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Significant foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows to maritime Southeast Asia (and more recently Vietnam) have been the key factor behind the economic development and in the integration into the global economy of the countries located in that region. Southeast Asia's prospects as a destination for foreign direct investment are bright, and over the last decade, FDI stock per capita in the region has increased five-fold from USD$500 in 2000 to nearly USD$ 2,500 in 2013.1 In this same period, regional real GDP per capita grew only 1.6 times to reach USD$ 2,255 in 2013.2 Using the latest UNCTAD statistics on bilateral foreign direct investment flows into nine Southeast Asian economies, this Perspective will look at what FDI flows tell us about two of the major strategic concerns of Southeast Asian states and of ASEAN: 1. The significance of the relationship for each Southeast Asian state and the region as a whole, between economic development, global economic integration and dependence on (or autonomy from) major extra-regional powers. The growing trade dependence of Southeast Asian economies on China and China's growing influence in Southeast Asia are the current focus of this foundational regional concern. 2. Further strengthening of integration among Southeast Asian economies and through this reducing the development gap between them. This regional economic virtuous circle is seen to be particularly important for supporting ASEAN unity and centrality.

Although emerging economies as a group performed well during the global recession, weathering the recession better than advanced economies, there were sharp differences among them and across regions. The emerging economies of Asia had the most favorable outcomes, surviving the ravages of the global financial crisis with relatively modest declines in growth rates in most cases. China and India maintained strong growth during the crisis and played an important role in facilitating global economic recovery. In this informative volume, the second in a series on emerging markets, editors Masahiro Kawai and Eswar Prasad and the contributors analyze the major domestic macroeconomic and financial policy issues that could limit the growth potential of Asian emerging markets, such as rising inflation and surging capital inflows, with the accompanying risks of asset and credit market bubbles and of rapid currency appreciation. The book examines strategies to promote financial stability, including reforms for financial market development and macroprudential supervision and regulation.

[Italiano]:Le numerose e complesse sfide economiche, sociali e ambientali che dovranno essere affrontare nei prossimi decenni nell'ambito del governo delle trasformazioni urbane e territoriali richiederanno l'impiego di nuovi approcci in grado di orientare lo sviluppo dei contesti territoriali verso una sostenibilità sociale, economica e ambientale. Le scelte e gli interventi di trasformazione dovranno garantire un'adeguata qualità della vita ai cittadini e favorevoli condizioni per lo sviluppo delle attività economiche e sociali. Tra le sfide che le città dovranno affrontare nei prossimi anni vi è quella della crescita della popolazione urbana. Le proiezioni demografiche prevedono che nei prossimi decenni vi sarà un ulteriore incremento della popolazione mondiale che interesserà principalmente le aree urbane. Queste previsioni sottolineano ancor di più la necessità d'intervenire in maniera prioritaria nelle città al fine di ridurre gli effetti delle possibili minacce che possono verificarsi a seguito di eventi critici improvvisi di natura antropica e naturale. Negli ultimi anni, i governi nazionali e locali hanno programmato d'investire ingenti risorse economiche per lo sviluppo e la realizzazione d'interventi in grado di affrontare alle possibili criticità dei sistemi urbani. Nell'ambito del governo delle trasformazioni urbane uno degli approcci più utilizzati per migliorare la capacità di risposta dei sistemi urbani al verificarsi di sollecitazioni esterne fa riferimento al paradigma della resilienza intesa come la capacità di un sistema, di una comunità o di una società esposta a pericoli di resistere, assorbire, adattarsi e riprendersi dagli impatti di un evento calamitoso in modo tempestivo ed efficiente, anche attraverso la conservazione e il ripristino delle sue strutture e funzioni di base essenziali. L'implementazione di soluzioni orientate al miglioramento della resilienza urbana risulta ormai essenziale per ridurre i possibili impatti economici, sociali ed ambientali dovuti ad eventi critici che possono interessare le città. Inoltre, l'impiego di questo approccio può offrire una maggiore sicurezza ai cittadini e alle attività economiche, sia in condizioni ordinarie che in condizioni d'emergenza. Il soddisfacimento di questa esigenza è ormai diventato un elemento fondamentale nella competizione tra i diversi contesti territoriali ed in particolare tra le città. Gli studi più recenti sulla competitività urbana evidenziano come il tema dello sviluppo della resilienza urbana è diventato un aspetto imprescindibile nel valutare le capacità competitive dei diversi contesti territoriali. La messa a punto e l'implementazione d'interventi orientati a rendere le città resilienti non possono prescindere dall'impiego di soluzioni, fisiche e funzionali, di tipo smart che ormai costituiscono un supporto essenziale nel migliorare la capacità di risposta che le città e le sue componenti sono in grado di offrire al verificarsi di sollecitazioni interne ed esterne. Rendere una città resiliente richiede la realizzazione d'interventi, infrastrutturali e organizzativi, complessi che devono considerare la molteplicità e la dinamicità delle componenti urbane coinvolte e che quindi non possono prescindere dall'impiego delle più recenti tecnologie, hardware e software. Intervenire sulla resilienza urbana può consentire alle città di conseguire anche un migliore livello di smartness. ln questo ampio dibattito scientifico si inseriscono gli approfondimenti e le considerazioni raccolte in questo volume. In particolare, la finalità di questo lavoro è approfondire le tematiche connesse alle sfide che le città dovranno affrontare nei prossimi decenni per garantire un'adeguata qualità della vita ai cittadini, evidenziando come l'impiego di un approccio resiliente può migliorare la risposta che questi contesti territoriali al verificarsi di situazioni di criticità. Vengono studiati nel dettaglio i temi della competitività territoriale e della smartness urbana all'interno di un nuovo modo di pensare scientifico, tecnico e culturale che fa della resilienza il paradigma di riferimento primario. Ciò al fine di comprendere quanto lo sviluppo resiliente è in grado di supportare sia il miglioramento della capacità di una città di competere con altri contesti territoriali, sia di favorire il conseguimento di un adeguato livello di smartness urbana. L'obiettivo è quello di mettere a punto un quadro di riferimento scientifico, dettagliato e aggiornato, sulle principali esigenze e criticità che le città sono chiamate a fronteggiare e sulla necessità di promuovere l'utilizzo di un approccio orientato al miglioramento della resilienza urbana, nell'ottica di affrontare le sollecitazioni e i cambiamenti esterni ed interni che interessano questi contesti territoriali. In altre parole, si mettono in luce le relazioni che si possono instaurare tra lo sviluppo della città resiliente sia con la capacità di un sistema urbano di competere con altri contesti territoriali che con le potenzialità offerte dall'impego di soluzioni smart, fisiche e funzionali, in ambito urbano. ./[English]:The numerous and complex economic, social and environmental challenges that will have to be faced in the coming decades in the context of the governance of urban and territorial transformations will require the use of new approaches, capable of orienting development in a socially, economically and environmentally sustainable way. The choices and initiatives for change must guarantee an adequate quality of life for citizens and favourable conditions for the development of economic and social activities. Among the challenges that cities will have to face in the coming years is that of urban population growth. Demographic projections foresee that in the coming decades there will be a further increase in world population which will mainly affect urban areas. These forecasts further underline the need to intervene above all in cities, in order to reduce the effects of the potential threats that can occur as a result of unexpected critical events, both anthropogenic and natural. In recent years, national and local governments have planned to invest significant economic resources in the development and implementation of strategies capable of addressing possible weaknesses in urban systems. In the context of the governance of urban transformations, one of the most commonly used approaches for improving the capacity of urban systems to respond to external stressors refers to the resilience paradigm, understood as the capacity of a system, community or society to resist, absorb, adapt and recover from the impacts of a calamitous event in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions. The implementation of solutions aimed at improving urban resilience is essential to reduce the possible economic, social and environmental impacts owing to the critical events that can affect cities. Furthermore, the use of this approach can offer greater security both to citizens and for economic activities, both in ordinary conditions and emergencies. The satisfaction of this need has now become a fundamental element of the competition between different territorial contexts and in particular between cities. The most recent studies on urban competitiveness highlight how the issue of developing urban resilience has become an essential aspect when evaluating the competitive capabilities of various territorial contexts. The development and implementation of interventions aimed at making cities resilient cannot disregard the use of physical and functional smart solutions, which now constitute an essential support in improving the response capacity of cities and their components to internal and external stresses. Making a city resilient requires the implementation of complex infrastructural and organizational interventions which must take into account the multiplicity and dynamism of the urban components involved, and which therefore must make use of the most recent technologies, hardware and software. Taking action on urban resilience can also enable cities to achieve a better level of smartness. The in-depth analysis and considerations brought together in this work are part of this broad scientific debate. In particular, the purpose of this work is to investigate the issues related to the challenges that cities will have to face in the coming decades in order to ensure an adequate quality of life for citizens, highlighting how the use of a resilient approach can improve the response of these territorial contexts in the event of critical situations. The issues of territorial competitiveness and urban smartness are studied in detail in the context of a new scientific, technical and cultural way of thinking which takes resilience as its primary reference paradigm. This is in order to understand how far resilient development is able both to support the improvement of a city's ability to compete with other territorial contexts, and to favour the achievement of an adequate level of urban smartness. The aim is to develop a detailed and up-to-date scientific reference framework regarding the main needs and critical events faced by cities, and the need to promote the use of an approach aimed at improving urban resilience, in the context of dealing with the external and internal stresses and changes which affect these territorial contexts. In other words, the study illustrates the relationships that can be established between the development of the resilient city and, on the one hand, the ability of an urban system to compete with other territorial contexts, and on the other, the potential offered by the use of smart, physical and functional solutions in an urban setting.

In the scope of the Master's Degree in Clinical and Health Psychology, this dissertation is organized in an article format, which, as indicated in the Master's Degree in Psychology regulation of University of Beira Interior, is written similar to a publishable article in a journal scientific journal. This scientific paper intends to describe the research carried out in the academic year 2017/2018 in the Dissertation Curricular Unit. The research presents a psychological investigation of an empirical study theoretically based which contributes in a pertinent way to the area of Clinical Psychology and Health. Sexuality is considered a dimension that concerns human health and is present in all ages. It has profound implications not only on biological and psychological aspects, but also on social and cultural dimensions. Likewise, the significant increase in population aging and the expected increase in dementia cases have and will have a profound impact on society, affecting not only the individual diagnosed with dementia but also their caregivers and loved ones. The theme of sexuality in the third age, particularly those with dementia, is not a subject commonly investigated by psychologists in Portugal. The objective of this study is twofold: (1) it aims to explore and understand the perspectives of family health professionals and caregivers regarding sexuality, intimacy and sexual behavior in elderly people with dementia, and (2) explore how participants manage the sexual needs of residents with dementia in a residential care context The current research used a mixed methodology approach. Two studies were conducted, one using quantitative and the other quantitative research tools. In Study 1, face-to-face in-depth interviews were conducted with a total of 32 participants. In Study 2, 69 health professionals and 40 family caregivers participated, responding exclusively to an online questionnaire. The qualitative analysis data was analyzed using thematic analysis to help identify repeated patterns of meaning in the dataset. As for the quantitative data, these were subjected to a statistical analysis. Qualitative results demonstrate that: (1) participants identified the presence of sexuality, intimacy and sexual behavior in elderly people with dementia, that result of a physiological need and should be faced as natural/normal as possible; (2) Sexuality is mostly considered as an important manifestation of love, affectivity and proximity, rather than exclusive presence of sexual intercourse; (3) Participants hypothesized that the social beliefs influence on mentality and education given to date and that has an influential factor in the rooting of existing taboos about the subject of sexuality in the third age, specifically in dementia; (4) Participants refer to be attentive and try to deal in the most natural and discreet way to the to the needs of the elderly concerning sexual behaviors; (5) It is perceived a general limitation on training and institutional orientations barriers, especially if the elderly manifests inappropriate sexual behaviors and (6) Decision-making is determined by the elderly if he reunites the ability and capacity to manifests what his wishes are, without it calling into question his rights. As for the quantitative research it is concluded that:(1) high percentage of participants disagree with the inference that as people age, they become less interested in sex and on sexual expression (2) they should have the freedom to express themselves sexually and intimately in a natural and spontaneous way. However, there is felt a (3) lack of time that the caregivers dedicate to respond to the situations of sexuality and intimacy (4) expressing concerns in the responses of the partners as well as the family caregivers to the sexual expressions. In this sense, and in accordance with the results obtained, it is necessary to sensitize governmental and institutional entities to establish policies and standards of orientation for those dealing with this aging population that have sexual needs. Both health professionals and family caregivers would benefit from training to better understand sexual expression in dementia. This training would improve both the way of acting and making ethical decisions, as it would contribute to the demystification of taboos and promotion of quality of life in the elderly. It is also essential to consider policies of social inclusion, which allow debates and normalization of the topic of sexuality in elderly people with dementia. In the final section of this dissertation, the annexes are presented, including all the material used during the investigation, such as the theory underlying the knowledge base of the analyzed phenomenon that provided theoretical and empirical insights and a better understanding of the analysis theme. ; No âmbito do Mestrado em Psicologia Clínica e da Saúde, a presente dissertação é organizada em formato de artigo, o qual, conforme indicado no regulamento de Mestrado em Psicologia da Universidade da Beira Interior, a sua redação aproxima-se de um artigo publicável numa revista científica revista. Este artigo pretende descrever a pesquisa realizada no ano letivo de 2017/2018 na Unidade Curricular de Dissertação. O estudo apresenta uma investigação de uma análise empírica, fundamentado teoricamente e que contribui de forma pertinente para a área da Psicologia Clínica e da Saúde. A sexualidade é considerada uma dimensão que diz respeito à saúde humana e está presente em todas as idades. Apresenta profundas implicações não só nos domínios biológicos e psicológicos, como também nas dimensões sociais e culturais. Da mesma forma, o crescente envelhecimento e o aumento expectável de casos de demência têm e terão um profundo impacto na sociedade, afetando não apenas o indivíduo diagnosticado com demência como também os seus cuidadores e entes queridos. O tema da sexualidade na terceira idade, particularmente aqueles com demência, não é um tema habitualmente aprofundado pelos psicólogos em Portugal. O objetivo deste estudo é duplo, sendo que pretende por um lado (1) explorar e compreender as perspetivas dos profissionais de saúde e cuidadores familiares em relação à sexualidade, intimidade e comportamento sexual de idosos com demência e por outro, (2) explorar como é que os participantes gerem as necessidades sexuais dos residentes com demência em contexto residencial. No estudo foi implementada uma abordagem de metodologia mista, por forma a aprofundar os objetivos delineados. Desta forma, foram desenvolvidos dois estudos, um de natureza qualitativa e outra de natureza quantitativa. No Estudo 1 (qualitativo), forma realizadas entrevistas presenciais de forma aprofundada com um total de 32 participantes. No Estudo 2 (quantitativo), participaram 69 profissionais de saúde e 40 cuidadores familiares, que responderam exclusivamente a um questionário online. Os dados da análise qualitativa foram analisados usando a análise temática por forma a analisar o conjunto de dados, através da identificação de padrões repetidos de significado. Quanto aos dados quantitativos, estes foram sujeitos a uma análise estatística. Os resultados qualitativos demonstram que: (1) os participantes validam a existência sexualidade, intimidade e comportamento sexual em idosos com demência, que resulta de uma necessidade fisiológica e devem ser encarada como algo natural / normal; (2) sexualidade considerada como uma importante manifestação de amor, afetividade e proximidade, em vez de presença exclusiva de relacionamentos sexuais; (3) os participantes hipotetizaram que as crenças sociais e a educação tem influência no manutenção de tabus acerca da sexualidade na demência; (4) Os participantes referem estar atentos e lidar da forma mais natural e discreta às necessidades dos idosos em relação às manifestações sexuais; (5) Perceção dos participantes de que é necessário mais formação e orientação institucional , especialmente se os idosos apresentarem comportamentos inapropriados (6) A tomada de decisão é determinada pelos idosos, se estes apresentarem capacidades preservadas para a manifestação dos seus interesses, sem que este coloque em causa os seus direitos. Quanto à pesquisa quantitativa, conclui-se que: (1) um elevado número de participantes discorda da inferência de que à medida que as pessoas envelhecem vão-se tornando menos interessadas em sexo ou na expressão sexual (2) os participantes concluirão que os idosos deveriam de ter a liberdade de se expressarem sexualmente e intimamente de uma forma natural e espontânea. No entanto, é sentido pelos participantes (3) falta de tempo para responder às manifestações de sexualidade e intimidade e (4) expressam preocupação nas respostas dos parceiros, bem como dos cuidadores familiares face aos comportamentos sexuais. Neste sentido, e de acordo com os resultados obtidos é necessário que se sensibilize as entidades governamentais e as entidades institucionais, no sentido de estabelecerem políticas e padrões de orientação para aqueles que lidam com esta população envelhecida, que apresenta necessidades específicas. Tanto os profissionais de saúde quanto os cuidadores familiares beneficiariam de uma formação por forma a melhor compreenderem a expressão sexual na demência. Esta formação aperfeiçoaria tanto a forma de atuação e tomada de decisões éticas, como contribuiria para a desmistificação de tabus e promoção de qualidade de vida nos idosos. É fundamental ainda, considerar políticas de inclusão social, que possibilitem debates e normalização da temática. Na seção final desta dissertação, os anexos são apresentados, incluindo todo o material usado durante a investigação assim como a teoria que fundamentou a base do conhecimento do fenómeno.

In this PhD thesis, I study the workings of Whiteness in teacher education discourses through the usage and meaning making of one term: cultural diversity. As such, I draw attention to the importance of a minimal and assumingly unimportant aspect of Our habitual social communication. A basic presumption herein is that the imperial and colonial legacy of race and racism remains a historical pedagogy of amnesia that manifests through subtle discursive patterns in Our everyday dysconscious racist usage and meaning making of terms. To study the usage and meaning making of terms is important because conceptualisations of terms constituted in knowledge-producing institutions work through educational curricula and practice, and teachers' dispositions are fundamentally about meaning making related to feelings that affect pedagogical behaviour in ways that ultimately effect social and racial justice. The workings of Whiteness are interrogated through the usage and meaning making of cultural diversity produced in educational discourses via three discursive knowledgepromoting domains of teacher education: (1) international research articles, (2) policy and curriculum documents, and (3) teacher educator interview transcripts. The thesis includes four articles: one critical interpretative literature review, one policy and curriculum document analysis, and two discourse analyses of individual teacher educator interviews. In the first article, I review the use and meaning making of cultural diversity across 67 international research studies on teacher education published in the period of 2004–2014. In this analysis, I find that cultural diversity is generally not defined but is related to a set of other undefined terms. Moreover, cultural diversity (and its related set of terms) is used extensively as part of binary oppositional discourses that, on the one hand, represent cultural diversity through notions of detriment – of racialisation and Othering, difference and inferiority – and, on the other hand, represent student teacher(s) and student(s) through notions of privilege and assumptions of superiority. Based on these findings, I discuss how the undefined nature of cultural diversity and its usage, as part of binary oppositional discourses, reveal how cultural diversity is assumed to be about a racialised Other (contrary to student teacher(s) and student(s)) in teacher education research discourses. I argue that this discursive production is one way in which Whiteness works through researchers' discursive practices of division and exclusion, produced by their initial dysconscious choices and investments in terms. I also argue that this extensive practice of Othering is "evidence" of the way in which Whiteness is persistently promoted through a discursive ideology of White supremacy produced in articles that generally claim to promote social justice. In the second article, I analyse the usage and meaning making of cultural diversity in six Norwegian policy and curriculum documents considered to be part of the 2010 teacher education reform. In this analysis, I find (similar to the findings of the review article) that cultural diversity is neither explicitly elaborated on nor defined according to its ubiquity of usage but is related to and used interchangeably with a set of other undefined terms that all connote notions of Otherness. However, in this article, the main focus is on the finding related to how Whiteness – in the way it works through the usage and meaning making of cultural diversity – is manifested in three discursive patterns of representation. Importantly, these patterns highlight (1) three hierarchically arranged pupil group categories, (2) descriptions that place these pupil group categories as either superior Norwegian or as inferior non- Norwegian, and (3) the role of student teachers as political actors of assimilation. In this article, I point to how these discursive patterns of representation – despite being covered by a polished surface representing the Norwegian self-image as one of peace, solidarity, and egalitarianism, part of the Nordic Model and Nordic Exceptionalism – work together in subtly racist ways, thus promoting ideas of assimilation as racial stratification that, in turn, supports an overall ideology of White Norwegian supremacy. In the third article, we (my supervisors and I) analyse the usage and meaning making of cultural diversity in transcripts of individual interviews with 12 teacher educators. Treating the transcripts as empirical data, we find that cultural diversity is used through a double meaning making pattern that, on the one hand, gives meaning to cultural diversity as explicitly positive, important, and desirable for teacher education. Yet, on the other hand, the term is assumed to be about the Other, who is subtly represented as negative and challenging, cognitively less developed (than an assumed Us), and knowledgeless. Based on these findings, we suggest that when cultural diversity is explicitly represented as something positive, important, and desirable in Norwegian teacher education, this pattern of meaning making, precisely because it rests on subtler assumptions and meaning of cultural diversity as a racialised Other, can be interpreted to mirror the "ideal" Whiteness way in which cultural diversity ought to be represented. Importantly, despite teacher educators seeming to express their wish to approach cultural diversity in positive and inclusive ways, their dysconscious usage and meaning making of the term nonetheless produce discursive patterns of Othering and exclusion that reflect the opposite. Related to these findings, we question whether student teachers' subtle learnings about cultural diversity, obtained through their teacher education programmes, may influence their future teaching. In the fourth article, we (my supervisors and I) draw on the same sets of data as in previous Article 3 and analyse these using a socio-cognitive linguistic theoretical framework. In this article, we analyse how teacher educators use cultural diversity and reflect on what their discursive practices might tell us about their conceptual understanding of it. Based on the analysis of the transcribed interview data, we find that teacher educators talk about cultural diversity as something relating to pupils and parents who are considered different from themselves culturally, socially, linguistically, cognitively, "migrationally", visibly, and religiously. Thus, we theorise that teacher educators talk about cultural diversity through seven discourse practices of Othering (DPOs). We point to how teacher educators, when they talk about cultural diversity in this way, create two binary oppositional groups. Herein, the teacher educators are placed in an Us-group, represented implicitly and described as "ordinary", and those whom they view as fitting into the cultural diversity category are placed in the Other-group, represented explicitly and described as "unordinary". We argue that teacher educators need more than an appreciation of diversity to counteract discrimination and inequality created through the usage and meaning making of terms such as cultural diversity. In this thesis' extended abstract discussion chapter, I discuss and compare the four articles' main findings in relation to the wider Norwegian and international context. Here, I outline two main points of this thesis: (1) how the usage of assumingly "innocent" terms might work to support already wider social patterns of White supremacy and (2) how Whiteness actually works in a "glocal" manner. That is, I argue that the core workings of Whiteness are quite similar irrespective of national context – at least within so-called Western countries: It discursively constructs a discursive object of racialised Otherness, whilst simultaneously maintaining a polished surface mirroring ideas of Us (Whites) as supreme. Importantly, this surface covers the realities of Our "dirty and violent" past and, hence, "blinds" Us to unjust patterns of the present. Drawing on discourse theoretical methodologies and critical Whiteness political perspectives, the findings of this PhD-thesis contribute to empirically documenting how the historical pedagogy of amnesia – the legacy of imperialism and colonialism – currently works through the dysconscious usage and meaning making of assumingly "innocent" terms, such as cultural diversity. The findings reveal how this, in turn, produces "hidden" racialised discursive patterns that constitute discursive objects of Otherness, which simultaneously, implicitly, and subtly construct ideas of Us as subjects and, as such, centre the workings of Whiteness as a discursive ideology of White supremacy. Methodologically, the thesis contributes a discursive methodology for performing a discursive micro-analysis of the workings of Whiteness to the field of teacher education, both nationally and internationally. Specifically, it also contributes to a "protocol", a step-by-step description of the analytical strategies that can be applied by research peers in future analyses of empirical textual data. The thesis contributes a thorough theorisation of the concept of Whiteness as a discursive ideology of White supremacy to the field of teacher education research by combining poststructural perspectives on discourse with critical perspectives on Whiteness. In the Norwegian context in particular, it contributes to the research by introducing Whiteness as a theoretical and analytical tool that allows researcher 8and other political knowledge-promoting actors) of teacher education for "seeing" how the legacy of imperialism and colonialism – of race and racism – currently works through subtle discursive practices of Othering and exclusion. ; publishedVersion

The Intergenerational Justice Review (www.igjr.org) is a peer-reviewed English language journal, reflecting the current state of research on intergenerational justice. The IGJR publishes articles from humanities, social sciences, and international law. The journal is released biannually and employs a double-blind peer review process. Its editorial board consists of about 50 internationally renowned experts from ten different countries. IGJR is indexed under Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ). The topic of issue 1/2020 (which is planned to be the first part of a double issue) will be"Housing crisis: How can we improve the situation for young people?" We welcome submissions to the issue 1/2020 that analyse the housing situation of the young generation. Topic outlineIn many European countries, and especially in large cities and university towns, affordable housing is a pressing and sometimes explosive issue. In the debate about such questions as home ownership or rent increase caps (Mietpreisbremse – German: rent brakes), the intergenerational perspective is often forgotten. But different generations are affected in noticeably different ways. Rising rent and purchase prices and the failure of housing construction programmes make it ever more difficult for young people to access the housing market. The quality of housing is a key factor in living standards and wellbeing, as well as an integral element of social integration, yet in 2014 a total of 7.8% of young people in the European Union (aged between 15 and 29) were in severe housing need, 25.7% of the young people in the EU lived in overcrowded households, and 13.6% lived in households that spent 40% or more of their equivalised disposable income on housing (Eurostat 2016).In response to the 2008/9 financial crisis, government programmes for public and social housing aimed at the poorer parts of the population were cut back, leading to diminishing access to affordable housing, especially in urbanised areas. For young people, this means that they have to pay higher rents. Today, therefore, they often live longer in their parental homes, or in the private rental sector, than previous generations (Ronald/Lennartz 2018).What is often referred to as a "housing crisis" can certainly be seen as a question of intergenerational justice, because the baby boomers had easier access to housing or to the means to finance it. Today, the baby boomer generation benefits from housing inequality in two ways: through property values and rental income. At the same time, with pension systems under pressure because of ageing populations, the ownership of residential property has become an important component of old-age provision (Helbrecht/ Geisenkauser 2012).Younger generations, on the other hand, are disadvantaged in two respects: today's increased demand leads to further pressure on the housing market in the low-price segment, which in turn leads to an increase in the rent burden for lower and middle income groups, and also makes the purchase of residential property more difficult. In many parts of Europe, such as the Southeast of the UK, in the 1980s the average cost of a first home was three to four times the annual average salary; today it can be ten or twelve times the annual average salary.From this perspective, it can certainly be argued that the housing market situation is not intergenerationally fair. And in many European countries, ownership of real estate has become a much greater source of wealth inequality between generations than salary differentials.This gloomy picture of housing and home ownership is, however, by no means universal. Statistics point to significant differences between countries, and international comparisons show that successful housing policies are possible. An EU comparison shows that the percentage of households managed by a person aged 18–29 who spends 40% or more of their disposable income on housing costs ranges from 1.3% (in Malta) to 45.4% (in Greece) (Leach et al. 2016). It is clear that some countries perform significantly better than others in providing affordable housing for the next generation.Articles could approach the topic through a broad range of questions, including:How did the housing crisis come to be and how can housing inequality for young people be improved?Why are some countries better than others at providing affordable housing for the next generation? What are the similarities and differences? What lessons can be drawn from cross-country comparisons?What political levers, such as subsidies, could be introduced to help the younger generation achieve more affordable and long-term housing security? Is the German Mietpreisbremse a successful instrument for this and how does it affect the young generation?Planet vs. people: It is often suggested that the solution to the housing crisis is to build more homes, but this raises the question of encroaching on green spaces and the environmental impact that this implies. How can that tension be resolved? How can urbanisation and the housing market become more environmentally friendly?Another solution is to use existing housing stock more efficiently. Can government policy help to bring this about, for example by incentivising the fuller occupation of large houses with unused spare bedrooms, or by discouraging the ownership of second homes through higher taxation? What is the potential of new forms of housing, such as shared housing, multi-generational housing, homeshare (housing for help)?How does homelessness affect young people in particular and how can it be combated?How can those who work in the media be encouraged to address this topic?Submission RequirementsSubmissions will be accepted until 31 December 2019.Articles may be submitted electronically through the IGJR homepage (see "Submissions").Articles should be no more than 30,000 characters in length (including spaces but excluding bibliography, figures, photographs and tables). For details, see the author guidelines: http://www.igjr.org/ojs/igjr_doc/Author_Guidelines.pdfDemography PrizeNote that this topic is closely related to the subject of the next Demography Prize promoted by the Foundation for the Rights of Future Generations (FRFG) and the Intergenerational Foundation (IF). The prize is endowed with 10,000€ and has 1 December 2019 as its deadline. Young researchers may also wish to participate in this essay competition, and it is hoped that this edition of the IGJR will contain a selection of the best prize submissions in English. More information is available on www.if.org.uk under Research Prizes and on www.intergenerationaljustice.org under Academic Awards Demography Prize.ReferencesEurostat (2016): Young people – housing conditions. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/pdfscache/46039.pdf. Viewed 27 September 2018.Ronald, Richard / Lennartz, Christian (2018): Housing careers, intergenerational support and family relations. In: Housing Studies, 33 (2), 147-159.Helbrecht, Ilse / Geilenheuser, Tim (2012): Demographischer Wandel, Generationeneffekte und Wohnungsmarktentwicklung: Wohneigentum als Altersvorsorge? In: Raumforschung und Raumordnung, 70 (5), 425–436. Recommended literatureDorling, Danny (2015): All That is Solid: How the Great Housing Disaster Defines Our Times, and What We Can Do About It. London: Allen Lane.Dustmann, Christian / Fitzenberger, Bernd / Zimmerman, Markus (2018): Housing Expenditures and Income Inequality, Cream Discussion Paper 16/18, London: Centre for Research and Analysis of Migration, URL: http://www.cream-migration.org/publ_uploads/CDP_16_18.pdf. Viewed 24 October 2018.Eurostat (2016): Young people – housing conditions, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/pdfscache/46039.pdf. Viewed 27 September 2018.Eurostat (2015): Housing cost overburden rate. http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=ilc_lvho07alang=en. Viewed 27 September 2018.Helbrecht, Ilse / Geilenheuser, Tim (2012): Demographischer Wandel, Generationeneffekte und Wohnungsmarktentwicklung: Wohneigentum als Altersvorsorge? In: Raumforschung und Raumordnung, 70 (5), 425–436.Hills, John / Cunliffe, Jack / Obolenskaya, Polina / Karagiannaki, Eleni (2015): Falling behind, getting ahead: the changing structure of inequality in the UK, 2007-2013. Social Policy in Cold Climate. London: LSE.Leach, Jeremy / Broeks, Miriam / Østenvik, Kristin / Kingman, David (2016): European Intergenerational Fairness Index: A Crisis for the Young. London: Intergenerational Foundation: http://www.if.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/European-Intergenerational-Fairness-Index_Final-2016.pdf. Viewed 27 September 2018.Lennartz, Christian / Helbrecht, Ilse (2018): The housing careers of younger adults and intergenerational support in Germany's 'society of renters'. In: Housing Studies, 33 (2), 317-336.Morton, Alex (2013): Housing and Intergenerational Fairness. London: Policy Exchange.National Housing Federation (2014): Broken Market, Broken Dreams. London: NHF.Ronald, Richard / Lennartz, Christian (2018): Housing careers, intergenerational support and family relations. In: Housing Studies, 33 (2), 147-159.Rugg, Julie J. / Quilgars, Deborah (2015): Young People and Housing: A Review of the Present Policy and Practice Landscape. In: Youth and Policy. Issue 114.Shaw, Randy (2018): Generation Priced Out. Who Gets to Live in the New Urban America, Oakland, CA: University of California Press.Shelter (2010): The Human Cost: How the Lack of Affordable Housing Impacts on All Aspects of Life. London: Shelter.

THE USE OF NATURALLY OCCURRING MOOD- altering substances is deeply rooted in the traditions and cultures of many communities worldwide. As documented in other societies and historical records,1,2 various compounds have been employed for altering consciousness and for their curative effects.3 Two substances traditionally used in the Middle East include hashish and khat.4 Hashish, as cannabis, has been known in the region since ancient times.5 Khat, also known as chat, derived from the leaves and young shoots of the khat plant (Catha edulis), is used for its stimulant effect.6 Technological advances that enable high purification of drugs and transporting them fast, and increasing urbanisation, have caused these mood altering substances to be taken out of their traditional role in societies and have come to pose new, complex and challenging threats.7 These threats have been manifested in two important ways: () wider use of drugs, and (2) a shift from natural drugs to the more potent purer forms. Globally, illegal money derived from illicit drug transactions amounts to 400 billion dollars annually, and is second only to the arms trade.8,9 The countries of the Arabian Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC) offers an interesting study area because their diverse cultures have experienced rapid acculturation, a phenomenon often equated with a rise in psychosocial stress.10 Psychosocial stress has often been associated with vulnerability to self poisoning11 and substance abuse.12 Although there are no adequate statistical studies to indicate the incidence of substance dependency in the GCC, it is clear that substance abuse is not a minor problem considering the number of reported drug seizures by the authorities.13 In real terms, the drugs seized by law enforcement authorities constitute only 5–0 percent of the actual quantity.14 Comprehensive data on the pattern of substance dependency is hampered by the criminal and moral stigma associated with substance dependency. Whatever the real number of people afflicted with addiction, substance dependency is a severe problem when considered in terms of personal distress, family disruption and interference with productivity and economic growth. Efforts have been undertaken in GCC countries to reduce the demand for drugs and to prevent drug abuse before it occurs. These efforts are coordinated through the Demand Reduction Committee, created in 200 with members from all countries of the GCC. The committee provides leadership in coordinating and facilitating strategies in this area including law enforcement, rehabilitation and leading and assisting the community in the task of education and prevention of substance abuse. Some studies have suggested that substance dependency occurs in adolescents in all strata of the society.14–16 However, these studies are limited to self-report questionnaires based on secondary school students. Although peer pressure is likely to play a significant part in the initiation of substance abuse,16 the subsequent heavy abuse is often associated with various psychosocial factors. It has been suggested that of all the social factors that predispose individuals to substance abuse, boredom is the most significant.14,17 The recent affluence and modernisation of the GCC societies have led many people to have a lot of spare time, as household chores are carried out by expatriate servants.14 The detrimental effects of such a lifestyle, including substance dependency, have been speculated in the literature.13,18–21 In a study cited by Al-Harthi14 of personality profiles and descriptive analyses of typical substance users enrolled in a treatment centre in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, the most frequently stated reason for indulging in drugs was to escape boredom. This view, though substantiated by other studies in the region,22,23 has not taken into account the relationship of individual temperament to substance abuse. Recent studies have suggested that phenotypical "risk takers" or "sensation seekers" are often not inhibited from yielding to various illicit practices including substance abuse.24 Future studies in the region should examine the association between personality types, risk taking behaviour and boredom. The premise that the rise in substance dependency might be precipitated by erosion of traditional family networks and skewed social expectations might be relevant to GCC countries. Al-Hashmi18 has suggested that modernisation has resulted in the Omani family becoming nuclear at the cost of the traditional extended family. Concurrently, domestic servants brought from overseas, often illiterate in the dominant language, are providing much of the socialisation to children. Reinforced by frequent international travelling, satellite televisions and the Internet, acculturation appears to have occurred too quickly in GCC societies. Smith has remarked that these changes have brought these communities development that took a thousand years in Europe in less than 20 years.25 Studies from other parts of the world that have experienced similar rapid pace of modernisation have shown disintegration of native culture and identity as well as dissolution of the social network, to which individuals had previously turned for help when in trouble.26 In addition, the spread of education have resulted in higher levels of expectations. In the new social order, individuals in the region tend to regard employment opportunities, guaranteed higher levels of income, and especially, higher social standing, as acquired rights. Frustration of the desire to climb the social ladder leads to social insecurity.14 The present situation of society in transition fits with the classical sociological observations of Ibn Khaldun and Emile Durkheim: rapid transformation leads to breakdown of traditional social cohesion.14As a result, the sense of belonging becomes a luxury, leading to social drift, alienation, and the proliferation of social misfits. The society itself may become anomic. The relationship between acculturation, anomie and drug taking has received empirical support.27 The present tendency is to view substance abuse in its psychosocial context rather than on moral terms. While more studies that are comprehensive are needed to examine the pattern of use and misuse of drugs in the GCC countries, there are various reasons to assume that substance dependency is likely to continue to pose a problem in the region. First, the geography helps both trafficking and consumption. GCC countries are located close to the "Golden Triangle" or "Drug Belt", a part of Asia where underdevelopment and political instability have fuelled drug driven economies. Second, being on a major route for international airlines and sea routes by virtue of being in the middle of the world, GCC countries are at constant risk of being used as trans-shipment points for drug trafficking. The Arabian Peninsula has a vast coastline with its horizon overlooking major sea routes to different continents. Even if vigilance to guard its borders is heightened, such a long coastline would remain porous. Moreover, effective surveillance would require more allocation of resources and work force, drawing vital resources away from establishing essential remedial and rehabilitation services for the victims of substance abuse. Thirdly, the increasing number of visitors and the presence of foreign labour in the GCC also help make the "Gulf route" a crossroad for trans-world drug supplies. Some individuals may fall prey to the fallouts from these passing illegal shipments even though they may be destined elsewhere. It is also possible that an increase in consumption of illicit substances among the local population has in itself escalated the demand. In support of the latter view are the rising statistics on the mortality related to drug abuse and the number of clients seeking treatment in rehabilitation centres in the GCC states.15,28 Dispensing accurate information on issues related to substance abuse is a key component to fighting drug abuse. Studies are needed to illuminate the effect of substance dependency in the GGC countries as the mass media often tends to downplay the risks of drug use, or sometimes even glamorises it. Evidence is emerging on the personal consequences of substance dependency. Okasha, in the context of Egypt, has demonstrated that substance dependency is likely to lead to underachievement at school or work and exacerbate family stress, financial burdens and exposure to criminal activity.29 However, literature does not discern whether these social problems are the cause or the effect of the substance dependency. Substance dependency is often associated with psychiatric morbidity30 but it is not clear whether this is cause or effect. Karam et al in their report from Lebanon suggest a strong relationship between addiction to substances of abuse and psychiatric diagnoses.31 These authors further suggest that certain personality types often abuse specific substances. However, such a simplistic view appears to be merely reiterating the chicken-or-the-egg argument. Some authors have suggested that substance dependency is a form of self-medication, which implies that individuals with substance dependency have high levels of psychosocial distress and use illicit drugs in an attempt to alleviate their distress. This is relevant to the suggestion that some psychiatric symptoms may mimic withdrawal effects of chronic substance dependency and withdrawal symptomatology co-varies with cognitive and psychological functioning.32 In addition to psychiatric illness, substance dependency has been seen to increase the risk of adverse drug reactions. A well-known complication of substance dependency is the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and other infections.33 VISIBLE PATTERNS IN THE GCC The discovery of oil in the GCC has brought rapid modernisation as well as unprecedented material progress and economic security.34 Although GCC nationals, like other cultural groups in developing countries, are thought to have beliefs that protect them against developing substance dependency, such beliefs appear to be eroding with the rising tide of acculturation and economic restructuring. Demographic factors such as the preponderance of adolescents in the population will continue to elude those advocating demand reduction policies even if harsher penalties are decreed for traffickers and users. Approximately 60% of the population in the region are less than 20 years old.35 As reported elsewhere, 36 adolescents are prone to risk taking behaviour, a temperament that has been associated with developmental milestones including the underdevelopment of the orbital-frontal cortex.34 In GCC countries, the rate of juvenile delinquency has, in a span of 0 years, increased approximately by 400%. Unless the needs of such a large and important segment of society as its young people are addressed, this may present a demographic time-bomb with unpredictable social consequences. With a fast growing population, competitions for social and occupational roles are likely to be more intense, leaving many failed individuals behind. With such a demographic trend, it is likely that many individuals carry a greater risk of developing various adjustment difficulties including substance dependency.37 Data emanating from other developing countries suggest that drug peddlers tend to target the poor and the unemployed. Whereas substance dependency in other parts of the world is often associated with economic and social breakdown,38 no study has examined whether substance dependency in the GCC countries follows the same pattern.39 Preliminary observations in Oman suggest that there is relationship between unemployment and propensity for substance abuse.14 Interestingly, the study suggests that addiction to illicit drugs is likely to interfere with employment, often rendering some individuals to lose their jobs. In the midst of such conflicting views, further studies are needed to ascertain the conditions that trigger drug dependency in the community.40 While more information is needed in order to make an informed policy on substance dependency, there is some evidence pointing to which substances are widely abused in GCC countries. First, clinical reports suggest that solvent misuse is extensive although no formal studies have been conducted. Hafeiz41 has suggested that abuse of solvents often occurs in order to overcome the boredom of modern living. There is also increasing evidence to suggest that some of these agents cause mental disorders42 as well as neurological complications.43 The chemicals in question include glues, liquid shoe polish, deodoriser, petrol, cologne and insecticides.44,45 A special pattern of substance dependency associated with social deviancy and delinquency also involves a home-made mixture of dates and ointments as well as inhalation of intoxicating fumes derived from burning the wings of cockroaches and ants with volatile substances. Habitual inhaling of these substances is often associated with a failure to thrive.42 Secondly, inhaling smoke derived from nicotine based substances is now common in many GCC countries.46,47 Tobacco is often chewed, snuffed or smoked either in cigarettes or in sheesha. The latter (also known as hookah) is a smoking device, widely used in some communities of the Arabian Peninsula, to smoke jurak, a cooked tobacco-fruit mixture, and burnt by an electrical device or by charcoal. The produced smoke passes through the water at the base of the sheesha and then a long-tube before it is inhaled. Though most smokers consider sheesha less harmful to health than cigarette smoking,48 this has not been substantiated in regional studies.48,49 Experimental and clinical studies have found that nicotine, an active ingredient of both sheesha and cigarettes, not only triggers cardiovascular diseases, but also predisposes frequent users to various neuropsychiatric disorders.50 The question remains whether smoking triggers mental illness or people with mental illness are more likely to smoke.51 Pharmacological studies have unequivocally shown that nicotine is as addictive as other well-known psychoactive drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines.52 However, GCC countries have given a low priority to this a public health issue. Demand for nicotine has been falling in industrialised nations, 53 but a similar picture is not emerging from middle and low income countries. Cigarette companies are now targeting the developing world.53 Moreover, cigarette companies are manufacturing products of differing quality for sale in different markets. It has been shown that cigarettes of the same brand sold in developing countries have higher tar content than in the country of origin.54 Some studies have suggested that certain cigarettes are made from more potent, hence, more addictive, nicotine.53,55 As there is no known effective program to educate people about the dangers of smoking, prevention and smoking cessation appear to an unattainable goals. To compound the problem, some proponents of the "gateway phenomenon" suggest that smoking is a springboard to hard drugs such as cocaine and heroin, 56 though there is also evidence to contradict this view.57 The social problems precipitated by alcoholism have not yet been reported in the GCC countries though some reports suggest that drinking problems are proliferating.13,44,58 The World Health Organisation59 estimates that more then 5 million people are disabled because of alcohol use, making it the fourth leading cause of worldwide disability. Theobald has suggested that approximately 0% of alcohol consumers will at some time experience serious health problems related to their drinking habit.60 As many individuals are now facing the daily challenges of modern living and the pressures of modern life, alcohol abuse is thought to be one of the elusive antidotes to modern insecurity.17 Some recent findings suggest that individuals who have a high subjective level of insecurity in their lives are likely to abuse alcohol to ward of their psychosocial stress. Interestingly, people with such attributes have been seen to have refractory types of alcoholism.61 Alcohol syndromes such as delirium tremens and Korsakoff's psychosis are known to occur among people who consume it regularly.50 Persons at risk of drinking problems cannot be reliably identified in the population; therefore the pattern of drinking and its psychosocial correlates are indicated for the GCC countries. The bulk of the studies21,45,58 have focused solely on exploring the validity of research instruments on cross-cultural application of drinking attitude and behaviour. Little is known on the effect of alcohol repackaged as "cologne" available in some GCC countries.62,63 Colognes or ethyl alcohol-containing perfume and after-shave are sometimes ingested as an alcohol substitute.64 Relevant to this, it would be important to determine whether the availability of alcohol and other soft drugs deters people from going into narcotics that are more dangerous. One suggestion is that in those societies of GCC where there is a relaxed attitude towards alcohol, there are fewer propensities towards heroin and other dangerous drugs.14 It also not clear how such information would be helpful in planning intervention programs in GCC countries, as the experiences from other societies suggest a complex relationship between alcohol and substance abuse. The "gateway theory" would suggest that using alcohol leads people to use harder drugs like cocaine and heroin.65 There is also scant information on the pattern and psychosocial correlates of over-the-counter medications in the GCC countries. Though generally viewed as harmless, many of them have the potential for abuse, particular those that are considered to be amphetamine-like stimulants.66 These includes nasal decongestants, bronchodilators, appetite suppressants and energy pills and drinks. While there is no evidence to suggest that cocaine and hallucinogens are widely consumed in the GCC countries, 13 the story of opiate use is somewhat different. Historical documents suggest that opium was considered as a medicinal substance in the Middle East. It was recommended by various towering Arab figures such as Ibn Sina.1 More recently, however, its semi-synthetic counterpart, heroin, far removed from its cultural context, is becoming the drug of choice for addicts in the GCC countries. Being close to heroin producing regions of the world, GCC appears to be the trafficker's place of choice. Being capable of causing compulsive dependency within a short time, heroin has a devastating effect on the user and society in general. To those who are addicted to heroin, it appears the habit leaves them little time for meaningful life. To compound the problem, as 90% of GCC heroin addicts use it intravenously, sharing of contaminated needles causes infections of human immune deficiency virus and a high incidence of other infections.33 Similarly, the number of cases of heroin addiction is often directly related to the number of crimes.27 Despite stringent regulations to reduce the supply and demand, the habit proliferates. Judging from the quantities of drugs seized by the authorities, the last decade has witnessed a dramatic increase in the number of cases of heroin addiction, the number of addicts seeking rehabilitation, and death due to heroin overdose.PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE Rehabilitation for addiction is often in the hands of psychiatric or penitentiary services though some specialised centres have emerged in some GCC countries.16 Culturally sensitive interventions seem to be often relegated to fringe importance. Medical interventions are likely to grow considering the many claims about new pharmacological tools that take advantage of the chemical properties of alcohol and other drugs. However, drug treatment for substance dependency should not hold up the search for psychosocial predisposing factors, which, in turn, could be a springboard for educational strategies to reduce demand. Indeed, blind adherence to pharmacological intervention not only seems similar to drug peddling, but also may be counterproductive in the long term. A biomedical explanatory model of substance dependency may lead to stigma, and lessen the individual and societal accountability in tackling compulsive dependency. Stressing personal responsibility, on the other hand, motivates one to change, as well as help one understand the challenges ahead and evolve coping mechanisms.67 As distress and stress are experienced in a socio-cultural context, rehabilitation services should avoid committing what Kleinman has called a "category fallacy", where a view of human nature developed for one cultural group is uncritically applied to members of another group for whom its validity has not been established.68 According to Kleinman, this results in a "distortion of pathology" rather than a critical understanding of the ways in which the members of a different cultural group perceive, experience and communicates beliefs and distress. One of the essential grounds for formulating enlightened policies toward drug dependency is to consider the society's outlook towards mood altering substances. Despite the documented frequency of substance abuse in GCC countries, a review of the literature reveals no objective studies on knowledge, attitude and perception. Opinion towards substance dependency among citizens of GCC countries is likely to have a wide-ranging influence, affecting issues as diverse as personal consequences of substance dependency, prevention, care and management of people with substance abuse. Historical and cross-cultural studies have suggested that individuals with substance dependence are likely to encounter active discrimination and harassment which, in turn, exacerbates their psychosocial predicament and perpetuates their relapse into drug taking.37 Similarly, it has been suggested that social attitudes can be more devastating than the addiction itself, and the addict's family suffers as well.69 Although many victims of substance dependency could benefit from treatment, attitudes of society towards them is likely to hamper their seeking rehabilitation. As a result, many are likely to stay underground until addiction has reached an advanced stage of irreversible pathology. This not only increases pessimism of the victims and those around them but also shatters the prospect of recovery. Therefore, more research in GCC countries should be conducted in order to shed light on socio-cultural factors that precipitate individuals to succumb to substance abuse. This would open the door for contemplating strategies to achieve a reasonable level of prevention as well as to prioritise which aspects of services are pertinent to the region. Grinspoon and Bakalar have suggested that of all the mistakes repeated, the most serious is trying to free society of drugs via legislation and regulation.70 Indeed, many studies1 suggest that no punitive measure deters availability and abuse of drugs.14 It appears that financial gain is one of the strongest determining factors. Globally, though consensus from the experts in the field suggests that substance dependency is a disease, public opinion often considers it a form of moral degeneracy that can destroy social values. As a result, victims of substance dependency are sent to the prison. Many countries have pursued the idea of creating a national consensus towards zero tolerance for substance abuse and death penalty for drug traffickers. The policies fluctuate between curbing trafficking, reducing demand and decriminalisation of certain classes of drugs.71 Some countries have considered decriminalizing soft drugs and the debate continues on the rationale of dispensing heroin to heroin-addicts.72 Although more time is needed to assess the long-term outcome of these new programs, history has shown that none of the previous campaigns to curb the spread of substance misuse has worked. Instead, the situation appears to be summed up in Bob Marley's lyric, "So you think you have found the solution; But it's just another illusion". CONCLUSION The problem of drug abuse in the GCC is a multi-dimensional one without easy solutions. This paper has touched upon several of these issues. Even though for zero tolerance to substance dependency is advocated, no program has been found to be universally successful in reducing drug dependence. Historically, many societies have tried both criminalisation and decriminalisation but to no avail. Despite all the technologies to monitor and legal authority to bring the drug traffickers to justice,including the threat of death penalty, dealing with substances that cause addiction is becoming a global challenge of ever increasing magnitude. More discouraging, the problem has even affected societies where one would expect cultural factors to protect them from the attraction of drugs. The purpose of this paper, thus, is to "point a finger to the moon", the moon symbolising the complexity of substance dependency. One should not confuse the moon with the finger that points to it.

While Shadow Board members still considered current monetary settings as appropriate for the upcoming May meeting, attention turns to a tightening in monetary policy over the coming year. In the near term, members pointed to some uncertainty over how sustainable the recovery will be particularly in light of continued border restrictions. Hence members saw a cautious approach as justified for the upcoming meeting.

Development Research News is a quarterly publication of the Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS). It highlights the findings and recommendations of PIDS research projects and important policy issues discussed during PIDS seminars. PIDS is a nonstock, nonprofit government research institution engaged in long-term, policy oriented research.

There are growing calls amongst Shadow Board members for the Reserve Bank to tighten monetary policy given the pick-up in inflation pressures in the New Zealand economy. Many on the Shadow Board now see a tightening in monetary policy at the upcoming July meeting as appropriate. Beyond that, an overwhelming majority thinks monetary policy should be tightened within the coming year.

This paper explores modules and articles on cooperation concerning the digital economy that are applicable for Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries under certain circumstances. It investigates the progress of and obstacles to ASEAN's digital connectivity, as well as features of existing Digital Economic Agreements and digital economy related articles in other agreements. We propose the use of a differentiated strategy and steps to promote integration for ASEAN countries covered in this research.

Asia has experienced massive economic growth, characterized by rapid urbanization and industrialization, changing demographics, and increasing consumption and demand for resources. This has contributed to significant environmental degradation. The challenge faced by governments in the region is in identifying and implementing innovative and dynamic policy approaches that are effective at improving environmental quality while sustaining development gains. This report reviews past and ongoing applications of marketbased instruments (MBIs) to address air quality, water, and waste management in Asia and provides recommendations for the use of MBIs for more efficient and effective environmental management.

1. L'enjeu de la recherche Le but principal de la thèse est l'analyse de l'apport du De regno de Synésios de Cyrène à la transmission de l'idéologie politique antique aux Ve et VIe siècles de l'époque byzantine. Il s'agit, avant tout, de définir l'idéologie politique de Synésios, dans le cadre de sa paideia alexandrine néoplatonicienne et chrétienne ; puis, de déterminer l'apport de son ouvrage à la formation de l'idéologie impériale et de la rhétorique politique du Ve siècle et de l'âge de Justinien. Afin de déterminer le rôle du De regno de Synésios dans la transmission de ces topoi, on veut analyser les rapports entre cet ouvrage et les œuvres les plus représentatives de la littérature politique des Ve-VIe siècles : le Panégyrique pour l'empereur Anastase de Procope de Gaza , la Scheda Regia d'Agapetus le Diacre , l'anonyme dialogue philosophique Sur la Science politique dédié à Justinien et le traité Des magistratures de l'Etat romain de Jean le Lydien . 2. L'état de la recherche 2.1. Le débat sur la valeur historique et la chronologie de l'œuvre Les premières notes chronologiques au De regno, dans le cadre d'une reconstruction générale de la chronologie des opuscula de Synésios, sont dues à Otto Seeck (op. cit.), qui datait le De regno des années 399-402. L'intérêt pour les aspects historiques et politiques de l'œuvre est dominant dans la critique italienne des années 1920-1940, à cause de l'utilisation idéologique de la figure de Synésios pendant la colonisation italienne de la Libye. La première monographie sur l'activité politique de Synésios remonte à 1938, de claire inspiration fasciste, rédigée par Giulio Bettini ; en 1944 est publiée l' édition critique du De regno, par Nicola Terzaghi . Cette édition constitue la base pour les études suivantes. Pendant la deuxième partie du XXe siècle, l'approche historique est encore prévalente, comme on peut le voir dans les pages consacrées au De regno dans la monographie de 1951 de Christian Lacombrade et dans son introduction à l'édition du De regno datant de la même année. On doit attendre les années 1970 pour relever un renouvellement de l'intérêt pour l'œuvre. En 1973, Antonio Garzya publie une traduction italienne du De regno, intégrée dans son édition des opera omnia de Synésios de 1989, avec quelques notes de commentaire. Dans les années 1980 la critique recommence à interroger spécifiquement cet ouvrage du Cyrénéen, encore selon une perspective chronologique. On débat de la question de la datation du De regno. La querelle oppose ceux qui le datent des années 399-402 (Denis Roques , suivi par Antonio Garzya ) et ceux qui proposent une datation plus haute, dans les années 397-400 . Le débat se développe sur la base d'une différente interprétation des témoignages autobiographiques sur l'ambassade à Constantinople que l'on trouve dans le corpus même de Synésios : (Syn., De regn. 3 Terzaghi) l'occasion du don de l'aurum coronarium ; (Syn., Ep. 61 Garzya-Roques) un tremblement de terre cause la fin du séjour constantinopolitain de Synésios ; (Syn., Hymn. I 428 – 433 Terzaghi ; De insomn. 14 Terzaghi) : le séjour de Synésios à Constantinople dure trois années. En plus de l'intérêt purement chronologique, pendant les mêmes années, se développe la recherche sur la valeur plus généralement historique et idéologique du De regno dans ses rapports avec le contexte de la semi-barbare cour constantinopolitaine et de la Cyrénaïque tardive . Dans ces contributions ne manquent pas quelques sporadiques références aux aspects littéraires du De regno. Beaucoup d'importance est, par contre, donnée à la forme rhétorique du discours dans l'introduction à la dernière édition critique du De regno (pp. 26-35), publiée par Jacques Lamoureux et Noël Aujoulat en 2008 . 3. L'idéologie impériale de Synésios de Cyrène dans le Discours sur la Royauté Le De regno s'inscrit dans la tradition de la littérature antique sur la royauté, qui a fleuri dans les milieux académiques et stoïciens, que nous connaissons par des auteurs comme Plutarque, Dion Chrysostome, Thémistios, mais qu'illustraient aussi des auteurs perdus comme Ecphante, Diotogène et Sthenidas. Son auteur avait également une connaissance approfondie des théories monarchiques judaïques, transmises en particulier par Philon. Le Cyrénaïque ne semble pas non plus étranger aux polémiques théologiques dont il a sans doute été le contemporain : la connaissance directe de Jean Chrysostome et le voisinage des patriarches d'Alexandrie ont dû contribuer à la formation d'un néoplatonisme chrétien singulier, qui s'épanouira dans les années de la maturité et de l'épiscopat. Synésios dérive de la philosophie politique d'Eusèbe, nourrie de topoi issus de Dion Chrysostome et Thémistios, une conception de l'Empire comme don de la divinité au βασιλεύς. Celui-ci est tenu de préserver ce don à travers l'ἄσκησις continue de sa propre vertu. Une autre pierre angulaire de l'idéologie impériale sinésienne est la supériorité du νόμος sur la manière dont le βασιλεύς conduit sa propre vie. La vie de l'Empereur, qui a valeur exemplaire pour ses sujets, est elle-même le reflet de l'Idée d'une loi transcendante, respectueuse de l'ordre cosmique et providentiel. L'idée de l'Empereur comme νόμος ἔμψυχος n'est formulée qu'implicitement par Synésios, alors que l'idée du souverain μιμητὴς τοῦ θεοῦ, sur laquelle la première se fonde, est tout à fait explicite. Imitateur de Dieu, le souverain est son homonyme. Il partage ses attributs, mais pas sa nature. Les vertus que le souverain doit démontrer, φρόνησις e ῥώμη, sont tout à fait classiques, de même que les attributs de la royauté, à savoir bonté, piété et autarcie, dont la possession est garantie au souverain par la relation d'homonymie qui le relie à la divinité. Ces vertus ont une valeur universelle mais pas absolue, dans la mesure où elles existent seulement selon une relation de cause à effet entre la divinité et l'objet qui en expérimente les qualités. Sur cette justification du principe de l'ὁμοίωσις τοῦ θεοῦ, l'influence de la métaphysique aristotélicienne est évidente avec l'ontologie du premier principe, auquel Synésios fait une allusion efficace et directe, tout en la conjuguant avec l'idée néoplatonicienne de la divinité surabondante et dispensatrice de bienfaits. Dans le De regno, le thème de l'autarcie du souverain est investi d'une force particulière grâce à la théorie platonicienne de l'âme complexe. L'autarcie constitue le fondement du bon gouvernement, dans la mesure où le roi est celui qui parvient à réunir sous l'égide de la raison le peuple agité, esclave de ses propres passions (De regn. 10). L'esthétique de la royauté joue un rôle paradigmatique et fonctionnel dans la transmission de l'eusychia divine au monde. L'exemplarité de la vie du souverain exige qu'il communie avec l'ensemble de la vie sociale, que ce soit avec les fonctionnaires qu'il a choisis, à travers la φιλία comme vertu, ou avec l'armée, par le biais de l'ἔρος que fait naître au sein des troupes la vision du souverain comme membre d'une seule et même famille. Un autre aspect important de la théorie politique sinésienne est la conception unitaire de l'Empire, dont témoigne le recours fréquent à l'adresse conjointe à Arcadius et à son frère Honorius, expression unique d'une institution universelle dont la division entre la partie orientale et la partie occidentale est seulement administrative. Chargé de faire la paix comme la guerre, conformément aux topoi du genre du logos basilikòs, le souverain aura pour tâche primordiale de maintenir sa vertu philanthropique, l'amour du genre humain. La valeur de psychagogie que revêt la philanthropie impériale, et dont dépend le salut de l'État, est elle-même un dérivé de la philosophie comme vertu suprême, et traditionnellement attachée à la royautén (Syn., De regn. 29). La définition de l'Empereur comme philosophe drapé dans la pourpre, formulée par Thémistios, n'est pas reprise dans la royauté sinésienne en raison d'une opposition vigoureuse au luxe d'inspiration cynique que l'on trouve chez Synésios. En revanche, l'amour de la philosophie et du cursus de la paideia classique devient chez lui la cause et la fin de la royauté. 4. L'influence du De regno de Synésios sur l'idéologie impériale byzantine des Ve et VIe siècles L'analyse des rapports entre le De regno de Synésios et le Panégyrique pour l'Empereur Anastase de Procope de Gaza, la Scheda Regia d'Agapet le Diacre, l'anonyme dialogue Sur la Science politique et le traité Sur les magistratures de l'état romain de Jean le Lydien nous a permis de tracer des pistes de l'influence de la théorie politique de Synésios sur le developpement de l'idéologie politique suivante, sourtout pour ce qui concerne les topoi du roi loi vivante et imitateur de Dieu. L'examen approfondi que nous avons réalisé au sujet du De regno de Synésios nous permet de considérer que cette œuvre occupe une place centrale dans l'histoire des idées politiques byzantines, et qu'elle marque le passage d'une idéologie de la royauté comprise et représentée selon les topoi de facture classique et hellénistique à une théorie politique qui enrichit ces topoi d'arguments métaphysiques et ontologiques néo-platoniciens d'un côté, de l'autre d'éléments moraux, universalistes et eschatologiques de plus en plus chrétiens. Sur le genre de discours auquel il appartient, le De regno de Synésios semble avoir exercé une influence importante, y compris sur la définition de la finalité de la littérature Περὶ βασιλείας : la pluralité des formes rhétoriques analysées (le panégyrique, le speculum principis en forme d'acrostiche, le dialogue philosophique, le traité) traduit la recherche d'une forme d'expression qui puisse véhiculer un contenu philosophique et instituer un rapport de type pédagogique entre l'auteur et son destinataire. Il est difficile de dire avec certitude dans quels milieux culturels et géographiques le De regno a circulé entre le Ve et VIe siècles. Il est toutefois certain que les auteurs qui se réfèreront au De regno ont tous été en lien avec le courant du néo-platonisme chrétien. Alexandrie, Gaza, Constantinople, Antioche ou Beyrouth deviennent à cette époque des centres de propagation d'une nouvelle culture réunissant dans de nombreuses créations les apports de l'hellénisme, de la tradition politique romaine et de la morale chrétienne. Le De regno de Synésios constitue un apport remarquable à cette nouvelle culture et constitue l'une des œuvres les plus représentatives de la Spätantike.

I Max Bill is an intense giornata of a big fresco. An analysis of the main social, artistic and cultural events throughout the twentieth century is needed in order to trace his career through his masterpieces and architectures. Some of the faces of this hypothetical mural painting are, among others, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, Ernesto Nathan Rogers, Kandinskij, Klee, Mondrian, Vatongerloo, Ignazio Silone, while the backcloth is given by artistic avant-gardes, Bauhaus, International Exhibitions, CIAM, war events, reconstruction, Milan Triennali, Venice Biennali, the School of Ulm. Architect, even though more known as painter, sculptor, designer and graphic artist, Max Bill attends the Bauhaus as a student in the years 1927-1929, and from this experience derives the main features of a rational, objective, constructive and non figurative art. His research is devoted to give his art a scientific methodology: each work proceeds from the analysis of a problem to the logical and always verifiable solution of the same problem. By means of composition elements (such as rhythm, seriality, theme and its variation, harmony and dissonance), he faces, with consistent results, themes apparently very distant from each other as the project for the H.f.G. or the design for a font. Mathematics are a constant reference frame as field of certainties, order, objectivity: 'for Bill mathematics are never confined to a simple function: they represent a climate of spiritual certainties, and also the theme of non attempted in its purest state, objectivity of the sign and of the geometrical place, and at the same time restlessness of the infinity: Limited and Unlimited '. In almost sixty years of activity, experiencing all artistic fields, Max Bill works, projects, designs, holds conferences and exhibitions in Europe, Asia and Americas, confronting himself with the most influencing personalities of the twentieth century. In such a vast scenery, the need to limit the investigation field combined with the necessity to address and analyse the unpublished and original aspect of Bill's relations with Italy. The original contribution of the present research regards this particular 'geographic delimitation'; in particular, beyond the deep cultural exchanges between Bill and a series of Milanese architects, most of all with Rogers, two main projects have been addressed: the realtà nuova at Milan Triennale in 1947, and the Contemporary Art Museum in Florence in 1980. It is important to note that these projects have not been previously investigated, and the former never appears in the sources either. These works, together with the most well-known ones, such as the projects for the VI and IX Triennale, and the Swiss pavilion for the Biennale, add important details to the reference frame of the relations which took place between Zurich and Milan. Most of the occasions for exchanges took part in between the Thirties and the Fifties, years during which Bill underwent a significant period of artistic growth. He meets the Swiss progressive architects and the Paris artists from the Abstraction-Création movement, enters the CIAM, collaborates with Le Corbusier to the third volume of his Complete Works, and in Milan he works and gets confronted with the events related to post-war reconstruction. In these years Bill defines his own working methodology, attaining an artistic maturity in his work. The present research investigates the mentioned time period, despite some necessary exceptions. II The official Max Bill bibliography is naturally wide, including spreading works along with ones more devoted to analytical investigation, mainly written in German and often translated into French and English (Max Bill himself published his works in three languages). Few works have been published in Italian and, excluding the catalogue of the Parma exhibition from 1977, they cannot be considered comprehensive. Many publications are exhibition catalogues, some of which include essays written by Max Bill himself, some others bring Bill's comments in a educational-pedagogical approach, to accompany the observer towards a full understanding of the composition processes of his art works. Bill also left a great amount of theoretical speculations to encourage a critical reading of his works in the form of books edited or written by him, and essays published in 'Werk', magazine of the Swiss Werkbund, and other international reviews, among which Domus and Casabella. These three reviews have been important tools of analysis, since they include tracks of some of Max Bill's architectural works. The architectural aspect is less investigated than the plastic and pictorial ones in all the main reference manuals on the subject: Benevolo, Tafuri and Dal Co, Frampton, Allenspach consider Max Bill as an artist proceeding in his work from Bauhaus in the Ulm experience . A first filing of his works was published in 2004 in the monographic issue of the Spanish magazine 2G, together with critical essays by Karin Gimmi, Stanislaus von Moos, Arthur Rüegg and Hans Frei, and in 'Konkrete Architektur?', again by Hans Frei. Moreover, the monographic essay on the Atelier Haus building by Arthur Rüegg from 1997, and the DPA 17 issue of the Catalonia Polytechnic with contributions of Carlos Martì, Bruno Reichlin and Ton Salvadò, the latter publication concentrating on a few Bill's themes and architectures. An urge to studying and going in depth in Max Bill's works was marked in 2008 by the centenary of his birth and by a recent rediscovery of Bill as initiator of the 'minimalist' tradition in Swiss architecture. Bill's heirs are both very active in promoting exhibitions, researching and publishing. Jakob Bill, Max Bill's son and painter himself, recently published a work on Bill's experience in Bauhaus, and earlier on he had published an in-depth study on 'Endless Ribbons' sculptures. Angela Thomas Schmid, Bill's wife and art historian, published in end 2008 the first volume of a biography on Max Bill and, together with the film maker Eric Schmid, produced a documentary film which was also presented at the last Locarno Film Festival. Both biography and documentary concentrate on Max Bill's political involvement, from antifascism and 1968 protest movements to Bill experiences as Zurich Municipality councilman and member of the Swiss Confederation Parliament. In the present research, the bibliography includes also direct sources, such as interviews and original materials in the form of letters correspondence and graphic works together with related essays, kept in the max+binia+jakob bill stiftung archive in Zurich. III The results of the present research are organized into four main chapters, each of them subdivided into four parts. The first chapter concentrates on the research field, reasons, tools and methodologies employed, whereas the second one consists of a short biographical note organized by topics, introducing the subject of the research. The third chapter, which includes unpublished events, traces the historical and cultural frame with particular reference to the relations between Max Bill and the Italian scene, especially Milan and the architects Rogers and Baldessari around the Fifties, searching the themes and the keys for interpretation of Bill's architectures and investigating the critical debate on the reviews and the plastic survey through sculpture. The fourth and last chapter examines four main architectures chosen on a geographical basis, all devoted to exhibition spaces, investigating Max Bill's composition process related to the pictorial field. Paintings has surely been easier and faster to investigate and verify than the building field. A doctoral thesis discussed in Lausanne in 1977 investigating Max Bill's plastic and pictorial works, provided a series of devices which were corrected and adapted for the definition of the interpretation grid for the composition structures of Bill's main architectures. Four different tools are employed in the investigation of each work: a context analysis related to chapter three results; a specific theoretical essay by Max Bill briefly explaining his main theses, even though not directly linked to the very same work of art considered; the interpretation grid for the composition themes derived from a related pictorial work; the architecture drawing and digital three-dimensional model. The double analysis of the architectural and pictorial fields is functional to underlining the relation among the different elements of the composition process; the two fields, however, cannot be compared and they stay, in Max Bill's works as in the present research, interdependent though self-sufficient. IV An important aspect of Max Bill production is self-referentiality: talking of Max Bill, also through Max Bill, as a need for coherence instead of a method limitation. Ernesto Nathan Rogers describes Bill as the last humanist, and his horizon is the known world but, as the 'Concrete Art' of which he is one of the main representatives, his production justifies itself: Max Bill not only found a method, but he autonomously re-wrote the 'rules of the game', derived timeless theoretical principles and verified them through a rich and interdisciplinary artistic production. The most recurrent words in the present research work are synthesis, unity, space and logic. These terms are part of Max Bill's vocabulary and can be referred to his works. Similarly, graphic settings or analytical schemes in this research text referring to or commenting Bill's architectural projects were drawn up keeping in mind the concise precision of his architectural design. As for Mies van der Rohe, it has been written that Max Bill took art to 'zero degree' reaching in this way a high complexity. His works are a synthesis of art: they conceptually encompass all previous and –considered their developments- most of contemporary pictures. Contents and message are generally explicitly declared in the title or in Bill's essays on his artistic works and architectural projects: the beneficiary is invited to go through and re-build the process of synthesis generating the shape. In the course of the interview with the Milan artist Getulio Alviani, he tells how he would not write more than a page for an essay on Josef Albers: everything was already evident 'on the surface' and any additional sentence would be redundant. Two years after that interview, these pages attempt to decompose and single out the elements and processes connected with some of Max Bill's works which, for their own origin, already contain all possible explanations and interpretations. The formal reduction in favour of contents maximization is, perhaps, Max Bill's main lesson.

Für die Wirtschaft von Vietnam ist die Ausfuhr von Holzprodukten mit 3,8% des Bruttosozialprodukts ein wichtiger Bestandteil (Nguyen, 2011). Im Jahr 2010 benötigte die holzverarbeitende Industrie von Vietnam 6,4 Mio. m³ Rundholzäquivalente, von denen nur 1,6 Mio. m³ (25%) aus heimischen Wäldern stammte (To and Canby, 2011). Die restlichen 4,8 Mio. m³ (75%) wurden aus anderen Ländern eingeführt (Nguyen, 2009). Es ist Ziel der vietnamesischen Regierung, dass in Zukunft 80% des Rohholzverbrauchs der heimischen Holzindustrie aus den Wäldern (Naturwäldern und Plantagen) des Landes geliefert werden. Bis heute sind lediglich 1% der vietnamesischen für die Holzproduktion bestimmten Wälder (insgesamt mehr als 2,4 Mio. ha) in Bezug auf ihre Nachhaltigkeit zertifiziert, dieser Anteil soll bis 2020 auf 30% ansteigen. Um die genannten Ziele zu erreichen, ist es entscheidend, die Holzbereitstellungsketten in Vietnam weiterzuentwickeln. Die angestrebte Erhöhung der nationalen Holzversorgung wird dabei auch deutliche Änderungen im Bereich der Holzbereitstellung nach sich ziehen, und zwar sowohl bei der Nutzung von Naturwäldern als auch bei der Bewirtschaftung von Plantagenwäldern. Es ist sowohl aus nationaler Sicht wie auch im Hinblick auf die internationale Konkurrenzfähigkeit des Forst-Holz-Sektors von Vietnam entscheidend, dass diese Veränderungen so gestaltet werden, dass auch zukünftig eine nachhaltige Holzbereitstellung gewährleistet ist. Aus verschiedenen Gründen, wie z.B. niedrige Arbeitskosten, großes Angebot von Arbeitskräften gerade im ländlichen Raum, geringe Verfügbarkeit von Investitionskapital und auch wegen der kleinen und zerstreut liegenden Nutzungsflächen, bedient sich die Holzernte und –bereitstellung in Vietnam heute weit überwiegend traditioneller und handarbeits-intensiver Methoden. Parallel mit der geplanten höheren Nutzung werden zwangsläufig auch höher mechanisierte Systeme eingesetzt werden. Diesen Übergang zu begleiten und seine Konsequenzen für die Nachhaltigkeit abzuschätzen ist Oberziel der vorliegenden Arbeit. Unter Anwendung des Konzepts des Sustainability Impact Assessment (SIA), welches die drei Aspekte der Nachhaltigkeit (Wirtschaft, Ökologie, Gesellschaft) umfasst, soll das Nachhaltigkeitsprofil verschiedener Holzbereitstellungsketten in einem Fallstudien-basierten Ansatz dargestellt und analysiert werden. Dabei werden exemplarisch die folgenden Nachhaltigkeitsindikatoren herangezogen: Ausnutzungsgrad des Rundholzes, Arbeitsproduktivität, Bereitstellungskosten, Beschäftigungseffekte, Lohnhöhe, Unfallhäufigkeit, Emission von klimaschädlichen Gasen, Entstehung von gesundheitsschädlichem und nicht-gesundheitsschädlichem Abfall, sowie Schäden am Waldboden. Vier Fallstudien wurden dabei ausgewählt, um die Verhältnisse für typische Nutzungsverhältnisse in Vietnam exemplarisch darzustellen: Selektive Nutzung von natürlichen (Regen-) Wäldern in eher flachem und in steilem Gelände sowie Eukalyptusplantagen, die im Kurzumtrieb und mit Kahlschlagmethoden geerntet werden, ebenfalls in gemäßigtem und imsteilem Gelände. Die analysierten Bereitstellungsketten begannen im Wald mit der Vorbereitung der jeweiligen Nutzungsbestände und umfassten alle folgenden Schritte und Prozesse der Holzbereitstellung und des Holztransports bis hin zur Holzindustrie. In den verschiedenen Fallstudien kamen sowohl traditionelle Technologien (Handarbeit, Zugtiere) wie auch teilmechanisierte Systeme (Motorsäge, Traktoren, Forwarder, Lastwagen) zum Einsatz. Die Datenermittlung erfolgte durch ausgedehnte eigene Zeitstudien aller Prozesse vor Ort, ergänzt durch Befragungen von Führungskräften und Mitarbeitern und unter Verwendung einschlägiger Statistiken, Literaturangaben und Datenbanken. Die beiden Fallstudien zur selektiven Nutzung von Naturwäldern im steilen Gelände (FWSC1) sowie im gemäßigten Gelände (FWSC2) zeigen, dass es deutliche Unterschiede hinsichtlich der Nachhaltigkeitswirkungen zwischen den beiden Bereitstellungsketten gibt, die durch die unterschiedlichen angewendeten Holzernte- und –bereitstellungsmethoden verursacht werden. In FWSC1 werden direkt nach der Fällung die Stämme vor Ort im Wald mit der Motorsäge in Bohlen (Volumen 0,20 – 0,35 m³) zerlegt, um diese danach mit Hilfe von Büffeln aus dem Wald heraus zu transportieren. In FWSC2 wurde nach dem Fällen mit der Motorsäge mit einem Kettenfahrzeug mit Seilwinde das Rundholz zur Fahrstraße geschleift. Nach dem Transport mit Lastwagen wurden die Sägeholzblöcke dann im Sägewerk zu Brettern verarbeitet. Die Rundholzausnutzung war bei diesem zweiten Prozess dabei mit 66,6% des Volumens des geernteten Baumes um 27,2%-Punkte höher als bei der ersten Methode, wo die Bohlen bereits im Wald mit Motorsägen zugerichtet wurden. Bei beiden Holzernteverfahren blieb eine relativ große Menge an Gipfelholz, Ästen und (bei FWSC1) Sägeresten ungenutzt im Bestand liegen. In Bezug auf die Produktivität wurden in FWSC1 88,6% des Zeitverbrauchs für Motorsägen-Arbeit auf das Zuschneiden von Bohlen im Wald verwendet, so dass sich insgesamt eine sehr niedrige Produktivität für die Motorsägen-Arbeit von 0,25m³ je Stunden ergab. Auch die Produktivität beim Herausziehen des Holzes mit Büffeln war mit 0,12m³ je Stunde gering. Im Gegensatz dazu war bei dem höhermechanisierten Verfahren sowohl die Motorsägen-Produktivität mit 11m³ je Stunde wie auch die Produktivität der Traktor-Rückung mit 6,7m³ je Stunde deutlich höher. Dies wirkt sich auch auf die Bereitstellungskosten aus: Während diese im FWSC1 bei 50,40 € je m³ Sägeholz lagen, betrug der Kostensatz einschließlich der Sägeholzherstellung im Sägewerk bei FWSC2 nur 34,90 € je m³. In Bezug auf die Umweltaspekte zeigt sich, dass das geringer mechanisierte Verfahren niedrigere Mengen an klimaschädlichen Gasen (7,83 kg CO2-Äquivalente je m³ Sägeholz) frei werden, während bei FWSC2 22,68 kg CO2-Äquivalente je m³ freigesetzt werden. Auch der Waldboden war bei der mechanisierten Methode mit 12,8% etwas stärker in Anspruch genommen als bei der Holzbereitstellung mit Büffeln (10,7%). Insbesondere ist aber ein starker Schädigungsgrad des Bodens mit 6,2% bei mechanisierten Verfahren fast doppelt so hoch wie bei dem Einsatz von Büffeln (3,45%). Diese Ergebnisse decken sich mit Werten aus der Literatur, die allerdings auch darauf hinweisen, dass eine sorgfältig geplante Holzerntemaßnahme (Reduced Impact Logging – RIL) ebenfalls zu niedrigeren Schadwerten zwischen 4 und 5% der Fläche führen kann. Für die Holzbereitstellungsketten in Eukalyptus-Kurzumtriebs-Plantagen (FWSC3 – Steilgelände und FWSC 4 – mäßig geneigtes Gelände) sind die Voraussetzungen für die Holzbereitstellung und den Holztransport günstiger als in den beiden untersuchten Fällen der Naturwaldnutzung. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Rundholzausnutzungsrate mit 79,8% in FWSC3 bzw. 68,9% in FWSC4 relativ hoch ist. Die meisten bei der Aufarbeitung zurückbleibenden Stammteile und Äste wurden im Nachgang von den Waldarbeitern als Feuerholz gesammelt trotz des geringen Durchmessers der gefällten Bäume. Die Geländeneigung hatte nur einen geringen Effekt auf die Produktivität der Motorsägen. Sie betrug 1,95 m³ je Stunde für Fällen und Ablängen in FWSC3 während die Produktivität im gemäßigten Gelände mit 2,11 m³ je Stunde etwas höher lag. Hier wurde das Einschneiden der Stämme nach Langholzrückung erst am Wegrand vorgenommen. Erstaunlicherweise waren die Unterschiede in der Produktivität beim Vorliefern und Rücken des Holzes an die Waldstraße in beiden Fällen nur gering: Sie betrug 0,26 m³ je Stunde in FWSC3, wo im steilen Gelände die bereits zugeschnittenen Rundholzstücke per Hand zum Wegrand gerollt wurden; und 0,33 m³ je Stunde in FWSC4, wo im flachen Gelände Büffel für das Holzrücken eingesetzt wurden. Entsprechend zeigen die Bereitstellungskosten in beiden Holzbereitstellungsketten relativ geringe Unterschiede: Bis zum Verbraucher (Papierfabrik) betrugen die Kosten in FWSC3 10,36 € je m³, während sie in FWSC4 mit 11,7 € je m³ nur wenig höher lagen. Deutliche Unterschiede gab es indessen bei den frei werdenden klimaschädlichen Gasen: In FWSC3 betrug dieser Wert 7,35 kg CO2-Äquivalente je m³ Rundholz, während er in FWSC4 beim Einsatz von Tieren bei nur 2,94 kg CO2-Äquivalente je m³ lag. Entscheidend war hierbei, dass bei FWSC3 das Laden und Entladen des Holzes mit Kran bzw. Lader mechanisiert erfolgte, während das Be- und Entladen in FWSC4 von Hand bewältigt wurde. Die Bodenschäden lagen bei der Plantagennutzung im Kahlschlagbetrieb deutlich höher als zuvor bei der selektiven Nutzung im Naturwald: Beim Fällen und Vorliefern von Hand (FWSC3) war die beschädigte Bodenfläche mit 34,7% nochmals höher als beim Einsatz von Büffeln in FWSC4 mit 22,7% der Fläche. Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung zeigen, dass ein möglicherweise zukünftig höherer Grad der (Teil-) Mechanisierung mit positiven Nachhaltigkeitseffekten in Hinblick auf Rohholzausnutzung, Produktivität und Bereitstellungskosten einhergehen dürfte. In Hinblick auf die sozialen Aspekte sind die Ergebnisse weniger eindeutig: Einerseits ist eine deutlich verminderte Schwere der körperlichen Arbeit und auch eine geringere Unfallneigung zu erwarten. Zum anderen gehen jedoch auch Arbeitsplätze durch Mechanisierung verloren. Wie die Literaturangaben zeigen, könnte dieser Effekt jedoch zum Teil kompensiert werden durch die geplante Erhöhung der Nutzung einerseits und durch Arbeitsplätze, die im nachgelagerten Bereich z.B. bei der Wartung und Instandhaltung von Maschinen entstehen werden. In Bezug auf die Umweltwirkungen Emission klimaschädlicher Gase sowie Störungen des Waldbodens werden höhermechanisierte Methoden in der Tendenz ebenfalls zu höheren Belastungen führen. Diese können z.T. durch bessere Planung und Überwachung (RIL) begrenzt oder sogar kompensiert werden, wie entsprechende Literaturangaben zeigen. Die Möglichkeiten und Effekte einer höheren Mechanisierung wurden am Beispiel der Holzbereitstellungskette von Zellstoffholz aus Plantagen unter günstigen Geländebedingungen (FWSC4) im Sinne einer Variantenstudie detailliert analysiert: Das Ergebnis zeigt, dass unter den gegebenen Geländeverhältnissen das Vorliefern und Rücken von Holz mit Büffeln so wie das besonders anstrengende händische Beladen und Entladen von Holz auf die Transportfahrzeuge durch eine einfache "Traktor-Trailer-Kran" Kombination mechanisiert werden könnte. Ein landwirtschaftlicher Traktor der Stärkeklasse 60 kp mit einem Rundholzanhänger, auf dem ein hydraulischer Kran montiert ist, könnte auch unter den gegebenen für eine Nutzung ungünstigen strukturellen Bedingungen der Eukalyptusplantagen (geringe Stückmasse des Plantagenholzes und kleine Schlagflächen) eingesetzt werden. Die Investitionssumme würde für Vietnam 34.100,-- € betragen. Dies würde zu Bereitstellungskosten von 14,81 € je m³ Rundholz frei Werk führen (wobei die LKW nicht wie derzeit überladen sind). Dieser Kostensatz wäre 15,3 niedriger als die hier untersuchte Methode unter Einsatz von Handarbeit und Zugtieren. In Bezug auf die sozialen Aspekte würde die Einführung eines entsprechend mechanisierten Traktor-Trailer-Kran-Systems den Beschäftigungseffekt von 13,9 Stunden je m³ auf 4,26 Stunden je m³ mehr als halbieren, während andererseits die Löhne von derzeit 3,37 bis 4,29 € je Schicht auf 7,14 bis 17,85 € je Schicht erhöht wurden. Die höhere Mechanisierung würde ein besseres Training der Mitarbeiter erfordern, aber gleichzeitig geringere Risiken für Unfälle und eine verbesserte Ergonomie bedeuten. In Bezug auf die Umweltwirkung würde der Übergang auf das höher mechanisierte System zu einem etwas höheren Ausstoß von klimaschädlichen Gasen (10,18 kg CO2-Äquivalente je m³ Rundholz gegenüber 7,2 kg CO2-Äquivalente je m³ Rundholz in der derzeitigen Arbeitsweise führen. Der durch den Traktoreinsatz beeinträchtigte Anteil des Waldbodens würde sich je nach Arbeitsorganisation ggf. noch erhöhen. Er könnte aber auch abgesenkt werden, auch wenn eine klare Arbeitsorganisation und Überwachung der Maschinenbewegungen auf der Fläche als Standard eingeführt würde. Um den für Vietnam zu erwartenden Übergang auf eine höhere Mechanisierungsstufe auf breiter Fläche zu begleiten, sollte ein nationales Projekt angestoßen werden, zu dem auch systematische Aus- und Fortbildung der im Wald tätigen Arbeiter sowohl im Hinblick auf Arbeitsverfahren wie auch auf Sicherheit und Ergonomie gehören sollte. Auch wäre es günstig, größere Nutzungseinheiten festzulegen, um die Vorteile einer höheren Mechanisierung voll nutzen zu können. Schließlich wäre die Vergabe von Investitionshilfen und Steuer- sowie Importzollsenkungen zu erwägen, um den Akteuren die Anschaffung leistungsfähiger und zugleich schonender Forsttechnik zu erleichtern. Insgesamt zeigen die Ergebnisse Wege und Möglichkeiten auf, wie in Vietnam dem laufenden Trend zu mehr Nachhaltigkeit im Forstsektor entsprochen werden kann. Dies ist auch eine notwendige Vorbereitung zu der angestrebten Ausweitung der Nachhaltikeitszertifizierung nach den verschiedenen Konzepten (FSC, PEFC usw.). Auch zur Erfüllung der Erwartung von Importländern, dass die eingeführten Holzprodukte hohen sozialen und Umweltstandards genügen, ist es notwendig, dass die Wälder in Vietnam nachhaltiger als bisher bewirtschaftet und entsprechend zertifiziert werden. Hierbei ist insbesondere die Art und Weise der Holzbereitstellung und der Gestaltung der Holzernteketten zwischen Forst- und Holzindustrie entscheidend. Die Durchführung von systematischen Sustainability Impact Assessments (SIA) ist wie in dieser Arbeit gezeigt, ein geeigneter und strukturierter quantitativerAnsatz, um das Nachhaltigkeitsprofil und insbesondere die Schwachstellen der derzeitigen Praktiken aufzuzeigen und Hinweise in Richtung auf eine verbesserte Nachhaltigkeit zu geben. ; Timber related export revenues are an important component in GDP of Vietnam with 3.8% in 2010 (Nguyen, 2011). In 2010, a total of 13.1 million m3 roundwood equivalent was needed for Vietnam's wood processing industry of which only 6.48 million m3 (49.5%) was supplied by domestic forests, the remaining 6.62 million m3 (50.5%) was imported from other countries (Nguyen, 2009; To and Canby, 2011). The target of Vietnamese government by 2020 is that 80% of raw wood material that is processed domestically will be harvested from the country's plantations and natural forests and 30% of production forests (more than 2.4 million ha) will be certified from less than 1% at present. In order to reach these goals, the sector of the domestic forest wood supply chain in Vietnam will play an increasingly important role and will be paid more attention. The envisaged growth of the national wood supply will lead to substantial and significant changes in the forest-wood supply chain (FWSC) in terms of the utilization of natural forests and of plantation forest management. To monitor and shape these changes in a way that supports the sustainability of wood supply is crucial both from the national perspective and for the international competitiveness of the forest wood sector of Vietnam. At present, due to reasons such as low labour costs, employees availability, low available investment capital as well as small areas and the scattered distribution of single harvesting units, the current wood supply in Vietnam is mainly carried out by labour-intensive methods, but parallel to the planned increase in the utilization rate, more mechanized supply chain systems are likely to be introduced. To monitor and assess the options and consequences of this change is the underlying objective of this study. Using the concept of a sustainability impact assessment, taking into account the three aspects of sustainability (economy, ecology and society) the sustainability profile of different forest wood supply chains was analyzed on a case study basis. The following sustainability indicators were addressed: wood utilization rate, labor productivity, production cost, employment, wage level, rate of accidents, green house gas emissions, hazardous and non-hazardous waste and disturbed forest floor area disturbed. Four case studies were selected to represent and assess typical forest wood supply chains in Vietnam: Selective harvesting of natural (rain) forests on moderate and on steep terrain, Eucalyptus plantation forests harvested in a clear-cut method after short rotation, also on moderate and on steep terrain. The analyzed production chains started in the forest with preparing the stand and included all subsequent steps of wood procurement and transport, ending at the mill gate the of wood industries. Traditional technologies (manual labor, buffaloes) as well as partly mechanized systems (chainsaws, tractors, forwarders, trucks) were employed. Data collection was carried out in the field by extensive time studies of all processes, inquiries to managers and workers, and the use of statistics, literature and data banks. The two cases of selective harvesting of natural forests FWSC1 (steep terrain) and FWSC2 (moderate terrain) show that there was a significant difference of sustainability impacts between the two chains mainly due to the various operation methods applied in the logging and transport processes for each chain. In FWSC1 after felling, the logs were sawn into sawnwood by chainsaws directly in the forest at stump side with only 35.6% of the standing tree volume utilized. The boards 0.20-0.35 m3sw per board were extracted by buffaloes from the forest. In FWSC2, a tractor was used for roundwood skidding and following truck transport, the logs were sawn into boards at a local sawmill. The sawlog utilization rate was 66.6% of the standing tree volume of which 45.3% was utilized as sawnwood (27.2% higher than FWSC1) and 21.3% were sawing residues produced at the sawmill. A large amount of the whole tops and branches from logging were left in forests in the both chains. In FWSC1, up to 88.6% of the time consumption of the chainsaws was spent on board sawing, which resulted in a relatively low productivity of chainsaws with only 0.25 m3sw/PMacH for the activities from felling to the board sawing while a productivity of 0.12 m3sw/PAniH was measured for buffalo skidding. On the contrary, in FWSC2 the productivity of felling and delimbing at stump areas by chainsaw was rather high with 11.0 m3sw/PMacH, and a productivity of 6.7 m3rw/PMacH for the roundwood skidding by tractor TDT55 was measured. The resulting, production costs calculated for all the processes in FWSC1 were 50.40 €/m3sw, which was 44.4% higher than in FWSC2 with only 34.90 €/m3sw calculated for the processes until sawing board at the sawmill. However, regarding environmental aspects, FWSC1 with lower mechanization emitted lower GHG with 7.83 kgCO2eq/m3sw calculated to the sawmill, while in FWSC2, GHG emissions were much higher with 22.68 kgCO2eq/m3sw calculated including the board sawing operation at the sawmill. Also, the total disturbed area caused by the logging operations was almost the same in the two chains with 10.7% in FWSC1 and 12.8%. FWSC2 with a higher logging intensity and a higher level of mechanization caused 6.21% of heavy disturbed area while this was only 3.45% in FWSC1. The disturbed area of forest soil in FWSC2 is in the range of 10-25%, which is also reported for other conventional selective logging cases (FAO, 1989; Hendrison, 1989; Verissimo et al., 1992) but much larger than the disturbed area of only 3.8% and 4.5% caused by cases where the Reduced Impact Logging method (RIL) applied (FAO, 1997; Marsh et al., 1996). For the plantation chains FWSC3 (steep terrain) and FWSC4 (moderate terrain), which both applied th clear-cut method, the conditions for log skidding and transport were more favorable than in the two natural forest cases. The study results show that the roundwood utilization rate in plantations was relatively high with 79.8% in FWSC3 and 68.9% in FWSC4. Most of the tops and branches from logging were collected for firewood use although the DBH of the felled trees was much smaller than in the natural forest cases. The terrain slope had only a small effect on chainsaw productivity. The productivity in felling and bucking in FWSC3 with the steep terrain was 1.95 m3rw/PMacH while it was somewhat higher with 2.11 m3rw/PMacH in FWSC4 with the moderate terrain. Similarly, there were also small difference in skidding productivity between the two study cases with 0.26 m3rw/PManH in FWSC3 using manpower to roll logs on the steep terrain and 0.33 m3rw/PAniH in FWSC4, where buffaloes were used for skidding. The production costs of the two plantation chains varied with 10.36 €/m3rw calculated to the paper mill in FWSC3, where loading and unloading were mechanized by forwarder, while it was higher in FWSC4 with 11.70 €/m3rw at the paper mill. Due to the partly mechanized loading method applied, the total GHG emissions in FWSC3 calculated to the paper mill were 7.25 kgCO2eq/m3rw, while by using a manual loading method, FWSC4 emitted only 2.94 kgCO2eq/m3rw calculated to the paper mill from the chainsaws and trucks. On forest soil, where the clear felling method was used, the plantation chains caused a larger disturbed area with 34.7% of the total logging area in FWSC3 and 22.7% in FWSC4 compared to the selective felling in the natural FWSC1 and FWSC2. The results of the study show that in order to improve FWSCs towards more sustainability, a higher level of mechanization with more suitable machines is the first and key proposal, while training in occupational safety, closer supervision and inspection of logging activities, as well as the improvement of operational harvesting planning are needed for all four case studies. In addition, the utilization of branches, tops and other residues is also strongly recommended in natural forest cases. An example of the potentials of higher mechanization was further analyzed in more detail for the pulpwood supply in FWSC4. The results of the analysis show that under the current conditions in Vietnam, buffalo skidding and manual loading and unloading in FWSC4 could be replaced by a tractor-trailer crane system. A tractor of 60 hp plus a trailer equipped with a grapple is recommended for unfavourable forest conditions, such as the small DBH of trees and the small area of the harvesting unit in FWSC4. The total investment for the tractor and trailer crane would be less than 34,100 €, which would result in a total cost of the FWSC to the paper mill of about 14.81 €/m3rw without overloading in transport, which is 15.3% lower than with the current method. Considering social aspects, the introduction of a tractor-trailer system would reduce the employment rate from 13.90 hours/m3rw to 4.26 hours/m3rw, while increasing the wage of employees in extraction, loading and unloading from 3.37-4.29 €/shift to 7.14-17.85 €/shift in current FWSC4. There are a number of studies such as Ahmedabad (1975) and Sindhu and Grewal (1991) that have reported mechanization did not lead to a reduction in human employment rate due to an expansion in production and demand for manufacturing, servicing, distribution, repair and maintenance as well as other complementary jobs which substantially increased due to mechanization. The actual policy of the Vietnamese government aims at increasing the plantation area substantially, and by this, new jobs could compensate the negative employment effects of mechanization. Higher mechanization would require better training in occupational accidents and ergonomics, and better protection for workers by the use of necessary safety protection equipment and improved working conditions. This would improve the current situation of occupational accidents and other health risks for the employees. With regard to environmental issues, the use of the tractor-trailer system would emit 10.18 kgCO2eq/m3rw of GHG instead of 7.25 kgCO2eq/m3rw in the current chain. On the other hand, there are a number of studies such as FAO (1998); Malmer and Grip (1989); Wang (2000) concluding that using tractors for log extraction causes a more heavily disturbed area compared to manual and animal skidding. However, a number of studies reported that the negative impacts of mechanization in logging and transport on the environment could be minimized to an acceptable level if the operational harvesting is fully and carefully planned and supervised Becker (1987) and Lewark (1990). In order to achieve a higher level of mechanization, a project of mechanization in timber harvesting and transport as well as training programs in occupational safety and ergonomics should be considered. Harvesting units with a large area should be created to be suitable for mechanization. In addition, suitable policies supporting financial investments in the mechanization of the logging and transport sector should be promulgated, including reduced import taxes for appropriate forest and agricultural machines. The results of the study show ways and means to address the current international trend in the forest-wood sector towards sustainable management through the grant of forest certificates (such as FSC, PEFC, etc). To fulfill the environmental and social responsibility requirements of exported wood products, domestic forests must be managed and utilized in a sustainable way and thus be certified with special attention to the wood supply chains from forest to wood industry (To and Canby, 2011). The comprehensive assessment and understanding of the sustainability impacts of forest-wood supply chains is necessary and can be considered as the first and basic step towards providing solutions to improve current forest-wood supply practices in Vietnam towards more sustainability.