul is led through the Son to the Father. What happiness for the faithful soul is this meeting in the sacrament with the ThreeI ]oy to the Heart of ]esus But if there is joy to the soul on meeting the Three, there is joy in the Three as They enrich the soul. For the eagerness of the soul to meet its God can never begin to match the love of God that goes out to meet the soul. "I have come that they may have life and have it more abundantly" (Jn I0:10). The entire life of Jesus, with all its sufferings, has been aimed precisely at moments such as these, when meeting with the soul, He can com-municate the graces won on Calvary. If love that is frus-trated and refused can be such a torment, Love that gives and is received can be immeasurable joy. It is this joy that is ours to give to Jesus as we open our hearts in sorrow to His purifying love. JACQUES LECLERCQ The Priest Today In a preceding article? on active lay people, I men-tioned the confusion of priests when they ask themselves what their purpose is since now in meetings of fill kinds lay persons make meditations and in general ~ssume a spiritual role. And yet. The Presence o] the Priest And yet the laity cling to the presence of the priest. It seems that something essential is missing if a priest is not present--this priest who does nothingl Things now are entirely different from what they used to be. For one thing, previously there were no meet-ings that resemble the ones of today. Formerly when the priest .took his part by preaching a sermon, the faithful listened and then left. Or at the time when study clubs began to be organized, the priest presided and directed, trying with more or less success to make the various mem-bers speak; and frequently he was the only one to do any speaking. Today, however, he is neither presiding officer nor director. He is rather a chaplain; he assists--in Italy he is called the assistente ecclesiastico [the ecclesiastical assistant]. At times one may have the impression that everything happens without him, but in reality there is nothing that happens without him. Everything happens with him; but this "with him" is something other than "under his direction." All of this is disconcerting for those who are accustomed to the authoritarian conceptions of former times. The priest does nothing, and yet he is indispensable. When lay persons form a spiritual group of some kind, one of their first concerns is always to have a chaplain; for without a chaplain it would seem that the group is unable to suc-ceed. Is there any way in which we can point out pre-cisely what it is that the priest provides? x In La revue nouvelle, a Belgian periodical, during 1962,. Canon Leclercq published a number of articles on the laity in the Church today. The present article is translated with permission from La revue nouvelle, September 15, 1962, pp. 171-84. 4. 4. 4. Canon Jacques Le- ¢lercq fives at 102, rue de Li/~ge; Beau-lays, Belgium. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS lacqu~s Le¢l~rcq REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 158 The matter is a real puzzle, and it is being investigated from almost every angle. It is not a question of the sacra-merits. As is evident, it is the priest who distributes these. But the Christian life, as it is conceived today, is some-thing other than the sacraments. It is based on the sacra-ments; it is nourished by them; yet Catholic Action meet-ings, or meetings of workers or of managers, of students, of scotits and their leaders, have a purpose entirely other than that of receiving the sacraments; they are not even spoken of. Nor is it expected that the priest give an in-struction or a sermon. It is only expected that he be there, participating in the meeting with the rest. It would seem that from the Christian viewpoint some-thing is lacking to lay persons when they are left to them-selves., And yet it is a question of their own life, for it is they who must put into practice what they discuss. But at the same time it is a question of their own life insofar as it is Christian. From this point of view, it is necessary to have a priest in the midst of them. And I think that this expression "in the midst of them" is the exact one. A French priest, who works among the working class, has made the following remark on this point: I think that the people need a founder, someone who ~'will unite them in the charity of Christ. Lay persons can do some things, but they cannot be centers. Hence they need Someone who will be a religious center, a kind of church, for them. They do not only need Christians who are the presence of the Church, but they need above all a church in the sense of the Church realized in this community; they need someone who unites them and who is the head in the sense of being a father, not someone who commands but one who assembles and who is first ("T~moignage de M. Lelubre" in Etudes sur ,le sacre-merit de l'ordre [Paris: Cerf, 1957], p. 432). When this is reflected on, one sees very clearly the ap-pearance of the reality that is the Church. Christ continues His presence and His action by the Church. The Church is the people of God; and the people of God is constituted first of all by lay persons. In order to avoid giving the impression of tending towards laicism --which consists of excluding the clergy--let me say at once that the Church is both lay persons and priests, all of them together. But priests--all of them, even the bishops and the pope---exist for the laity, for the service of the laity. When it is said that they exist for the laity-- the pope himself is entitled the servant of 'the servants of God---this means that the people of God is essentially the laity, that it is to them that the divine life flows and that it is through them above all that it manifests itself. If the Church, according to the words of Scripture, is like a lamp that one lights and puts on a lampstand, this is the laity--Christian life in the family and in daily occupa-tions, The clergy, priests, religious are at the service of this. The result of their work is not that an elite may en-close itself within monasteries in order to live in God, nor even that Christian people in more or less great numbers may gather in churches to. ce,lebrate divine~worship; rather the result of their "dork is that through Christians Christ lives and acts in families and in the world. Priests and religious must sanctify themselves per-sona! ly in order to create a climate of holiness in the Church; but the result of the Church's holiness must be found in homes and in the world. When we use the word "world" [citd] here, we are envisaging professional, politi-cal, and social activities--all that can be called public life. It is to this that the life of Christ in the Church tends. Hence the Church is above all the laity; and it is through the laity that she first manifests her dynamism. But it is priests who form the laity in a Christian way. Priests :are men of the Church and men of God. '.Their function is to represent the Church; they exist only for this. ~ The lay person must be entirely Christian and at the same time something else besides; this shows forth the character of the Incarnation, that reality which is found only in Christianity. The Incarnation consists in this that the work and supernatural action of God is accomplished in and through nature. It has been frequently remarked that the supernatural is above the natural, but not contrary to the natural; it does not. suppress nature but elevates it; it transforms the natural, but it takes the natural into account. It constructs from, above; this can never be repeated too often if one wishes to comprehend what Christianity is. The kingdom of God, then, must be built up among men by taking due account of their nature. The Spirit of God transforms this nature to its depths; this is mani-fested exteriorly by the intention that animates action and by the choice which is made among various actions; .never-theless, these actions retain their .human character, and this must be remembered by those who are concerned with them. The Priest is Leaven Christ compared the kingdom of God to leaven that makes the dough rise; good bread can not be made with-out yeast. But yeast alone is not sufficient to make bread. Flour is needed, and the baker must be careful to secure good flour. It is necessary to knead the bread carefully. It must be baked in a good oven at the right temperature and for the right length of time and so forth. If the 4. 4. 4. The Priest Today VOLUME 22, 139 Jacques l.eclercq REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 160 kingdom of God is like the leaven in bread, one can say that the priest is the depositary of this leaven; but it the laity who are like the bakers who must be occupied with all the conditions for the preparation of the bread. Moreover, it is they who must make use of the yeast. If the priest remains alone with his leaven, there will never be any bread; and if the bakers do not have the yeast, once again there will be no bread. Both are neces-sary. Now let us transpose all this into the entirety of life. The laity found homes and give life to the world. This obliges them to think of many things that in themselves are independent of the kingdom of God. It is to be noted that I have said "in themselves," for nothing is a stranger to the kingdom of God when one places it in the entirety of life. For example, parents must be concerned with the health of their children, their nourishment, their cloth-ing, their studies. The kingdom of God takes part in all this as a kind of preoccupation that orientates this activ-ity ir,.~ a certain measure, but only in a certain measure. And the same is the case with employers, workers, farmers, students, and so forth. But the priest is the man of God. He recalls the king-dom of God by his mere presence; one can say, by his existence, for he has no other purpose for existing. Theo-retically it should be sufficient that a priest be present for one to think of the kingdom of God. The word "theo-retically" is used because men are not perfect, and both priests and the laity are men. Nevertheless, this is the way reality is, and it is this that the laity perceive even when they cannot express it; it is this that leads them, when they are concerned with the kingdom or the way in which God should penetrate their life, to unite themselves around a priest. In brief, all the matters which.form the tissue of the llfe of the laity.are of importance for the kingdom of God; but they are not the kingdom of God. If, when they wish to discuss the repercussion of the kingdom of God on these matters, people gather together without a priest, the discussion easily slips over into the purely human condi-tions of activity; the presence of a priest, however, centers it upon the kingdom. Hence the laity need to have a priest present in their life. This also explains the desire of families to have times a visit from a priest. This is especially true in towns; but it differs from one locality to another, for we are discussing here the case of fervent Christians who desire that their faith influence their lives. In places where such Christians do not exist, the matter is quite different and needs to be discussed further. But to return to our subject, the visit of a priest to families is not a matter of giving a sermon or even of speaking principally about religion. It is a presence. Christian families enjoy having a priest in their homes. They want the priest to know them, their children, and their way of life. And this contributes to the general at-mosphere which reigns iri.~th~. home; th~"~ '6hversation spontaneously takes a vein different from the conversa-tion that is had with colleagues or with friends. And the fact that the priest is involved in their life permits all kinds of questions to be directed to him. The problem of the visit of a priest to families arouses a great many questions which can not be treated here, for they deserve an article to themselves. For the present, let us limit ourselves to pointing out these aspirations of good Christians. We are concerned with good Christians. As we pointed out previously, the Church cannot reach bad Christians or non-Christians except through the laity. The laity must be active or the Church will not take hold of the world; in the terms of the Gospel, she will be a light under a basket or leaven apart from the dough. But these active laity need the priest. Left to themselves, they are liable to be routed even in their interior life. In order that they may be united under the standard of Christ and that they may attack in an orderly way the problems of their interior life and of their Christian action in the world, the priest must be in the midst of them. In conclusion, let us note that in the Church at the beginning of this century the priest was occupied with a good many other things which were often profane; by reason of a tradition which dies away only slowly, many priests today are still taken up to a large extent by ad-ministrative and other activities which the laity would be better occupied with. The result is that priests are ab-sorbed by activities which are not suited to them; at the same time they are unavailable for groups of active Christians or they find it impossible to visi~ families. In any case, this new role of the priest is so important that there can be no Church without him. And the activ-ities that correspond to this role are so numerous and pressing that good priests are crowded with such activ-ities. And there is even the complaint that there are not enough priests. And yet what we have discussed so far is but one of the activities of a priest. Spiritual Action The action of leaven can not be seen; this results in difficulty for some because man has a body and is highly dependent on it. Man needs to see, and yet the soul and action on souls cannot be seen. ÷ ÷ ÷ The Priest Today VOLUME 22, ~.963 161 lacques Leclercq REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS There are, first of all, the older priests of whom we have already spoken; for these the pastoral ministry is ex-pressed by material activities and they can not conceive any other type. Moreover, they do not conceive of any other priestly intervention than the authoritarian form of formal congregational meetings composed of a sermon and a greeting. Today, all this has become secondary, if indeed it has not been completely abandoned. Formerly when the priest spoke authoritatively, he gave directions in many matters (politics, for instance) which touched religion only very indirectly. At the present time, there is a growing agreement that priests are not to in-terest themselves in the temporal. However, many priests formerly were interested in nothing else. To the extent that this remains true, one can understand that they have the impression of no longer knowing what to do. This outmoded spirit dies out only slowly; in semi-naries as well as in houses of study of religious orders clerical formation likewise becomes transformed only slowly. One even finds young priests who think that, when they are with the laity, their role should be one of teaching and that they alone should do the talking. They find themselves ill at ease when persons are not disposed to listen to them first of all. Others still think that they must do everything themselves~determine the place, day, and hour of the meetings and issue the announcements. Again they feel discomforted when a group of active Christians organize everything without them and then come to invite them. We are living in an age of transformation. The older attitude with its way of doing things is gradually giving way. But some priests still retain the older attitudes and do not conceive the possibility of allowing the laity to act. On the other hand, many of the laity retain a purely passive conception of their role; not only do they leave everything to the priest, but they will do nothing if they are asked to take over a work. "Adult" lay persons (of whom I have been speaking) and priests adapted to such are still but few in number. Nevertheless, when one compares today with the be-ginning of the century, the transformation is unmistak-able. The essential thing is that this evolution continue and that the priest should more and more return to. the spiritual; that is, to the domain that belongs to him. But is "return" the correct word? He should rather aspire to it. But man is material, and the older conception gives satisfaction to a kind of unconscious materialism. Collaboration Formerly, one spoke only of authority and obedience. The faithful should obey, and nothing else was asked of them. Today, however, as we have seen, they are asked to think and to act for themselves. The meetings of active Christians have as their purpose a united program to enable the realization of the Christian ideal in the actual circumstances of life. Accordingly, the pri~est.is, no longer '~oncerned only with teaching; he listens and he invites the faithful to make their own personal contribution. This can be seen even in the matter of worship; the Mass has ceased to be a sacrifice offered by the priest alone at an altar distant from the people and in front of a congregation uncon-cerned with what he is doing, Now the Mass has become the community sacrifice offered by the priest an'd the faithful together, the priest being the spokesman of the community, the representative of the Church and of Christ, the celebrant of a sacrifice which belongs to the entire community. This is a profoundly changed state of affairs. Priests and laity act together. The Church is a single body and all of its members are active. This is a true resurrection. And by this very fact the priest has been strikingly ennobled, for he is no longer limited to being the shep-herd of a passive flock but has become instead the ani-mator of an active community. This change is to be found on all levels of the Church. The last and highest is that at the very center of the ChurCh, the See of Rome. Vati-can Council II gives witness to this transformation; and it is clear how John XXIII envisages the matter. His man-ner is not one like this: "Let the bishops say what they want, I shall do only what I want"; rather, his attitude is this: "I am deeply concerned to know the opinions of the bishops in order that I may take their advice into account." No one can derive from this the impression that pontifical power has thereby been lessened; but every-one does get the impression that the. Church forms one living body, animated by a movement of the whole. The role of the clergy is essential for the Church. When Catholicism is compared with Protestantism and with Orthodoxy, this role of the clergy is one of the most striking characteristics of the Church. Perhaps this ex-plains the retreat of the laity after the Reformation which placed the clergy in the background and in many cases even suppressed the priesthood and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Now, however, the Church has recovered from this crisis; Christian life is now developing in its com-plete totality. Henceforth the Church will no longer be divided into the active Church composed of the clergy and the passive Church composed of the laity. The Church is a body ÷ ÷ ÷ The Priest Today VOLUME 22, 1963 ]63 ÷ ÷ ÷ Jacqo, es REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS I6,t of priests and laity together, living together, thinking together, acting together. As Cardinal Suhard put it: "The true achiever of evangelization is not the simple faithful nor the priest by himself; it is the Christian com-munity." The laity are fulfilling their role; the priest turn is free to be himself. Spiritual Counselor The direction of conscience has enjoyed a large place in the modern Church; it has been one of the principal instruments in the formation of a Christian elite. Never-theless, it has been especially concerned with women. When one reads the letters of the great spiritual directors, it is seen that they have been addressed almost exclusively to women. These women belonged to the higher levels of society. Today, however, as a result of the general spread of education and of the rise of active Christians, those who are concerned with the spiritual life are becoming more numerous and are to be found at all levels; they are found among workers and in the country as well as among the intellectuals. If it is necessary to practice direction of souls as it was formerly conceived, the clergy will be un-able to cope with it. But here once more, does not the spirit of collabora-tion profoundly transform conditions? Christians gather together with a priest to reflect on their Christian life; together they confront most of the questions that were formerly treated by individual conferences between the director and his spiritual child. In these conferences those seeking direction used to speak to their director not only of their interior life but of everything that con-cerned themselves. They asked their director's advice with regard to their relations with their husbands, with their children, and with their friends. They discussed the amount of freedom to be given their children, the amount of money to be given them, their clothes, companions, activities. Now all this is discussed in groups and in a way that is far more effective. Formerly, the person seeking direction would describe a situation to the director and he would decide the matter. The one consulting would act as though the director were omniscient, and he in turn would decide everything as though in fact he were. It was even taught as a received doctrine that the word of the director, was the word of God, that the director had the required graces of state, and that one should obey him blindly. Now it is realized that this was a false mystique, foreign to the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation; neverthe-less, it formed a coherent system. Christians concerned with the exigencies o[ morality would consult their con[essor on the matter o[ all their reading. No priest, however, can be acquainted with everything that is being published. The con[essor, i[ he believed himsel[ obliged to answer--and [ormerly the majority believed themsel~ces so obliged h~d~0 answer by guessing or had to make use o[ a systematic severity in order to avoid all risk o[ danger . And thereby/ other dangers were [allen into. From another viewpoint, there were husbands who op-posed the idea o[ their wives having a director o[ con-science on the grounds that they did not want between themselves and their wives a secret authority which the latter obeyed absolutely. Moreover, the women who con-suhed a director were usually women who were not mar-ried or who were unhappily married. This meant that spiritual direction had mixed in with it a purely human desire [or masculine support, and this in a proportion that is difficult to determine. All this has passed, and we have arrived at a much sounder state o[ affairs. All the matters that we have men-tioned are taken up today in groups. In [amily groups there are discussed today the problems o[ conjugal intimacy, o[ prayer in common, and the prayer o[ each o[ the spouses. In all kinds o[ groups, there is discussion o[ diversions, o[ entertainments, o[ reading, o[ the time to be given to recreation and to apostolic work, and o[ the problems o[ pro[essional li[e. Since the dil~erent kinds o[ groups are highly diversified, the questions that are confronted also differ greatly; nevertheless, the great part of matters that were [ormerly treated by individual direction is now considered by groups, each member con-tributing the results o[ his own experience; the priest has only to contribute his own element. The result is that while the number o[ Christians de-sirous o[ a Christian life that will dominate their entire existence is growing, the number of those who want direction o[ conscience in the individualistic sense of former times is diminishing. Even the phrase "spiritual director" is vanishing; the expression tod~y is that of "spiritual counselor." Everything is simplified; every-thing is developed in an atmosphere of collaboration that befits adult li[e. Hence, [or example, when a [amily group discusses the liberty to be given to children o[ different ages or the amount of money to be given them, solutions are reached that are more balanced and more realistic than those [ormerly obtained when the one consulting was limited to accepting the word of a director who was a stranger to the li[e o[ the [amily. Some Christians, however, still have recourse to a spiritual director after the older method, but they are The Pr~st ToOa~y VOLUME 22, 1963 165 ]~que, Leclegcq REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in general those who are slow to be caught up by the strong current that is sweeping through the Church and reanimating Christian life. Unfortunately they are still numerous, for a great many Christians as well as a great many priests remain immobilized in older conceptions. The movement that stresses the laity touches only a cer-tain sector and certain levels of the population. There are even entire regions where it is unknown. We are seeking here to emphasize the signs of this renewal, for we are sure that it is in this renewal that the future of the Church lies. That which is merely a prolongation of the past will fall as the world progresses. Undoubtedly, there will always remain certain ele-ments of the old direction of conscience, certain needs (more or less occasional) that will require personal, in-dividual contacts. In most of these cases confession will be sufficient. It is impossible to predict what will eventu-ally happen, but it is clear that everything is being sim-plified as the Christian animation of life grows. The Word Today much consideration is given to the ministry of the word; this again is a reaction against the past. Formerly, it was taken for granted that society was Christian. Children were instructed in religion, but no attention was paid to adults. Certain traditions, peri-odically restated by councils, obliged to a preaching directed to the instruction of the people; but actual practice had stifled the rule. One has only to recall what the state was of the ministry of the word. Now the word lives again; the most significant sign of this rebirth is undoubtedly retreats. The development of the spiritual life of active Christians has been accom-panied by the multiplication of retreats and periods of recollection. These have become so numerous that or~e can speak accurately in this connection in terms of a spiritual explosion. Retreats and days of recollection are organized in every walk of life: workers, business men, engineers, physicians, young persons of every category. Every time a group with a spiritual character is founded, retreats are organized. At the very time I am writing these lines, I have before me the bulletin of the Association of House-keepers for Priests, an organization that exists in France and Belgium; they, too, organize retreats and days of recollection. Moreover, undifferentiated retreats are also multiplying; these are directed towards all Christians and include without distinction both men and women, priests and laity. Once more we can note that formerly there were some retreat houses maintained by the Jesuits who pioneered them and by convents of women imbued by the Jesuit spirit; there was also a small number of persons who went to these houses for retreats. Today it is an immense move-ment. There are parishes which have retreat leagues com-posed of persons who make a retreat each- y.ear. In certain regions these leagues are systematically organized; in cer-tain dioceses of The Netherlands they are a regular insti-tution of every parish. And I am not speaking now of women, for women retreatants are even more numerous. Hence it is not a matter for astonishment that retreat houses are constantly being opened everywhere and that there are always too few of them. Rooms must generally be reserved in advance; and it can happen that a retreat must be canceled for lack of an available retreat house. But there is also need for priests. Preaching is par excellence a priestly duty. At the present moment the number of priests conducting retreats is legion. Formerly retreats were largely reserved to certain religious orders; but now many diocesan priests (pastors, chaplains, teach-ers) give them. Nevertheless, the number of retreat masters is still not sut~ciently large. As a general rule, it is very easy to find retreatants; retreat houses are more difficult to find; but hardest of all to find are priests. At the beginning of these articles, I recalled those who asked what was left for a priest to do now that there are active lay persons; the answer is that priests are needed for things that are genuinely priestlyl The Christian people have a hunger and thirst for the word of God, and those who can dispense it to them are not numerous enough. This is a matter of the priestly ministry par excellence. The tendency of today's priest is to occupy himself by preference in such ministries, for he feels himself the apostle of Christ in the strongest sense of that term; and he prefers to leave to lay persons the care of administra-tion. I have known a pastor who had to build a church; he appointed a committee of lay persons to raise the money while he himself conducted retreats. Perhaps the building of the church progressed a little more slowly than it would have had he devoted all his time to raising money, but he was at work shaping souls. All this also supposes a transformation in the clergy; for the majority of older priests, administrators of parishes, teachers of profane subjects, have been completely held back from conducting retreats. If they left this matter to religious, this was not without good reason. Today the importance of religious has not diminished, but retreat masters now come from every ecclesiastical sector. The Priest Today VOLUME 22, 167 $acques Leclercq REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 168 Collaboration Once More Together with divine worship, preaching is un-doubtedly the chief priestly activity; and yet even here there is to be found an interchange of priests and laity. Retreats differ greatly. In some the retreatants are plunged into an absolute silence; the director gives them talks throughout the entire day. In this case the renewal of Christian life is marked by the radical character of the retreat--more contemplative, more silent than could have been borne before. But there are also retreats where with-out any lessened preoccupation with the spiritual an hour a day is reserved for an exchange of views; in this period each one can present his problems as he discerns them in the particular situation in which he finds himself. Persons of an older form of mind find it indiscreet to expose one's state of soul to the whole world. Formerly in a retreat one listened to the director who was the only one to speak; then purely profane recreation pe-riods were had, and the retreatants who desired it could consult the retreat master personally and individually. Often retreatants would bring up the same questions; the retreat master would always give the same answer. In general, the matters discussed were such that there was no compelling reason to keep them secret; hence it often happened that the retreatants told each other what the re-treat master had told them. Today all this is treated in a community session; every-one profits by it, and it produces a community spirit in the group. The retreatants feels themselves engaged in a common work. The divine life in us, our work for the service of God, are problems that interest all Of us to-gether. We no longer go to heaven alone; we go there with our brethren; indeed it is impossible to go there alone, for we depend on those who surround us. The king-dom of God is a community enterprise to which we belong and which we ought to undertake together. Even a re-treat is a community enterprise. In addition to this, it is now customary to have lay persons speak during a retreat. Retreats are par excellence a priestly work; nevertheless, it does happen that a layman is invited to speak of an aspect ofthe Christian life which he knows. One of my friends was invited by a teacher to speak to his students during the retreat at the end of their studies; the subject was the role of the Christian in the world; after the talk the teacher told him: "It does them much more good to hear all this from a layman." Likewise lay persons are invited to speak in seminaries. In a Canadian magazine I found a letter from Rome con-cerned with the matter expressed by Cardinal Sali~ge as "making use of the layman." The correspondent described how some theological students in Rome had invited a father of a family to speak to them of his Christian life. ¯. Montreal, Rome, Toulouse, and now this article which is to appear in Brussels and Buenos Aires--the problems are everywhere the same. Lay persons are eve~:ywher~e.;,~so also are,priests. They are together, shoulder to'~hourder. We cannot do without the one more than the other. What About the Others? The reader will have noticed that the lay persons dis-cussed here are the active la!ty who have grown into Christian maturity. What has been said is concerned only with the activity of a priest in relationship to such laymen. But what about the others--who compose the vast major-ity of men? Clearly, the groups of which we have spoken, the aware-ness of the exigencies of Christian life, and the giving of retreats are giving to Christians a shape and a form very different from that which they previously had. As we have already remarked, we are seeing a new Christian people appearing. But if these Christians remain among them-selves and if the clergy is concerned only with them, what changes will there be in the world as a whole? Whatever else may be said about this problem, it is true that they will always be there in the world. They are not isolated from the world: they are shopkeepers with a neighborhood store; they are factory workers and en-gineers; they are white-collared workers; they are physi-cians and druggists. They are everywhere. They come to-gether to arouse their Christian awareness; but afterwards they disperse and return to the mass. This is a slow work which one can judge only over long intervals. One can see, for example, that the position of Catholic literature in the world is today far different from what it was a hundred years ago. The same can be said for the position of Catholics in philosophy, in art, in politics. This is true, someone may say; but this is only a matter of a few leaders. To this I would answer that the remark is true; but every leader supposes a body of followers. If Catholic writers and artists today show both a talent and a conformity to the aspirations of the times which were not shown a hundred years ago, then this has happened be-cause the environment must have changed. And it is the same if Catholic philosophers are able to speak to the men of today. Such persons are perhaps the flower of Christianity; but the flower supposes the stem, and the stem in turn supposes the root. If I am the root, I need not be humiliated by the 4. 4. 4. The Priest Today VOLUME 2Z, ~.963 169 ÷ ÷ ÷ Jacques Leclercq REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS fact that I am not seen; it is owing to me that the flower can charm the eye. The position of the Church in the world is, then, pro-roundly changed. And in the examples given above, it will be noted that this transformation has been achieved by lay persons. Writers like Claudel, Chesterton, Bernanos, Ger-trud yon le Fort have undoubtedly done more to attract men to Catholicism than any theologian and perhaps more even than any priest. But they have been in relation with a priest. In short, the role of the priest is exercised on the interior of the Church, on those who are united in the Church; it is these latter who thereupon go out to speak to the world. At times the complaint is heard ~that Christians barri-cade themselves within a ghetto, living by themselves without contact with the outside. The complaint is well founded; if they dose themselves up with each other, the salt will not be able to give its flavor. And it is true that there is a dangerous exclusivism, a fear of leaving a Christian background. This fear is a debilitating thing, for of all the emotions fear is the one that is most debasing. The spreading of ideas, and especially the Christian spreading of ideas, is done by the osmosis of personal con-tact; it is to be noted, however, that this notion of per-sonal contact is a wide one extending to the books that are read and the films that are seen. The action of Chris-tianity proceeds from the fact that the Christian environ-ment reflects Christ. A great many who were born and raised Christian turn from Christianity because they do not find Christ in the Christianity which has been pre-sented to them. What they need is for active Christians to give them an exact image of Christianity. Others, also educated as Christians, turn from Christianity when they perceive the demands it makes on them. The Church loses nothing when such quit her, for they discredit her in the measure that they are believed to represent her. This is the case with cei'tain governments which declare them-selves Catholic. This, then, is a question of the large numbers of Chris-tians who are lukewarm and indifferent. But there is an-other group, larger still, those who are not Christian:; at all. Among these the seed must be sown. Here, too, the role of the priest is essential. Father Vinatur in the text cited above remarked that the priest is a founder. It is true; Christianity is founded only by a priest. This is seen from the very beginning; in the Acts of the Apostles there is related the ministry of St. Paul; he is seen taking up his residence in a city, making some converts, and then leaving when Christianity has been set up and a member of the community--the priest--has been established as head. This is a permanent condition of things. Active lay persons can prepare the soil; they can arouse sympa-thetic interest; but a Christian community is.formed only when a priest comes. This.i~ true on all, levels of the Church. When Catholid Action was constituted with its appeal to assume a genuinely religious activity, it was priests who took the initiative in the matter. So also when the family movement was founded to concern itself with the Christian life of married persons, it was begun by priests. Lay persons came afterwards; in a certain sense, they ended by doing everything. But the priest remains, and he will never be able to be dispensed with. This, then, is the design of the new Church, animated by a Christian life which has not been known since early times, a Church of Christians all sharing in the life and action of Christ. This Church is but sketched in the reality before us at the present time; but this sketch is the image of what is being formed. The confidence which we can have for the future comes from the fact that Christ is living in this Church in a way that He has not since her early centuries. ÷ ÷ The Priest Today VOLUME 22, 196,~ 171 LADISLAS M. ORSY, S.J. From Meditation to Contemplation ÷ ÷ ÷ Ladislas M. Orsy, S.J., is professor of canon law at the Gregorian Univer-sity; Piazza della Pilotta, 4; Rome, Italy. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS The aim of this article is both practical and doctrinal: it is to give practical help for the difficult period of tran-sition from meditation to contemplation and to show the theological background of the change that takes place in the soul. Meditation in these pages means prayer with the help of concepts, images, and more or less enforced acts of will. Contemplation means silence before God, prayer in which the soul is transformed under God's powerful ac-tion. In meditation the accent is on activity, in contem-plation on passivity. In meditation the soul tries to reach God by thoughts, feelings, and desires; in contemplation God has reached the soul and works on it without thoughts, feelings, or desires. In meditation the soul fights its way towards God; in contemplation it should stand before God in poverty. Passivity and poverty are then the foundations for a new type of activity and for new riches that have their source in God's powerful ac-tion. Such a deep change in prayer affects the whole man: it is a change in personality. It is not without difficulties; Saint Teresa remarks that there is no time in the spirit-ual life when it is so easy to give up prayer altogether as the time when contemplation begins. God's Work in the Soul God is eternally present in the soul: it is His presence that gives it life and being, it is His presence that sancti-fies it. He is not only present, He is working in the soul, infusing light and love into our mind and love into our will power. His final aim is to take possession of our person so that we should be united to Him and be His adopted children for an eternity. God is eternally present in the soul. He was there since the moment of our creation; but at the moment of our baptism He came again, not in majesty but as a good friend, and made our soul His own dwelling house where He likes to remain. He brought sanctity and holiness with Him and transformed the soul. As when fire is made in a cold and dark r0on~ ~th~ place be~ome~ ~¢arm and full of light, so when God comes into the soul it is filled with warmth and light. It is clothed with immortality, it belongs to God's family, in a way it becomes divine. The new life the soul receives is called sanctifying grace, the new light in the mind faith, and the infused love in the will power hope and charity. They are all fruits of the presence of God; should He leave the soul, there would be dark and cold again. God works in the soul. There is not one moment of rest for Him. He is supremely good and happy, and He wants to share His rich goodness and happiness with others. Consequently, His sanctifying presence is in fact a work of continuous sanctification. Light and love are given to mind and will in abundance: light that we may see and better understand things divine,-.love that we may go towards God at a better pace. This action of God is peaceful and quiet: He does not like noise and agitation. It is this action that ought to be the source of all our thoughts and deeds; unless they proceed from God they will be empty and they will not bear any fruit for eternal life. God's aim is to take possession of our person. He is not satisfied with partial sanctification of His family. He wants to bring them into the very centre of His own life where the Father and the Son and the Spirit are one and where They know and love each other without end. To say that one does not want to be more than an ordinary good Christian (meaning by it that one does not want to be perfect) is to betray a lack of generosity and to show a great ignorance of God's intention who wants all His children to grow continuously and reach their full maturity in Christ. The extent of the necessary trans-formation is indicated by the distance (which each one easily realizes for himself) between God's purity and our impurity, between His charity and our own obscurity. Nevertheless, it is this complete transformation that is God's aim and nothing less. He has the means to achieve it: by the gentle action of His love in this world and by Purgatory in the other. No person who wants to see God can escape this cleansing process; and those who are generous will want to get through it soon, if possible, in this life. Such desire is not a presumption: it is no more than conforming our will to God's will. 4. 4. 4. Meditation to Contemplation VOLUME 22, 196~ 173 4. 4. 4. L. M.'Or~y, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ]74 Meditation When God comes into the soul of man and wants to sanctify him, He encounters a great obstacle which is man's fallen nature with all that it entails: sin, attach-ment to worldly things, false judgments, and selbwill as hard as steel. Purification is necessary. It is mainly done by God, but man has his part in it as well. Meditation is one of the first steps in this cleansing process. Man has heard the voice of God and wants to obey Him and be near Him. But man's mind is not clear and clean enough to perceive the light that comes from God living in his soul, his will is not sensitive enough follow the inspirations of grace. It is literally embedded in mortal and perishing things, it is ruled not by God but by the senses. Training is necessary for both mind and will in order to lift them from the visible into the in-visible, from the tangible into the intangible, from the sensitive into the spiritual. Part of this training is what we call meditation. The mind has to be trained. It should be a training in divine truth so that our thoughts, ideas, judgments correspond to those of God and thus that the two minds be united as far as possible into one. This training is done by the soul in an active and discursive way when it meditates on the words of our Lord, on the mysteries of His life, on the Church. What the person does is to fill his mind with God's thoughts instead of his own. He is really trying to m~ike his mind a better instrument for the perception of God's inspirations, an instrument more adapted to receive God's light. It is a tuning-up or warm-ing- up process. The mind is bathed in the divine truth so that it may become divine. This is done in an active way, by reasoning, by considering the call of Christ our Lord or God's beauty in nature, or by imagining the Holy Family. Man is working his way towards God. The will has to be trained as well. The attraction of things eternal is fine and delicate, and our selfish will does not easily notice it. In order to become more sensi-tive to the action of grace, the selfishness of our nature and of our will in particular ought to be broken by con-tinuous exercise in mortification. The aim is that our will should become soft and flexible, attached to nothing, so that it may follow the will of God in everything. To attain that aim, one has to work hard and in an active way. One has to do penance, one has to give up many things, many of his likings, one has to be humble; and there is no dispensation from this work. Since the mind and will are active, activity predomi-nates at this stage of the spiritual life. But sometimes it may happen that a longing awakens in the soul after God Himself, a desire to meet the living God without any human speech, image, or idea. Words and pictures are created things; they do not satisfy the soul that has been created to see God face to face. The desire to meet God without passing through created images all the time may be a sign of better things to come. Transition Thoughts, perception, and feelings are all created things. If we are called to union with God, there must be a moment when they have to disappear since no hu-man person can be satisfied with looking at the picture of somebody he loves when personal contact is possible. Besides~ those acts may fulfill their purpose in the puri-fication of mind and will. Their nature being limited, their efficacy is limited too. I can penetrate the mind of God to a certain extent by meditating on the Gospel; I can follow the will of God to a great extent by trying to do what I think the best. But neither my meditations nor my good deeds have the power to cleanse my soul so well that I may truly say that God has taken possession of me and that I am no more than an instrument in His hand. The true cleansing is reserved to God. It is He who transforms the soul by infusing light and love into it in a more than ordinary measure; it is that light and love that sanctify and purify the whole man. 1. External Signs. The first sign to indicate that a per-son might have a "vocation" to contemplative prayer is that he does not find any more "taste" in meditation: he does not enjoy it any more in the best and spiritual sense of the word. Before, he was able to collect a great va-riety of fruit in his meditation: words and images paci-fied his soul and helped him to formulate good resolu-tions. Now he finds that his meditation is more like a dried-up fountain which does not contain fresh water. But not to have any "taste" in meditation is a purely negative sign: it might well be the indication of careless-ness or of drifting towards the world. Hence, a more posivite sign is needed to confirm that it is God who brought about the change. The positive sign will be a deep longing in the soul for God and a sincere desire to follow Christ our Lord in everything and to be con-formed to His image. A sincere desire that is manifest in deeds. The loss of "taste" in meditation and the longing for God are always coupled with a turning away from this created world. This loss of interest in created things, even if they are very good in themselves, is the third sign; and it is a natural consequence of what has taken place: 4. 4. Meditation to Contemplation VOLUME 22, 1963 ]75 ÷ 4. 4- when the soul is not satisfied any more with created con-cepts in its prayer, it cannot be satisfied with created things either. The change may be astonishing for the person concerned: he used to enjoy music and art, litera-ture and human company, and now he notices that they all leave him dry and empty. When all these signs are found together, loss of "taste" in meditation after it has been practiced for a fairly long time (which may vary from person to person), longing for God in solitude (the longing being confirmed by solid virtues in practice), and the consequent loss of good and legitimate pleasure in created things, then the person concerned may have the vocation to a simpler form of prayer. If these signs are not there, any attempt to leave be-hind meditation and practice another form of prayer, namely the prayer of simplicity, may be poisonous for the soul; it may weaken its spiritual life and it may even ruin the soul altogether. 2. An Explanation. The signs just described are ex-ternal, but what is happening internally in the soul? What is it that brought the change about? The answer is that gradually and in a hidden way God is taking possession of the soul and its facilities. As mind and will have been purified to a reasonable degree, though by no means perfectly, God's work on them~be-comes more intense. Light and love are being given in a larger measure than ever before, and the hand of God begins to shape the new man, the new creature of St. Paul, out of the old. It is as if the hand of God had touched the soul from behind and in the dark. The soul recognised the touch instinctively but could not see the person. It turned away from all creatures, whether con-cepts, images in prayer, or works of art, and conceived a longing for its Maker and Creator. Hence the loss of "taste" in meditation, longing for God, and the feeling of emptiness in the presence of created objects. God comes near enough to awaken a deep desire in the soul but not near enough to let the soul perceive something of God's beauty. It follows that for a while (and it may be a very long while) one may remain in the dark: all consolation from this world is lost, but no sen-sible consolation from the other world is coming. Per-haps it would be truer to say that though the heart is pure enough to feel the obscure touch of God, as yet it: is not able to receive the light in its fullness because of the many impurities that it still has. The result is darkness; and if one does not know what is happening it is easy to lose confidence and even to give up prayer altogether. In truth, it is a time of grace for the soul. 3. Some Practical Advice. If the signs for contempla-tion are there, it would not be wise to force oneself to make meditations in a strict and methodical form. One cannot turn the clock back, not even in the spiritual life. The time of predominantly active prayer, is over; now one has to learn how to~follow~the lead The first step towards more passivity should be the simplification of prayer. Intellectual considerations dur-ing prayer time should be left out as much as possible. Their place should be taken by simple acts of faith, hope, and love, which are the beginning of any prayer and the fruit of the best of prayers. The soul should .learn how to come back to the same idea again and again and find peace, joy, and "taste" in it. Also there should be a tend-ency towards greater receptivity, but with prudence and wisdom. God likes to take His time; He likes to build slowly and gradually. Our duty is to follow the move-ments of His grace: we should not try to go any faster than He wants us to go nor should we lag behind. The adaptation to this new way of life in which it is God who holds the initiative is bound to be a long process. It is not an exaggeration to say that it is a change in our personality. It is bound to affect everything in our life, our way of thinking, working, and our relations with other persons. A likeness to Christ our Lord is being formed in us. After the initial difficulties a long period of peaceful development may ensue. Prayer will be a mixture of ac-tivity and passivity; but if the soul is faithful, it may reach the stage in which the main rule is passivity. A passivity that leads to a readiness to do the will of God and to a very practical love of God and our neighbour. One final remark is necess
Issue 16.6 of the Review for Religious, 1957. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious NOVEMBER 15, 1957 Current Spiritual Writing . Thomas G. O'Callaghan The Intellectual Life of Religious Sister Emily Joseph Survey of Roman Documents . R. I:. Smith Persevering in Prayer . Mother Marie Vandenbergh Book Reviews Communications Questions and Answers I:::or Your Information Index for 1957 VOLUME 16 NUMBER 6 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS \7o~,~.~E 16 NOVEMBER, 1957 NUMBER CONTENTS FOR YOUR INFORMATION . SOME BOOKS RECEIVED . OUR CONTRIBUTORS . CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING-- Thomas G. O'Callaghan, S.J . THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE OF THE RELIGIOUS: PRACTICAL ASPECTS--Sister Emily Joseph, c.s.J . FATHER GALLEN'S ABSENCE . BOUSCAREN-ELLIS . COMMUNICATIONS . SURVEY OF ROMAN DOCUMENTS--R. F. Smith, S.J . PERSEVERING IN PRAYER-- Mother Marie Vandenbergh, R.C . BOOK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS: Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS: 34. Simplification of the Habit . 35. Bibliography on Renovation and Adaptation . 36. Minimizing the Religious Exercises . 37. Anticipation of Perpetual Profession Not Permitted . 38. Using Personal Gifts for Masses . 39. Reciting the Formula of the Vows Collectively . INDEX FOR VOLUME 16 . 321 ¯323 323 324 337 341 341 342 343 350 366 375 377 378 379 ¯ 380 380 381 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, November, 1957. Vol. 16, No. 6. Published bi-monthly by The Queen's Work, 3115 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis 18, Mo. Edited by the Jesuit Fathers of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approval. Second class mail privilege authorized at St. Louis, Mo. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.J.; Gerald Kelly, S.J., Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Robert F. Weiss, S.J. Copyright, 1957, by The Queen's Work. Subscription price in U.S.A. and Canada: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U.S.A. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: Review for Religious, 3115 South Grand Boulevard. St. Louis 18o Missouri. I:or Your Inl:ormat:ion Regarding Summer Sessions For many years we have been publishing announcements of sum-mer sessions. Our purpose in doing this is to help our readers to know where they may attend courses or institutes of special per-tinence to religious. Directors and deans of summer sessions who wish to avail themselves of this service should carefully observe the following points: 1) Only courses of special pertinence to religious should be listed. 2) The announcement should be limited to a single paragraph. The length of this paragraph is irrelevant, provided it contains only matters of special pertinence to religious. 3) The paragraph should be triple-spaced and prepared in such a manner that it can be sent to the printer without re-typing or editing. 4) There should be a reasonable minimum of capital letters, and no words should be typed entirely in capital letters. 5) The dates of the summer sessions or institutes should be clearly specified. 6) The best time for publishing these announcements is our March number. The deadline for this number is January 5. The next best time is the May number. The deadline for this number is March I. Plus XII on Self-love We receive many articles that refer to self-love as something opposed to love of God and love of neighbor, as something that must be stifled at all costs. No doubt, similar statements can be found in the writings of saints and in classical spiritual books. The basic mistake in such writings seems to be an unjustifiable identifica-tion of self-love with selfishness, or inordinate self-love. According to sound theology, self-love itself is good and a matter of divine precept. This was emphatically taught by Pope Plus XII in his address to psychotherapists (April 13, 1953), when he said: "From certain psychological explanations, the thesis is formulated that the unconditional extroversion of the ego constitutes the funda-mental law of congenital altruism and of its dynamic tendencies. This 321 FOR YOUR INFORMATION Review for Religious is a logical, psychological, and ethical error. There exists in fact a defense, an esteem, a love, and a service of one's personal self which is not only justified but demanded by psychology and morality. Nature makes this plain, and it is also a lesson of the Christian Faith. Our Lord taught, 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.' Christ, then, proposes as the rule of love of neighbor, charity towards onself, not the contrary." The Religious Habit In our January number (pp. 3-9), we published an article by Father Lee Teufel, S.J., which gave the results of a questionnaire on adapting the religious garb of sisters. Our May number (pp. 176-79) contained a lengthy communication from a sister, who criticized the attitude of those religious who had answered Father Teufel's ques-tionnaire. This sister also expressed the fear that seculars who read this article would be shocked. We have received four more communications on the same topic. All these communications are from sisters. Two defend Father Teufel and those who answered his questionnaire; and two defend the view expressed in the May communication. We should like to publish ali these letters, but we cannot do so for two reasons: (1) the communications are too long; and (2) the letters on both sides manifest too many misunderstandings of others' views and actions. Unless all write about the same thing, and do so briefly, there seems to be little use in continuing the discussion. Although we cannot publish the communications themselves, we believe we should mention, and comment on, some of the points brought out in them. One sister, for instance, protests that we showed poor taste in publishing Father Teufel's article--in fact, she thinks the Communists should feel happy about it. We leave it to others to judge our taste. It seems appropriate, however, to call attention to the fact that one of our purposes in founding this magazine was to have a medium through which religious could discuss their common problems. And since the change of garb advocated by the Holy See has many aspects that are common to numerous religious in-stitutes, we think this an appropriate topic for discussion in our pages and that those who take part in such a discussion are not showing any disloyalty to their own institutes. Perhaps the basic difficulty is really expressed in the other letter against Father Teufel's article, as well as in the communication 322 November, 1957 FOR YOUR INFORMATION published in May: namely, the fear that public discussion of this topic will disedify seculars. On this point, we should like to inform our readers that we try to limit the circulation of this periodical to religious and diocesan priests. We do not encourage other sub-scriptions, and we have very few of them. It is true that in some institutions the REVIEW is placed in the library where it is available to students and others. We are not responsible for this custom, and we should like to have it changed. SOME BOOKS RECEIVED [Only books sent directly to the Book Review Editor, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana, are included in our Reviews and Announcements. The following books were sent to St. Marys.] Lutero en EspaF~a yen la Am6~rica espahola. By Ricardo V. Feliu. Protestant Founders, 15 Whitehall Street, New York 4, New York. 90 pesetas (paper cover). Priestly and Religious Formation. By Edmund T. Dunne, C.SS.R. Clonmore and Reynolds Ltd., 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 18/-. The Art of Teaching Christian Doctrine. By Johannes Hofinger, S.J. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Indiana. $3.50. Ontologia. By Salvator Cuesta, S.J. Sal Terrae, Santander, Spain. 60 pesetas (paper cover~. People's Participation and Holy Week. Seventeenth North Ameri-can Liturgical Week, London, Canada, 1956. The Liturgical Confer-ence, Elsberry, Missouri. $2.08 (paper cover). The Image of God in Man According to Cyril of Alexandria. By Walter J. Burghardt, S.J. The Catholic University of America Press, 620 Michigan Avenue, N.E., Washington 17, D. C. $3.00 (paper cover). Praelectiones theologicoomorales Comillenses. Tomus IV. Trac-tatus de conscientia morali. Pars altera. Theoria de conscientia morali reflexa. By Lucius Rodrigo, S.a!. Sal Terrae, Santander, Spain. L'Apostolat. Probl~mes de la Religieuse d'aujourd'hui. Les edi-tions du cerf, 29, Bld de Latour-Maubourg, Paris. Memento canonique sur le noviciat et al profession religieuse. By Dom Pierre Minard, O.S.B. Editions Fides, 25 est, rue Saint-Jacques, Montreal 1, Canada. $2.60 (paper cover). OUR CONTRIBUTORS THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN is professor of ascetical and mystical theology at Weston College, Weston 93, Massachusetts. SISTER EMILY JOSEPH is head of the classics department at the College of St. Rose, Albany 3, New York. R.F. SMITH is a member of the faculty of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. MOTHER MARIE VANDENBERGH is guest mistress at the Cenacle Retreat House, Route 1, Box 97-A, Rosharon, Texas. 323 Current Spiritual Writ:ing Thomas ~. O'Calhgh~n~ S.J. Sacred Heart ON THE OCCASION of the first centenary of the extension to the universal Church of the feast of the Sacred Heart, Pope Pius XII issued the encyclical letter Haurietis aquas. The subject matter of this encyclical is devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, its scriptural and traditional foundation, its true meaning and place in the Church. The Holy Father assured us that this devotion is not only the most complete profession of the Chris-tian religion, but that it is also of obligation for all the faithful. Because of this importance of the devotion to the Heart of the Incarnate Word, there is a real need for a clear understanding of its true meaning. To read, reread, and study carefully Haurietis aquas itself is of primary importance. It might be mentioned here that in re.ading it one of the points to be observed is the constant emphasis which the Holy Father places on the triple love which the Incarnate Word has for each of us. He loves us with a divine love, with a human spiritual love, and also--perhaps this has never been stressed so much before-- with a human sensible love. The adorable Heart of Christ is the symbol of this triple love. As a help to the study of this encyclical some of the follow-ing articles, which comment on Haurietis aquas, could be read: M. J. Donnelly, s.J., "Haurietis aquas and Devotion to the Sacred Heart," Theological Studies, XVIII ( 1957), 17-40; P. J. Hamell, "Devotion to the Sacred Heart: Encyclical Haurietis Aquas," The Irish Ecclesiastical Record, LXXXVI (1956), 217- 241; G. Dupont, S.J., "Pius XII on the Cult of the Sacred Heart," The Clergy Monthly, XX (1956), 248-260, and also "The Cult of the Sacred Heart," The Clergy Monthly, XXI (1957), 161-171; C. K. Riepe, "Some Thoughts on Devotion to the Sacred Heart," Worship, XXXI (1957), 328-333; F. 324 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING Courtney, S.J., "Devotion to the Sacred Heart," The Clergy Review, XLII (1957), 332-342. The best and most scholarly of these articles is that of Father Donnelly. Two quotations from his article might be of interest. First, his statement of the purpose of the encyclical: "To elucidate the soul's journey back to God through the Sacred Heart, the heart of flesh, symbol of Christ's human (sensible and spiritual) love and of His divine love, and to show that such a path to God is deeply rooted in Scripture, tradition, and the liturgy of the Church--this is the purpose of the encyclical letter Haurietis aquas" (p. 39). The other quotation which we would like to cite from Father Donnelly is a commentary which he makes upon the following words of Haurietis aquas: Therefore the Heart of our Savior in a way expresses the image of the Divine Person of the Word and His two-fold nature, human and divine. In it we can contemplate not only the symbol, but also, as it were, the sum of the whole mystery of our redemption. When we adore the Sacred Heart of Jesus Christ, we adore in it and through it both the uncreated love of the Divine Word and His human love and other affections and virtues, because both loves moved our. Redeemer to sacrifice Himself for us and for the whole Church, His Spouse (N.C.W.C. translation). Commenting on this passage, Father Donnelly writes: . . this passage sets forth the whole theology of the devotion to the Sacred Heart, because any reader will at once see therein the following teaching. (1) There is question of the physical heart of the Savior. (2} This heart is in a certain sense an image of the Person of the Word and also of His twofold nature, human and divine. (3) We can see in this physical heart, not only a symbol, but, as it were, the epitome of the whole mystery of our Redemption. (4) We adore this physical heart. (5} In the very act of adoring the physical heart, we adore in and through this same physical heart (a) the uncreated love of the divine Word, (b) His human love (sensible and spiritual), and (c) all the other affections and virtues which the Incarnate Word possesses. (6) The reason for this is that His divine and human love alike moved Him to sacrifice Himself for us and the universal Church, His Spouse, that we might be redeemed from our sins. In the light of this passage, it is clear why the Holy Father calls the devotion the most perfect profession of the Christian religion (pp. 30-31). 325 THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN Review fo~ Religious The Saints Gregory tells us in his Book of Dialogues that a certain nun, on going into .the garden, saw a head of lettuce and desired it; and, forgetting to make the sign of the cross over it she greedily bit into it; but forthwith she fell to the ground possessed by a devil. When the blessed Equitius came to exorcize her, the devil began to cry out, saying, "What did I do? What did I do? I was just sitting here on the lettuce, and she came and bit me!''1 This is one of those humorous anecdotes which during the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance delighted the readers of the Golden Legend. This book is a collection of saints' lives, compiled during the latter half of the thirteenth century by the learned and saintly Dominican, Jacobus de Voragine. In the article from which we have cited the anecdote above--an article which makes for pleasant reading--William F. Manning points out that the distinguished Dominican hagiographer was not a simple and gullible soul. He was well aware that these accounts of the saints were a blend of fact, fiction, and humor. What Jacobus de Voragine was primarily concerned with was not the historical truth of these stories; he was much more interested in using them as examples--they were known as exempla during the Middle Ages--to illustrate pleasantly some moral or spiritual principle. His goal was not objective history, but to foster among the faithful a fervent love of, and devotion to, the saints and God. Considering the extraordinary influence which the Golden Legend has had in the history of spirituality, his work was a complete success. But books like the Golden Legend make the life of a modern hagiographer a very troubled one. In addition to the ordinary difficulties which any historian or biographer meets, the hagiographer has a few special ones of his own. These are discussed by Lancelot C. Sheppard in "Some Problems of a Hagiographer.'' If the biography of a saint is to be a true 1This quotation from the Golden Legend is cited by William F. Manning, "Humor in the Golden Legend," Cross and Cro,wn, IX (1957), 168. 2 The Li/e of the 8pirit, XI, 454-461. 326 November, 1957 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING and living portrait, the first problem of a hagiographer is to remember that he is "dealing with a man or woman in the world" (p. 456), and thus he has to pay attention to the ordin-ary things of everyday life. Otherwise he will be presenting "an unnatural wooden figure of his saint . . . no example or help to the ordinary reader, but . . . a hindrance to the develop-ment of the Christian life in the souls of many" (p. 457). Another problem is that which is occasioned by the miracu-lous events which at times take place in the lives of the saints. If something miraculous occurs in the life of a saint, it should be historically verified, and then it should be treated as a miracle, and not as a normal and everyday occurrence. Closely allied to the question of miracles is that of those other extraordinary phenomena--stigmata, etc.--which sometimes occur. Since some of these phenomena can be explained at times by natural causes, a hagiographer should be very hesitant in assigning to them a divine cause. Some of these observations of Sheppard are very just, but I am sure that he would readily admit that these prob-lems are much more easily mentioned than solved. In the same issue of The Life of the Spirit there is an interesting article by Donald Attwater on the martyrs of the early Church.3 In the Christian Church the cultus of the saints began with the veneration of these early martyrs. In fact, one of the first definitions of sanctity was based on the idea of martyrdom: the perfect imitation of Christ even to the sacrifice of one's life; or, as Attwater says, a man is "never so Christlike as when he wil!ingly goes to death for his Saviour . . ." (p. 441). This article is a series of short sketches of some of the early saints and martyrs--th'ose who suffered in the early persecutions, up to 313, and whose accounts are based on reliable documenta-tion: Ignatius ot: Antioch, Polycarp, Justin, Blandina, Cyprian, Perpetua, Felicity, etc. Although these sketches are most brief, "They are enough to show these martyrs as men and women, "The Early Martyrs," pp. 441-454. 327 THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN Review for Religious not as puppets . . ." (p. 451). Indeed, they were men and women whose lives were centered, in a simple yet firm way, or~ God and Jesus Christ. They were ~fully conscious of being ~a chosen race, a kingly priesthood, a consecrated nation,' a society of which, in the words of St. Augustine, ~the king is Truth, the law is love and the duration is Eternity' " (p. 453). Why did Bruno of Hartenfaust leave the world and found the Carthusians? It was once piously believed that his decision, was occasioned by an event which took place during the funeral of a certain Canon Docr~s in Paris. The canon's only known failing was a worldly desire for literary fame, and yet he seems to have been damned for it. According to the legend, three times during the funeral the canon raised himself up; first, to announce that he had been accused; then, judged; and, finally, that he had been condemned to eternal damnation. Supposedly witnessing this, Bruno decided that the world was no place for him; so off: to the deserts of the Grande Chartreuse. All this is pious legend. The real reason and motive why Bruno sought the hidden life of solitude and rooted his order in contempt of the world is explained in a fine article by Dr. Borisz de Balla, a former Hungarian diplomat and at present an associate professor of history at Le Moyne College) Since the spirit of silent solitude with which the Carthusians have moved through the last nine centuries has kept them well hidden, an article such as this is most welcome. For in it Dr. de Balla uncovers the historical and psychological background of Bruno's vocation and clarifies the Carthusians' contempt for the world, which is merely a negative way of expressing their fervent love of God. The life of St. Thomas Aquinas was dedicated in an extra-ordinary degree to intellectual work. Since this was a most substantial part of his life, it must have been very closely linked with his sanctity. What was the connection between these two? In 4'~Contempt of the World," Cross and Crop, n, IX (1957), I1-23. 328 November, 1957 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING a very penetrating article Father Thomas Deman, O.P., shows how closely St. Thomas's knowledge was tied to his sanctity.~ The connection between the Angelic Doctor's knowledge and sanctity is not merely that he studied with a pure intention, nor merely that his intellectual activity demanded great abnega-tion. These things manifest more the link between effort and sanctity rather than between knowledge and sanctity. The far more interesting problem is in establishing the relation between these latter two, for in the connection of these two, according to Father Deman, "lies the ultimate secret of St. Thomas' sanctity" (p. 404). To summarize Father Deman's solution to this prob-lem would be to do it an injustice; but to recommend the study of it, especially to seminarians and theologians, would be far from unjust. F~nelon, onetime archbishop of Cambrai, although not a saint, was certainly an outstanding personality. Derek Stanford gives us in a two-part article a general overall view of his life, doctrine, writing, and great appeal.6 Even those who met him through his written word were charmed by him. " 'If F~nelon were alive today you would be a Catholic,' Bernadin de St. Pierre once wagered Rousseau. 'Oh, if F~nelon were alive,' Rousseau replied,, his eyes moist with tears, 'I should try to become his lackey in order to deserve to be his valet' " (p. 15). Perhaps the part of F~nelon's life which was most im-portant in the history of spirituality, and best known for that reason, is his rather bitter dispute with Bossuet, his former friend and bishop of Meaux, over the quietistic doctrine of Mme. Guyon. This was settled only by a papal brief from Pope Innocent XII condemning twenty-three propositions taken from Fenelon's Maxims of the Saints. To this condemnation he com-pletely and humbly submitted. Stanford's articles are a fine summary of the life of this man who was a cultured scholar, distinguished prelate, and grand seigneur. 5"'Knowledge and Holiness and St. Thomas Aquinas," The Life of the Spirit, XI, 394-406. 6"A Word for F~nelon," The Cler#y Relieve, XLII (1957), 14-25, 76-84. 329 THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN Review for Religious Sin One of the basic needs in the spiritual life is to acquire a sincere detestation of sin, a real hatred of the evil which sin is. But what is sin? The Catholic faith has always considered sin as an offense against God. But what does it mean to offend God? Obviously sin cannot harm God himself; it cannot touch God or injure Him. The harm which is done by sin is done to man, not to God. Yet, how is this an offense against God? Father DeLetter, s.J., suggests a solution to this problem, a solution which in its full explanation depends upon the philo-sophical doctrine of relation.~ He writes: ¯ . . the sinner . . . by rejecting God's love, rejects the gift of that love, sanctifying grace. Accordingly, in this case, because of the relative character of grace . . . it is easy to see how the "malum hominis," loss of sanctifying grace, is at once "malum Dei," offence against God . The wilful destruction on the part of man of God's gift of grace is an offence against God . . . because grace is a relation to God, unites man to God; and so by refusing or rejecting grace man refuses or rejects God, to whom grace orientates and unites him (p. 338). It is basically this same problem which Father Lyonnet, S.J., tries to solve by studying the nature of sin in the Old Testament) Judging from the words used in the Old Testa-ment to designate sin, sin is not only an evil of man, malum horninis, but also malum Dei, insofar as it is against God, in opposition to God. "The sinner despises and contemns the commands of God, and therefore in some true sense God Him-self" (p. 78; translation ours). But going beyond the words used to designate sin and con-sidering sin in the whole context of the Old Testament, Father Lyonnet points out various ways of looking at sin as an offense against God. Sin offends God insofar as it harms man whom God loves and desires to protect as His very own. Sin is also 7"Offense against God," The Irish Ecclesiastical Record, LXXXVII (1957), 329-342. S"De natura peccati quid doceat V. T.," l~erburn Dornini, XXXV (1957), 75-88. 330 November, 1957 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING described as an offense against God insofar as it breaks the bond of conjugal love between God and His people, His beloved spouse. Thus sin is likened to adultery, God being the offended spouse. (Based upon this idea, God is portrayed in the Old Testament as a husband who cannot live without his beloved spouse; and, even though she is unfaithful, he pursues her with his merciful and forgiving love until she returns to him.) But in any understanding of sin the divine transcendence must always be preserved; sin never takes from God anything divine. But it does snatch away from Him man, whom God loves as the very apple of His eye. The Liturgy Those who are actively engaged in pastoral work in a parish will find food for serious reflection in an article written by Father Josef Jungmann, s.J., one of the world's most outstanding schol-ars of the liturgy.'~ The main theme of his article may be stated in his own words: "In the concrete community of the Church, which normally appears in the form of the parish, the liturgy does not represent merely one set of tasks, however holy, among many others. The Sunday and holy day Eucharist constitutes nothing less than the goal and ultimate meaning of all pastoral work here on earth" (p. 67). There is a fine article in The Life of the Spirit on the active participation of the faithful in the sacrifice of the Mass.1° The primary purpose of the article is to explain why the people should be active at Mass. The answer to this is based upon the proper understanding of the nature of the Mass and the nature of the Christian people. The nature of the Mass is that, being the principal act of the Mystical Body, it is a social, community act, in which all the faithful have their part. As regards the Christian people, by baptism they were made members of the Mystical Body of Christ the Priest; and by the character im- '°"The Liturgy and the Parish," l#ors/~ila, XXXI (1957), 62-67. 10j. D. Crichton, "The Mass and the People," The Life of t/~e 8~irit, XI, 548-560. 331 THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN Review for Religiou.~ printed on their soul at baptism they share in the priesthood of their Head. These ideas are developed in the first part of this article, while a second part suggests ways of educating the faith-ful to take an active part in both the dialogue and high Mass. When Christ at the Last Supper said, ~This is My blood of the new covenant, which is being shed for many," what would the apostles understand by the words blood of the new covenant? Father Siegman, C.PP.S., the editor of the Catholic Biblical Quarterly, discusses this question and in so doing offers a few points which might be helpful in understanding better the Sacrifice of the Mass.11 He shows that the words blood of the covenant, spoken by our Lord at the Last Supper, ~'must have suggested to the Apostles the sacrificial character of the rite that Jesus was performing. Blood that was shed had to be offered to God in sacrifice, as acknowledgment of His absolute dominion" (pp. 171-172), and also as an atonement for sin. Further, the apostles must have understood that the covenant, the pact be-tween God and His people, was now fulfilled. ~What Jahweh had done on Mt. Sinai was a beginning, a first aspect of the perfect covenant-act to be realized in the future" (p. 172), when this covenant would be ratified not by '~the blood of goats and calves," but by the blood of Christ (Heb. 9:12). Finally, this fulfilled covenant would have meant "community of life"(p. 172), Christ the victim sharing His life with His apostles. A few months ago there was published in Worship the translation of an address which Father Athanasius Miller, O.S.B., secretary of the Pontifical Biblical Commission, gave last De-cember at the Biblical Institute in Rome.l~ His concern in the paper was to discuss the problem "whether or not a harmony can be established between the psalms on the one hand, and a Christian prayer and a Christian devotion to the psalms on the other" (p. 334). Since the book of the Psalms is pre-Christian, H"The Blood of the Covenant," 7"he American Ecclesiastical Re,view, CXXXVI (1957), 167-174. 1'-, "The Psalms from a Christian Viewpoint," l'Forship, XXXI (1957), 334-345. 332 November, 1957 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING many priests or religious, whether in reading the Office or in using the Psalter for private prayer, have difficulty in giving the psalms a Christian character and interpretation. Their devotion suffers in attempting to make an Old Law prayerbook into a Christian prayerbook. Father Miller's answer to this problem may be summed up in his own words: Thus the psalter is for the Church of the martyrs a Christ-book. Its songs center around the Kyrios raised on the cross, whether she speaks of Him, or to Him, or He Himself speaks to the Father: "The psalm is a voice speaking of Christ; the psalm is the voice of the Church speaking to Christ; the psalm is the voice of Christ speaking to the Father." It was left to the ingenious hand of Augustine later to combine all these aspects into one: "The psalm is the voice of the whole Christ, Head and body": Psalmus vox totius Christi, capitis et corl~oris (p. 340). In an address, given May 1, 1955, to members of the Chris-tian Association of Italian Workers, the Holy Father instituted the feast of St. Joseph the Worker and he assigned it to the first day of May. This new feast took the place of the Solemnity of St. Joseph. In this exchange, however, nothing was really lost; in fact, much was gained. In order to show this, Father Francis J. Filas, S.J., an authority on the theology of St. Joseph, examines and comments very simply and intelligently on the text of the Mass and Office of the new feast.1:~ Of particular interest are the few remarks which he makes about "father Joseph" (p. 296). This com-mentary on the Mass and Office of St. Joseph could be used ior "points" for prayer by those who desire to "Go to Joseph." "In the providence of God, for the greater glory of God, to know Jesus and Mary better and to imitate St. Joseph more closely, may this new feast of St. Joseph the Worker be a promise of even greater liturgical honors to come" (p. 303). 13,'The Mass and Office of St. Joseph the Worker," The /lmerican Ecclesi-astical Re~ie~, CXXXVI, (1957), 289-303. 333 THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN Review fo~ Religious Priestly and Religious Vocation What is a vocation? How do I know if I have a vocation? The answer to these questions is given by Father Columba Ryan, O.P., in three helpful articles.14 A good part of the matter of these articles is a commentary on the important apostolic con-stitution Sedes Sap¯len¯tla15e. The Holy Father had written in this document: ". the divine vocation . . . consists of two essential elements, one divine and the other ecclesiastical." Father Ryan uses these words of the Pope both as a point of departure and also as a suggested division of the matter of his articles. The first article considers the divine element, the divine call, but looked at from the side of God, as God's signified will. The second article examines this same divine call, but insofar as it is a grace received in a man's soul. The final article treats the ecclesiastical element of a divine vocation, the ecclesiastical call, and that which is closely associated with it, the necessary qualities which ought to be found in the aspirant. In regard to the first element of a divine vocation, the invitation of the soul by God, this is so necessary that without it the foundation of the whole structure will be lacking. Whether it be a call to the priestly life, or the religious life, or both combined, the initiative must come from God; without it there is no vocation. Because of this Father Ryan reiterates and comments upon the strong warning of the Holy Father about forcing or alluring or admitting to the religious or priestly life those who do not show the true signs of a divine vocation. But if these signs are clear, if God's loving will for a man is that he be a priest or a religious, there arises a problem: What is the obligation of following this signified will of God? There is some obligation, says Father Ryan, but this obligation falls not so much upon the acceptance or rejection ot? the voca- 14Vocations and Their Recognition," The Life of the Spirit, XI, 217-223, 258-263, 517-527. 15 The English translation of this document may be found in gEVlEW FOg LIGIOUS, March, 1957, 88-101. 334 November, 1957 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING tion as "upon the deliberations preceding . . . [the] decision . . an obligation in the line of the virtue of prudence" (p. 223). Let us observe that one should be careful about insisting upon this obligation with the young, since they could easily confuse what is of counsel and what is of obligation in this matter. In the second article Father Ryan takes up the problem of how we may know whether there is present in the soul the grace of a vocation. The most we can do is to "detect it by signs of its presence, by the outward effects which it produces" (p. 259). The signs which he indicates are: a conscious and felt attraction to religious or priestly life; an obscure drawing towards it, perhaps with a sense of duty attached, but without attraction; such a drawing, accompanied by positive repug-nance for the life in question; a calculation, from the recognition that a man may have from his whole providential setting, that he ought to follow such and such a life; the sense of the emptiness for him of any other life (p. 259). These signs are not a proof of a vocation; in fact, they are often counterfeited. Many of the observations which the author makes about these signs, their counterfeits, and the faulty motives behind the latter, are well worth careful study by those who are engaged in the work of vocational directing. Besides the divine call there must also be, in order to have a divine vocation, the ecclesiastical call, that is, being called by lawful ministers of the Church. No person with a genuinely divine vocation can fail to be received by legitimate superiors. This does not mean that every first refusal of ecclesiastical superiors proves the lack of a true vocation. But it does mean that against the refusal of a superior there can be "no ultimate appeal to some subjectively experienced call of God as a con-clusive proof" (p. 519) of a divine vocation. An ecclesiastical superior must determine whether a can-didate possesses the necessary qualities. What are these? Father Ryan classifies them under three headings: "first, qualities of health, physical and mental; secondly, general character and dis- 335 THOMAS G. 0'CALLAGHAN position; thirdly, talents appropriate to the special vocation undertaken" (p. 521). In commenting upon these Father Ryan makes some very solid observations about emotional maturity, general strength of character, intelligence, docility, and affability. These articles will well repay careful study. The question of fostering vocations, a very important ques-tion these days because of the growing need of priests and religious, is discussed by Father Baier.1' In the fostering of vocations, one point which is to be carefully noted is that which Pope Pius XI mentioned in Ad Catholici Sacerdotii. In the ordinary course of divine providence, he remarked in this encyclical, the %rst and most natural place" where the God-sown seeds of vocation "grow and bloom remains always the truly and deeply Christian family." Another point which Father Baier mentions is that young Catholics do not understand the real meaning and excellence of the religious life. Too much attention is given to the "externals." '~If we want more vocations, we must tell young people about the 'inside' story of God's call. Only the inner meaning and the full significance of a vocation can inspire the qualities of enthusiasm, self-sacrifice and heroism for Christ" (p. 3:23). l°"Toward More Vocations," The llomiletic and Pastoral Revie.w, LVII (1957), 320-324. 336 The Int:elled:ual Li e ot: t:he Religious: Prad:ical Aspect:s Sister Emily Joseph, C.S.J. THAT THIS ARTICLE may have a practical aspect in substance as well as in name, I have presumed to borrow heavily from a source that has directed the intellectual progress of many scholars. The advice here presented comes from a man who was the outstanding humanist of his day; a man of letters as well as of action who figured prominently in the political, ecclesiastical, and diplomatic affairs of his times; a man whose profound learning, both religious and secular, lent a brilliance and charm to his spoken and written word. This man was the twelfth-century scholar, John of Salisbury, secretary of St. Thomas of Canterbury, author, poet, ecclesiastic, diplomat, and an intellectual of the first order. Among John's writings we find an account of certain at-titudes prevalent in the educational circles of his day--a day which, we note with a smile, John calls these "modern times." He deplores the tendency to specialization, the immoderate tribute paid to cleverness, and the influence of a segment of educators who would over-emphasize the "practical" at the expense of the humanistic studies. Then, paying tribute to his revered old teacher, Bernard of Chartres, John quotes the pair of fluid Latin hexameters in which Bernard neatly packaged his recom-mendations for scholars-to-be. John himself called these the "Six Keys to True Learning." As a practical aspect of the intellectual life of the religious, I give you John's six keys) First: mens humilis--a humble mind. Recently I came upon this definition of humility in an article entitled "Vocation of the Intellectual; Its Requisites and Rewards.''~' "Humility is a per- 1 All references to John of Salisbury are from his Policraticus, VII, 13 (ed. C. J. Webb). Z Whalen, Reverend John P., "Vocation of the Intellectual; Its Requisites and Rewards," The Catholic Educational Re~ie~, LII (Dec. 1954), 597-601. 337 SISTER EMILY JOSEPH Review for Religious sonal evaluation without personal interest . It is observing ourselves as part of the creation of God with an unjaundiced eye, neither allowing our egoism to exaggerate our vision nor our insecurity to underestimate it." Such an attitude is funda-mental, not only for the acquisition of the moral virtues but for the intellectual ones as well. It is the guarantee of an objective approach to the search for knowledge; it precludes an interpreta-tion of research findings which accords with one'~ own prejudices or inclinations rather than with the objective evidence. Above all, it is a safeguard against one of the most pernicious spiritual ills to which man is subject--intellectual pride. The second key: studium quaerendi--the eager, questing spirit. The phrase carries a twofold implication: first, a steady, zealous, self-sacrificing devotion to the research entailed by scho-larship; secondly, it betokens the inquiring outlook which is the hallmark of a scholar. It implies, too, the proper attitude toward the intellectual life. With regret, we acknowledge that this attitude, latent in everyone who has consecrated his or her life to incarnate Wisdom, fails, in many cases, to develop and in-fluence the religious. Some hold intellectual efforts and attain-ments suspect. By their attitude of aloofness they try to cloak their own apathy where research is concerned. Others contend that the present need of the Church calls for concentration on a vigorous social apostolate. Still others avow their respect for intellectual activity but modestly place themselves outside its periphery. That all might acquire a correct attitude toward the importance, both for time and eternity, of personal intellectual growth we would strongly recommend two classic works: Cardinal Newman's Idea of a University and Cardinal Suhard's peerless pastoral letter, Groi~lh or Decline? The third key which John recommends is vita quieta--a life of tranquillity. John's own life as a scholar was interrupted by ecclesiastical responsibilities which plunged him into incessant activity. He crossed the continent of Europe ten t:.mes on diplo-matic missions and such extensive traveling in the twelfth century 338 November, ~957 THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE OF RELIGIOUS was only at the cost of much time and considerable inconvenience. Such a life is not compatible with the atmosphere that the scholar needs. His must be a well-ordered life---a life of dedication to intellectual pursuits. His energies must be concentrated upon this one end, not dissipated upon a multiplicity of activities, how-ever worthy each in itself may be. From his life all non-essentials must be (often painfully) pruned. One in whom secular tastes and worldly attitudes develop and foster a craving for recreation, for indulgence in entertainment provided by radio, television, or light reading, for needless travel and social contacts will find neither the inclination nor the time for intellectual growth. In a recent article in the NGEH Bulletin, Father Gustave Weigel, s.J., underlines the special responsibility of the college faculty, which he calls the "soul of the collegiate community," to foster the intellectual life. Exploring the meaning of the term, "intellectual life," Father Weigel contends that it is a life of contemplation. "The true intellectual," he says, "always seeks for essences and essences are not obvious . Hence the practi-tioner of the intellectual life is a contemplative." He maintains that "the intellectual life is the very essence of the college" and that contemplation is the essence of the intellectual life; and he intimates that there are dangerous attitudes, social and economic forces, that make incursions upon and destroy the vita quieta that is a sine qua non of scholarly pursuits? Closely allied to this third key is the fourth--scrutinium taciturn--a study room where silence reigns. Just as the silence of the chapel is most conducive to contempletion of God and His attributes, so for the scholar's contemplation there must be freedom from distractions, prolonged periods for undisturbed thinking. Here is a problem which superiors should acknowledge and try to solve. The religious whose teaching assignments, ex-tracurricular responsibilities, and community obligations exhaust 3 Weigel, Gustave, S.J., "Enriching the Intellectual Life of the Catholic Col-lege," NCE/I Bulletin, LII (May 1956), 7-21. 339 SISTER EMILY JOSEPH Review for Religious his or her physical powers and necessitate constant contact with students, institutional personnel, and externs cannot be expected to develop the intellectual life, regardless of personal inclination and intellectual endowment. Paupertas--poverty--is the fifth key in John's list. Our vocation, then, in which we are privileged to bind ourselves by vow to a life of poverty, ought to insure us this key without further worry. But does it? In the pursuit of higher education what is the end in view for the majority of religious who flock in such numbers to the universities? Is their goal those spiritual entities, knowledge and truth, toward which, like a shining beacon, they are willing to press on resolutely in spite of summer heat and winter snow, demanding professors and elusive research articles, frustrating language barriers and disappointing lab ex-periments? Or does a motive which is, at least in part, pragmatic and materialistic, namely, the determination to acquire a degree and thus satisfy certain educational standards and demands, com-mit them to a temporary and half-hearted educational episode which they dispatch with a minimum of research and a maximum of compensating recreation? All will acknowledge that the poverty of a monk or nun differs from the poverty of a derelict in the slums. How does the poverty of a scholar differ from the poverty of a religious? Or does it? Was John of Salisbury implying that this fifth key imposes upon the scholar a form of discipline and a degree of detachment that is unique and un-paralleled, which demands renunciations over and above those required by the vow of poverty? The last of John's six keys s~iows his penetrating wisdom: terra aliena. We might presume to interpret it rather freely to mean: ~Get away from home base." One of the most practical aspects of this question of intellectual growth is that of time. It is one of the limitations imposed upon us by our mortal state. Certain legitimate demands upon our time are inextricably associated with our observance of community life. Charity obliges even where temporary dispensations exempt. Religious 340 November, 1957 THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE OF RELIGIOUS superiors, then, should take this into consideration and, to the extent possible, assign students to graduate studies in universities where they will reside away from home. Financial and other practical considerations may render this difficult. Still, anyone who has attempted scholarly study or writing will insist that this sixth key is oi~ prime importance. These, then, are the six golden keys which John of Salis-bury left us nearly eight hundred years ago. I repeat them, as they are found in the seventh chapter of his work entitled Policraticus." ~Iens kurnilis, studiurn quaerendi, ~dta quieta, Scrutiniurn taciturn, paupertas, terra aliena. I rather suspect that, were John listening to me, he would repeat what he said, referring to Bernard's hexameters: "Though I am not taken by the smoothness of the meter, I approve the sense and I believe it should be faithfully impressed on the minds of those seeking true learning." FATHER GALLEN~S ABSENCE Father Gallen, who answers questions for the REVIEW, has been in Europe for several months; and we are not sure when he will return. This is the reason why answers to questions have been delayed. Since we have no other canonist on our staff, we suggest that those who have canonical problems requiring prompt answers send their questions to a canonist of their own diocese. BOUSCAREN-ELLIS It is a little more than ten years since Fathers T. Lincoln Bous-caren, S.J., and Adam C. Ellis, S.J., first published their Canon Law: A Text and Commentary. The third edition completely revised is now available. This edition incorporates papal decrees and decisions issued since 1951 and adds current literature to the bibliography fol-lowing each chapter. It includes new material on the alienation of property and on secular institutes. Father Ellis, it will be remembered, was one of the founders of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS and was one of the active members of the editorial board until very recently. The book is published by the Bruce Publishing Company, 400 North Broadway, Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. 980 pages. $10.50. 341 Com rnun icat:ions On Delayed Vocations Reverend Fathers: In accordance with the announcement in the May number of gEWEW FOg RELIGIOUS (p. 154), we are happy to send you the fol-lowing information. We are Dominican Sisters established for foreign mission work and for social and catechetical work in the United States. We are at present approved as a Pious Union by Cardinal Stritch. Our habit is the regular Dominican habit. We accept candidates between the ages of 20 and 40. We do accept widows or previously married women whose marriage was annulled or invalid, if they give signs of a true vocation. Mother M. Agatha, O.P. Missionary Servants of St. Dominic Rosary Mission House 656 West 44th Street Chicago 9, Illinois Reverend Fathers: In response to your note on Delayed Vocations, we wish to say that we would consider accepting the classes of persons mentioned in the announcement. Ours is a cloistered order. We have perpetual adoration. We accept candidates up to the age of 35, and even a little older if their health is good. If the spiritual directors who seek this information have possible candidates on the waiting list we would be glad to make their acquaintance. Mother Mary Edwina Franciscan Nuns of the Most Blessed Sacrament 2311 Timlin Hill Portsmouth, Ohio [EDITORS' NOTE: Regarding communications on the religious habit please see page 322.] 342 Survey.of Roman Document:s R. F. Smit:h, S.J. THE DOCUMENTS which appeared in the ~lcta ~lpos-tolicae Sedis (AAS) from June 1, 1957, to August 15, 1957, will be the subject matter of the present article. Page references to AAS in the course of the survey will accordingly refer to the 1957 AAS (volume 49). The Saints On May 16, 1957 (AAS, pp. 321-31), two days after the Pope had received in audience the recently liberated Car-dinal Wyszynski, His Holiness issued the encyclical, Invicti athletae Christi, in commemoration of the three hundreth anniversary of the death of the Polish martyr, St. Andrew Bobola. In the first section of the encyclical, Pius XII briefly sketches the life of the martyr. Born in 1591, Andrew entered the Society of Jesus at the age of 19. The future saint gave himself wholeheartedly to the conquest of Christian perfection, seeking only the glory of God. After his ordination to the priesthood, his life was devoted to the faith he professed. It was this love of his faith that led him to work in the eastern marches of his country where dissident churches strove to separate the faithful from the unity of the true Church. When the Cossack persecution of the Church broke out, it was this same love of the faith that prompted him to do everything in his power to keep Catholics from denying their faith and to reconcile those who under pressure of the persecutors had deserted their faith. It was, finally, the ~ame love of the faith that enkindled in him the courage to endure the fright-ful martyrdom which the Cossacks inflicted on him on the feast of the Ascension, May 16, 1657. In the second part of the encyclical, the Vicar of Christ urges the faithful to imitate in their own lives the faith and 343 R. F. SMITH Review for Religiou~ courage of Bobola. The need for similar faith, he notes, is especially great today, for materialism continues to grow and to seduce men by the mirage of an earthly happiness without God. No less necessary today is the courage of St. Andrew. Every Christian life must have something of the martyr in it; for a Christian gives testimony to his faith not only by shedding his blood for it, but also by a constant war against sin and by a complete consecration of himself and all he has to Him who is his Creator and Redeemer and who someday will be his eternal joy. The Holy Father concludes the encyclical with a special plea to the Polish nation that they of all men may imitate the faith and courage of their sainted compatriot so that Poland, today as yesterday, may be a rampart of Christianity. Three documents concern Mother Mary of Providence (1825-71), foundress of the Helpers of the Holy Souls. The first of these was a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites which was dated April 21, 1957 (AAS, pp. 374-76), and which stated that the beatification of the Venerable Servant of God could safely be proceeded with. On May 26, 1957 (AAS, pp. 339-44), Pius XII proclaimed her beatification and the day after (AAS, pp. 361-64) addressed a group of the Helpers of the Holy Souls who had come to Rome for the beatification of their foundress. In his allocution to them the Pontiff stressed the Blessed's devotion to Providence which led her to repay Provi-dence by rescuing souls from purgatory and by devoting herself to an active and universa! apostolate. The last document concerning the saints is a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, issued on April 9, 1957 (AAS, pp. 424-25}, and ordering that henceforth a determined part of the consultors of the congregation shall have consultative vote with regard to the official scrutiny of the writings of persons whose causes of beatification are introduced. The Eucharist Three documents of the period surveyed are concerned with the Eucharist. On May 19, 1957 (AAS, pp. 364-68), His 344 November', 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS Holiness broadcast a message to the Eucharistic Congress of Spain, which was being held at Granada, telling the faithful assembled there that in the Eucharist is to be found the same Christ who is the way, the truth, and the life for all men. He also reminded them that in the Eucharist there is the highest manifestation of that greatest of all truths: God is love. On May 23, 1957 (AAS, p. 370), the Holy Office an-swered the following question with regard to the concelebration of Mass: Do several priests validly concelebrate Mass if only one of them utters the words "This is My Body" and "This is My Blood" over the bread and wine, while the rest do not pronounce the words, but, with the knowledge and the consent of the aforesaid celebrant, have and manifest the intention of making their own the words and actions of the same celebrant? The Holy Office answered the question in the negative, since, as it said, by the institution of Christ only he validly celebrates who pronounces the consecrating words. The Sacred Congregation of Rites issued a decree on June 1, 1957 (AAS, pp. 425-26), dealing with the tabernacle and the manner of conserving the Holy Eucharist. The decree states that the pertinent norms of canon law (canons 1268-69) should be carefully observed. Moreover, the tabernacle is to be so fixed to the altar that it is irremovable. Ordinarily the taber-nacles should be affixed to the main altar, unless in certain cir-cumstances the veneration of the Eucharist can be provided for better elsewhere. Such circumstances are ordinarily found in cathedral, collegiate, and conventual churches where choir func-tions are exercised. Similar extraordinary circumstances can sometimes be found, the decree continues, in larger devotional centers where, because of popular devotion to some venerated object, the veneration due the Blessed Sacrament might be over-shadowed. The decree goes on to state that Mass should be habitually celebrated at the altar where the Blessed Sacrament is kept; and, 345 R. F. SMITH Review .for Religious in churches where there is only one altar, this should not be so constructed that the priest celebrates Mass facing the people, for in the middle of such an altar there should be placed a tabernacle for keeping the Blessed Sacrament. The tabernacle should be strong and secure so that all danger of profanation is avoided. When the Blessed Sacrament is in it, the tabernacle should be covered with a veil and a light should always burn in front of it. The tabernacle should con-form to the style of the altar and the church and should not differ too much from the style of tabernacles already in use. The tabernacle should represent a true dwelling-place of God with men and should not be adorned with unusual or misleading symbols. Finally, the Sacred Congregation notes that tabernacles that are off and apart from altars are strictly forbidden. More-over, with regard to the way of keeping the Blessed Sacrament or with regard to the form of the tabernacle, there is no presump-tion in favor of contrary customs, unless the custom is centenary or immemorial. Social Questions Speaking on May 3, 1957 (AAS, pp. 351-55), to a group of Belgians, the Holy Father underlined the necessity of better housing for a large number of people. Ten to twenty per cent of the total population of European countries, he pointed out, live in subhuman circumstances where they can not live a decent and truly human life. Such circumstances not only weaken health and physical stamina but also induce extensive moral damage: immorality; juvenile delinquency; loss of the desire to work; and revolt against the society that allows such subhuman conditions to exist. On May 26, 1957 (AAS, pp. 403-14), the Vicar of Christ addressed a group of Italian Catholic lawyers on the right way of giving assistance to those in prison. The Holy Father began his allocution by studying the presuppositions of all effec- 346 November, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS tive aid to prisoners. The first of these presuppositions is con-. cerned with the relationship that exists between the punishment and the crime committed. Only the conviction that the prisoner is culpable can furnish a sure basis for all consequent aid. It must be remembered, the Holy Father stated, that even in con-crete situations the great majority of men have the possibility of regulating their personal conduct and hence of contracting obli-gations and responsibilities. This is the reason why morality and law are correct when they assert that in a given case cessation of free will must be proved, not the presence of free will. The second presupposition to be borne in mind when work-ing for prisoners is concerned with the suffering that is necessarily included in the punishment. A prisoner, the Pontiff remarked, is not comparable to a sick person; since the latter has no obliga-tion to suffer, it is right to seek to lighten his sufferings as much as possible. The prisoner, however, deserves to suffer, hence the removal of all suffering cannot be desired in the case of prisoners. The third and final presupposition to be considered cen-ters around the meaning and purpose of the punishment that has been inflicted on the prisoner. Since human punishment should in its own way imitate divine punishment, the Holy Father turned to a consideration of the meaning and purpose of the punish-ments inflicted by God on sin. The primary and essential pur-pose of divine punishment, he observed, is the reestablishment of the order of things violated by sin. By sin, man prefers him-self to God; by imposing suffering on the sinner, God constrains him to submit himself to the divine will and hence to restore the order he has previously violated. This, however, is not the sole purpose of divine punishment as far as this world is concerned. Often the punishments willed by God in this life are rather medic-inal than vindictive. They are meant to reeducate the sinner, to lead him to repentance, and to turn him toward goodness and justice. All these aims of divine punishment should be striven for also by human punishment. 347 R. F. SMITH Review .for Religious His Holiness then took up the manner in which prisoners can best be aided. The first aid to be given to prisoners is to know them thoroughly: their origin, their formation, their life up to the present time. Secondly, one should attempt to con-vince them that through their detention they can efface the errors of their past and remake their lives. Finally, one must love the prisoner. It is not sufficient to approach him with correct ideas and notions; along with this must go a love that is as comprehensive and devoted as is maternal love. In conclu-sion the Holy Father advises his listeners to look on prisoners as God looks upon them: in a spirit of justice tempered with mercy. Miscellaneous Matters On June 2, 1957 (AAS, pp. 433-603), Pius XII issued the Motu Proprio Cleri sanctita¢i, promulgating a new section of the projected Code of Canon Law for the Oriental Churches. This new section contains 558 canons and corresponds roughly to the second book of the Code of Canon Law for the Latin Church. The section deals successively with the following points: the oriental rites; physical and moral persons; clerics in general; clerics in particular from patriarchs to assistant and substitute pastors; the laity. The prescriptions of these new canons will go into effect March 25, 1958. On May t9, 1957 (AAS, pp. 414-17), the Roman Pontiff delivered a radio message to the Third Portuguese Congress of the Apostleship of Prayer held at Braga. In the message the Pope expressed his great desire to see the Apostleship of Prayer propagated among all catagories of persons in the Church. The principal part of his message, however, is concerned with what he called the proper essence and the secret of the immense effectiveness of the Apostleship of Prayer. This is nothing else than the practice of the morning offering of all one's actions and sufferings of the coming day for the intentions of the Sacred Heart and of the Roman Pontiff. This practice, the Holy Father 348 Nove~ber, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS noted, is an elementary and simple one, but when motivated by a conscientious desire to live it out completely, it can revolution-ize a life. On May 20, 1957 (AAS, pp. 355-61), the Holy Father gave an inaugural address for the week of astronomical studies held under the auspices of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. The body of the address is devoted to a summary of recent findings with regard to the nature of the stars, in the course of which the Holy Father accepts five billion years as a reason-able estimate of the age of the universe. At the end of the allocution the Pope remarked that that man is fortunate who can read in the stars the message they carry, inviting man to rise to the knowledge of Him who gives truth and life and who estab-lishes His dwelling in the hearts of those who adore and love Him. On May 10, 1957 (AAS, pp. 427-29), the Sacred Peni-tentiary published the text of two prayers composed by His Holiness. The first is a prayer to our Lady of Lourdes; an indulgence of three years can be gained by the faithful each time they recite the prayer with contrite heart. The second prayer is a prayer to be recited by physicians; physicians can gain an indulgence of three years whenever they say the prayer with contrite heart. On June 4, 1957 (AAS, p. 429), the Sacred Penitentiary announced that a plenary indulgence could be gained in connec-tion with the practice of the twelve Sundays in honor of the infancy of our Lord. The conditions for the indulgence are the following: prayers and pious meditations in honor of the mysteries of Christ's infancy on twelve consecutive Sundays of one's own choosing; confession; Communion; visit to a church or public oratory with prayers there for the intention of the Holy Father. 349 Persevering in Prayer Mot:her Marie Vandenbergh, R.C. I. Introduction CONCERNING IGNATIAN spirituality less has been writ-ten perhaps than about some other schools of perfection; nevertheless, there are enough articles and books extant on the subject to make one pause before adding to their number. Especially if one's years in religion are not many, will the query arise, "What do you have to contribute?" The answer is, "Not very much." The best to be hoped for is that being relatively lately come to the field of interior combat might lend freshness to one's point of view. The re-cently won scars of battle might generate a more sympathetic and generally helpful approach to the problems confronting beginners about to enter the lists. There are, conceivably, certain advantages that derive from having traveled far enough along the road of the interior life to get some perspective, but not so far as to have forgotten what it felt like to be just start-ing out. Furthermore, and more importantly as a credential, the Cenacle, keynoted by its motto, "Perseverantes in oratione," has, throughout its brief history of less than two hundred years, upheld in its constitutions an ideal of high spiritual excellence. However large the discrepancy between these ideals of the con-gregation and one's personal attainments, it is surely nonetheless permissible to set forth this heritage and let it speak for itself, at least in regard to one or two problems of beginners in prayer. The Cenacle Religious have an Ignatian Rule and are devoted to the work of providing retreats for laywomen and teaching Christian doctrine. It is not, then, surprising that St. Ignatius's book, The Spiritual Exercises, figures largely in our novitiate training, as well as all through our religious life. 350 PERSEVERING IN PRAYER We are told early in our formation that a Cenacle Religious must learn to love "the solitude of the heart" and "live in prayer as in her proper element." As means toward this spiritual growth, we are given, to quote a superior general, both "meth-ods" and "liberty." The "liberty" is that inspired by the Holy Spirit; the "methods" are those suggested by St. Ignatius--his "Spiritual Exercises." If his directives applying to the special circumstances of retreat time are set aside, there remains a remarkable body of instruction for those who wish to learn the science of the saints and for those who are constituted their guides. In this article we shall prescind entirely from the retreat relationship and, using the Exercises as a manual of spirituality, concentrate on the part methodical meditation is meant to play in our spiritual lives. II. Pro's and Con's The ultimate purpose of any sort of meditation, formal or informal, is to bring a soul to give itself to God by a process of instruction, reasoning, and resolution resulting in the formation of religious convictions and in great purity of life. Training in the use of formal meditation methods often starts with ready-made outlines, developing into personally prepared meditation outlines. This has two principal advantages. First, it prevents waste of time and energy to have something definite in mind to do when you go to your meditation. Second, as a result of the first, it helps develop the habit of prayer. Unless a girl has been living a modified rule of life in the world, the likelihood is that she has been praying "when she felt like it." Entering religious life she must learn to pray at a set time--whether she feels like it or not. A knowledge of prayer technique, i.e., an outlined meditation, will help her get started on days when she doesn't feel like it. It will keep her busy and trying to pray at times when prayer is more or less distasteful. Furthermore, fidelity to the attempt to "contact God," espe-cially when sensible consolation dries up, is a sine qua non 351 MOTHER MARIE VANDENBERGH Re~iew for Religious of real progress. This fidelity is a fruit of habitual use of a method. St. Teresa of Avila :lays down two rules for the would-be saint: refuse God nothing and never abandon the practice of prayer. Use of meditation methods can keep a soul from idleness in prayer time and prevent its giving up from sheer boredom with itself in time of dryness. There are, however, dangers to be avoided in the use of a method: strain and slavish fidelity to mechanics. While bridging the gap between the free and easy ~pray when you please" of life in the world and the regular, disciplined ~pray when you ought" of religious life, it is of paramount importance to avoid undue strain. The spontaneity of the soul's response to God must be safeguarded. It is that element of sweet familiarity with God which, as far as God's grace allows, makes of prayer the personal relationship it is meant to be. Undue efforts such as straining for ~success" in meditation, in-sistence on completion of the full meditation outline, or self-induced fixation of the imagination are sure to result in a ~broken head." Some such form of tension becomes a danger wherever emphasis on high ideals is combined with strict discipline. Ex-aggerated fidelity is one of the occupational hazards of religious life. Especially in the atmosphere of a novitiate, a spirit of holy emulation can make it contagious. To such an extent is this true that over-eagerness can be suspected of spoiling more voca-tions than laxity; for tension, though combined with all the good will in the world, has a paralyzing effect. In certain cases it persists as a chronic ailment through the early years of professed life, sooner or later, let us hope, to be outgrown. In extreme cases, however, the victim may be spiritually crippled for life. The cause of the difficulty does not lie, needless to say, in the traditional methods of prayer. The trouble arises when, instead of the neophyte's mastering the method, the method masters the neophyte. What was intended as a help toward union 352 November, 1957 PERSEVERING IN PRAYER with God becomes an end instead of a means and acts as a hindrance to that very union. The exasperating part of it is that often the victim of this malady, if questioned, would reply glibly that, of course, a method is a means, not an end in itself--and then go right on clinging inordinately to his little shell of prayer technique. In his mind, though he does not realize it, prayer formality has become an indispensible means to union with God; whereas authors and advocates of prepared methods intend them to be used tantum-quantum, just insofar as they help to attain this union. An inexperienced soul can become more attached to its method than to its God. It makes him feel so secure. If ever doubts as to his fidelity to prayer arise, he has only to point to his daily "two preludes, three points, and a colloquy." There, he feels, is concrete evidence that he has not been wasting his prayer time. He does not realize until much later, perhaps, that he has been slowly strangling his spiritual life. Retreat masters have dealt with this difficulty, books have been written about it; but still it can happen that a suffering soul will not recognize itself to be a victim of prayer-tension until the sterility of its meditation and its self-imposed rigidity threaten to kill its religious life entirely. Sheer starvation of soul is its inevitable result. In order to forestall this turn of events if possible, those in charge of the spiritual formation of young people exercise a great deal of vigilance. "I watched my young men like a hawk," said one novice master, "to detect signs of strain." As soon as they began to pray spontaneously and to speak familiarly with God, they were instructed to leave their prepared meditation outline for as long as they could pray without reference to it. "Be relaxed in the presence of God," was the advice they were given. There is a possible hazard, too, for people with a studious turn of mind. They, more easily than others, can be tempted to make a purely mental exercise of their meditation and never 353 MOTHER MARIE VANDENBERGH Review for Religious really pray. There is no real "contact" with God at all. This makes of meditation nothing but a sterile academic study instead of an affair of the heart that leads them to fall in love with their Lord Christ. III. Liberty of Spirit Besides these rather obvious dangers to be avoided in the use of meditation methods, there is a further point it might be well to discuss here. The principal charge leveled against tech-niques of prayer is that slavish fidelity to "two preludes, three points, and a colloquy" hinders a soul's progress toward God in the more simplified forms of prayer. The Spiritual ercises of St. Ignatius are often called upon to bear the brunt of such criticism. For some reason it has been difficult to convince the praying public that to advocate methods of prayer is not the same as to advocate slavish fidelity to them. St. Ignatius of Loyola, himself a contemplative and even a mystic, could hardly have recommended a spirituality which excluded such graces a priori. Anyone thoroughly grounded in Ignatian spirituality knows well enough that there is in it wide margin for originality and freedom. In the beginning of the life of prayer, however, the method is more in evidence than the freedom. The same is true of playing the piano. You learn the scales before you improvise. Benson, in his The Friendship o.f Christ, and Boylan, in This Tremendous Lover, point out that one's prayer life develops along the same lines as human friendship. In the early stages of mere "bowing acquaintance," formalities and conven-tional conversation topics like politics and the weather make up the larger part of the relationship. As the acquaintance deepens, there is growing mutual self-revelation, a sharing of tastes, of personal history, of hopes and fears. There is mutual interest in and support of one another's projects and plans. Should friend-ship ripen to the point of falling in love, the amount of con-versation is reduced to a minimum, and the silent language of 354 November, 1957 PERSEVERING IN PRAYER love takes its place. There is a ~honeymoon" stage, followed by inevitable trials and tests which strengthen and mature the soul. The maturing of married love has frequently been de-scribed as a process of transition from eros to agape, from selfish to unselfish love. A similar process goes on in the prayer life. Eventually prayer comes to the point where it lives by a continuous, silent sacrifice of self for the sake of the Beloved. Such prayer is a life of love and is consonant with a great deal of suffering and self-forgetfulness. Married couples who have lived and loved together for many years have no great need of words; they are content to share each other's silent company. Even so does the soul's happiness come to consist of being silent together with God. In human love this silent togetherness can be such a dear and deep and precious thing that when one partner dies, the other does not linger on much longer. The whole reason for living has disappeared. So in prayer one's whole self can come to be lost in God who is one's only reason for living, moving, being. IV. Variety of Method Although all comparisons limp, at least it should be obvious that in our friendship with the most wonderful Person in the universe we should expect growth and development and change. The purpose of the variety of methods provided by St. Ignatius is to allow for this most desirable adaptability to the attractions of grace. Furthermore, the key to this adaptation is St. Ignatius's direction, "In that point in which I find what I desire, there I will rest, without being anxious to proceed . . . until I have satisfied myself" (Addition IV). This varying of meditation methods to suit one's need of the moment is sometimes a matter wherein a well-meaning young person is too timid. Wisely reluctant to trust her own instincts unless they receive the approval of authority, a beginner must still remember that obedience is controlled initiative. With cer-tain personalities the emphasis must be on the control; with 355 MOTHER ~ARIE VANDENBERGH .Review for Religious others, on the initiative. During the years of religious formation especially, there should be the control of reporting to the novice mistress or superior on how one's time of prayer was spent-- this at intervals of at least two weeks--together with submission to her judgment as to one's success or failure. However, the temptation to cling to a method already approved simply for fear that any other will not receive a similar approval is a kind of human respect. Reduced to its ultimate form, this is hoping to please men at the price of failing to please God. God looks for our initiatives; indeed, if they are good, it is He who inspires them. The novice will do well to remember that she is being led by the hand in order to learn to travel the road alone. Over-dependence on the novice mistress is at least equally as bad as failure to have sufficient recourse to her guidance. Like a good physician, the novice mistress aims at making her ministrations unnecessary. Second year novices, other things being equal, should expect to need less counseling than in their first year, etc. It should not take long for a reasonably intelligent person to acquire enough facility in the use of prayer techniques to begin a little experimentation in method variations. The more personal and familiar our prayer becomes, the better it accomplishes its purpose of uniting us to our Lord and transforming us into His likeness. Of course, if we fall as it were naturally into one or other method, there is no great need to force ourselves to vary our approach--except occasionally to counteract monotony, weariness, boredom; in general, to avoid getting into an unthinking rut. Some people more easily think their way to God, and their meditations reflect this trait. Others lead with their heart. Some can study our Lord in the gospel text with a ready, but quiet, imagination. Some whose imagination tends to run riot, stirring up over-strong emotions, pray best by a loving attention to the presence of God--a simple, peaceful, wordless gaze of the soul focused upon its invisible Guest. 356 Novembe~, 1957 PERSEYERING IN PRAYER Sometimes our prayer is a kind of seeking, searching, asking, wanting. It is a quest for God, a thirst for God, a need for more and more of Him and His love and peace. This is another form of wordless prayer. We may come away from it with no specific resolution, with just an increased consciousness of our need for God, God alone, God first and foremost. It would still be a very good prayer. Some are able to speak familiarly with God, telling Him all the events and hopes and needs of their daily life. So long as there are moments of pause when we can listen to Him, this is a very helpful prayer. It should, however, be a conversation, not a monologue. Too many words can be a barricade between the soul and God. In our daily mental prayer one of these methods may pre-dominate or we may use a combination. On certain days, at certain times in our lives, our prayer methods will almost auto-matically take on certain changes of pattern, simply from neces-sity. As Father R. H. J. Steuart liked to say, the level of our prayer is the level of our lives. Chameleon-like, our prayer adapts to our presefit state of soul, of emotion, or of physical well-being. A real effort to pray when we are in a state of high excitement or deep depression will have a tranquilizing, stabilizing effect. When we are very tired, just to remain numbly in the presence of God is an appropriate prayer. Just to be with Him suffices for us then. The very sick can sometimes unite themselves to God only by the loving contemplation of a crucifix; sometimes even that is beyond them. A weak grip on a crucifix or rosary can symbolize their intention to pray, becoming an outward sign of the inward turning heavenward. When a person is in a state of dryness, interior trial, or is interiorly agitated by a difficulty from without, his prayer is a prayer of spiritual pain. The soul suffers; suffers, it may be, with little hope of respite, with no alleviating sense of vitality as sometimes accompanies a beginner's cross. Father Caussade 357 MOTHER MARIE VANDENBERGH Review for Religious considers it a great grace thus to "suffer weakly," unable to find satisfaction in the thought that one is bearing up nobly under one's cross. This state of pure suffering is extremely pleasing to God and highly profitable to the soul. A person's prayer in this state may be a continual interior Miserere, springing from a great sense of unworthiness and guilt, and in spite of having no specific blemish of conscience to which it may be attributed. Later on, depending upon the degree of purification already accomplished by this state, one's prayer may be an inner attitude of oblation, willingly offering one's suffering self in sacrifice to God. "Take, O Lord, and receive all that I am and all that I have." Lastly, when the purgation of suffering has nearly run its course, an attitude of adoration, of God-regarding prostration of soul, may begin to predominate. These are all methods of prayer which, explicitly or im-plicity, can be found in St. Ignatius's book, The F~xercises. In his very first annotation St. Ignatius gives the title of "spiritual exercises" to "all methods of preparing and disposing the soul ¯ . . to seek and to find the divine will," adding a little later on that "in these spiritual exercises it is more fitting and much better, in seeking the divine will, that the Creator and Lord Himself should communicate Himself to the devout soul . . ." (Annota-tion XV). As Father Peeters has pointed out, "The Exercises in their entirety are presented to us as a means of entering into con-tact with God." V. Discursive Prayer a Preparation for Contemplation Used properly and suitably adapted to the individual, these techniques of prayer are calculated to leave the door open for the divine initiatives by which God leads a soul through darkness into light. Fruitful meditations result in a generosity and purity of soul which dispose a person, insofar as it depends on him, to receive the graces of infused contemplation. In this "gift of prayer," as it is sometimes called, God's action, though imper-ceptible in itself, is powerful in its effects and may temporarily 358 November, 1957 PERSE~CERING IN PRAYER put an end to our ability to meditate discursively. The soul is reduced to a state which seems to be one of comparative inaction, weakness, and passivity. This is because God is taking the lead and the soul is willingly following Him. St. John of the Cross gives three signs by which the director may recognize the beginnings of passive union: impossibility of meditation, painful anxiety as to fervor, and dryness, wi~out consolation in God or in creatures. A soul accustomed to discursive prayer finds a most dis-concerting adaptation necessary when it arrives at the threshold of contemplative prayer. The main reason for the element of surprise is that we cannot possibly imagine ahead of time what the direct action of God will be like or what precise form the purification will take. Secondly, it is a fairly common, though unwarranted, assumption that the habit of prayer increases ac-cording to the familiar pattern of a purely natural habit. But there is this remarkable difference between the habit of prayer and, say, the habit of playing the piano. In the latter case, repetition breeds facility, the habit increasing in kind; whereas the unpredictable element of the supernatural in the habit of prayer allows for an otherwise unaccountable psychological phenomenon. Dom Chapman in one of his letters puts it most clearly: "Progress in prayer is not (1) from troublesome discursive meditation to easy contemplation of a beautiful thought; and from weak affections to fervent and strong affections, but (2) from easy discursive meditations to the impossibility of medi-tating at all (except by ceasing to pray), and from easily warmed affections to no affections at all--to aridity, that is, and to 'night.'" The paradoxical fact about meditation is that we expect it to become easier and easier~'and instead it becomes harder and harder, then "nauseous or impossible." Dom Chapman says in another letter, "Meditation is usually necessary in order to induce souls to love God and to give them-selves to Him. But at that point--when it begins to be reached 359 MOTHER MARIE VANDENBERGH Review for Religious --the power of meditation usually stops and something better begins." It is not our purpose here to analyze the ~something better," but to indicate the point at which there must be a radical change in our technique of prayer. That St. Ignatius envisaged the possiblity of such a transi-tion is evident in his F~xerc[s~s, pronouncedly in the contrast between Annotations IX and X. He presupposes knowledge of the different phases of prayer in his instructions to the director, though he includes nothing specific in regard to passive prayer in his instructions for the retreatant. The reason for this is primarily historical, for the Jesuit founder had been called up before the Spanish inquisitors two and three times to have his writings examined for teaching a false mysticism. In such cir-cumstances it was better not to put everything he knew into print. Secondarily, there is a reason for his reticence that to some extent still applies. This is simply that it is almighty God who decides when and if a soul is to enter upon the way of contempla-tion, and it is the director who decides whether or not this has actually been the case. St. Ignatius allows for the possibility of a soul's discontinuing discursive prayer in his instruction that it rests where it finds satisfaction. He expects the director to do the further instruction when the need arises. Naturally, a soul is not incapable of recognizing in itself the symptoms mentioned by St. John of the Cross. But no man is a good judge in his own case, and far too often wishful thinkers in the spiritual life have attributed to almighty God phenomena that were actually the natural products of their own faculties and pas-sions, the result, say, of insomnia or indigestion, or in some cases the work of the devil. Hence the need for solid guidance. In the text of the F~xercises, St. Ignatius divides the retreat into four ~weeks" which correspond roughly to the purgative (first week), illuminative (second and third weeks), and unitive (fourth week) ways so often mentioned by spiritual writers. He 360 November, 1957 PERSEYERING IN PRAYER makes a noteworthy distinction between the treatment to be ac-corded souls suited only for the meditations on the purpose of life, on sin, and on repentance customary in the first "week" and the treatment of souls capable of the greater service of God asked of them in the ensuing "weeks." He has two sets of "Rules for the Discernment of Spirits," applying to the age-old principles whereby the director decides if a soul is being influenced by the good or the evil spirit or by its own self. The rules for souls of the first-week category are rules for beginners in the spiritual life, i.e., either souls struggling to break with habits of mortal sin or innocent souls just learn-ing how to meditate. (Discursive meditation is good for both alike.) The rules for the second week are for the more pro-ficient. Their application extends indefinitely onward into the heights of union with God. This marked difference between the advice St. Ignatius would give beginners and the advice suitable to the more advanced shows plainly that the author of the Exercises took it for granted that the time would come when a radical change would take place in the soul's activity. In other words, he allows for the fact that discursive meditation in many cases develops into something very different, while taking into con-sideration the instances where it does not. "If Ithe retreatant] be a person who has been little versed in spiritual matters and . . if he betrays impediments to making further progress in the service of God our Lord . . . , then let not the person giving the Exercises converse with him upon the rules of the second week for discerning various spirits, because in the pro-portion that those of the first week will benefit him, those of the second will do him harm, because they contain matter too subtle and too high for him to understand" (Annotation IX). St. Ignatius never intended his methods to be set above the valid inspirations of grace, though some of his devotees have at times given that impression. His admonition, "It is 361 MOTHF~R MARIE VANDENBERGH Review for Religious not to know much, but to savor the matter interiorly that fills and satisfies the soul," certainly shows that he meant meditation to be used in such a manner as to pave the way for the simpli-fying process God so often undertakes in the prayer of the generous. A person who remembers this advice will find Igna-tian spirituality an excellent preparation for "the gift of prayer." By way of further example we might point out that a soul formed by the asceticism of St. Ignatius is told, when prayer is dry and disgusting, to prolong it somewhat beyond the usual space of time; when prayer is sweet and easy, to resist the temptation to linger longer. This discipline breeds the detach-ment from even spiritual delights and the perseverance through times of desolate prayer that are the necessary preparation for higher gifts of God. This teaching trains a soul not to give up when ~he going gets tough and, contrariwise, not to make sweetness or facility the criterion of its success in prayer, safely guiding it between the Scylla and Charybdis of its spiritual Odyssey. VI. Adapting the Exercises to the More Proficient Throughout the Exercises there is a noticeable progres-sion of thought, an ascending scale of higher and higher moti-vation, designed to overtake a soul at whatever point it has reached in its journey toward God and guide it further, as far as the grace of God permits. St. Ignatius, though unwilling to speak to beginners about the conduct of the more advanced, did not believe that an earnest soul who has made some progress should be allowed to think that there is no other sort of prayer possible except discursive meditation for "ordinary" Christians and mystical phe-nomena for the saints. This is a common misconception castigated by Father M. Eugene Boylan, O.C.S.C., in his practical little vol-ume, Difficulties in ~ental Prayer. Although St. Ignatius in Annotation XI exhorts the retreatant "so to toil in the first week as if he did not hope to obtain anything in the second," 362 November, 1957 PERSEVER,ING IN PRAYER he does not intend this to mean that a soul should be kept in ignorance of the fact that there is something further to attain, especially if he is generous in striving to correct his defects and to remove the obstacles to his further progress. The sign St. Ignatius gives as an indication to the director that it is safe to instruct a soul in the ways of more advanced spirituality is the discovery that the soul ~is assaulted and tempted under the semblance of good," because this is characteristic of a per-son who ~is exercising himself in the illuminative way" (Anno-tation X). Sometimes in the providence of God it is not very long before the neophyte needs to know what lies ahead for him. When a soul, then, has reached the degree of purity of life where its temptations are not of a ~gross and sensual nature," or when discursive meditation is ceasing for some legitimate reason to be profitable, it is time for him to learn what the future may hold in store. Then, if his prayer begins to dry up, there will be less danger that he will do himself harm by violent efforts to ~pray as I used to," not realizing that there can come a time when a person who says, ~I can no longer meditate," must learn to pray another way. What is the part to be played by methodical meditation during the confusing transition period when the soul is not as yet accustomed to its new role as patient rather than agent? Dom Chapman's advice at this point was always, ~Pray as you can and don't try to pray as you can't,t'' With some persons, the transition between discursive prayer and passive prayer is' abrupt. With others it is gradual, periods of passivity being interspersed with times when meditation is possible to some degree. There is likely to be danger of illusion in refusing to meditate when it becomes possible, even as there is danger in making violent efforts to meditate when it is not possible. Here one's early training in outlined meditation becomes very useful, for the safe course seems to be to make an initial try at medi-tation when beginning the time of prayer, but to rest content if the trial proves a failure. The habit of turning to a preo 363 MOTHER MARIE VANDENBERGH Review for Religious pared outline is a safeguard, in spite of the fact that more and more the method of "doing something" must be replaced by a method of ~doing nothing," of learning to take one's cues from God, God working within the sanctuary of the soul. Sometimes a soul finds it helpful to pray, as it were, by means of an attitude of soul, of humility, supplication, and self-oblation. For such a soul has received ~the call of the King," inviting those who wish to distinguish themselves ir~ God's service to follow their Lord in poverty and suffering. If a person cannot make the offering of himself and all he posses-ses to serve the kingdom of Christ, he obviously has neither the grace nor the capacity for the sacrifices necessary for further progress in the prayer life. If he has made the offering, he must be prepared to fulfill it literally; for, stripped of even the spiritual armor in which he trusted, he will suffer unbearably in the experience of his poverty in the sight of God. This, however, is the way God must treat a soul in order to make it pliant in His hands. When a person has learned how to remain tranquil under the direct action of God, he has learned how to pull in the oars of meditation-technique and let ,:he breath of the Spirit fill his sails. He has learned how to launch out into the deep. Let it be noted, though, that, if the soul may ~pull in the oars," it does not throw them away. As Father 1~. H. J. Steuart put it, "You don't tear down the staircase just because you have arrived at the top." Father Boylan makes the sage re-mark that we must have "the humility" to return to discursive prayer when the facility for it is restored. In many an instance the course grace takes after passive stages have done their work is to restore the discursive ability in combination with the infused contemplation that is the fruit of the purification the soul has undergone. It would be a tempting digression to go more into detail in regard to the rules for discerning spirits, but that would be beyond the scope of this article which set out to be no 364 November, 1957 PERSEVERING IN PRAYER more than a general survey. The point we have tried to em-phasize is that in the text of the Exercises can be found the evidence that St. Ignatius, though he teaches methodical prayer, by no means intended to limit souls to it if they were drawn by God to something simpler. He definitely planned the F~xercises to prepare and dispose a soul to find more quickly the will of God in its own regard--and devotion to the will of God is one of the marks of a contemplative soul. There are references in rules 2 and 8 of the second week to "consolation without any preceding cause" as being the work of God par excellence in the soul. There follow warn-ings against pseudo-consolation inspired by the devil and the illusions of auto-suggestion apt to follow upon actual and God-sent "consolation." These show how familiar St. Ignatius was--and how familiar he expected the director to be--with the hazards attendant upon even the most legitimate graces of infused prayer. Without doubt, Ignatian spirituality, rightly understood, is designed to prepare a soul for God's direct action, protect it during the dangers of the transition period, and safeguard it from illusion when it has accustomed itself to surrender to the will of God. Mother Marie Aimee Lautier, superior general of the Cenacle for nearly fifty years, stressed the function of prayer in our "mixed" vocation as "contemplative in action." "Masters of the spiritual life," she wrote, "teach that the soul called to perfection, after being exercised in the exterior practice of charity, is drawn by the contemplation of divine things to an interior conversion and purification, so that being wholly en-kindled and burning with divine love, it is impelled anew by the strength of this love towards creatures in order to give them of its fullness: 'The love of Christ impels us' (II Cor. 5:14). "Its charity, then, is quite different from what it was at the beginning; and its zeal which at first was the auxiliary of natural activity now becomes the disinterested fruit of love." 365 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious This same holy religious exhorted her daughters, "Ask for this precious gift [of prayer]; we must prepare ourselves to receive it, and we must await it with confidence. It is the gift par excellence of our vocation." Of course, the Cenacle tlas no monopoly on it. We are grateful, though, to have the strong guidance of St. Ignatius to help us achieve our goal. Book Reviews [Material for this department should be sent to Book Review Editor, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.] THE FIRST JESUIT, ST. IGNATIUS LOYOLA. By Mary Purcell. Pp. 417. The Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland. 1957. 5.oo. In her preface to this delightful life of St. Ignatius, Miss Purcell says that if he were better known, he would be better loved and oftener invoked. Her own efforts are no small contribution to this happy con-summation. Too often St. Ignatius has been presented to us in the guise of what Father La Farge, in his forward, calls "a glorified efficiency expert," with the result that the lovable qualities of the saint are frequently overlooked, thus leaving him in these later days a figure more feared and admired than loved. "It is interesting to note," writes Miss Purcell, "how many people in so many different walks of life 'become fond of Inigo.' He seems to have had an easy and spontaneous manner, a nature that led him to make friends quickly. In the places where he lived, people soon got to know of him . He had an extraordinary flair for knowing exactly which ap-proach would win the heart of the particular individual or group he was contacting at any given time. And 'When he gazed at one,' writes a contemporary, 'while his conversation was benign, his eyes seemed to pierce the heart, to see all; conversing with him only once, you felt that he knew you through and through.' " It would seem that the reaction has well begun; and future biographers, taking their cue from writers like PSre Dudon, Father Brodrick, and Miss Purcell, will in the future give us an Ignatius 366 November, 1957 BOOK REVIEWS who, besides being a founder and a general, is also a fellow-pilgrim and a father. A preliminary glance at the bibliography might suggest that Miss Purcell has undertaken to write something more than a merely popular life of St. Ignatius, and the reader will not have gone very far before he realizes that there is a great deal of scholarship to it; and once he gets himself tangled up in the notes at the end of the volume, he won't have any doubt about it. Miss Purcell has gone to original sources, some of which may have been within easy reach, like the seventy-seven volumes of the ~lonumenta llistorica Societatis Jesu. But others must have been farther removed, like the diaries of the pilgrims who accompanied Inigo on his pilgrimage to Jeru-salem or about his time made pilgrimages of their own. There is a very thorough treatment of the Irish mission of Fathers Broet and Salmeron, but this reviewer feels that Miss Purcell is too sweeping when she calls it the only complete failure in the life of Ignatius. After all, they were not missionaries bent on the conversion of a pagan land. They were papal nuncios. They came, they saw, they returned. Uoila! Since they were papal nuncios, we might have wished that their visitation had been carried on with a little more leisure and something of the ceremonial becoming their exalted rank. But they knew they were putting their heads into the lion's mouth, even if St. Ignatius thought that Ireland was another Guipuzcoa when in fact it was what we should call today hardly more than a satellite state. The very fact that they survived, surveyed conditions, and escaped with their lives to make their report is by itself a considerable achievement and deserves to be regarded as some measure of success. Some readers will be very sceptical about accepting one or other of Miss Purcell's conclusions, for instance, that Inigo was "barely five feet tall" and that he was "red-headed." Consulting the sources given I can find none that warrants such a conclusion. He is described as being of "medium height" or "a little below medium." Barely five feet would place him in the under-sized class completely. One wonders how a man of such small proportions (even remember-ing Napoleon) could hope for any notable success in the use of arms on battlefield or jousting court, or expect to play Amadis to any Oriana. Yet we know that Inigo, the caballero, made no bones about aiming at glorious successes in both instances. 367 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious There is a text in the Monumenta which refers to the caput aereum, and although the term occurs twice in the same paragraph, the editors of the hlonumenta seem to be convinced that aereunt should be cor-rected to cereum, since it evidently refers to the wax effigy which was taken from the death-mask. His complexion seems to have been what we should today call blond verging on ruddy. Juan Pascual, who described him as he remembered meeting him on his way down from Montserrat, wrote of him as being "'no molt alt, pero blanc j ros, j de molt bona cara" (p. 83), which is the Catalan for "medium height, fair complexion, and handsome." Occasionally Miss Purcell is a bit unguarded and leaves herself open to misinterpretation, as when she says: "One cannot think of Ignatius of Loyola limping a little at times as he trudges from Rome out to Monte Cassino to give the Exercises to Dr. Ortiz and back again to see how Cardinal Contarini is faring in his contemplations, without recalling a veritable litany of great names . " The reader is not always ready to interpose a month or more between these two excursions; and, while Miss Purcell of course knows better, this sentence can easily give the the untraveled reader the impression that Monte Cassino is one of the outlying hills of Rome and that St. Ignatius was giving the Exercises simultaneously, but separately, to these two veritably great men, Pedro Ortiz and Cardinal Contarini. We do know that once he had three exercitants in retreat simul-taneously in different parts of Rome, a task which obliged him daily to trudge practically the periphery of the city, "limping a little," not only at times, but every step of the way. Limitations of space may be responsible for other false impres-sions as that in St. Ignatius's dealing with Father Simon Rodrigues, whom he did not threaten with "excommunication," or even dismissal, although he was fully prepared to proceed to this latter extreme if Rodrigues persisted in his refusal to leave Portugal and come to Rome, as his Father General had begged him to do in letter after letter. But, then, Miss Purcell did not write this book for specialists. She has given us a delightful picture of St. Ignatius, but an in-complete one. In fact, who would ever think of making it complete? For what she has given us we should be deeply grateful. The points here adversely touched upon are minor indeed and do not in the least impair the picture that is actually presented. The reader is 368 November, 1957 ~OOK REVIEWS given a fair and unbroken page to examine, typographically speaking; but he pays for this satisfaction in the added labor of tracking down references. But Miss Purcell's publisher is to blame for that; and, after all, it is for the most part only rugged reviewers or determined researchers who will have to bear that burden. Their growling should not be taken as an attempt to bite.--WH,LI,.\.x~ J. Youxc,, S.J. A WOMAN OF UNITY. By Sister Mary Celine, S.A. Pp 357. Franciscan Sisters of the Atonement, Graymoor, Garrison, New York. 1956. $4.50. A Woman of Unity tells the story of Mother Lurana of Gray-moor. The career of this "remarkable woman" is traced through her childhood, her searchings as a young woman for a life of perfect poverty in Anglican communities, her founding of Graymoor with Father Paul Francis, her reception into the Church with her com-munity in 1909, and her direction of the Society of the Atonement in her mature years. Mother Lurana is an inspiring personality; and in these days, when church unity is talked of more seriously than at any time since the Protestant Revolt, her life and vocation are of especial significance. It is most interesting to read of the humble beginnings of the Chair of Unity Octave at Graymoor during Mother Lurana's Anglican days and also to know of her dissatisfaction even then with the Anglican position on the unity and leadership of the Church: "In legislative bodies not so much as a committee of three can discharge its functions, unless one of the three presides in the chair of unity. It is a futile dream to contemplate a united Church on earth without a visible head. If every parish must have its rector, and every diocese its bishop, and every province its archbishop, how could the whole Catholic Church throughout the world exist as one fold without having one supreme or chief shepherd over all?" Mother Lurana conceived her life's task and the task of her society to be that of "repairer of the breach," to use one of her favorite ways of expressing her vocation to work for church unity. Sister Mary Celine, a member of Mother Lurana's community who knew her personally, has faithfully reconstructed her story from letters, official documents, and personal recollections. The biography proceeds in clear and chronogical sequences, and Mother Lurana is given ample opportunity to speak for herself in letters and exhorta-tations to the community. Sister Mary Celine brings the reader into the Graymoor community to share the joys and sorrows of the mother 369 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious foundress and the pioneer nuns. The book, however, has a tone reminiscent of the sweet and moralizing hagiography popular in an earlier day, a tone to this reviewer somewhat distasteful, and abounds in phrases and reflections which seem a little worn. On the other hand, even though in the pages of A Woman of Unity Mother Lurana loses a trifle of the vibrant humanity which must have been hers, she clearly has aroused in her biographer and all her religious daughters an admiration which is at once warm and contagious. As a matter of fact, it is difficult to see how anyone who knew her could help but admire the courage and spirit of this woman who braved all in order to lead others to the Chair of Unity. --JOHN W. O'~IALLEY, THE WORD OF SALVATION. Translation and Explanation of I. The Gospel According to St. Matthew by Alfred Durand, S.J., and II. The Gospel According to St. Mark by Joseph Huby, S.J. Translated into English by John J. Heenan, S.J. Pp. 937. The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee 1, Wis. consin. 1957. $12.50. A translation of the famous Verbum Salutis series has been long overdue. Father Heenan is to be congratulated for making two of the volumes of this popular commentary available to English-speak-ing Catholics. The English version of both text and commentary is fortunately unabridged, and the translator has thoughtfully added a handy index for each Gospel. Father Heenan has preferred to reproduce the text of the Gospels with an eye to the French rather than to follow strictly any one of the standard English versions. But the words of the Gospel flow at least as smoothly as they do in the Confra-ternity edition, and to many they will have a more familiar ring. Some may be disconcerted by the alternation of you and thou in the text. However, the former is used consistently for the plural; and it seems that Father Heenan wisely opted for accuracy in this instance as in all other respects, since the main feature of the book is the commentary which closely follows the translation of the gospel text. The style of the English commentary follows the French quite well: simple, direct, concise, with occasional fluent passages. As for content, technical discussions are limited to a bit more than the minimum 370 November, 1957 ]lOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS claimed by the authors, but will prove to be of interest even to the layman in biblical studies. It should be noted that these few learned asides are written in non-technical language and can easily be handled by the average intelligent reader. They serve, too, to undergird what might otherwise be considered a pious commentary with little basis in historical fact. One cannot ignore history if one seeks a fuller understanding of the words of Christ. The Savior became incarnate for all men, but taught and toiled primarily for the lost sheep of the House of Israel. It was in their language, thought-patterns, and history that He voiced the Word of Salvation. This volume will go far to re-create for the preacher, student, and religious the atmosphere of the Gospel and its interpretation throughout the course of Christian tradition. It will be quite help-ful to those who prefer spiritual reading and meditation material which is more directly in touch with the words of the Gospel than is usually the case in a "life of Christ." The text and commentary are neatly divided into sections averaging about six pages of com-mentary for every five of ten verses of text. The apologetic value of the work should not be overlooked by teachers of high school and college. Father Smith Instructs Jackson, for all its merits, is often completely unacceptable to the college student or to the prospective convert whose chief difficulties lie in understanding the paradoxical words of Christ Himself. In this connection, Sodality study clubs (at least on the high school senior level) might use the Word of Salva-tion with much profit. May this excellent work see even more editions than its French original. It is to be hoped that the companion volume (Luke and John) will appear shortly.--CH.~RI, ES H. (~J~L~X', S.J. 8OOK ANNOUNCI:MI:NT$ THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, 400 North Broadway, Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. De Ordine. Tom. I. De Institutione. By Emmanuel Doronzo, O.M.I. Priests and seminarians will certainly want to read this monumental Latin work on the sacrament of orders. This first volume of more than a thousand large, closely printed pages begins with an eighty-two page introduction to the whole treatise which is to consist of seven chapters. The introduction is followed by the first chapter 371 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religious which takes up all the remaining pages. This chapter is divided into three articles: the first on the existence of orders; the second on the sacramental nature of orders; and the last on the three grades of orders. There are exceptionally complete bibliographies and indices. The work gives promise in this first volume of being even more exhaustive than the author's justly renowned work on the sacrament of penance. Pp. 962 ~- 41. $19.00. Canon Law Digest. Annual Supplement Through 1956. By Lincoln T. Bouscaran, S.J., and James I. O'Connor, S.J. $1.75. CARMELITE SISTERS, Santa Teresita Hospital, Duarte, Calif. The Doctor's Widow. By William M. Queen. This is the first biography of Mother Maria Luisa Josefa of the Most Blessed Sacra-ment, foundress of the Discalced Carmelite Sisters of the Third Order. This congregation was born at the turn of the century and has two provinces, one in Mexico, the land of its birth, the other in California. Its expansion to California was one of God's ways of drawing good out of the evil of the persecution of the Church in Mexico. This inspiring book will be of interest to both religious and lay women since Mother Josefa was an exemplary wife before she became a religious. Pp 127. Cloth $1.00. The Soul's Elevation, by a Discalced Carmelite Father, a master of novices, is a meditation book for religious. In the introduction we find an explanation of meditation in which the author outlines both the Ignatian and the Sulpician methods. There is also a brief outline of prayer in general. In Part I there are eight meditations on the four last things. Part II contains nine meditations on the gifts of God to man. Part III devotes eight meditations to the Passion of our Lord. Part IV consists of three considerations on Holy Communion. There is also an appendix which contains "Mirror of the Good Religious" and meditations for the day of investiture, of first vows, of final vows, and of jubilee. Pp. 94. Paper $1.00. GRAIL PUBLICATIONS, St. Meinrad,Indiana. Follow Christ. No 18. This largepamphlet on vocation to the priesthood and the religious life, profusely illustrated with excellent photographs, deserves wide distribution. In it the questions which eighth grade boys and girls of today are actually asking about the important topic of vocation are answered by experts. It 372 November, 1957 [~OOK ANNOUNCEMENTS contains much information about seminaries and many religious orders and congregations for both men and women. Pp. 134. $0.75. SHEED AND WARD, 840 Broadway, New York 3, New York. Terrible Farmer Timson and Other Stories. By Caryll House-lander. Pictures by Renee George. Here are twelve stories for children which first appeared in The Children's Messenger of Lon-don, England. Children will be pleased with them and learn 'some very profitable truths without pain or effort. Pp. 152. $2.50. Soeur Angele and the Bell Ringer's Niece. By Henri Catalan. This is the third detective story by the author in which a Sister of Charity appears in the role of detective, and she does so without derogating in any way from her role as religious. The setting and characters are typically French. Pp. 179. $2.50. SISTERS OF ST. FRANCIS, Mount Alvernia, Pittsburgh 9, Penn-sylvania. As a Living Oak. Biography of Mother Baptista Etzel, O.S.F. By Sister Mary Aurelia Arenth, O.S.F. There should be more, many more biographies of the men and women who have rendered out-standing service to God and religion. Such biographies would extend the sphere of influence for good which they exercised while living to the men and women of ~he present generation. We have the material; what seems to be lacking are authors to put it to good use. Hence we welcome the present biography with a great deal of satisfaction. It is the biography of Mother Baptista who was one of the pioneers of the Franciscan Sisters in Pennsylvania, and their third mother superior. That so many of the hardships of the pioneer days are now a matter of history for this congregation and that their sphere of influence has been so greatly enlarged is due very largely to her courage, vision, and fortitude. May this biography inspire many more souls to follow where she led; may it also inspire authors to gather material from the same fertile field, the pioneer religious in the United States. Pp. 133. $3.00. SISTERS OF THE GOOD SAMARITAN, St. Scholastica's, Glebe Point, Australia. The Wheeling Years. The Sisters of the Good Samaritan. 1857. 1957. Faith and reason prove the providence of God for His crea-tion. History illustrates it for the discerning reader. In The Wheel- 373 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS ing Years we have such an illustration. The book, made more graphic with drawings and many photographs, recounts the story of the foundation in Sydney, Australia, of the Sisters of the Good Samaritan just one hundred years ago. It tells the story of the first difficult years and their subsequent growth. Houses of the congregation are now found in the whole length and breadth of the island continent. This new congregation adapted the rule of St. Benedict to the needs and requirements of life on a continent at that time rapidly growing to the stature of a new nation. In this centenary publication we also find an account of their spirit, the training imparted to their members, and the work that they do for the glory of God and the salvation of souls. Despite the many demands made on them at home, they have not been deaf to the call of the missions and have two foundations in Japan. We join with these sisters in thanking God for the innumerable graces of the past one hundred years. SOCIETY OF ST. PAUL, 2187 Victory Boulevard, Staten Island 14, New York. Holy Mass and Life. By Aloysius Biskupek, S.V.D. "The more the significance of the Mass is understood, and the more its power is used for the realization of the ideal Christian living, the more holiness there will be among the faithful." With these words the author sums up his book in the final chapter titled Conclusion. To offer adequate means to the faithful to attain this end was the motive which guided his pen. His explanations are clear, his exhortations persuasive, and his meditations on the unchanging prayers of the Mass even priests who have said Mass for many years would find helpful. There are twenty-three full page photographs of a priest at various parts of the Mass. Pp. 189. $2.50. 374 ( uestdons and Answers [The following answers are given by Father Joseph F. Gallen, S.J., professor of canon law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland.] Why has the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS emphasized so frequently the simplification of the habit of religious women? The articles and statements in the R.EVIEW have been mere ex-planations of the principles of Plus XII and the Roman congregations. They have been relatively conservative, as may be seen from some of the following quotations. "The first is that of particular observances. Each of these, even the most material, should bear at least indirectly on the sanctification of the religious. We find a characteristic example in the habit. It is certain that in itself, especially as regards form or color, it contributes very little to the perfection of charity. Nevertheless, it places the re: ligious in a state of separation which is visible to the world and sym-bolizes and favors that interior separation which is the first step of the soul in search of God" (Dora Basset, O.S.B., Religious Sisters. 87). "When the different religious habits were adopted by the founders, they resembled the dress of the poor people of the period. Today a habit is required that helps the body, not one that embarrasses it; it should be practical, simple. A long habit and a simple veil are always graceful and becoming. They offer many practical advantages and are in perfect keeping with modesty and with religious consecration. In order that in our day the religious habit may keep its aesthetic appeal and its character of poverty together with its attractive symbolism of consecration, it would suffice to simplify it. It would thus become more practical, fewer pleats, narrower sleeves, less pretentious coifs and cornettes" (Reverend Victor de la Vierge, O.C.D., ibid., 272-73). "The choice of religious habits for each order was not necessarily motivated by rules of hygiene but frequently by contemporary usage and certain principles of mortification and decency. In recent years a number of religious habits have undergone simplification and a wholesome process of alleviation. Still, it must be recognized that many remain far from healthy either on account of weight (some 375 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religion, s weigh as much as fifteen pounds), or of difficulty of washing, or of headdresses and winged coifs worn tightly around the head and fore-head" (Sister Germaine Marie, Ckastity, 252). "It is simply not permissible that religious should pay more for their clothing than people of the world. There are habits that have become simply impossible with regard to both health and work, and some have become ridiculous and endanger the acceptance of a voca-tion" lMost Reverend A. Ancel, deta et Documenta (~'on.qressus (;en-eralis de Statibus Perfectionis, I, 381). '~In general, the people approve simplicity and practicality. In those consecrated to God, they desire a habit that is serious, but not eccentric, clean but not ostentatious. Therefore they cannot compre-hend today some religious habits, for example, of some sisters. The eccentricity and at times the awkwardness of their headdress is really incomprehensible. One cannot grasp the purpose of those yards of material in folds and pleats, of the starched cloth that makes the imprisoned face look like a mask, of an obstructive and ridiculous headcovering" (Reverend G. Amorth, S.S.P., ibid., I, 308-09). "Dear Father, many, very many of us are one hundred per cent in agreement with you. Please keep pushing, pushing, pushing and talking, talking, talking until results are obtained. It isn't our fault that we must wear the ridiculously conspicuous and unsuitable out-tits we do. We would be eternally grateful to you if you could do anything to hasten our release from these swaddling bands, this en-casement of the face, the starch, ruffles, pleats, quantity of cloth, number of articles of clothing, the many pins which relentlessly stick our fingers and neck, the dangling, rustling rosary which catches into everything, gets caught in train and bus seats, and is forever break-ing into a dozen pieces and constantly in the repair shop. The Blessed Mother did not make herself conspicuous by adopting a singular mode of dress; she conformed to the style of her day. Religious men when working wear suitable clothes, and neither do they have their heads all bundled up. Give me a habit which is extremely simple, suitable in color and for work, and something that can be thrown into a wash-ing machine and washed at least once a week the way common sense and decency demand. Deliver me from this intricate and unwieldy headdress whose weight and pressure cause so many headaches, eye troubles, sinus troubles, and many nervous troubles as well as adverse comments" (,1 communication from a sister on the missions). 376 Nove~nber, 1957 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 35- Will you please give a bibliography on renovation and adaptation? The primary sources are the statements of Pope Pius XII and the Roman congregations. These were given in the REV[E\V FOR RF.LI(;IOUS, 14-1955-3-11; 85-92; 123-38; 15-1956-309-27. The acts and documents of the first general congress on the states of perfection, held in Rome in 1950, are next in importance. They have been published in four volumes by the Edizioni Paoline under the title of Acta et Documenta Congressus Generalis de Statibus Per-fectionis. Many of the articles of these volumes are in Latin, French, Italian, other modern languages, but very few in English. The next place must be given to other Roman meetings, which can be found in the following works: Acta et Documenta Congressus Internationalis Superiorissarum Generalium; Atti e Documenti del Primo Convegno Internazionale delle Religiose Educatrici; Atti e Documenti del Primo Convegno delle Religiose Rieducatrici, all pub-lished by Edizioni Paoline. In the fourth place are the acts and documents of the various na-tional congresses, e. g., that held for the United States at the University of Notre Dame and published by the Paulist Press in separate volumes for the sisters' and men's sections under the title, Religious Community Life in the United States. The English congress has been published by the Salesian Press under the title, Religious Life Today. In the order of practicality, the next place must be given to the Religious Life Series. These are translations from the French published by the Newman Press and Blackfriars. The volumes that have been translated and published are Religious Sisters, Vocation, Poverty, Chas-tity, Obedience, Doctrinal Instruction of Religious Sisters, and The Direction of Nuns. The volume on common life, La Vie Commune, published in French by Les Editions du Cerf, has not as yet been translated. Again in the order of practicality, the next place is given to Eng-lish works and articles, e. g., The Mind of the Church in the Forma-tion of Sisters, published by Fordham University Press; the Sister Formation Bulletin, published at Marycrest College, Davenport, Iowa; and articles in the l~EVl~.W FOR REL[C, mUS, e. g., 8-1949-86-96; 9-1950- 131-39; 10-1951-75-81; 12-1953-252-72;12-1953-285-90; 12-1953-291-304; 13-1954-13-27; 13-1954-87-92; 13-1954-125-37; 13-1954-169-78; 14-1955- 205-15; 14-1955-293-318; 16-1957-3-9. 377 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious A really great source in quantity and quality of thoughts on reno-vation and adaptation will be found in the French periodical, La Vie Spirituelle and its Supplement, from 1946. Many modern spiritual books, especially in French, are affected by the movement and contribute to it. Our work the essentials, included, why the customary is a prayer. Therefore, why not get along with just Mass and Holy Communion? If meditation must be not make a good fifteen-minute meditation rather than one of a half hour? Work is not infallibly nor by any means always a prayer, and it is rarely a prayer in those who do not give sufficient time to formal prayer. The regime of prayer you favor is that of a devout person of the world, not of a religious who professes to be striving for sanctity. The prayer in the religious life must be of a duration and quality sufficient and capable of inspiring and developing a really saintly life. Some words of Plus XII can also be pondered. "However, We cannot refrain from giving utterance to Our solici-tude and anxiety for those who, because of the special circumstances of the times, have lost themselves so completely in a maze of external activities that they have forgotten the first duty of priests, namely, that of securing their own personal sanctification. We have already publicly proclaimed that those so rash as to hold that salvation can be brougl'~t to men by what has been aptly termed the 'heresy of activity' are to be brought back to the right path. We refer to that kind of activity which is not based on divine grace and does not make constant use of the aids provided by Jesus Christ for the attainment of holiness." "With the growth of devotion to exterior works therefore, let there shine forth a corresponding increase in faith, in the life of prayer, in zealous consecration of self and talents to God, in spotless purity of conscience, in obedience, in patient endurance of hardship, and in active charity tirelessly expended for God and one's neighbor. The Church insistently demands of you that your external wor
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"Wie Privatjets dem Klima überdurchschnittlich schaden"Deutschlandfunk vom 16.01.2023"So viel trägt der Luftverkehr zum Klimawandel bei"Frankfurter Allgemeine vom 03.09.2020"Eine Flugreise ist das größte ökologische Verbrechen"Süddeutsche Zeitung am 31.05.2018Spätestens durch die Studie des Deutschen Zentrums für Luft- und Raumfahrt aus dem Jahr 2020 ist klar, dass die Luftfahrt einen bedeutenden Anteil der globalen Klimaerwärmung ausmacht. Forschende belegten, dass der Anteil der globalen Luftfahrt an der Klimaerwärmung 3,5 Prozent beträgt (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt 2020). Entsprechend steht die Luftfahrtindustrie in Zeiten der wachsenden Sorge um den Klimawandel und den damit einhergehenden Auswirkungen auf den Menschen vor einer wesentlichen Herausforderung: Wie kann die Luftfahrt CO₂-neutral werden?Bislang stehen keine Technologien zur Verfügung, die eine solche Luftfahrt ermöglichen. Gleichzeitig ist eine – durch die Reisebeschränkungen während der Hochphase der Coronakrise nochmals verstärkte – hohe weltweite Nachfrage nach Flugreisen zu verzeichnen. Experten gehen davon aus, dass durch diese fatale Kombination zukünftig der Anteil des Luftverkehrs als Ursache von CO₂ weiter steigen wird (Bopst et al., 2019, S. 31). Deshalb müssen schnell Lösungen gefunden werden, um weitere negative Auswirkungen auf das Klima zu reduzieren.Im vorliegenden Blogbeitrag wird versucht, mögliche Wege der Luftfahrtindustrie hin zu einem klimaneutralen Flugverkehr zu skizzieren. Dazu wird zunächst die Ausgangslage beschrieben und ein Zukunftsszenario skizziert, bevor anschließend mögliche Technologien und politische Maßnahmen zur CO₂-Reduktion erläutert werden. Dabei werden neben technischen Neuerungen, wie nachhaltige Kraftstoffe und das Potenzial von Wasserstoff, die Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der betrieblichen Optimierung und einer staatlichen Regulation diskutiert. Die Ansätze werden dabei stets kritisch hinterfragt.Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wird untersucht, inwiefern sich Airlines um eine nachhaltige CO₂-Reduktion bemühen. Als Beispiel wurde die Lufthansa Group ausgewählt. Die diesbezüglichen Maßnahmen werden ebenfalls zunächst dargestellt und anschließend kritisch betrachtet. Der Blogbeitrag endet mit einer Zusammenfassung, einer abschließenden Betrachtung der Ergebnisse und einem Verweis auf weitere Aspekte von Nachhaltigkeit beim Reisen.Eine klimaneutrale Luftfahrt – AusgangslageDer weltweite Luftverkehr hat in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten stark zugenommen. Im Jahr 2018 [1] wurde weltweit eine so hohe Zahl an Passagieren wie nie zuvor befördert. Deren Anzahl hat sich seit den 1990er-Jahren um mehr als 100 Prozent erhöht (Bopst et al., 2019, S. 17). Allein im Jahr 2018 stieg die Anzahl der Passagiere weltweit um 6,7 Prozent und in Europa um 6,1 Prozent im Vergleich zum Vorjahr (International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 2019, S. 1). In Deutschland hat sich die Zahl der Fluggäste seit 1991 verdreifacht und erreichte 244 Millionen im Jahr 2018 (Bopst et al., 2019, S. 17).Trotz des Einbruchs im Flugverkehr aufgrund der Coronapandemie in den Jahren 2020 bis 2022 wird spätestens im Jahr 2025 mit einer vollständigen Erholung des Luftverkehrs gerechnet. Es gibt auch Modelle, gemäß denen davon ausgegangen wird, dass sich die Luftfahrt bereits bis 2023 vollständig erholt und bis 2025 das Vorkrisenniveau weit überschritten wird. Je nach Szenario wird bis 2040 mit einem jährlichen Wachstum von 2,8 bis 3,5 Prozent gerechnet, was einen Anstieg der Passagierzahlen auf bis zu 9,4 Mrd. Passagiere weltweit bedeutet (Gelhausen 2021; vgl. EASA at al. 2019, S. 15).Das Wachstum des Luftverkehrs in den vergangenen Jahren hat mehrere Ursachen. Eine zentrale Rolle spielen dabei sinkende Kosten auf der Angebotsseite, insbesondere durch den Rückgang von Produktionsfaktoren wie dem Kerosinpreis um mehr als die Hälfte in den letzten zwanzig Jahren (Bopst et al., 2019, S. 17f.). Auch Lohn- und Beschaffungskosten für Luftfahrzeuge sanken. Durch die steigende Treibstoffeffizienz, eine höhere Auslastung und eine höhere operative Leistung der Flugzeuge sowie die Bildung von Airline-Allianzen wurde diese Entwicklung unterstützt.Neben dem Passagierverkehr verzeichnete auch der Frachtverkehr erhebliche Zuwachsraten in den letzten Jahrzehnten. Die jährliche Frachtmenge in Deutschland ist seit 1991 um 243 Prozent auf 4,9 Mio. t im Jahr 2017 gestiegen (ebd., S. 21).Die steigende Nachfrage im Personen- und Frachtverkehr führt dazu, dass in Zukunft deutlich mehr Flugzeuge benötigt werden. Airbus prognostiziert eine Verdopplung der weltweiten Flotte bis 2036 (Bopst et al., 2019, S. 21). Trotz technischer Weiterentwicklungen und gesteigerter Effizienz bei gleichzeitiger Reduktion umweltschädlicher Schadstoffe trägt die Luftfahrt in einem bedeutenden Ausmaß zur Umweltbelastung bei. Flugzeuge sind zwar energieeffizienter geworden, aber die jährliche Effizienzsteigerung hat in der laufenden Dekade abgenommen und wird in der kommenden Dekade voraussichtlich im Durchschnitt bei 1,4 Prozent pro Jahr liegen (ebd.).Trotz dieser Fortschritte kann durch Effizienzsteigerungen der prognostizierte Anstieg der Verkehrsleistung nicht ausgeglichen werden, was bedeutet, dass der Kerosinverbrauch und der Endenergiebedarf des Luftverkehrs in Zukunft weiter zunehmen werden (ebd., S. 25). Es wird erwartet, dass der weltweite Kerosinverbrauch im Jahr 2050 je nach Szenario zwischen 484 und 1096 Millionen Tonnen liegen wird (Cames et al., 2019).Der Treibstoff verursacht eine Vielzahl klimarelevanter Emissionen. Treibhausgase wie Kohlendioxid, Methan, Lachgas, halogenierte Fluorkohlenwasserstoffe, Fluorkohlenwasserstoffe, Schwefelhexafluorid und Stickstofftrifluorid beeinflussen die Strahlungsbilanz der Erde (Bopst et al., 2019, S. 26). Sie lassen die einfallende Sonnenstrahlung passieren, blockieren aber die von der Erdoberfläche abgestrahlte langwellige Wärmestrahlung. Treibhausgase absorbieren diese Wärmestrahlung und strahlen sie in alle Richtungen, einschließlich der Erdoberfläche, ab. Dies führt insgesamt zu einer höheren Strahlungsbelastung auf der Erdoberfläche.Zusätzlich zu den Treibhausgasemissionen, die direkt bei der Verbrennung von Kerosin im Luftverkehr entstehen, gibt es andere Emissionen, wie Partikel, Wasserdampf, Schwefel- und Stickoxide, die ebenfalls zur Klimaveränderung beitragen (ebd. S. 27). Diese Emissionen beeinflussen die Bildung von Aerosolen und Wolken sowie die Konzentration bestimmter atmosphärischer Gase und tragen dadurch ebenfalls zur Veränderung des Strahlungshaushalts bei.Die CO₂-Emissionen des zivilen Luftverkehrs in Deutschland betrugen im Jahr 2017 etwa 31,2 Mio. t CO₂, wovon 2,1 Mio. t auf Inlandsflüge entfielen (ebd. S. 30). Im Vergleich dazu betrug die Gesamtmenge der CO₂-Emissionen des zivilen Luftverkehrs in Deutschland im Jahr 1990 etwa 14,3 Mio. t CO₂ (Inlandsflüge: 2,2 Mio. t CO₂) (ebd.). Somit ist der CO₂-Ausstoß des Luftverkehrs in Deutschland innerhalb von 27 Jahren um 117 Prozent gestiegen. Global betrachtet trug der zivile und militärische Luftverkehr im Jahr 2015 etwa 875 Millionen Tonnen CO₂-Emissionen bei, was etwa 2,5 % der gesamten vom Menschen verursachten CO₂-Emissionen entspricht (ebd.). Ohne weitergehende Maßnahmen werden auch klimarelevante Emissionen zukünftig weiter ansteigen.Im European Aviation Environmental Report 2019 werden Prognosen für die zukünftigen CO₂-Emissionen des zivilen Luftverkehrs in Europa bis zum Jahr 2040 präsentiert. Die Prognosen basieren auf drei Szenarien, die sich in der Entwicklung der Verkehrsleistung unterscheiden. Beim wahrscheinlichsten Szenario, dem 'base traffic forecast' der ICAO, wird bis 2040 von einem Anstieg der weltweiten CO₂-Emissionen, verursacht von der Luftfahrt, auf 198 Mio. t bis 224 Mio. t ausgegangen, abhängig von der technologischen Entwicklung. Dies entspricht einem Anstieg von 21 Prozent bis 37 Prozent gegenüber dem Referenzjahr 2017 (EASA et al. 2019, S. 23).Folglich werden in den kommenden Jahrzehnten durch den zunehmenden Flugverkehr die bereits bestehenden Umweltbelastungen weiter verstärkt. Ferner ist mit einem überproportionalen Anstieg der auf den Luftverkehr zurückzuführenden Treibhausgasemissionen zu rechnen, da andere Sektoren, wie die Automobilindustrie und der Energiesektor, voraussichtlich früher und umfassender ihre CO₂-Emissionen reduzieren werden (Bopst et al., 2019, S. 31).Maßnahmen für die Erreichung einer klimaneutralen LuftfahrtAufgrund des zunehmenden Umweltbewusstseins ist auch die Luftfahrtbranche gezwungen, sich intensiv mit dem Thema Nachhaltigkeit auseinanderzusetzen. Entsprechend wurde in den vergangenen Jahren eine Vielzahl an Maßnahmen zur Steigerung der Nachhaltigkeit in der Luftfahrt umgesetzt bzw. befindet sich noch in der Umsetzung. Im Folgenden wird ein Teil dieser Maßnahmen exemplarisch erläutert.Nachhaltige und klimaneutrale AntriebsstoffeKernpunkt einer nachhaltigen Luftfahrt ist das Umstellen auf alternative Antriebsarten von Flugzeugen. Bis zum gegenwärtigen Zeitpunkt gibt es allerdings keine Antriebskonzepte, die bei Autos, Schiffen oder Zügen funktionieren und größtenteils bereits etabliert sind und die auch bei Flugzeugen eingesetzt werden können. Daher wird in der Industrie vor allem auf drei zukunftsweisende Technologien gesetzt, den Einsatz von nachhaltigen Kraftstoffen, Wasserstoff als Antriebsmittel für Flugzeuge sowie elektronische Antriebsarten.In der Entwicklung am fortgeschrittensten und daher kurzfristig einsetzbar sind nachhaltige Treibstoffe für die Luftfahrt, konkret nachhaltige Flugkraftstoffe (engl.: Sustainable Aviation Fuels – SAF). Eine nachhaltige und CO₂-neutrale Luftfahrt erfordert den Einsatz von Flugkraftstoffen, die aus erneuerbaren Energiequellen und nachhaltig produzierten Rohstoffen hergestellt werden, um fossiles Kerosin zu ersetzen (Bundesregierung 2021).Durch den Einsatz von SAF entsteht ein Kohlenstoffkreislauf, der weitgehend geschlossen ist. Der eingesetzte Kraftstoff wird aus CO₂ gewonnen, das im Idealfall zuvor aus der Atmosphäre absorbiert wurde (Geffert 2022). Es entsteht ein Kreislauf, bei dem kein zusätzliches CO₂ produziert wird, sondern das in der Atmosphäre vorhandene Kohlendioxid wiederverwertet wird.Von der Bundesregierung besonders gefördert werden 'Power-to-Liquid'-Kraftstoffe (PtL), bei denen aus Strom, Wasser und CO₂ flüssige Kraftstoffe hergestellt werden. Diese Art von Antriebsstoffen wird auch als 'strombasierte Kraftstoffe' bezeichnet (Bundesregierung 2021). Um einen Beitrag zur Reduzierung von Treibhausgasemissionen zu leisten, ist es entscheidend, erneuerbare Energiequellen bei der Herstellung zu nutzen. Es wird als realistisch angesehen, dass bis 2030 im deutschen Luftverkehr mindestens 200.000 Tonnen Kerosin aus PtL verwendet werden (ebd.). Diese Menge entspricht etwa 2 Prozent des Kerosinverbrauchs in Deutschland im Jahr 2019 (ebd.).Die bis zum derzeitigen Zeitpunkt hohen Produktionskosten und die begrenzte Verfügbarkeit der PtL sind zentrale Herausforderungen für eine nachhaltige Luftfahrt (Flottau 2023). Um diesen zu begegnen, wurden von der Bundesregierung Maßnahmen zur Förderung der Produktion veranlasst. In einem gemeinsamen Papier der Bundesregierung und der Luftfahrtindustrie werden die Maßnahmen erläutert. Unter anderem plant die Bundesregierung, sich dafür einzusetzen, die Kostenlücke von SAF zu herkömmlichen Kraftstoffen zu schließen, die weitere Forschung und Entwicklung finanziell zu fördern (dazu zählen auch die Förderung und der Bau von SAF-Produktionsanlagen, um den Markthochlauf von PtL-Kerosin zu beschleunigen) sowie SAF bei der Flotte der Flugbereitschaft beizumischen, um als Vorläufer und Ankerkunde zum Markthochlauf beizutragen (Bundesregierung 2022, S. 5f.).Der bedeutendste Vorteil gegenüber anderen Antriebsmitteln und Technologien ist, dass SAF herkömmlichem Kerosin bis zu 50 Prozent beigemischt werden können, ohne dass es nötig ist, Anpassungen an Flugzeugen und Triebwerken vorzunehmen (Geffert 2022). Entsprechend hat die EU-Kommission im Frühjahr 2023 gesetzliche Regelungen für eine Beimischung beschlossen. Ab dem Jahr 2025 ist es erforderlich, dass alle Flüge, die von Flughäfen in der Europäischen Union starten, mindestens zwei Prozent nachhaltige Flugkraftstoffe beimischen (Flottau 2023; Europäische Union 2023). Bis 2030 wird die Quote auf sechs Prozent erhöht und schließlich bis zum Jahr 2050 schrittweise auf eine Beimischungsquote von siebzig Prozent angehoben.Beim Abflug von Flughäfen in der Europäischen Union dürfen Luftfahrzeugbetreiber zudem nur so viel Kraftstoff tanken, wie für den Flug tatsächlich benötigt wird, um zusätzliche Emissionen aufgrund von erhöhtem Gewicht zu vermeiden und um ein 'Tankering' zu verhindern (Europäische Union 2023). Durch Letzteres wird die absichtliche Mitnahme von zusätzlichem Kraftstoff beschrieben, um den Einsatz von nachhaltigen Kraftstoffen zu vermeiden.Neben den SAF als kurzfristig verfügbare Brückenlösung spielen die Entwicklung neuer emissionsfreier Antriebe eine zentrale Rolle. Als vielversprechender Ansatz gilt der Einsatz von regenerativem Wasserstoff als Antrieb, dessen Potenzial vor allem für den Einsatz in Brennstoffzellen, Gasturbinen und hybriden Lösungen untersucht wird (BDLI 2020, S. 4ff).Zwei Ansätze werden hierbei verfolgt. Zum einen wird beobachtet, inwiefern Wasserstoff, wie bei herkömmlichen Turbinen, direkt verbrannt werden kann und dadurch Triebwerken Schub verleiht. Bedeutend höheres Potenzial wird 'Flying Fuel Cells' zugesprochen, einer Brennstoffzelle, die flüssigen Wasserstoff in Strom umwandelt, der dann für den Antrieb des Flugzeugs genutzt werden kann (Weiner 2022; Geffert 2023).Gemein haben beide Technologieansätze, dass lediglich Wasser als Emission zurückbleibt, sofern Wasserstoff mithilfe regenerativer klimaneutraler Energien gewonnen wird (Geffert 2022). Bevor diese Technologien jedoch in hohem Umfang im Flugbetrieb zum Einsatz kommen können, bedarf es erheblicher Entwicklungsprozesse und Innovationssprünge. Neben der Entwicklung von Antriebstechnologien besteht die zentrale Herausforderung darin, das erheblich größere Volumen von verflüssigtem Wasserstoff im Vergleich zu Kerosin und damit notwendige größere Tanks in das Flugzeug zu integrieren (ebd.).Ebenfalls noch ungelöst sind Probleme, die im Zusammenhang mit Batterietechnik und Fliegen stehen. Die Verwendung von Batterien im elektrischen Flugverkehr hat zwar den Vorteil, dass sie während des Fluges keine Emissionen verursachen, einen hohen Wirkungsgrad aufweisen und es ermöglichen, eine hohe Energiemenge in kurzer Zeit abzugeben, aufgrund ihrer begrenzten Speicherkapazität sind derzeitige Batterien für den Einsatz in der kommerziellen Luftfahrt jedoch nicht geeignet. (BDLI S. 8).Auch wenn in den kommenden Jahren weiter Fortschritte hinsichtlich der Speicherkapazität zu erwarten sind, ist anzunehmen, dass elektrisches Fliegen sich vornehmlich auf die Bereiche kleine Motorsegler, Flugtaxis und Kleinflugzeuge für regionale Strecken beschränkt. Eine vielversprechende Option auf lange Sicht sind hybride Antriebe. Gasturbinen und elektrische Antriebe werden dabei so kombiniert, dass sie sich ergänzen und elektrische Antriebe besonders in Phasen mit hohem Energiebedarf die kerosinbetriebene Turbine unterstützen (ebd.).Effizientere Flugführung im europäischen LuftraumDurch die Fortentwicklung eines 'Single European Sky' kann ein maßgeblicher Beitrag zur aktiven Bekämpfung des Klimawandels geleistet werden. Bereits durch die Optimierung von Flugrouten im deutschen Luftraum konnte eine Reduzierung von Umwegen und somit eine Reduzierung des Treibstoffverbrauchs erzielt werden. Auf europäischer Ebene konnten beispielsweise seit 2014 durch die Einführung des 'Free Route Airspace' mehr als 2,6 Millionen Tonnen CO₂ eingespart werden. Dies entspricht etwa 0,5 Prozent der insgesamt durch den Luftverkehr verursachten CO₂-Emissionen innerhalb der Europäischen Union (BDL 2021).Um das vollständige Potenzial auszuschöpfen, wurden von politischer Seite weitere Maßnahmen zur Vereinheitlichung des europäischen Luftraums eingeleitet. Anhand von Untersuchungen wird deutlich, dass durch die Realisierung eines einheitlichen europäischen Luftraums pro Flug 250 bis 500 kg Kraftstoff bzw. 0,8 bis 1,6 Tonnen CO₂ eingespart werden können, indem optimierte und direktere Flugrouten genutzt werden (ebd.).Verbesserte Flugverfahren, wie kontinuierliche Sinkflüge und das Vermeiden von Warteschleifen, bieten weiteres Einsparungspotenzial von bis zu 325 kg Kraftstoff pro Flug (ebd.). Neben der Optimierung der Flugdurchführung gilt es auch, die Prozesse am Boden weiter zu verbessern. Kürzere Rollwege mit weniger Zwischenstopps bieten weitere Einsparungsmöglichkeiten von 38 bis 75 kg Kraftstoff (ebd.).CO2-neutraler FlughafenbetriebNeben den Flugzeugen selbst tragen Flughäfen und die damit verbundene Infrastruktur zu einer Belastung der Umwelt durch den CO2-Ausstoß bei. Entsprechend kann eine Optimierung der Flughafeninfrastruktur dazu beitragen, die Menge an Treibhausgasen zu reduzieren und so das Fliegen umweltfreundlicher zu gestalten. Zahlreiche Flughäfen haben bereits Maßnahmen ergriffen, um dies zu erreichen. Unterstützt werden sie in diesem Zusammenhang von der Bundesregierung, die eine Reihe von Projekten finanziell fördert (Bundesregierung 2022).Die Maßnahmen schließen folgende Bereiche ein: Energieversorgung der Flughäfen, Gebäudetechnik, Einsparungen im Bereich der flughafenspezifischen Anlagen sowie der Bereich Fuhrpark und Mobilität (vgl. BDL 2021). Im Kontext der Energieversorgung wird eine besondere Förderung für Projekte gewährt, die sich auf die lokale und ökologische Energieerzeugung konzentrieren. Hierbei liegt der Fokus entweder auf der Eigenproduktion von Energie, z.B. durch den Einsatz von Photovoltaikanlagen, oder auf der Nutzung regional gewonnener erneuerbarer Energien (ebd.).Zusätzlich werden Fördermittel für Projekte bereitgestellt, die auf die energetische Nachhaltigkeit von Gebäuden abzielen, wie durch den Bau von entsprechend konzipierten Neubauten oder durch die energetische Optimierung bereits bestehender Bauten. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt liegt auf der Optimierung von flughafenspezifischen Anlagen. Beispielhaft ist hier die Umstellung der Vorfeldbeleuchtung auf LED-Leuchtmittel zu nennen. Besonders hohes Einsparpotenzial bietet ferner die Umstellung von für den Flugbetrieb nötigen Bodenfahrzeugen auf alternative Antriebsformen wie Elektromobilität und alternative Kraftstoffe.Vernetzung mit anderen VerkehrsträgernEine Vernetzung der Verkehrsträger trägt zu einer Reduktion der Treibhausgasemissionen bei. Dabei sollen Verkehrsträger miteinander vernetzt werden, um ihre verkehrlichen, wirtschaftlichen und ökologischen Vorteile am geeignetsten zu nutzen (BDL & DB 2021, S. 2). Ziel ist hierbei eine Verringerung des innerdeutschen Flugverkehrs auf ein Minimum. Dazu ist es allerdings unabdingbar, die Bahninfrastruktur weiter auszubauen und Flughäfen stärker an das bestehende Bahnnetz anzuschließen.Durch den umfangreichen Ausbau der Infrastruktur, die Bereitstellung leistungsstarker und attraktiver Angebote sowie die Verbesserung der gemeinsamen Services entlang der Reisekette können das Mobilitätsangebot attraktiver gestaltet und die Kundenzufriedenheit gesteigert werden. Hierbei liegt das Potenzial bei bis zu 4,3 Mio. Reisenden jährlich und einer damit verbundenen Reduzierung der CO₂-Emissionen um rund ein Sechstel im innerdeutschen Flugverkehr (ebd., S. 3).Prognosen zufolge wird der Luftverkehr innerhalb Deutschlands auf Kurzstrecken bis 2030 stark zurückgehen und nur noch auf längeren Strecken, wie zwischen Hamburg und München, profitabel sein. Bis zum Jahr 2050 ist zudem geplant, die Schieneninfrastruktur in Deutschland so weit auszubauen, dass nahezu alle innerdeutschen Flugverbindungen zwischen den großen Drehkreuzen und Ballungszentren durch Bahnfahrten innerhalb von vier Stunden ersetzt werden können (Bopst et al., 2019, S. 58). Durch die Einbindung der Flughäfen ins Schienennetz wird auch der Schienengüterverkehr profitieren. Die allgemeine Zielsetzung ist, dass bis 2050 schnelle Güterzüge im Nachtverkehr nationale Frachtflugverbindungen ersetzen können (ebd.).EmissionshandelDer Emissionshandel gilt als weiterer Baustein für eine klimaneutrale und nachhaltige Luftfahrt. Inwiefern der Emissionshandel zu mehr Nachhaltigkeit beitragen kann, wird bereits in verschiedenen Blogbeiträgen näher erläutert. An dieser Stelle sei daher insbesondere auf die Beiträge von Marion Stieger und Alexandra Knöchel verwiesen. Beide Autorinnen beleuchten, inwiefern der Emissionshandel zu einer Transformation der Wirtschaft hin zu mehr Nachhaltigkeit führen kann. Die in den Blogbeiträgen beschriebenen Prinzipien gelten selbstverständlich gleichermaßen für die Luftfahrt.Kritische Betrachtung der MaßnahmenObwohl es in den vergangenen Jahren zahlreiche Innovationen und technologische Fortschritte in der Luftfahrtindustrie gab, besteht weiterhin ein signifikanter Entwicklungsbedarf, um das Ziel der Klimaneutralität zu erreichen. Zur Nutzung von Wasserstoff als Treibstoff in Fluggasturbinen und Brennstoffzellen müssen zunächst zahlreiche neue Technologien entwickelt werden. Dies sind insbesondere Brennstoffzellen, Elektroantriebe und Tanks, die speziell für flüssigen -253 Grad kalten Wasserstoff konzipiert sind.Diese Technologien müssen anschließend wiederum in das Design und die Struktur des Flugzeugs integriert werden, was aufgrund des deutlich größeren Volumens von Wasserstoff im Vergleich zu herkömmlichem Kerosin eine Neukonstruktion des Flugzeugs erforderlich macht (Geffert 2022). Unter Berücksichtigung der langen Entwicklungszyklen von Flugzeugen, die zwanzig bis dreißig Jahre betragen, sind solche Technologien frühestens Mitte der 2050er Jahre verfügbar.Wie weiter oben beschrieben, setzen EU-Kommission und Fluggesellschaften daher auf SAF. Neben den bekannten Herausforderungen der hohen Kosten und begrenzten Verfügbarkeit stellt die Nutzung von SAF auch in ökologischer Hinsicht eine komplexe Problematik dar (Frankfurter Allgemeine 2022). Das bisher bedeutendste Problem ist die begrenzte Produktionskapazität von alternativem Flugtreibstoff, da momentan die Verfügbarkeit von Rohstoffen nicht ausreicht, um den tatsächlichen Bedarf an Kerosin zu decken (ebd.; vgl. McCurdy 2021).Außerdem wird dieser alternative Treibstoff mittlerweile auch in anderen industriellen Bereichen eingesetzt, was zu einem Wettbewerb zwischen der Luftfahrtindustrie und anderen Branchen um eine begrenzte Ressource führt. Ferner ist für die Produktion dieser Treibstoffe ein erheblicher Energieaufwand notwendig. Diese Energie müsste demnach ebenfalls nachhaltig gewonnen werden, um eine positivere Klimabilanz als herkömmliches Kerosin zu erreichen. Die Produktion von nachhaltigem Kerosin ist entsprechend vom Ausbau der nachhaltigen Energiegewinnung abhängig.Der Einsatz von PtL-Kraftstoffen in der Luftfahrt wird von einem Teil der Experten kritisiert, da die vermeintliche CO₂-Reduktion durch diese Treibstoffe nicht auf einer tatsächlichen Einsparung von CO₂ beruht. Stattdessen wird das für die Herstellung der PtL-Kraftstoffe benötigte CO₂ zunächst der Umwelt entzogen und später bei der Verbrennung des Kraftstoffs wieder in die Atmosphäre freigesetzt. Dieser Ansatz führt zu einer scheinbaren Kompensation von CO₂-Emissionen, die jedoch letztlich darauf hinausläuft, dass die CO₂-Bilanz lediglich als ausgeglichen angesehen werden kann. Im günstigsten Fall sollte kein zusätzliches CO₂ bei der Herstellung und dem Transport anfallen. In diesem Fall ergibt sich ein Nullsummenspiel, das jedoch nicht zur Lösung des Klimaproblems beiträgt (McCurdy 2021).Kritik kommt auch von den Airlines, die insbesondere die deutlich höheren Preise von SAF und einen damit verbundenen Wettbewerbsnachteil kritisieren. Gemäß dem Bundesverband der Deutschen Luftverkehrswirtschaft (BDL) führt die Einführung von Quoten sowohl auf innereuropäischen Flügen als auch auf Langstreckenflügen, die von Drehkreuzen innerhalb der Europäischen Union starten, zu signifikanten Preissteigerungen.Berechnungen des Wirtschaftsprüfungsinstituts PricewaterhouseCoopers zufolge können durch den Einsatz von SAF Flugtickets um bis zu 16 Prozent teurer werden, wodurch ein erheblicher Wettbewerbsnachteil europäischer Airlines gegenüber außereuropäischer Konkurrenten entsteht (Frankfurter Allgemeine 2022; Flottau 2023). Laut den Berechnungen ist ebenfalls davon auszugehen, dass die genannten Kraftstoffe noch bis weit in die 2040er deutlich teurer als herkömmliches Kerosin aus fossilen Rohstoffen sein werden.Um einen dadurch entstandenen Wettbewerbsnachteil deutscher und europäischer Airlines zu minimieren, setzt sich die Bundesregierung dafür ein, durch Luftverkehrsabkommen mit Drittstaaten zu gewährleisten, dass sich Luftfahrtunternehmen aus Staaten außerhalb der Europäischen Union beim Über- und Einfliegen in das Hoheitsgebiet der Bundesrepublik Deutschland verpflichten, die nationalen und europäischen Umweltschutzvorschriften einzuhalten (Bundesregierung 2021).Nachhaltigkeitsstrategien der Lufthansa GroupIm ersten Abschnitt dieses Beitrags konnte dargelegt werden, inwiefern durch die Luftfahrt zu einer nachhaltigeren Lebensweise und zur Reduktion des CO₂-Ausstoßes sowie dem damit verbundenen, durch Menschen verursachten Klimawandel beigetragen werden kann. Dabei wurde vorwiegend die wissenschaftliche Perspektive eingenommen und über den aktuellen Stand der Forschung berichtet.Im folgenden Abschnitt soll eine Auseinandersetzung mit der Frage erfolgen, welche konkreten Maßnahmen von den Airlines, d.h. den Verursachern, zur Reduzierung des CO2-Ausstoßes ergriffen wurden. Hierzu wurde die Lufthansa Group als eines der führenden Luftfahrtunternehmen weltweit ausgewählt.Vorstellung der Lufthansa GroupIm Jahr 2022 hat die Lufthansa Group 826.379 Flüge mit 710 Flugzeugen durchgeführt und etwa 100 Mio. Passagiere befördert (Lufthansa Group 2023a, S. 3). Um die Beförderungsleistung erbringen zu können, wurden 7.284.584.000 Tonnen Treibstoff benötigt, was wiederum zu einem Ausstoß von 22.946.441.000 Tonnen CO₂-Emissionen führte (ebd.) Durchschnittlich wurden 3,59 Liter Kerosin pro 100 Passagierkilometer verbraucht, wobei auch ein Ausstoß von 9 Kilogramm CO2 je 100 Passagierkilometer zu berechnen ist (ebd.). Je nach Entfernung eines Flugs variiert der Verbrauch. Im Vergleich zu Kurzstrecken- wird auf Langstreckenflügen lediglich rund die Hälfte des Treibstoffs verbraucht (3,32 l/100 pkm auf Langstrecken- im Vergleich zu 5,89 l/100 pkm auf Kurzstreckenflügen) (ebd., S. 17). Trotz des höheren Verbrauchs auf Kurzstreckenflügen entfallen vor allem aufgrund der längeren zurückgelegten Strecken rund 57 Prozent des Treibstoffverbrauchs auf Langstreckenflüge, womit diese den größten Anteil an CO2-Emissionen haben.Um die Wettbewerbsfähigkeit weiterhin zu stärken, wurde in den letzten Jahren der Fokus verstärkt auf die nachhaltige Ausrichtung des Unternehmens gelegt und Maßnahmen, insbesondere im Bereich der CO₂-Reduktion, wurden weiter verstärkt (Lufthansa Group 2023a, S. 6). Nach eigenen Angaben hat sich das Unternehmen das Ziel gesetzt, die Netto-CO₂-Emissionen im Flugbetrieb verglichen zum Jahr 2019 zu halbieren und bis zum Jahr 2050 einen CO₂-neutralen Flugbetrieb durchzuführen (ebd.). Zudem soll zumindest an den Heimatflughäfen (Frankfurt, München, Wien, Zürich, Genf, Brüssel und den Eurowings-Basen) der Bodenverkehr auf CO₂-neutrale Antriebe umgestellt werden (ebd., S. 8).Um die angestrebten Ziele zu erreichen, wurden die eingeschlagenen Maßnahmen 'Science-based Targets initiative' validiert (ebd.). Dieser Standard verpflichtet Unternehmen, sich kurz- bis mittelfristige Ziele (fünf bis fünfzehn Jahre) zur CO₂-Reduktion zu setzen, wobei genau festgelegt wird, wann wie viele Emissionen reduziert werden. Die Vorgehensweisen und Werte orientieren sich dabei an den Zielen des Pariser Abkommens und beziehen neueste wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse ein. Im weltweiten Vergleich ist die Lufthansa Group erst die zweite Airline, die nach diesen Standards zertifiziert wurde (ebd.).Maßnahmen zur Reduzierung der Treibhausgasemissionen der Lufthansa GroupDie Maßnahmen sind vielfältig und erstrecken sich vorwiegend auf die Bereiche Flottenerneuerung, nachhaltige Kraftstoffe und die erhöhte intermodale Vernetzung von Flug- und Bahnverkehr. Trotz einer erheblichen Steigerung der Transportleistung wurde in den vergangenen Jahren der Treibstoffverbrauch im Verhältnis deutlich gesenkt. Im Zeitraum von 1991 bis 2022 stieg die Transportleistung der Lufthansa Group um 290 Prozent (Lufthansa Group 2023a, S. 14). Beim Vergleich des Anstiegs des Treibstoffverbrauchs mit den Werten der Transportleistung ist im gleichen Zeitraum lediglich eine Zunahme um 133 Prozent zu verzeichnen. Im Vergleich zum Bezugsjahr 1991 ist dies eine Effizienzsteigerung von über vierzig Prozent (ebd.).Zurückzuführen ist dies auf eine kontinuierliche Erneuerung der Flugzeugflotte und dem damit verbundenen Einsatz effizienterer und kerosinsparender Flugzeuge (ebd.). Neue Flugzeuge, wie die Langstreckenmodelle Airbus A350-900 und Boeing 787-9, sowie die Kurzstreckenmodelle Airbus A320neo und A321neo haben einen im Vergleich zu den Vorgängermodellen reduzierten Treibstoffverbrauch von bis zu dreißig Prozent (ebd.).Auch zukünftig fördert die Lufthansa Group eine konsequente Erneuerung der Flotte und hat im Zuge dessen zahlreiche Flugzeuge der neuesten Generation bestellt. Allein bis Ende 2024 stoßen 24 neue Langstreckenflugzeuge zur Konzernflotte hinzu und ersetzen ältere Modelle, wie die mit vier Triebwerken versehenen Flugzeuge des Typs Airbus A340-300 und 747-400. Bis 2030 werden weitere 180 neue Flugzeuge ältere, weniger effiziente Flugzeuge ersetzen (ebd.).Die Lufthansa Group engagiert sich neben der Erneuerung ihrer Flotte für die Entwicklung und Erforschung nachhaltiger Kraftstoffe und neuer Antriebsmethoden für Flugzeuge. Bereits im Jahr 2022 konnten durch den Einsatz von modernen SAF rund 43.900 Tonnen CO₂ eingespart werden, wobei etwa 40.000 Tonnen auf die direkte Einsparung beim Verbrennungsprozess und etwa 4000 Tonnen auf vorgelagerte Prozesse, wie den Transport, zurückzuführen sind (Lufthansa Group 2023a, S. 16).Es wird angestrebt, den Anteil von SAF kontinuierlich zu erhöhen. Hierzu fördert die Lufthansa Group zahlreiche Projekte, die darauf abzielen, die Verfügbarkeit dieser Kraftstoffe zu erhöhen und ihre Produktionskosten zu senken. In diesem Rahmen wurde eine Partnerschaft mit einer der ersten Raffinerien zur Herstellung von SAF-Kerosin eingegangen und es wurde vereinbart, dass die Lufthansa Group eine garantierte Menge von mindestens 25.000 Liter dieses umweltfreundlichen Kraftstoffes abnimmt (Lufthansa Group 2022).Zudem haben das Unternehmen und der Energiekonzern VARO Energy eine gemeinsame Absichtserklärung über einen zügigen Ausbau nachhaltiger Treibstoffe unterzeichnet. Diese beinhaltet die Herstellung und Lieferung größerer Mengen von SAF ab 2026 an das Drehkreuz München (Lufthansa Group 2023b). Daneben wollen beide Unternehmen gemeinsam an "innovativen Verfahren" (ebd.) zur Herstellung von grünem Wasserstoff aus biogenen Abfallstoffen arbeiten.Die Erforschung des Potenzials von Wasserstoff als zukünftigen Antrieb für Flugzeuge ist auch Thema bei einer gemeinsamen Forschungsinitiative des Deutschen Zentrums für Luft- und Raumfahrt, des Zentrums für Angewandte Luftfahrtforschung und des Hamburg Airport. Gemeinsam wollen die Partner Wasserstoff als potenziellen nachhaltigen Flugzeugtreibstoff erproben und haben dazu das Projekt A320 Hydrogen Aviation Lab entwickelt (Lufthansa 2023a, S. 15). Das Projekt umfasst die Konzeption und Erprobung von Boden- und Wartungsprozessen in Verbindung mit Wasserstofftechnologie.Lufthansa Technik unterstützt vor allem bei der Entwicklung zukünftiger Wartungs- und Reparaturtechniken sowie bei der Entwicklung eines auf -253 Grad Celsius kühlbaren Tanksystems für Wasserstoff an Bord von Flugzeugen (ebd.). Basierend auf dem derzeitigen Stand der Technik würde die Betankung eines Verkehrsflugzeuges mit Wasserstoff mehrere Stunden dauern (ebd.). Um den Betrieb mit diesem Kraftstoff wirtschaftlich realisieren zu können, ist es notwendig, Technologien zu entwickeln, die einen wirtschaftlichen Flugbetrieb ermöglichen.Weiterhin ist die intermodale Vernetzung mit anderen Verkehrsträgern, speziell der Bahn, erklärtes Ziel der Lufthansa Group. In den letzten Jahren ist der innerdeutsche Flugverkehr bereits erheblich zurückgegangen. Im Vergleich zum Jahr 2004 ist die Zahl an innerdeutschen Flügen um 22 Prozentpunkte gesunken (Lufthansa Group 2020).Um die Vernetzung weiter zu fördern, bietet Lufthansa Express Rail Passagieren aufeinander abgestimmte Zug-Flug-Verbindungen an. Dies beinhaltet neben einer Umsteigegarantie die Möglichkeit, das Gepäck direkt am 'AIRail-Terminal' einzuchecken (ebd.). Eine weitere Ausweitung des Lufthansa Express Rail-Netzes wird bei gleichzeitiger Verdichtung der Taktfrequenzen angestrebt.Zudem investiert das Unternehmen in eine Vielzahl kleinerer Projekte zur Reduzierung des CO₂-Fußabdrucks in der Luftfahrt. Die AeroShark-Technologie, die von der BASF und der Lufthansa Group gemeinsam entwickelt wurde, soll an dieser Stelle exemplarisch angesprochen werden. Dabei handelt es sich um eine bionische Klebefolie, die der mikroskopischen Struktur der Haut eines Haifischs nachempfunden wurde und an den Rumpf von Flugzeugen angebracht wird (Lufthansa Group 2022). Durch die aerodynamische Wirkung verringert sich der Luftwiderstand und der Treibstoffverbrauch wird gesenkt. Der erste Test an einer Boeing 777 der Swiss hat eine jährliche Treibstoffersparnis von bis zu 1,1 Prozent ergeben (ebd.). Dies entspricht etwa 4800 Tonnen Kerosin und 15.200 Tonnen CO₂-Ersparnis bei einer Ausweitung der Technologie auf die gesamte Boeing 777-Flotte der Konzerntochter (ebd.).Kritische Betrachtung der Nachhaltigkeitsbemühungen der Lufthansa GroupTrotz der erläuterten Bemühungen und Fortschritte der Lufthansa Group im Bereich der Nachhaltigkeit gibt es Kritikpunkte an den getroffenen Maßnahmen. Kritik kann besonders an der bestehenden Flotte der Lufthansa Group geäußert werden. Obwohl die Flottenerneuerung beschlossen wurde, um der steigenden Nachfrage gerecht zu werden und Kapazitäten zu erweitern, setzt das Unternehmen weiterhin auf eine Vielzahl älterer Flugzeuge.Im Vergleich zu anderen Fluggesellschaften hat die Lufthansa Group einen besonders hohen Anteil an vierstrahligen Flugzeugen im Einsatz, deren Effizienz und Treibstoffverbrauch schlechtere Ergebnisse als vergleichbare neuere Flugzeuge erzielen. Aktuell werden im gesamten Konzern noch 84 viermotorige Langstreckenflugzeuge betrieben (Lufthansa 2023b, S. 26). Gemessen an der Gesamtzahl von 194 Langstreckenflugzeugen entspricht das einem Anteil von 43,3 Prozent. Bei den europäischen Konkurrenten ist der Anteil deutlich geringer. Die Air France-KLM-Gruppe betreibt lediglich vier vierstrahlige Flugzeuge, was mit einem Anteil von 1,6 Prozent gleichzusetzen ist (Air France-KLM-Gruppe 2023, S. 55). Einen ähnlich niedrigen Anteil hat auch die International Airline Group, deren Anteil an vierstrahligen Langstreckenflugzeugen im Jahr 2022 bei 6,3 Prozent lag (IAG 2023, S. 104).Ein weiterer Kritikpunkt an der Nachhaltigkeitsstrategie ist, dass die Lufthansa Group sich vornehmlich bemüht, durch technische Lösungen den CO₂-Ausstoß zu senken, während eine Reduzierung des Flugverkehrs, insbesondere im innerdeutschen Verkehr, nicht konsequent umgesetzt wird. Die Partnerschaft mit der Deutschen Bahn in den vergangenen Jahren wurde zwar intensiviert, dennoch bietet die Lufthansa Group weiterhin auch Flüge an, bei denen der Zug eine gleichwertige und zugleich umweltfreundlichere Alternative darstellt.Eine solche Strecke ist unter anderem die Linie Stuttgart-Frankfurt. Im Sommerflugplan 2023 werden die beiden rund 200 Kilometer entfernten Städte weiterhin bis zu fünfmal täglich mit dem Flugzeug bedient, obwohl der ICE als umweltfreundlichere Alternative die Strecke in etwa einer Stunde und 15 Minuten ohne Umsteigen befährt. Die Verbindungen Düsseldorf-Frankfurt, Nürnberg-München und Nürnberg-Frankfurt sind ebenso kritisch zu beurteilen.In diesem Zusammenhang ist auch der fehlende Ausbau der Bahninfrastruktur an deutschen Flughäfen zu bemängeln. Am Beispiel des Flughafens München lässt sich dieser Mangel deutlich erkennen. Der zweitgrößte deutsche Flughafen ist nicht an das ICE-Netz der Deutschen Bahn angeschlossen und wird es nach einer Entscheidung des Bundesverkehrsministeriums auch zukünftig nicht werden (Süddeutsche Zeitung 2023). Eine Buchung von FlyRail-Verbindungen, wie dies in Frankfurt möglich ist, ist dort nicht umsetzbar, wodurch der Zug an Attraktivität verliert. Besonders die Strecken Stuttgart-München und Nürnberg-München könnten im Rahmen einer Fernverkehrsanbindung des Flughafens München eingestellt werden.Die Kompensationsmaßnahmen der Airline sind ebenfalls kritisch zu betrachten. Mit dem 'Green Fare' bietet die Lufthansa Group seit diesem Jahr Passagieren die Möglichkeit, durch den Kauf eines Tickets vermeintlich klimaneutral zu fliegen, indem die durch die Flugreise verursachten Emissionen kompensiert werden. Zwanzig Prozent der beim Flug verursachten CO₂-Emissionen werden dabei durch den Einsatz von SAF-Treibstoff und die verbleibenden achtzig Prozent durch Ausgleichsmaßnahmen kompensiert, indem an anderer Stelle CO₂ eingespart wird (Lufthansa 2023).Die Kompensation scheint jedoch nur vordergründig das Klima zu schützen. Die Stiftung Warentest bemängelt in diesem Zusammenhang die zu niedrig angesetzte zu kompensierende Menge, durch die nur etwa ein Drittel des ausgestoßenen CO₂ berücksichtigt wird (Stiftung Warentest 2022). Zudem liegt die Kompensation in den Händen der Passagiere. Lufthansa lässt sich entsprechend für die Kompensation und ihre Umweltbemühungen bezahlen. Ferner wird im Verhältnis zum gesamten CO₂-Ausstoß der Airline nur ein kleiner Teil kompensiert (ebd.).Auch Airline-unabhängige Anbieter von Ausgleichszertifikaten befinden sich auf demselben Niveau. Kritisiert werden speziell die Kompensation durch Ex-ante-Zertifikate, bei denen Einsparungen erst in Zukunft anfallen, und die mangelnde Transparenz (ebd.).Im Zuge der Rettung von Teilen der Lufthansa Group durch die Bundesregierung wurde oft die fehlende Verknüpfung der Milliardenhilfe mit Klimaschutzauflagen kritisiert. Besonders im Fehlen von Umweltauflagen, wie die Reduktion bzw. die Einstellung des Inlandsverkehrs und das Bekenntnis zur Emissionsreduktion, zeigt sich eine rein die wirtschaftlichen Interessen berücksichtigende Vorgehensweise (Forum nachhaltig Wirtschaften 2020). Die Coronakrise und die damit verbundene Reduktion des Flugverkehrs hätten stärker als klimapolitische Chance angesehen werden können, indem vermehrt Nachhaltigkeit und Klimafreundlichkeit in den Vordergrund gerückt worden wären (ebd.).ZusammenfassungDieser Beitrag beschäftigte sich mit der Frage, inwiefern sich die Luftfahrt in Richtung Klimaneutralität entwickelt. Dazu wurde zunächst die Ausgangslage beschrieben, dass die weltweite Luftfahrt stark wächst und auch – trotz technischer Innovationen und schadstoffärmerer Flugzeuge – für einen immer höheren Anteil der weltweiten CO₂-Emissionen verantwortlich ist. Auf dem Weg zur Klimaneutralität werden verschiedene Pfade verfolgt, die teilweise geringe Erfolgsaussichten haben. Exemplarisch wurden die folgenden Möglichkeiten erläutert und anschließend einer kritischen Betrachtung unterzogen:der Nutzen und die Effektivität nachhaltiger Kraftstoffe, insbesondere SAF;eine effizientere Flugführung im europäischen Luftraum und die dadurch ermöglichten kürzeren Flugstrecken;Möglichkeiten eines CO₂-neutralen Flughafenbetriebs unddie intermodale Vernetzung mit anderen Verkehrsträgern, v.a. der Bahn.Trotz der Bemühungen und der vielfältigen Ansätze, die Luftfahrt in eine CO₂-neutrale Zukunft zu steuern, wird dies auf absehbare Zeit nicht möglich sein, da sich die Forschung noch am Anfang befindet und es noch Jahre bzw. Jahrzehnte dauern wird, bis das erste klimaneutrale Flugzeug serienmäßig gebaut werden kann.Am Beispiel der Lufthansa Group wurden schließlich Maßnahmen aufgezeigt, die Airlines ergreifen, um die Luftfahrt nachhaltiger und klimaneutral zu gestalten. Es zeigte sich, dass der Konzern vorwiegend auf den Einsatz nachhaltiger SAF setzt. Zudem wird die alternde Flotte schrittweise erneuert, wodurch die Effizienz gesteigert wird und der Kraftstoffverbrauch verringert werden kann. Auch die Vernetzung mit der Deutschen Bahn am Flughafen Frankfurt kann als positives Zeichen gewertet werden, wenngleich hierbei eine noch stärkere Partnerschaft wünschenswert wäre.Trotz aller Bemühungen der Lufthansa Group muss die Frage gestellt werden, inwiefern wirtschaftliche Interessen und Nachhaltigkeitsbemühungen in Einklang gebracht werden können. Häufig bleibt der Eindruck zurück, dass finanzielle Aspekte höher als Bemühungen um mehr Nachhaltigkeit gewichtet werden. Zahlreiche Aspekte deuten darauf hin, dass Nachhaltigkeit und Klimaschutz nur dann mit Nachdruck angegangen werden, wenn dies einen wirtschaftlichen und finanziellen Vorteil mit sich bringt oder von politischer Seite durch Reglementierungen Handlungsdruck erzeugt wird. Dies kommt auch in der ablehnenden Haltung gegenüber fixierten SAF-Quoten innerhalb der Europäischen Union zum Ausdruck.Auch als Kunden der Airlines dürfen wir uns nicht der Verantwortung entziehen, sondern müssen uns über die Konsequenzen unseres Handelns bewusst sein. Wenn wir von Frankfurt nach New York in den Urlaub fliegen, ist dies mit einer erheblichen Belastung für die Umwelt verbunden und die Kompensation der Flugemissionen trägt nicht dazu bei, das Klima nachhaltig zu schützen. Jeder Flug belastet das Klima erheblich, unabhängig davon, ob wir ihn kompensieren, was sich auf absehbare Zeit nicht ändern wird, wie aufgezeigt wurde. Die einzige nachhaltige Lösung ist demnach, den Flugverkehr radikal zu reduzieren, wenn das 1,5 Grad-Ziel noch eingehalten werden soll.Allerdings sollten nicht nur Flugreisen kritisch betrachtet werden, auch der zunehmende Tourismus in zahlreichen Städten und Regionen weltweit hat verstärkt negative Auswirkungen auf psychischer, sozialer, ökonomischer und ökologischer Ebene. An dieser Stelle möchte ich auf den Blogbeitrag von Lea Kopp verweisen, der sich mit dem Thema 'Overtourism' in Barcelona befasst und in dem dargelegt wird, wie die einheimische Bevölkerung und die Natur unter der steigenden Nachfrage nach Reisen in die spanische Metropole leiden. Kopp beschreibt, wie innerstädtische Gentrifizierungsprozesse negative Auswirkungen auf die dort lebende Bevölkerung haben und wie sich die Zufriedenheit der Einwohner:innen, aber auch der Tourist:innen in den letzten Jahren verschlechtert hat.Abschließend bleibt festzuhalten, dass die Reiselust der Menschen, an die ich mich anschließe, ungebrochen ist. Dennoch müssen wir uns über die Auswirkungen unseres Handelns bewusst sein. Möglicherweise gelingt es, zukünftig mehr Personen davon zu überzeugen, nachhaltig mit dem Zug statt mit dem Flugzeug zu reisen und Urlaub nicht in Übersee, sondern innerhalb Deutschlands zu machen, wodurch ein - wenn auch geringer - Beitrag zur klimaschonenden Zukunft geleistet werden kann.LiteraturBopst, J., Herbener, R., Hölzer-Schopohl, O., Lindmaier, J., Myck, T., & Weiß, J. (Hgs.) (2019). Umweltschonender Luftverkehr lokal – national – international. Umweltbundesamt.Bundesregierung (2021) PtL-Roadmap Nachhaltige strombasierte Kraftstoffe für den Luftverkehr in Deutschland. Verfügbar unter: https://www.bdl.aero/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/PtL-Roadmap.pdf (Zugegriffen: 16. Mai 2023).Bundesregierung (2022) Klimaneutrale Luftfahrt - Gemeinsames Papier der Bundesregierung, bmwk.de. Verfügbar unter: https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Downloads/J-L/220621-Klimaneutrale-Luftfahrt-Juni-22-Vfin-Anlage-BR.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1 (Zugegriffen: 28. April 2023).Bundesverband der Deutschen Luft- und Raumfahrtindustrie e. V. (BDLI) (2020) Nachhaltige und klimaneutrale Luftfahrt aus Deutschland für die Energiewende am Himmel. Verfügbar unter: https://www.bdli.de/sites/default/files/2020-09/TechStrategie_2020_3.pdf (Zugegriffen: 16. Mai 2023).Bundesverband der deutschen Luftverkehrswirtschaft (BDL), Deutsche Bahn (DB) (2021) AKTIONSPLAN für ein verbessertes Zusammenwirken von Luftverkehr und Deutscher Bahn: Ein gemeinsamer Beitrag für ein attraktives Mobilitätsangebot und Fortschritte beim Klimaschutz. Verfügbar unter: https://www.bdl.aero/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Aktionsplan-DB-BDL.pdf (Zugegriffen: 16. Mai 2023).Bundesverband der Deutschen Luftverkehrswirtschaft (BDL) (2021) Masterplan Klimaschutz im Luftverkehr, bdl.aero. Verfügbar unter: https://www.bdl.aero/de/themen-positionen/nachhaltigkeit/klimaschutz/ (Zugegriffen: 28. April 2023).Cames, M., Graichen, P., Kasten, P., Mottschall, M., Faber, J., Nelissen, D., Scheelhaase, J., Grimme, W. & Maertens, S. (2019). Klimaschutz im Luft- und Seeverkehr: Strategiepapier Luftfahrt. Im Auftrag des Umweltbundesamtes. Dessau-Rosslau: Deutschland. Umweltbundesamt.Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR) (2020) Luftverkehr trägt 3,5 Prozent zur Klimaerwärmung bei, Dlr.de. Verfügbar unter: https://www.dlr.de/de/aktuelles/nachrichten/2020/03/20200903_der-globale-luftverkehr-traegt-3-5-prozent-zur-klimaerwaermung-bei (Zugegriffen: 16. Mai 2023).European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), European Environment Agency (EEA) & Eurocontrol. (2019). European Aviation Environmental Report 2019. Köln.Flottau, J. (2023) "Fliegen wird grüner, zumindest ein bisschen", Süddeutsche Zeitung. Verfügbar unter: https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/green-deal-eu-fluege-1.5823033 (Zugegriffen: 16. Mai 2023).Forum Nachhaltiges Wirtschaften (2020) Kritik an Lufthansa-Rettung ohne Klimaauflagen, Forum-csr.net. Verfügbar unter: https://www.forum-csr.net/News/14689/Kritik-an-Lufthansa-Rettung-ohne-Klimaauflagen.html (Zugegriffen: 15. Mai 2023).France-KLM-Gruppe, A. (2023) Universal Registration Document 2022. Verfügbar unter: https://www.airfranceklm.com/sites/default/files/2023-04/AFK_URD_2022_VA_24-04-23.pdf (Zugegriffen: 12. Mai 2023).Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (2022) Studie: Nachhaltiger Sprit würde Fliegen nicht viel teurer machen, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. Verfügbar unter: https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/studie-nachhaltiger-sprit-wuerde-fliegen-nicht-viel-teurer-machen-18118721.html (Zugegriffen: 6. Juni 2023).Geffert, N. (2022) Auf Kurs zum emissionsfreien Fliegen, aeroreport.de. Verfügbar unter: https://aeroreport.de/de/innovation/auf-kurs-zum-emissionsfreien-fliegen (Zugegriffen: 28. April 2023).Gelhausen, M. (2021) Corona und dann? Neue DLR-Prognose für den Luftverkehr bis 2040, DLR Blog. Verfügbar unter: https://www.dlr.de/blogs/de/alle-blogs/corona-und-dann-neue-dlr-prognose-fuer-den-luftverkehr-bis-2040.aspx/ressort-1/ (Zugegriffen: 20. Juli 2023).International Airlines Group (IAG) (2023) IAG full year results 2022. Verfügbar unter: https://www.iairgroup.com/~/media/Files/I/IAG/documents/2022-full-year-results.pdf (Zugegriffen: 12. Mai 2023).International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). (2019). Presentation of 2018 Air Transport statistical results. ICAO. Verfügbar unter: https://www.icao.int/annual-report-2018/Documents/Annual.Report.2018_Air%20Transport%20Statistics.pdf (zuletzt abgerufen am 30.07.2023)Jänicke, M. (2018). Nachhaltigkeit: Ein umstrittener Begriff und seine Konsequenzen. Vierteljahrshefte zur Wirtschaftsforschung, 87(2), 47-60.Kafsack, H. und Kotowski, T. (2022) Klimaschutzpläne der EU: Wird Fliegen jetzt teurer?, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. Verfügbar unter: https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/unternehmen/klimaschutzplaene-der-eu-wird-fliegen-jetzt-teurer-18520089.html (Zugegriffen: 6. Juni 2023).Lufthansa (2023) Green Fares: Nachhaltiger fliegen, lufthansa.com. Verfügbar unter: https://www.lufthansa.com/de/de/green-fare (Zugegriffen: 15. Mai 2023).Lufthansa Group (2020) Innerdeutscher Verkehr - intermodalität stärken. Verfügbar unter: https://politikbrief.lufthansagroup.com/fileadmin/user_upload/2020-1/artikel2/LHG-PB_2020-1_intermodalitaet_de.pdf (Zugegriffen: 11. Mai 2023).Lufthansa Group (2022) Von der Natur lernen und CO2 sparen: Lufthansa Group rüstet Flugzeuge als weltweit erste Airline-Gruppe mit aerodynamischer Haifischhaut-Folie aus, lufthansagroup.com. Verfügbar unter: https://www.lufthansagroup.com/de/newsroom/meldungen/von-der-natur-lernen-und-co2-sparen-lufthansa-group-ruestet-flugzeuge-als-weltweit-erste-airline-gruppe-mit-aerodynamischer-haifischhaut-folie-aus.html (Zugegriffen: 11. Mai 2023).Lufthansa Group (2023a) Nachhaltigkeit 2022 - Factsheet. Verfügbar unter: https://www.lufthansagroup.com/media/downloads/de/verantwortung/LH-Factsheet-Nachhaltigkeit-2022.pdf (Zugegriffen: 11. Mai 2023).Lufthansa Group (2023b) Absichtserklärung unterzeichnet: Lufthansa Group und VARO Energy kooperieren im Bereich nachhaltige Flugkraftstoffe, lufthansagroup.com. Verfügbar unter: https://www.lufthansagroup.com/de/newsroom/meldungen/verantwortung/absichtserklaerung-unterzeichnet-lufthansa-group-und-varo-energy-kooperieren-im-bereich-nachhaltige-flugkraftstoffe.html (Zugegriffen: 11. Mai 2023).McCurdy, M. (2021) To what extent can Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) mitigate the environmental impact of flying?, ICF. Verfügbar unter: https://www.icf.com/insights/transportation/sustainable-aviation-fuels-environmental-impact-flying (Zugegriffen: 6. Juni 2023).NABU (2022) BER noch immer Todesfalle für Vögel, NABU - Landesverband Berlin. Verfügbar unter: https://berlin.nabu.de/news/newsarchiv/2022/november/32539.html (Zugegriffen: 20. Juli 2023).Süddeutsche Zeitung (2023) Münchner Flughafen bleibt ohne ICE-Anbindung, süddeutsche.de. Verfügbar unter: https://www.sueddeutsche.de/muenchen/muenchen-flughafen-ice-bahnhof-1.5750545 (Zugegriffen: 15. Mai 2023).Stiftung Warentest (2022) CO2-Kompensation: Mit diesen Anbietern helfen Sie dem Klimaschutz, Stiftung Warentest. Verfügbar unter: https://www.test.de/CO2-Kompensation-Diese-Anbieter-tun-am-meisten-fuer-den-Klimaschutz-5282502-5928682/ (Zugegriffen: 15. Mai 2023).Weiner, M. (2022) DLR und MTU: Gemeinsam forschen für eine emissionsfreie Luftfahrt, aeroreport.de. Verfügbar unter: https://aeroreport.de/de/innovation/dlr-und-mtu-gemeinsam-forschen-fuer-eine-emissionsfreie-luftfahrt (Zugegriffen: 28. April 2023).Wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Bundesregierung Globale Umweltveränderungen (WBGU). (2016). Der Umzug der Menschheit: Die transformative Kraft der Städte. Hauptgutachten. WBGU.[1] Aufgrund der infolge der Coronapandemie eingebrochenen Passagierzahlen werden die Daten unmittelbar vor der Pandemie verwendet, um ein unverfälschtes Bild des Luftverkehrs zu bekommen.
Food, water, and shelter, as fundamental components of human existence are no less critical in an aviation unit than the number of enemies shot down, as a combat force can be made or broken over necessities. During World War II, Russian pilots returned to bases where food and housing were not to be taken for granted, and free time was dictated by forces largely outside their control. The overall living conditions of Russian pilots during the war were varied, unpredictable, and improvised. ; Winner of the 2020 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the Junior Arts/Humanities category. ; Borscht, Barracks, and Bears: How Russian Pilots Lived in WWII Sarah Clark HI 355: WW2 Colloquium Phase 3 Word Count: 3,307 December 6, 2019 Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 1 Introduction What were the living conditions of Russian pilots in WWII? Food, water, and shelter, as fundamental components of human existence are no less critical in an aviation unit than the number of enemies shot down, as a combat force can be made or broken over necessities. During World War II, Russian pilots returned to bases where food and housing were not to be taken for granted, and free time was dictated by forces largely outside their control. The overall living conditions of Russian pilots during the war were varied, unpredictable, and improvised. When the war began, pilots unused to wartime conditions had to adapt quickly to their new conditions. One pilot recalled: the sun was baking hot on the street. I walked slowly towards the airfield and came up to the dispersal area. It was like a disturbed anthill. They were repairing the old shelters. Here and there they were digging new ones. They assigned the headquarters dug-out for the use of the staff. Fyodorov and Godunov decided to use an enormous plywood container in which, at one time, an aircraft had arrived from the factory in parts…We had supper –field rations, as if we were at the front—and spent the night in the dug-out. Tired after the day's work and even more so after the previous sleepless night, everyone soon dropped off. Of course, after comfortable quarters, snow-white sheets and a soft bed, it is not cosy to sleep on a plank bed; but aircrew get used to anything.1 Food Sources Throughout the war, sources of food varied, but the three most common were rations, villagers, and American Lend-Lease food. Rations were the primary source of food for Russian pilots. The military had its own rationing system, separate from and prioritized above the civilian system.2 At first, most foods were produced and distributed by state associated farms and collectives. Throughout the war, more and more initiative was given to peasants to make food production a private enterprise to increase production and reduce the burden on state-owned 1 Kaberov, Swastika in the Gunsight, 5. 2 Ganson, "Food Supply," 78. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 2 sources.3 Typical rations for the Russian armed forces consisted of a simple breakfast of porridge known as kasha, a type of soup called borscht for lunch, and bread with pickles or cucumbers for dinner, and for aviators 100 grams of vodka after combat missions.4 In general, variety and items such as meat, fat, and fresh fruits and vegetables were hard to come by. Throughout the war, Russians both were allocated and received fewer daily calories than the soldiers of several other countries. In early 1941, Russian infantrymen were allocated 2,954 calories a day, which was increased to 3,450 in September.5 Members of active flying units were supposed to receive 4,712.6 Compared to other Allied nations, this basic allowance was low. For instance, the United States allocated 4,748 calories for front-line soldiers, and Britain allocated 5,300 for soldiers fighting in cold weather.7 Despite official instructions, it was common for Russians to receive less than their daily allotted calories, placing them even farther below their Allied comrades. Pilots overcame the lack of food and added variety by trading with nearby villagers if based near or in a village. There are multiple accounts of pilots and technicians going into towns to exchange unused items such as underwear or more common items such as "tobacco, cigarettes, bread, and sugar for milk, sour cream, eggs, and butter and sometimes meat."8 Exchanges could be a one-time or reoccurring transaction. For instance, while in Romania, one squadron member paid a Romanian for a daily supply of ten eggs.9 However, making deals with the locals was not always favored by senior officers, as squadron members were arrested and 3 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 126; Ganson, "Food Supply," 75-76. 4 Collingham, "Fighting on Empty," 319. 5 Collingham, "Fighting on Empty." 319. 6 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 127. 7 Collingham, "Out of Depression," 434; Collingham, "Fighting on Empty," 319. 8 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 145, 186. 9 Mariinskiy, Airacobra, 142. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 3 imprisoned in some units.10 Yet, the prevalence of such transactions illustrates the desperation for sufficient and adequate food. Pilots not only traded with villagers and peasants, but they also took advantage of their surroundings. They scavenged through the remains of old villages, especially on the way towards Berlin in 1944 and 1945.11 One of the most common items searched for was alcohol. For instance, one fighter pilot, heading towards Berlin, recalled that "in the deserted workshops of the sugar mill the omnipresent procurement officers…found tanks of spirits."12 In other locations, where natural resources such as rivers were more abundant, pilots occasionally resorted to fishing to provide fresh meat in desperate times, when the food supplied in the mess hall was either meager or nonexistent.13 Another way variety was increased was through the introduction of American Lend- Lease items, especially in 1943 and after. For instance, dairy items from America like dried eggs and milk powder, hard to come by in Russia, supplemented protein and fat intake, and packaged meats such as Spam were a welcome respite from dried fish.14 To show this one pilot reported that "American food, it was a feast—canned meat, dried eggs, canned milk."15 While American food was only a tiny sliver of what the air forces ate during the war, it certainly provided a respite from the standard fare. 10 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 145. 11 I Remember, "Airmen: Ivan Konovalov," https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ivan-konovalov/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. 12 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 77-78. 13 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 114. 14 Collingham, "Fighting on Empty," 340; I Remember, "Airmen: Kolyadin Victor Ivanovich," https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ kolyadin-victor-ivanovich/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. 15 Pennington, Wings, Women, and War, 119. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 4 Factors that Affected Food Squadron location, when correlated with timeframe, was one of the most significant factors affecting food availability and type, including geographic location, distance relative to frontlines, and proximity to inhabited villages. Geographic location was significant because Russia is a massive country, and front lines stretched for hundreds of miles. Food supplies were inadequate to begin with, and the distribution system was incomplete and inefficient. These issues were only compounded by the rapidly advancing German forces during Operation Barbarossa.16 Not every unit received equal amounts of food, and food reserves were not in place, especially at the beginning, resulting in troops at the front and rear being shorted.17 To show the variation, one fighter pilot, who spent some time near the front lines at Smolensk, wrote "I'm still amazed that—whether advancing or retreating—we were always well supplied with food."18 Conversely, other pilots reported periodic food shortages lasting several days near front lines.19 Therefore food availability varied greatly from one unit to the next. Distance from the front impacted food supply because it affected the ability of food to reach airfields. At the beginning of the war, food shortages were common in contested areas, such as the North Caucasus and Ukraine.20 Plus, reserves were either too far away or not built up enough to sustain prolonged shortages.21 During German advances supplies were not always able to be delivered, causing aircrews to survive on what meager items they had stockpiled.22 Other 16 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 113. 17 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 115. 18 Drabkin, Barbarossa, 85. 19 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 186. 20 Pennington, Wings, Women, and War, 79. 21 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 115. 22 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 186; Pennington, Wings, Women, and War, 79. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 5 times, aircrews were forced to pick up supplies with their aircraft because the ground vehicles were unable to reach their airfields.23 The type of action an air unit was supporting, such as a retreat or an advance, also affected their food supply. When a regiment formally moved to a new airfield in preparation for an operation, and if time allowed, the airfield would be prepped by a service battalion consisting of combat support and maintenance personnel, who stocked up supplies and prepared the housing and airfield facilities for the arrival of the unit.24 Thorough preparation resulted in efficiency and ease of movement. However, when movement to a new airfield was either hastily planned or unplanned as a result of an unexpected retreat, there was no preparation, resulting in the opposite effect: no supplies. For instance, while retreating in 1942, one pilot wrote that upon reaching the assigned base they "found nothing there—no staff, no mess hall, no fuel" because the ground support had been unable to reach the base in time to prepare it.25 However, the unit in that scenario ended up being fed by a woman from a local village, illustrating the last essential component of location: proximity to an inhabited area.26 Airfields were frequently built near villages. Consequently, instead of official housing, pilots would be billeted with the town residents. Occasionally villagers had items unavailable to military members, such as fresh vegetables from their gardens or dairy products, such as milk. 27 One last factor to consider in analyzing food supply is unit type: bombers versus fighters. Food for both types of units was dreary and monotonous with occasional highlights of canned 23 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 67. 24 Bessette, "Soviet Military Transportation Aviation," 196. 25 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 108. 26 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 108. 27 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 85, 176. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 6 American food, items gained from the locals, or the rationed chocolate and Coca-Cola.28 For instance, in 1942, one bomber pilot reported eating brown bread, a lot of cereal, and in the fall-potatoes, while another bomber pilot reported eating a breakfast of gruel, bread, butter, and tea the following year.29 Fighter pilots reported similar types of food including soup, tea, and bread.30 Overall, food was more affected by location, type of action, and timeframe than type of unit because units across all aircraft types experienced times of relative abundance and shortage, based on locational and situational factors. Housing Housing was also based on location and situation. The spectrum ranged from sleeping in and under aircraft using tarps and covers as blankets to large houses in nearby villages, and later even villas. Pilots were usually billeted separately from the enlisted technicians. Commonly, the technicians were kept closer to the aircraft in dugouts, huts, or trenches, so that they were quickly accessible and ready for action, while it was more common for pilots to live outside the airfield. However, there were times when pilots and technicians lived together, such as one tail gunner who lived in the same local home as her pilot.31 Housing Situations One of the main differences in airfield accommodations was the age of the airfield. New airfields were usually less developed because they were formed during war when a base was needed during a rapid advance or unplanned retreat. Hasty quarters usually consisted of dugouts built into the ground, sometimes made by female workers from nearby cities, such as 28 I Remember, "Airmen: Kolyadin Victor Ivanovich," https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ kolyadin-victor-ivanovich/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. 29 I Remember. "Airmen: Kolyadin Victor Ivanovich," https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ kolyadin-victor-ivanovich/ [accessed 14 October 2019]; I Remember, "Airmen: Ivan Konovalov," https://iremember.ru /en/memoirs/airmen/ivankonovalov/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. 30 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 78. 31 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 176. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 7 Leningrad.32 Pilots also lived in trenches or around the aircraft until more permanent quarters could be made.33 Again, there were exceptions. New airfields were better prepared when movements were planned well in advance, and airfield service battalions were available to go to the airfield first and prepare it for the unit, which included billeting arrangements.34 Conversely, older airfields, many of which had been training schools or air bases before the war, already had a developed infrastructure. They had permanent quarters or at least buildings that could be readily turned into barracks. For instance, one pilot recalled living in an old school building on an airfield that had been a training school two years before the war.35 Even in 1944, when the Russians refitted three Ukrainian air bases for the Americans, they refitted an artillery barracks and school buildings for the Americans to live in.36 Also, as the Russians moved east in 1944 and 1945 they utilized barracks on former German airfields. If housing was not available on the airfield, pilots were billeted in the homes of villagers or other available buildings, within several miles of the airfield. Even within the homes there was a lot of variation. Usually the home's residents still lived there, and one of two scenarios occurred: either a couple or as many as possible pilots would be billeted there. For example, one pilot recalls that "the overcrowding was horrendous, but room was found for me. In a crooked hut…having delicately pushed the hostess to the oven in her kitchen."37 Houses could become crowded and uncomfortable when pilots, other officers, and non-maintenance personnel, were forced to live together. Alternatively, other pilots were billeted alone and given a lot of space and 32 Kaberov, Swastika in the Gunsight, 91. 33 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 106. 34 Bessette, "Soviet Military Transportation Aviation," 196. 35 Reshetnikov, Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front, 33. 36 Plokhy, Forgotten Bastards, 35. 37 Reshetnikov, Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front, 138. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 8 relatively nice accommodations. Also, nearby villages were occasionally abandoned, resulting in pilots living in vacant homes.38 Overall, village billeting was varied. Uncontrollable Factors Another variable that should not be overlooked is the effect of the war on housing options. Barracks and dugouts were not immune to German air raids. When permanent buildings or dugouts were destroyed, pilots slept in hastily rebuilt dugouts or under the aircraft. Combat readiness also dictated how close aircrews slept to their aircraft because if a raid was expected, pilots needed to be ready to defend their airfield at a moment's notice.39 Bombings, when the signal of a German advance, also contributed to units moving from new bases and having to find new quarters altogether. Other times, the housing at a new base was inhabitable. For instance, one mechanic wrote that "all of the habitable dwellings nearby were mined by the Germans, so we had to live under the wings of our aircraft."40 Therefore, stable and safe housing was not to be taken for granted in combat conditions. Weather also played devil's advocate with housing. Mud, rain, and snow are all part of life in Russia and had devastating effects on airfield usage and quality of life inside aircrew quarters. During the rainy season, dugouts were flooded with inches to feet of water, either forcing pilots to pump the water out in colder seasons or live under the aircraft in warmer weather.41 Snow, on the other hand, made its way into primitive buildings in the form of ice. Escaping the cold was impossible. Changes in weather patterns and the beginning of colder seasons also resulted in insect and animal infestations, such as fleas, rats, and mosquitos. One rat 38 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 26. 39 Tomofeyeva-Yegorova, Black Sky Red Death, 106. 40 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 151. 41 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 110, 173. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 9 infestation was so bad a pilot remarked that "they were routinely crushed under people's feet."42 Overall, weather was just one more variable that made housing unpredictable. Commodities Not only was housing itself varied and often improvised, but commodities nowadays taken for granted were as well. Most of what the pilots had for furniture, light, and linens were makeshift. Oil drums and shell casings were used as crude lamps and stoves. Any available material was burned in those stoves, including used bomb fuse-boxes.43 Beds, tables, and any other furniture were typically cobbled together from planks, wood scraps, straw, and aircraft covers. Pillows were stuffed with everything from weeds to straw. Again, there were exceptions, especially later in the war, when air units took over German airfields or lived in residences currently or previously owned by the wealthy. For example, one pilot wrote that his unit was "billeted for a rest in some factory-owner's villa…on soft feather beds," and remarked that "the conqueror's position has its advantages."44 Overall though, pilots did not live in luxury. They made what they needed from what was available. Personal Free Time The small amount of free time in between tasking, or during rough weather, helped the pilots let loose and mentally cope with being in combat. On a personal level, people kept busy with what was available. Those who had books read them and then shared them, which led to book discussions.45 Games requiring little space, such as dominos, chess, and cards were played; although, some commands forbade cardplaying, calling it bourgeois.46 People who were musically gifted and carried their instrument, such as a guitar or accordion, around would play 42 Pennington, Wings, Women, and War, 116. 43 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 124. 44 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 73. 45 Reshetnikov, Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front, 138. 46 Drabkin, Barbarossa, 42. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 10 for their fellow airmen. Some of the women would knit, embroider, or sew new pairs of silk underwear. And everyone looked forward to letters from home, especially when the Germans occupied territory where their loved ones lived. For instance, one pilot wrote that when she received the first letter from her mother, five months into the war, she "felt such relief! All these months I had worried about my family, whether they were suffering somewhere under German occupation."47 Pilots were desperate for news about the wellbeing and whereabouts of relatives and friends. Unit Free Time Beyond the personal level, units organized events amongst themselves. Some had a newsletter that members would write in and distribute amongst the unit.48 Usually those had a political overtone. Nevertheless, they were an opportunity for people to use skills other than flying, such as creative writing, journalism, and drawing. Activities such as talent shows and performances were also organized, including events such as formal readings, performance of plays or sketches, and solo acts. For example, one squadron had the only Gypsy to fly for Russia in the war, who performed dances of his culture, until he died in combat.49 Parties and dances were also held, especially in some of the female units, to celebrate successful missions with dancing and singing.50 Celebrations were an outlet for the emotion created by the stresses of combat and unpredictable living conditions. Occasionally if located near a larger city, such as Leningrad, and if tasking allowed, pilots were able to partake in urban activities, such as movies, concerts, and dance classes. At times, events were formally organized by unit commanders to increase morale and let their 47 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 81. 48 Kaberov, Swastika in the Gunsight, 6. 49 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 61. 50 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 71 . Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 11 personnel get away from the humdrum of front-line duties, while other times, attending a movie or performance was not command mandated. For instance, one corps commander gave circus tickets to his officers and ordered them to go on a night when no flights were scheduled.51 While in a different squadron a group of pilots was invited to a musical premiere in Leningrad while the city was being barraged by the Germans.52 Not only did pilots seek out entertainment, but entertainment sought them out, in the form of traveling performers, artists, and mobile theaters that traveled throughout the eastern front, providing performances for units unable to go to a city or populated area. Relationships Beyond mere activities, relationships were another way to pass the time. Wedding ceremonies were a change from the more frequent funeral ceremonies. Pilots married either pilots from other commands or members of various service battalions. To illustrate the difference between a funeral and wedding, an airman wrote, "the regiment personnel celebrated a festive and memorable event. And it had nothing to do with war, blood, or death. It was quite the opposite of a funeral."53 Joyous occasions were a welcome relief from the cruel ways of combat. Relationships were unavoidable in squadrons where technicians and combat support staff were frequently female. Even in units with only female pilots, relationships were not uncommon with male members of the same or other units. There was one female pilot, for example, whose former commanding officer proposed after the war ended.54 Relationships were crucial in motivating pilots to return from every flight and survive the war, while also serving to satisfy the soft side of human existence. 51 Reshetnikov, Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front, 157. 52 Kaberov, Swastika in the Gunsight, 178. 53 Antipov & Utkin, Dragons on Bird Wings, 75. 54 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 201. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 12 However, humans were not the only ones to fulfill this need for affection, as pets were not forbidden. Often, stray dogs or cats were picked up when a unit passed by an abandoned area. They were either adopted by a whole unit or individuals, as was the case with the Gypsy and his dog, Jack.55 However, there were other scenarios, where a pet would be left behind by higher-ups who briefly visited the unit. For example, Alexander Novikov, then Air Force supreme commander, left behind a bear cub he had been given. At the squadron, the small cub ate and slept with the men, which became difficult as she grew. In the end, she was killed by outsiders, and the air unit refused to eat her.56 While an unusual scenario, it still shows the connections unit members made with animals that ended up in their possession. Focusing on caring for a pet was a needed distraction. Conclusion During World War II, the men and women in the Russian air forces lived an unpredictable life, dictated by the whims of combat. Food would be available one day and not the next. Moving from base to base increased unpredictability, as not all locations were supplied equally, especially when close to combat or advancing German forces. Air force units stretched from Leningrad to Ukraine, which strained the initially inadequate supply system. Time was not always available for building new housing, resulting in external billeting and quickly-built dugouts. Improvisation was the name of the game, as the pilots had to make do with the food, materials, and housing they could scavenge or trade for. Pilots with imagination and creativity were able to create a home away from home that at least met the bare minimum of their needs, despite limited free time to decompress and get away from combat stressors. 55 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 61. 56 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 69. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 13 Research Question: What were the living conditions of Russian pilots in WWII?Outline 1. Introduction 1.1. Research question 1.2. Idea of the variability, range of living conditions 2. Living Conditions 2.1. Food 2.1.1. Food sources 2.1.1.1. Rations 2.1.1.1.1. Calorie comparison 2.1.1.2. Local sources 2.1.1.3. American food 2.1.2. Factors affecting food 2.1.2.1. Location 2.1.2.1.1. Timeframe 2.1.2.1.2. Movement type 2.1.2.1.3. Billeting 2.1.2.2. Unit type 2.2. Housing 2.2.1. Introduction 2.2.2. Housing Situations 2.2.2.1. New Airfields 2.2.2.2. Old Airfields 2.2.2.3. Living in Villages 2.2.3. Uncontrollable Factors 2.2.3.1. Combat Conditions 2.2.3.2. Weather 2.2.4. Commodities 2.3. Free Time 2.3.1. Personal Level 2.3.1.1. Hobbies: sewing, knitting, poetry, music 2.3.1.2. Letters from home 2.3.2. Unit Level Activities 2.3.2.1. Newspapers, performances 2.3.2.2. Nearby towns 2.3.2.2.1. Leader/command initiated 2.3.3. Relationships 2.3.3.1. People 2.3.3.2. Pets 3. Conclusion Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 14 Bibliography Primary Sources Drabkin, Artem. Barbarossa and the Retreat to Moscow: Recollections of Fighter Pilots on the Eastern Front. South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books LTD, 2007. I Remember. "Airmen: Kolyadin Victor Ivanovich." https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ kolyadin-victor-ivanovich/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. I Remember. "Airmen: Ivan Konovalov." https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ivan-konovalov/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. Kaberov, Igor. Swastika in the Gunsight: Memoirs of a Russian Fighter Pilot 1941-1945. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 1999. Kramarenko, Sergei. The Red Air Force at War: Air Combat over the Eastern Front and Korea: A Soviet Fighter Pilot Remembers. Barnsley, England: Pen & Sword Military, 2008. Mariinskiy, Evgeniy. Red Star Airacobra: Memoirs of a Soviet Fighter Ace, 1941-45. Solihull: Helion & Company, 2006. Noggle, Anne. A Dance with Death: Soviet Airwomen in World War II. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1994. Reshetnikov, Vasiliy. Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front: 307 Missions Behind Enemy Lines. South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books LTD, 2008. Timofeyeva-Yegorova, A. Red Sky, Black Death: A Soviet Woman Pilot's Memoir of the Eastern Front. Bloomington: Slavica Publishers, 2009. Scholarly Books Pennington, Reina. Wings, Women, and War: Soviet Airwomen in World War II Combat. Modern War Studies. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001. Plokhy, Serhii. Forgotten Bastards of the Eastern Front: American Airmen Behind the Soviet Lines and the Collapse of the Grand Alliance. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2019. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 15 Scholarly Articles Bessette, John. "Soviet Military Transport Aviation" in The Soviet Air Forces edited by Paul Murphy, 188-211. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1984. Collingham, Lizzie. "The Soviet Union—Fighting on Empty" in The Taste of War, 317-346. New York: Penguin Press, 2012. Collingham, Lizzie. "The United States—Out of Depression and into Abundance" in The Taste of War, 415-466. New York: Penguin Press, 2012. Ganson, Nicholas. "Food Supply, Rationing, and Living Standards" in The Soviet Union at War, 1941-1945 edited by David Stone, 69-92. South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books Ltd, 2010. Moskoff, William. "The First Priority: Feeding the Armed Forces" in The Bread of Affliction: The Food Supply in the USSR During World War II, 113-134. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Additional Sources Antipov, Vladislav, and Igor Utkin. Dragons on Bird Wings: The Combat History of the 812th Fighter Regiment. Translated by James F. Gebhardt. 1st English ed. Kitchener, ON: Aviaeology, 2006.
Euroopan unioni ja sen jäsenvaltiot ovat tuoneet viime vuosina toistuvasti esiin, että eurooppalainen tiedepolitiikka on yhteydessä taloudelliseen kasvuun. Eurooppalaisten kansallisvaltioiden intressissä onkin nykyään noudattaa sellaisia tiedepoliittisia malleja ja käytäntöjä, jotka edesauttavat niiden taloudellista kasvua ja kukoistusta. Tässä kehityksessä erityisen kiinnostavaa on, että valtiot ympäri Eurooppaa ovat omaksuneet keskenään samankaltaisia tiedepoliittisia ajatusmalleja, käytäntöjä ja politiikkoja, vaikka niiden taloudelliset tilanteet ja rakenteet ovat erilaisia. Kyseessä on maailmanlaajuinen trendi. Tiede ja tieto ovat lukuisten Euroopan unionin strategioiden ytimessä ja niillä nähdään olevat erityinen rooli eurooppalaisen menestyksen ja kilpailukyvyn kehityksessä. Euroopan unioni yhtyy siis globaaleihin tiedepoliittisiin diskursseihin ja siirtyy muualla aiemmin käyttöönotettuihin malleihin, vaikka EU on omanlaisensa verrattuna muihin maanosiin ja poliittisiin liittoutumiin. Eurooppalaista tiedepolitiikkaa koskeva usein rationaalisiin selitysmalleihin pohjautuva tutkimus ei pysty täysin selittämään tätä ilmiötä. Ensinnä funktionaaliset selitysmallit eivät kykene selittämään yhdenmukaista ja samanaikaista eurooppalaista poliittisten diskurssien ja valintojen kehitystä. Taloudelliselta rakenteeltaan ja kooltaan erilaiset yhteiskunnat kohtaavat erilaisia haasteita. Jos poliittiset valinnat vastaisivat yhteiskuntien yksilöllisiä tarpeita, olisi todennäköistä, että ratkaisut, mieltymykset ja toimenpiteet eroaisivat toisistaan. Toisaalta rationaaliset selitysmallit, jotka lähtevät siitä oletuksesta, että valtiot tekevät laskelmoituja valintoja kansallisten intressiensä pohjalta, eivät perustu todellisuuteen. Jos perustuisivat, kansalliset toimijat noudattaisivat työssään niitä päätöksiä, joita heidän päätöksentekijänsä ovat kansallisten intressien pohjalta tehneet. Käytännössä kuitenkin yksi merkittävimmistä eurooppalaisen tiedepolitiikan tavoitteista eli tutkimusrahoituksen yhdentyminen, jota Euroopan jäsenvaltioiden valtionpäämiehet ovat ajaneet yhdessä 2000-luvun alusta asti, ei ole toteutunut. Kansalliset tutkimuksen rahoittajat eivät siis ole toteuttaneet niitä tavoitteita, jotka heidän omat päätöksentekijänsä ovat eurooppalaisella tasolla asettaneet. Näin ollen näkemys huolellisen laskelmoinnin pohjalta tehdystä kansallisiin intresseihin perustuvasta suoraviivaisesti täytäntöönpanoon etenevästä päätöksenteosta voidaan kyseenalaistaa. Rationalistinen selitysmalli ennustaa, että kokemus aiemmista toimenpiteistä ohjaa päätöksiä tulevaisuudessa. Kun yhteiseurooppalainen tutkimusrahoitus on jäänyt vähäiseksi, myös sen mukanaan tuoma ennakoitu taloudellinen hyöty on jäänyt toteutumatta. Tästä huolimatta Euroopan jäsenvaltioiden halukkuus ottaa osaa tiedepoliittisiin yhteistyömuotoihin ei ole vähentynyt. Tämä havainto osoittaa, että rationaalinen, materiaalisiin ja taloudellisiin hyötyihin keskittyvä laskelmointi ei täysin selitä kansallisten osapuolten halukkuutta osallistua eurooppalaiseen tutkimusrahoitusyhteistyöhön. Koska tiedepoliittinen yhteistyö perustuu vapaaehtoisuuteen, eikä Euroopan unionilla ole välineitä pakottaa jäsenvaltioitaan toimimaan yhdenmukaisin tavoin, ei ilmiötä voida selittää pakolla. Tarvitaan siis uudenlaisia tapoja ymmärtää, miksi jäsenvaltiot käyttävät politiikoissaan yhdenmukaisia tiedepoliittisia diskursseja, ja miksi kansalliset toimijat ottavat niin innokkaasti osaa eurooppalaiseen tutkimusrahoitusyhteistyöhön sen epäonnistumisista huolimatta. Tässä väitöskirjassa näihin mysteereihin esitetään kulttuurisosiologiseen näkökulmaan pohjautuva selitys. Kansallisvaltiot, kansalliset poliittiset toimijat ja tutkimusrahoituksen toimihenkilöt nähdään kulttuurisia käsikirjoituksia noudattavina toimijoina, jotka sulautuvat sekä heitä ympäröiviin että heidät rakentaviin sosiaalisiin rakenteisiin. Tämä ymmärrys, josta osa on globaalisti jaettua maailmankulttuuria, sekä rajoittaa että mahdollistaa heidän toimintansa. Se tarjoaa heille joukon tärkeitä institutionaalisia sääntöjä, käsikirjoituksia ja periaatteita, joita heidän tulee noudattaa saavuttaakseen ja säilyttääkseen oma yhteiskunnallinen asemansa. Käsikirjoitusten olemassaolo auttaa selittämään, miksi poliittiset mallit, ideat ja diskurssit leviävät tuottaen ylikansallista yhdenmukaisuutta, kun rationaaliset selitysmallit eivät siihen kykene. Sosiaalisesti jaettujen käyttäytymismallien ja käsikirjoitusten esiintuominen on tyypillistä erityisesti maailmanyhteiskunnantutkijoille ja sosiologiseen institutionalismiin perustuvalle tutkimukselle. Tämäkin tutkimus pohjautuu näihin perinteisiin, mutta esittää niihin täsmennyksen tuottamalla entistä tarkempaa tietoa siitä, miten paikalliset toimijat motivoivat toimintansa itselleen ja muille. Tutkimus vastaa kysymykseen analysoimalla, miten kansalliset toimitsijat identifioivat itsensä ja miten heidän tekemänsä identiteettityö tarjoaa tarkemman selityksen prosessille, joka maailmanyhteiskunnantutkimuksen makroperspektiivistä näyttää mukautumiselta. Tutkimuksen tuottamien tulosten valossa tarkoituksettomalta näyttäytyvä mukautuminen eli konformismi onkin itse asiassa identiteettikategorioihin yhteydessä olevaa päämäärätietoista, intresseihin perustuvaa toimintaa. Samalla tutkimuksessa osoitetaan, miten paikallisten toimijoiden identiteettityö mahdollistaa globalisaation, ideoiden ylikansallisen leviämisen ja paikallisten politiikkojen harmonisaation. Tutkimuksessa käsitellään glokalisaation teemaa tähdentäen sitä, miten globaali ja lokaali kietoutuvat toisiinsa. Tutkimuksessa etsitään vastauksia kolmeen kysymykseen: 1) miksi globaali politiikan kieli tulee kotoutetuksi, omaksutuksi ja kehitetyksi paikallisella tasolla, ja mikä on identiteettityön rooli tässä prosessissa, 2) mikä on identiteettityön rooli kansallisten toimijoiden eurooppalaisessa tiedepoliittisessa yhteistyössä ja etenkin sen toteuttamisessa, ja 3) kuinka identiteettityö muokkaa globaaleja politiikan virtauksia ja johtaa siihen, etteivät päätökset johda aina vastaaviin toimenpiteisiin (ns. irtikytkeminen, "decoupling"). Näiden kysymysten empiirinen tutkimus alkaa tietotalousdiskurssin ja tietoyhteiskuntakäsitteen paikallisen käytön analyysilla. Analyysin avulla havainnollistetaan, miten näitä globaaleja ja eurooppalaista tiedepolitiikkaa 1990-luvun puolivälistä hallinneita ajatusmalleja käytetään rakentamaan oikeanlaista yhteiskunnallista toimijuutta Suomessa. Toiseksi tutkimuksessa tuotetaan analyyttinen luokittelu identiteettikategorioista, joita tutkimusrahoittajien edustajat käyttävät työskennellessään ERA-NET:eissa (ERA-NET on EU:n ERA-politiikkaan liittyvä tutkimusrahoittajien yhteistyö- ja rahoitusmuoto). Samalla tutkimuksessa analysoidaan kyseisiin identiteettiluokkiin liittyvät intressit ja esitetään, keitä nämä toimijat edustavat ja mitkä ovat heidän motivaationsa ottaa osaa eurooppalaiseen tiedepoliittiseen yhteistyöhön. Näiden kahden empiirisen analyysin avulla vastataan lopulta kysymykseen, miten on mahdollista, että ERA-NET-yhteistyö jatkuu, vaikka se ei ole saavuttanut eurooppalaisia tavoitteitaan. Kolmanneksi työssä käsitellään empiirisesti sitä, miten identiteettityö näkyy tutkimusrahoituksen ammattilaisten kuvauksissa omasta työstään ja miten se vaikuttaa yhteiseurooppalaisten tutkimusrahoituskäytäntöjen muotoutumiseen ERA-NET:eissa. Tutkimuksessa käytetyt laadulliset tutkimusmenetelmät pohjautuvat erityisesti diskursiiviseen institutionalismiin ja sosiaaliseen identiteettiteoriaan. Diskursiivisen institutionalismin näkökulmasta tutkitaan kansallisten toimijoiden motiiveja käyttää maailmanlaajuisesti leviäviä ideoita, diskursseja ja muoti-ilmauksia. Lisäksi tarkastellaan, miten kansalliset toimijat hyötyvät heitä rakentavien, heidän toimintansa mahdollistavien ja sitä ohjaavien sosiaalisten ja institutionaalisten käsikirjoitusten käyttämisestä. Työssä tutkitaan sekä diskurssien sisältöä että niihin liittyvää interaktiivista toimintaa. Näin ollen tuodaan esiin institutionaalisen toiminnan kaksi eri puolta: tavat, joilla toimijat uudelleentuottavat ja ylläpitävät instituutioita hyödyntäen "taka-alan käsitteellisiä kykyjään" sekä tavat, joilla he kykenevät muuttamaan näitä instituutioita käyttämällä "etualan institutionaalisia kykyjään". Samalla avataan mahdollisuus tutkia globalisaation toimijatasoa, etenkin paikallisen ja maailmanlaajuisen vuorovaikutuksen prosessia, joka muokkaa globalisaatiota sen edetessä. Sosiaalisen identiteettiteorian pohjalta keskitytään puolestaan toimijoiden sosiaalisiin identiteettikategorioihin: keitä toimijat ovat ja mikä on heille järkeenkäypää eri tilanteissa. Kategoriat informoivat toimijoita käytettävissä olevista diskursseista ja siitä, miten ne rajaavat heidän toimintamahdollisuuksiaan. Lisäksi kategoriat tuovat mukanaan käsityksen jaetusta minuudesta, minkä vuoksi niihin viitataan muodossa "me" sen sijaan, että puhuttaisiin "minästä". Identiteettien muodostamista tutkimusrahoittajien edustajien työssä tutkitaan lingvistisen analyysin keinoin, etenkin kiinnittämällä huomiota siihen, miten he käyttävät puheessaan persoonapronomineja. Luokat "me" ja "he" tuovat esiin, miten he rakentavat itsensä ja identiteettinsä suhteessa ympäröivään sosiaaliseen rakenteeseen: mitä identiteetit ovat, mitä eurooppalaiseen tutkimusrahoitusyhteistyöhön liittyviä intressejä niihin sisältyy ja missä kontekstissa identiteettejä käytetään ja vaihdetaan. Lisäksi työssä tutkitaan retorisen, narratiivisen ja diskurssianalyysin keinoin, mitä toimijat tekevät käyttäessään ja rakentaessaan tiettyjä identiteettejä tietyissä konteksteissa. Menetelmiä käytetään siis analysoitaessa ERA-NET-toimijoiden puhetta, mutta erityisen keskeisessä asemassa ne ovat analysoitaessa politiikkadokumentteja. Esimerkiksi julkishallinnossa käytetyn tietotalousdiskurssin paikantamiseksi käytetään hyväksi sen erityispiirteitä kuten siihen sisältyviä käsitteitä. Kun diskurssi on paikannettu, käytetään narratiivisen ja retorisen analyysin keinoja sen tutkimiseksi, miten ja mitä varten diskurssia käytetään. Tutkimuksen aineisto koostuu politiikkadokumenteista ja haastatteluista. Dokumenttiaineisto koostuu kolmesta osiosta: 1) tietotaloutta sekä tieto- ja informaatioyhteiskuntaa käsittelevistä Euroopan unionin, OECD:n, G8:n ja Suomen valtionhallinnon julkisista asiakirjoista ajanjaksolla 1995–2005, 2) suomalaisten ministeriöiden vuosien 2006 ja 2010 tulevaisuuskatsauksista, joissa ministeriöt esittävät toimialansa keskeisimmät lyhyen ja keskipitkän aikavälin haasteet ja toimintavaihtoehdot, ja 3) kolmen ERA-NET:in sisäisestä dokumentoinnista koskien niiden yhteiseurooppalaisia rahoitushakuja 2000-luvun jälkimmäisellä puoliskolla. Toinen aineiston osa koostuu eri maiden ja eri ERA-NET:tien edustajien haastatteluista. Haastateltavat henkilöt edustavat tutkimusohjelmien omistajia – tyypillisesti ministeriöitä tai alueellisia viranomaisia, jotka avaavat tutkimusohjelmia – sekä tutkimusohjelmien hallinnoijia kuten tutkimusneuvostoja ja muita tutkimusta rahoittavia virastoja. Tutkimukseen haastateltiin vuosina 2009– 2012 kahtakymmentä ERA-NET-edustajaa kahdeksasta maasta, yhdestätoista organisaatiosta ja kymmenestä ERA-NET:istä. Haastattelut rakentuivat temaattisesti ERA-NET:tejä, niissä työskentelyä sekä eurooppalaista ja kansainvälistä tutkimusrahoitusjärjestelmää koskevien kysymysten ympärille. Tutkimuksen tulokset osoittavat, että paikalliset toimijat käyttävät ja muokkaavat maailmanlaajuista, globaalia politiikan kieltä, koska se tarjoaa hyödyllisiä välineitä toimijan omaan identiteettityöhön. Esimerkiksi käsite "tietoyhteiskunta", joka on osa tietotalousdiskurssia, tarjoaa suomalaisille ministeriöille sosiaalisesti vakuuttavan mutta joustavan työkalun, jolla ne kykenevät uudistamaan omaa poliittista ja yhteiskunnallista asemaansa Suomessa. Käsitteen ylikansallinen tunnettuus tuo sille sosiaalista vakuuttavuutta, jolloin siitä muodostuu resurssi, jota ministeriöt pystyvät käyttämään hyväkseen rakentaessaan ja kommunikoidessaan omaa kansallista ja yhteiskunnallista tärkeyttään. Lisäksi tutkimus osoittaa, että tutkimusrahoitusorganisaatiot käyttävät eurooppalaista tiedepoliittista yhteistyötä välineenä oman identiteettinsä rakennusprosessissa. Tutkimuksen mukaan identiteettityö selittää myös osaltaan, miksi ERA-NET-yhteistyö voi jatkua, vaikka se ei ole saavuttanut tiettyjä materiaalisia päätavoitteitaan. Nykytoimijoiden tulee kyetä esittämään itsensä rationaalisina, kehittyneinä ja kansainvälisinä pelaajina ja ERA-NET:it ovat hyödyllisiä keinoja tämän tavoitteen toteuttamisessa. Osallistuminen trendikkäimpiin, vakuuttavimpiin ja poliittisesti tuettuihin kansainvälisen yhteistyön muotoihin on merkki siitä, että toimija on kansainvälinen ja rationaalinen. Osallistuminen on näin ollen itsessään sosiaalisesti palkitsevaa. Tutkimuksessa osoitetaan, että toimijoiden jatkuva identiteettityö muokkaa politiikkatoimenpiteiden leviämistä niin, että se tuottaa paikallista harmonisaatiota täydellisen yhdenmukaistumisen sijaan. Identiteettityö siis muokkaa prosessia, jolla maailmanlaajuiset ideat saavat paikallisen muotonsa ja ohjaa muutosta kohti glokalisaatiota. Identiteettityö ja useiden identiteettikategorioiden samanaikainen käyttäminen mahdollistaa, että toimijat käyttävät yhtäaikaisesti useita institutionaalisia resurssilähteitä rakentaen niistä luovasti uudenlaisia ymmärryksiä. Esimerkiksi edustajien mahdollisuus vaihtaa maailmanlaajuisesta identiteetistä paikalliseen ja takaisin mahdollistaa sen, että he tulkitsevat globaaleja ideoita paikallisesta näkökulmasta ja venyttävät niihin sisältyviä periaatteita niin, että ne sopivat yhteen paikallisten realiteettien kanssa. Näin ollen he luovat globaaleista malleista glokaaleja todellisuuksia. Nämä todellisuudet sisältävät sekä globaaleja että paikallisia elementtejä, minkä vuoksi identiteettityö johtaa melko samanaikaiseen globaalien ideoiden leviämisprosessiin kuitenkin niin, että paikalliset lopputulokset eroavat jonkin verran toisistaan. Identiteettityö myös mahdollistaa tavoitteiden ja toimenpiteiden irtikytkemisen. Sen ansiosta toimijoilla on mahdollisuus noudattaa useita institutionaalisia sääntöjä samaan aikaan. Tämä institutionaalisten identiteettien repertuaari ja niiden luova käyttö saattaa johtaa yhtäältä hankaluuksiin, mutta toisaalta myös mahdollistaa pakenemisen vaikeista tilanteista sosiaalisesti hyväksytyillä tavoilla. Kun tietyt institutionaaliset vaatimukset käyvät liian hankaliksi toteuttaa, edustajat pystyvät ottamaan käyttöön toisen identiteettikategorian ja hyödyntämään siihen sisältyviä sääntöjä sosiaalisesti hyväksyttynä keinona tilanteen kiertämiseksi. Tämä tulos avaa uuden, aktiivista intressipohjaista toimijuutta korostavan näkökulman tilanteisiin, joissa päätökset ja toimenpiteet eivät vastaa toisiaan. Tästä näkökulmasta käsin toiminnan irtikytkentä ei ole niinkään irtisanoutumista tietyn normin mukaisen käytännön toteuttamisesta vaan tilannekohtaista vaihtamista toisiin normeihin, jotka ovat yhtä lailla sosiaalisesti hyväksyttyjä, perusteltuja ja tärkeitä. Yhdessä tutkimuksen tulokset havainnollistavat, miten kansallinen ja eurooppalainen poliittinen toiminta saavat läheisesti vaikutteita maailmanlaajuisesti leviävistä ja ajallisesti muuttuvista ideoista ja käsikirjoituksista. Koska näin on, poliittisten päättäjien ja toimijoiden toimia ja perusteita ei voida täysin ymmärtää ottamatta tätä kulttuurisesti rakentunutta ulottuvuutta huomioon. Kansainvälisen poliittisen toiminnan tutkimuksen täytyykin kiinnittää entistä tarkemmin huomiota omiin analyyttisiin kansallista ja globaalia käsitteleviin kategorioihinsa. Jos tutkija itsestään selvästi olettaa, että valtiot ovat tärkeimpiä kansallisen ja kansainvälisen säätelyn ja hallinnan toimijoita, hän saattaa jättää huomaamatta laajemmat rakenteet, jotka rakentavat kyseiset kansallisvaltiot ja kansalliset mieltymykset, ohjaten siten kansallista hallintaa. Toisaalta tutkija, joka keskittyy pelkästään ylikansallisiin rakenteisiin, saattaa tulla siihen hätiköityyn johtopäätökseen, että kansallisvaltio olisi katoamassa tai että se ei ole kansainvälisen yhteistyön tai hallinnan merkittävä toimija. Tässä väitöskirjatyössä kehitetty väite sijoittuu näiden kahden ääripään väliin. Sen metodologinen kanta on, että on mahdollista – ja itse asiassa analyyttisesti kaikkein hedelmällisintä – ymmärtää kansallisvaltiot poliittisesti erillisinä, mutta samalla maailmanlaajuisina rakenteina. Tutkimuksen väite on, että globalisaatio ei vain tapahdu – ihmiset institutionaalisina toimijoina tuottavat sen. Kansainvälisesti toimivina, ylikansallisesti rakentuneina organisaatioiden ja professioiden edustajina nämä aktiiviset toimijat ovat saaneet osakseen tehtäviä ja vastuita, joissa heillä on mahdollisuus luoda, omaksua, ottaa käyttöön, muokata ja levittää maailmankulttuurisia käsikirjoituksia. Nimenomaan tämä globaalin ja lokaalin välimaastoon sijoittuva toiminta tuottaa kansallisten politiikkojen synkronisaatiota, ja sitä myöten sitä, mikä ymmärretään globalisaatioksi. Muutos ei välttämättä ole sataprosenttisen yhdenmukainen, mutta ajallisesti yhteneväinen ja huomattava. Tämä muutos tulee ja menee aaltomaisina trendeinä – yksi pyyhkäisee läpi maailman heiketäkseen hiljalleen, minkä jälkeen tulee toinen kulkeakseen ylikansallisen matkansa ja niin edelleen. Synkronisesti jatkuvasti liikkeessä olevat ja muuttuvat valtioiden politiikat muodostavat yhdessä merkille pantavan yksikön, joka muodostuu yhteydessä olevista mutta silti erillisistä toimijoista. ; The European Union and its member states have articulated a close link between the development of Euro¬pean science policy and national economic growth. It is indeed in the manifest interest of European nation-states to implement science-policy models and practices that help their domestic economies grow and prosper. In this connection, it is interesting, however, that separate nation states, regardless of the evident economic differences between them, have ended up adopting similar science-policy practices, ideas, and policies. In addition, this is true beyond intra European Union level. Strong science and knowledge lie at the heart of several key strategies of the union and are thought of as contributing specifically to Europe's economic prosperity and competitiveness. Yet the European Union seems to fall in line with discourses and models that are globally shared and have already been implemented elsewhere, despite Europe's substantial differences from other continents and political alliances. Existing European science-policy literature, based on rationally oriented explanatory models, is not able to explain this phenomenon fully. Firstly, the concordant and concomitant policy discourses used and choices made throughout Europe cannot be explained by functional arguments. Differently structured economies and those of different sizes are likely to differ in the challenges they face, and if policy choices were based on their respective needs, the similarities currently discernible among nation-states in their decisions, preferences, and actions would be unlikely. Secondly, rational arguments based on an assumption that calculative action stems from national interests have an uphill battle vis-à-vis the reality. If they were valid, careful decisions made by national actors would be followed by consequent actions. In reality, contrastingly, one of the ultimate goals for cooperative European research-policy activities, Europe-wide integration of research funding, which has been strongly endorsed by the European heads of state since 2000, has not materialized: national actors in charge of research funding have not reached the goals their own chief public representatives have set. Hence, one may question whether the decision was carefully planned beforehand and attention then redirected to execution. Furthermore, the aforementioned rationalist argument would predict that experience from earlier actions would steer later decisions. While the failure of European integration of research funding is abundantly apparent, meaning that, for instance, financial gains through common research funding have not been achieved, nation-states' enthusiasm to participate in European research-policy activities has not declined accordingly. This finding indicates that rational calculation cannot explain why national actors are keen to take part in common research-funding initiatives. It points instead to there being other motivations for the national agents' participation in European research-funding activities than executing carefully calculated decisions and pursuing nationally relevant financial and material goals. Also, because nation-states' participation in this policy field is based on voluntary activity, and coercive power imposed from the direction of the European Union towards its member states hence cannot explain the uniformity of national behavior with respect to science policy either, there is an obvious need for a new, more pertinent explanation to the puzzle of why the Member States apply a uniform science-policy discourse and national actors are so keen on taking part in European research-funding activities despite some of the main political, European objectives not being reached. The dissertation presents a sociologically and culturally oriented viewpoint for explaining the aforementioned mysteries. Nation-states, national policy actors, and national research-policy agents are understood as culturally scripted actors embedded in social structures surrounding and constructing them. This cultural understanding, some of which is globally shared and creates a world culture, both constrains and enables these actors, and it supplies them with more and less profound institutional rules, scripts, and principles, which they need to follow in order to gain and maintain their socially admitted positions. The existence of this kind of behavior pattern – highlighted by world society scholars and based on the school of sociological institutionalism – is able to explain why common policy models, ideas, and discourses spread and yield conformity across the field of nation-states when rationalistic explanations fail. The dissertation goes further, introducing a contribution to world society theory by specifying in more detail how local policy actors position themselves and motivate their endeavors for themselves as well as others. For such a purpose, in-depth analysis is devoted to how national actors bearing agency on behalf of a nation-state identify themselves and how such identifications and identity work demystify what may seem conformism but is, in fact, best explained as pursuit of interests as long as these agents' identity categories are taken into account. What may from a bird's-eye view seem to be mindless conformism is really articulation of different interests, attached to multiple identity categories. Therefore, the work examines how identity work makes globalization, trans¬national spreading of ideas, and the synchronization of local policy choices possible. In the course of this analysis, it addresses the theme of glocalization, signifying that the global and the local are intertwined. Answers are sought for three questions: Why does global policy language become domesticated, adopted, and cultivated on local level, and what is the role of identity work in the process; what is the role of identity work in facilitating European science-policy cooperation among national agents; and how does identity work shape the form of global policy diffusion and enable decoupling? To investigate these questions empirically, firstly the local use of the knowledge-based economy discourse and the term "information society" are analyzed. Consequently, attention is turned to how these global key ideas framing European science policy since the mid-1990s are utilized in the process of creating "proper" national actorhood in Finland. Secondly an analytical classification of the identity categories used by research-funding professionals working in ERA-NETs (ERA-related research-funding instruments) is constructed, and the indicated interests attached to each identity category are analyzed for purposes of disentangling who the agents represent and what their motivations are for participating in European research-policy cooperation. Then, informed by these two steps, an empirical answer is formulated as to how it is possible that the ERA-NET cooperation continues even though it does not lead to meeting of its pan-European objectives. Thirdly, the work empirically examines how identity work is manifested in research-funding professionals' description of their work and how it affects the process of formation of actual co-European research-funding practices in ERA-NETs. The dissertation concentrates on local agentic actors' motivations, rationales, and social realities, alongside linguistic and behavioral strategies that contribute to policy harmonization and lead to worldwide spreading of ideas and concepts. For these purposes, qualitative analysis methods have been used, with discursive institutionalism and social identity theory drawn on especially. From the standpoint of discursive institutionalism, national agents' motives for using globally spreading ideas, discourses, and catchwords are studied, as are ways in which they benefit from these and from the underlying social and institutional scripts that construct, enable, and steer towards such behavior. In the process, both the substantive content of the discourses and the interactive process involved are studied, for bringing out two sides of institutional behavior: the ways in which agents re-create and maintain institutions by means of their "background ideational abilities" and ways in which they are able to change those institutions by using the "foreground institutional abilities." At the same time, the actor level of globalization is opened for analysis, especially the process of local–global interaction that shapes the globalization process as it proceeds. Concurrently, agents' social identity categories – who they are and what makes sense to them in various situations – are examined. These categories inform the agents about the discourses they take part in, which restrict their choices as they are used. Furthermore, these identifications reflect shared conceptions of a collective self and therefore make such identities about "we" more than "I." This identity-building in research funders' work is examined mainly via methodological tools provided by linguistic analysis, especially in relation to the ways they use personal pronouns in their speech. The categories "we" and "they" shed light on how these agents construct themselves and their identities within a social structure they experience around them, what those identities are exactly, what interests are attached to them in regard to the European research-funding cooperation, and in which context these identities are used and switched. In addition, employing multiple measurement techniques, from rhetorical, narrative, and discourse analysis, illuminates what is done through actions such as using, or constructing, a particular identity in a certain context. These techniques are presented throughout the dissertation in the analysis of ERA-NET agents' talk, but their particular importance is highlighted in the context of policy documents. For example, to situate a particular discourse, such as that of the knowledge-based economy, some of its distinctive characteristics (especially concepts it encompasses) are used, to locate its use. After the discourse is identified and located in text, narrative and rhetorical analysis are applied, allowing one to say more about how and for what purposes it is used. The dataset for the research consists of policy documents and interviews. The document form data consist of the European Union, OECD, G8, and Finnish public policy documents from 1995–2005 dealing with the knowledge-based economy and the knowledge and information society; the Finnish government ministries' "future reviews" from 2006 and 2010 (in which they describe the most central short- and mid-term challenges and action alternatives in their respective policy fields); and internal documentation of three distinct ERA-NETs that were active in the latter half of the previous decade, pertaining to their research-funding calls and how they were conducted. The other part of the dataset consists of interviews with ERA-NET agents in several countries and ERA-NETs. The participants interviewed were individuals representing research program owners – typically ministries or regional authorities defining research programs – or program managers such as research councils or other research-funding agencies managing research programs. In total, 20 ERA-NET agents, from eight nation-states, 11 distinct organizations, and 10 individual ERA-NETs, were interviewed, in 2009–2012. The interviews were constructed around thematic questions all having to do with the ERA-NET, European, international funding system and working in ERA-NETs. The results of the research show that global policy language is embodied in adoption and adaptation at local level because it serves as a useful instrument in the actors' identity work. For instance, the "information society" concept, which is part of the knowledge-based economy discourse, provides Finnish ministries with a socially convincing yet flexible affordance to reaffirmation of their social and political importance in Finland. Its roots as a renowned international catchphrase lend the concept social assertiveness, rendering it a resource that ministries can fruitfully employ in making their claims about how important they are in the national state. Furthermore, the research illustrates that European science-policy cooperation is used as a vehicle for positive identity construction by national research-funding organizations. It brings forth how the studied ERA-NET cooperation can continue even if it has not reached some of its main, material, goals because in the current era actors have a need to be portrayed as rational, advanced, international players. The ERA-NETs act as a useful tool for reaching this goal. Participation in the trendiest, most convincing and politically supported forms of international cooperation is in itself a sign that an actor is acting internationally and rationally; hence, participation is socially rewarding. The ongoing identity work also shapes the form of policy diffusion in ways that lead to harmonization yet not isomorphism. It affects the process through which global ideas gain form on the local level and steers it in the direction of glocalization. Identity work manifests itself in situations in which agents define themselves, and their sending organizations, as being certain kinds of actors or belonging to a certain "we" group. It also entails situations in which agents switch among these identity categories continuously in order to take new subject positions and communicate associated interests or institutional restrictions. This identity work and simultaneous use of several identity categories enables agents to draw on different institutional sources creatively and to construct new kinds of understandings. For example, agents' opportunity to switch back and forth between global and local identity categories enables them to interpret global ideas from local viewpoints, stretch the boundaries of global principles to fit local features, and hence construct glocalized realities. These realities include both global and local elements for which identity work leads to relatively simultaneous diffusion of global ideas, yet the outcomes are locally distinctive. At the same time, identity work enables decoupling by offering agents opportunities to follow various institutional rules at the same time. This institutional identity repertoire may lead to difficult situations but also enables agents to construct socially acceptable approaches for escaping awkward situations strategically. When certain institutional requirements turn out to be situationally too difficult to meet, agents are able to activate other identity categories and use attached scripts as a socially acceptable way to escape the situation. This finding opens a new window for understanding the process of decoupling from the standpoint of agentic actorhood. From this perspective, decoupling is not so much an act of discontinuity with the stated norm as a timely conversion to other norms, just as socially acceptable and hence important, that can be used to justify the turn in action. Together these results indicate that policymaking, both European and national, is largely informed by globally circulating and timely changing ideas and scripts. Therefore, policy actors' and policy-makers' actions or motivations cannot be fully understood without consideration of this culturally constructed reality. In addition, it shows that research on international policymaking must take a closer look at its own analytical categories of national and global. If one readily assumes that states are the central pillars of regulation and governance within and across national borders, and such an assumption steers the research design, it creates a real risk of the research failing to recognize larger structures that construct nation-states and national preferences and that thereby steer states' governance. A researcher who, on the other hand, concentrates exclusively on transnational structures may come to the ill-judged conclusion that the nation-state has come to an end or is not in any way a relevant actor in international cooperation or governance. The argument developed for the dissertation is positioned between these two extremes. Its methodological stance is that it is possible and, in fact, analytically most fruitful to understand a nation-state as a politically separate entity but at the same time a global construction. The research also highlights that globalization does not just happen; it is institutional agents, people, that produce globalization. As internationally operating and transnationally constructed representatives of organizations and professions, these agents have gained functions and responsibilities for which they are allowed to create, adopt, enact, shape, and globally spread world cultural scripts. It is particularly this activity, positioned between the global and local, that is leading to synchronization of national policies and, in this, what is often considered to be globalization. The change may not be a hundred percent isomorphic, but it is temporarily consistent and noticeable. It comes and goes in wavelike trends. One trend sweeps across the world only to weaken gradually, after which ebbing another is born, which in its turn flows over the globe, and so on. Synchronically constantly moving and turning, nation-states constitute a recognizable unit that consists clearly of interdependent, not independent, actors.