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The overall objective of the Swedish Clean Air and Climate Research Programme (SCAC) financed by the Swedish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) is "To develop and improve the scientific basis for air pollution policies on national and international scales". The present report summarizes the key findings of the Phase 1 of the programme (November 2013 – March 2017). The program has been successful in generation new knowledge in several areas for direct importance for both national and international policy. The international part covers results to be implemented within the CLRTAP, the EU and the Arctic Council. Some of the key findings are listed below: • A Scandinavian version of the GAINS model was developed, by which it is possible to optimize costs for air pollution measures with respect to the main pollutants and SLCPs. (WP1) • The choice of climate metric shows surprisingly little impact on the relative cost effectiveness of SLCP abatement measures in Sweden, even if including variation in climate metric values for the SLCPs. (WP1) • Current and future needs for national emission projections and scenarios were analysed as well as roles and responsibilities in the present system. Based on the analysis needs for changes have been identified. (WP2) • Systematic sensitivity analysis could improve the understanding and quantification of projections and it was shown how sensitivity analyses in emission projections and scenarios could be undertaken, taking different objectives into account. (WP2) • High-resolution dispersion models were developed for the three urban domains Göteborg, Stockholm and Umeå with respect to the most important source categories of particle emissions; traffic exhaust, road traffic non-exhaust, residential wood combustion, shipping and other activities. (WP3) • A new methodology was developed to calculate highly resolved (time and space) ozone concentrations without the need to use advanced photochemical modelling. The method was used to assess impact of ozone on pregnancy outcomes. (WP3) • Exposure data for 1990–2011 on PM10, PM2.5 and BC for the three urban areas were applied to several cohorts, and dose response-functions were calculated for cardiovascular disease, lung function as well as pregnancy outcomes. The most consistent evidence for cardiovascular effects was observed for BC and stroke with a hazard ratio of 1.14 per μg m–3. For lung function, data from Gothenburg showed small but statistically significant reductions related to all three types of particles from road traffic. In a study in Stockholm it was also shown that exhaust particle exposure was associated with small birth weight; the odds ratio increase during the first trimester was 1.09 per 200 ng m–3. (WP3) • Model calculations show that emission changes in Europe affect Arctic climate. Model simulations indicate that the Arctic has warmed by 0.5 K since 1980's due to sulphur emission reductions over Europe. Further, by 2050, a reduction of global aerosol emissions from fossil fuels could lead to a global and Arctic warming of 0.3 K and 0.8 K respectively, compared to 2005. (WP4) • The contribution from different sectors and pollutants to Arctic temperature change has been studied by using the RTP concept. However, analyses of robustness of the concept show less agreement for the Arctic, an issue to be further investigated. (WP4) • Future ozone impacts on human health and ecosystems will depend more on chronic exposure to medium rather than high peak concentrations. (WP4) • In order to evaluate ozone effects on tree growth and carbon sequestration, a database on annual stem growth has been established for Norway spruce, Scots pine and European beech at 25 different forest observation sites in southern part of Sweden. Statistical analysis of the data is presently ongoing. (WP4) • The present understanding of dynamic effects to ecosystems from nitrogen deposition was evaluated through an international workshop. (WP4) ; Den övergripande målsättningen med Naturvårdsverkets forskningsprogram SCAC Clean Air and Climate Research Programme är att utveckla och förbättraden vetenskapliga basen för nationella och internationella luftvårdsåtgärder. Föreliggande rapport sammanfattar de viktigaste resultaten från den första fasen av programmet (november 2013 – mars 2017). Inom programmet har vi tagit fram ny kunskap inom flera områden av direkt betydelse för både nationell och internationellt luftvårdsarbete. Internationellt har resultaten varit av betydelse för Luftvårdskonventionen (CLRTAP), EU och Arktiska Rådet. Nationellt har resultaten direkt betydelse för flera av miljökvalitetsmålen. Några av de viktigaste resultaten sammanfattas i det följande: • En skandinavisk version av den så kallade GAINS-modellen har utvecklats med vilken det är möjligt att kostnadsoptimera luftvårdsåtgärder med avseende på de viktigaste luftföroreningarna och de kortlivade klimatpåverkande luftföroreningarna. (SLCP) (WP1) • Valet av klimatindikator (t ex GWP 100) visar sig ha förvånansvärt liten betydelse för kostnadseffektiviteten hos åtgärder riktade mot SLCP i Sverige. (WP1) • Det nuvarande och framtida behovet av officiella utsläppsprognoser och scenarier har analyserats liksom fördelningen av roller och ansvar. Baserat på analysen har behovet av förbättringar identifierats. • Systematisk känslighetsanalys kan förbättra förståelsen och de kvantitativa uppskattningarna hos utsläppsprognoser och i projektet har vi visat hur känslighetsanalyser kan utföras genom att ta hänsyn till olika mål för prognoserna. (WP2) • Högupplösta spridningsmodeller har utvecklats för de tre urbana områdena Göteborg, Stockholm och Umeå med avseende på partikelemissioner från de viktigaste källtyperna, trafikavagser, icke avgasbundna partiklar, vedeldning för lokaluppvärmning, fartygstrafik och övriga aktiviteter. (WP3) • En ny förenklad metodik har utvecklats för beräkning av högupplösta (tid och rum) ozonkoncentrationer utan att använda avancerad fotokemisk modellering. Metoden användes för att analysera effekten av ozon på graviditetsutfall. (WP3) • Exponeringsdata för 1990–2011 för PM10, PM2.5 och BC för de tre urbana områdena applicerades på flera kohorter och dos-responssamband beräknades för hjärt-kärlsjukdomar, lunkfunktion och graviditetsutfall. De mest konsistenta resultaten för hjärtkärlsjukdomar observerades för sot (black carbon, BC) i relation till stroke med en riskkvot på 1.14 per μg m‑3. När det gäller lungfunktion visade data från Göteborg en liten men statistisk signifikant reduktion med avseende på alla tre partikeltyperna från vägtrafik. I en studie i Stockholm visades dessutom att exponering för avgaspartiklar kunde relateras till låg födelsevikt. (WP3) • Modellberäkningar visar att emissionsförändringar i Europa har signifikant påverkan på klimatet i Arktis. De visar bl.a. att Arktis har blivit 0.5 grader varmare sedan 1980 till följd av svavelåtgärderna i Europa. Resultaten visar vidare att en global minskning av partikelutsläppen från fossila bränslen till 2050 kan leda till ytterligare uppvärmning som globalt uppskattas till 0.3 grader globalt och till 0.8 grader över Arktis jämfört med 2005. (WP4) • Betydelsen av olika sektorer och föroreningar för temperaturförändringarna i Arktis har studerats med användning av RTP-konceptet. Beräkningarna visar dock på en sämre överenstämmelse för Arktis, en fråga som behöver studeras ytterligare. (WP4) • För framtida påverkan från ozon på hälsa och ekosystem kommer kronisk exponering för måttligt förhöjda halter att bli viktigare än episoder med höga halter. (WP4) • För att utvärdera ozons effekter på trädtillväxten och inbindningen av kol har en databas utvecklats med avseende på den årliga stamtillväxten hos gran, tall och bok. (WP4).

Im Vorfeld wie auch im Rückblick auf eidgenössische, kantonale oder lokale Wahlen und Abstimmungen wurde in den letzten Jahren wiederholt die angebliche Politikmüdigkeit oder gar Politikverdrossenheit thematisiert. Vor allem die jüngste Generation wird dabei oft als besonders desinteressiert an der Politik im Allgemeinen und einem politischen Engagement im Speziellen charakterisiert. Die Medien wie die Politik verorten die Gründe dafür vor allem im fehlenden politischen Interesse sowie in der angeblich mangelhaften politischen Bildung während der obligatorischen Schulzeit. Zwar zeigen diverse Wahl- und Abstimmungsstudien, dass sich junge Erwachsene in der Schweiz tatsächlich vergleichsweise unterdurchschnittlich politisch beteiligen, allerdings fehlen Untersuchungen, die einerseits das vollständige Partizipationsspektrum – also auch Partizipationsformen jenseits des institutionellen Rahmens wie Teilnahme an Demonstrationen, Online-Partizipation oder politscher Konsum – berücksichtigen und andererseits nach den Gründen fragen, warum junge Menschen sich auf die eine oder andere Weise politisch einbringen oder nicht. Insbesondere der Einfluss politischer Bildung im schulischen Unterricht wurde bisher kaum in eine solche Studie einbezogen. In meiner Dissertation widme ich daher diesen Fragen mit dem Ziel, ein umfassendes Bild davon zu präsentieren, wie und aufgrund welcher Voraussetzungen sich junge Bürgerinnen und Bürger politisch engagieren sowie welche Rolle der politische Unterricht dabei spielt, um damit einige Lücken der bisherigen Forschung zu schliessen. Unter der Annahme, dass das individuelle Verhalten – hier die politische Beteiligung – von verschiedenen individuellen wie kontextuellen Ressourcen beeinflusst wird, lehnt sich das Untersuchungsmodell an Verba et al.'s Ressourcenmodell (1995, 2001) an. Zu den individuellen Ressourcen zählen nebst soziodemografischen und sozioökonomischen Determinanten vor allem das soziale und politische Kapital, die verfügbaren Civic Skills, Einflussfaktoren wie das politische Interesse, das Wirksamkeitsempfinden oder die Identifikation mit politischen Parteien, aber auch das politische Engagement des sozialen Umfelds sowie ausgewählte Wertvorstellungen. Auf der kontextuellen Ebene werden einerseits der politische Unterricht gemäss den Lehrplänen, andererseits das politische System im Wohnkanton berücksichtigt. Die Analysen stützen sich dabei auf eine Umfrage, welche 2013 in über 250 Klassen an Gymnasien und Berufsschulen durchgeführt wurde, sowie auf eine durch die Verfasserin durchgeführte Analyse der Lehrpläne dieser Klassen. Letztere gibt erstmals genaueren Aufschluss darüber, ob und in welchem Rahmen politische Bildung auf Sekundarstufe II unterrichtet wird. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen zum einen, dass individuelle Voraussetzungen sowie das politische Engagement im sozialen Umfeld eine zentrale Rolle spielen, ob und wie eine junge Erwachsene oder ein junger Erwachsener politisch aktiv ist. Zum anderen weisen die Lehrplananalysen auf ein sehr heterogenes Bild hin. Wo in einigen Lehrplänen viele verschiedene politische Themen und Fertigkeiten in detaillierter Art und Weise angeführt werden, enthalten andere Dokumente kaum Hinweise auf Inhalte und Kompetenzen, welche im Rahmen des politischen Unterrichts weitergegeben werden sollten. ; In recent years, the subject of supposed political fatigue and disenchantment of Swiss voters is repeatedly raised in the run-up to and following national, cantonal and local elections and votes. The youngest generation, in particular, is thought to be especially disinterested in politics and political engagement. The media and politicians identify the main reasons for this phenomenon as a lack of interest in politics and the reputedly deficient political education during compulsory education. Various studies about election and voting behavior have shown the comparatively low political participation of young adults in Switzerland. However, there are few studies that, on the one hand, focus on a broader range of forms of political engagement beyond institutionalized activities – such as demonstrations, online participation and political consumerism – and on the other hand, focus on the reasons why some young adults show interest in politics and elections, and others do not. Most notably, the effect of political education as taught in school was rarely included in such research. In my dissertation, I will focus on these questions with the goal of presenting a broad picture of how and why young citizens in Switzerland engage in politics and which role political education plays therein, therefore filling some of the gaps in the existing research. The principal research model is based upon Verba et al.'s resource model (1995, 2001), which assumes that individual behavior – in this case, political participation – is affected by various individual and contextual resources. Individual resources include: socio-demographic and socioeconomic determinants such as social and political capital; civic skills; influencing factors such as political interest, efficacy and identification with political parties; the political interest of one's social environment; and select values. At the contextual level, political education according to the school curricula, and the political system of the canton of residence are taken into account. The analysis builds upon a survey that was conducted in over 250 classes in high schools and vocational training schools in 2013, as well as the author's analysis of the respective curricula of these schools. The latter analysis provides insight for the first-time into whether and how political education is taught at this educational level. The results confirm that, on the one hand, individual preconditions as well as political engagement of one's social environment play an important role regarding if and whether young citizens are politically active. On the other hand, the analysis of the curricula points to a very heterogeneous picture. Some curricula include many different political topics and skills, whereas other curricula provide only limited references to content and competences that should be passed on to students during classes. ; Durant les dernières années, lors des votations et élections fédérales, cantonales et locales, autant lors des campagnes qu'avec les résultats, on a beaucoup évoqué une supposée lassitude ou même frustration face à la politique. Ce sont avant tout les jeunes générations que l'on caractérise comme spécialement désintéressées de la politique en général et de l'engagement en particulier. Les médias ainsi que le monde politique l'expliquent par un manque d'intérêt pour ce thème ainsi qu'une formation civique considérée lacunaire durant l'école obligatoire. Diverses études montrent qu'effectivement les jeunes adultes en Suisse participent en moyenne moins à la vie politique que les autres groupes de la population. Cependant, peu d'analyses prennent en compte le spectre de la participation politique dans son ensemble, c'est-à-dire toutes les formes de contribution, également celles au-delà des cadres institutionnels, comme les manifestations, la participation en ligne et la consommation politiquement motivée. De même, peu d'études posent la question des motivations derrière les différentes formes d'engagement ou leur absence. L'influence des cours d'éducation civique dans l'enseignement scolaire a été particulièrement peu intégrée dans de telles recherches. Je consacre donc ma thèse à ces questions, m'efforçant de dresser un tableau complet de l'engagement politique des jeunes citoyennes et citoyens, de ses conditions et du rôle de l'éducation civique, dans le but de combler les lacunes de la recherche actuelle. En partant de l'hypothèse que les comportements individuels – ici l'engagement politique - soient influencés par différentes ressources individuelles et contextuelles, le modèle des ressources de Verba et al. (1995, 2001) s'impose. Outre les déterminants démographiques et socio-économiques – particulièrement le capital social et politique, ainsi que les civic skills (aptitudes civiques) – on compte parmi les ressources individuelles des facteurs d'influence comme l'intérêt pour la politique, le sentiment d'efficacité ou l'identification aux partis, mais aussi l'engagement politique de son entourage social ou encore certaines valeurs. Concernant les variables contextuelles, on prend en compte les plans d'études qui régissent l'éducation civique et le système politique du canton de domicile. Les analyses présentées ici se basent sur une enquête réalisée en 2013 dans plus de 250 classes de gymnases et d'écoles professionnelles, ainsi que sur une analyse des plans d'études de ces classes réalisée par l'auteure, qui permet pour la première fois de gagner de plus amples connaissances sur l'enseignement politique au secondaire II et ses déterminants. Les résultats permettent premièrement de confirmer que les conditions préalables individuelles ainsi que l'engagement politique de l'entourage jouent un rôle primordial dans l'engagement politique des jeunes adultes. Deuxièmement, il ressort que les plans d'études sont très hétérogènes. Alors que certains abordent des thèmes et compétences politiques de manière très détaillée, d'autres ne contiennent que peu de ce qui devrait être transmis dans le cadre d'une formation civique.

When thinking about the purpose of the university, we often think about such things as knowledge, critical thinking, new ideas, rigorous science, scholarly development, and recently also employability, productivity, and academic citizenship. However, the future university might carry an equally important, but perhaps more disturbing purpose within it – that of resistance, transgression, and otherness. In other words, the purpose of the university might be the ability and will to push against standardization of education and thinking, to make room for different people and voices, to embrace otherness, strangeness and things that seem intelligible and of no use at first glance. But nurturing this not-yet-ness of our thinking, doing and being is at the heart of the university, partially through an insistence on careful listening to and for otherness, on creating room for seeming non-sense, and on revolting against limiting or oppressing hegemonies. In On Resistance: A philosophy of Defiance (2013) Howard Caygill calls attention to the importance of resisting and defying the urge for conformity, appropriation and consistency within every system of power. This is however not easily done as Henry Jenks points out in Transgression (2003), given that the 'systematization' and 'ordering' of thinking going on in institutions such as the university, pushes back and demands loyalty, agreement and shared 'norms' and 'values'. In a productive struggle between revolt and systematization in thinking at the university new ideas, innovative viewpoints and radical advances are nurtured. Unfortunately, looking across the higher education landscape today resistance and defiance are often suppressed as unproductive or even dangerous by the university itself. The university has become afraid and concerned with its own financial and political survival and, thus, absorbed in delivering clear comprehensible and evident proofs of its worth to society. In the face of neoliberalism and the political endorsement of the 'Mode 2-university' we might ask what is the fate of the future university and the people within it when an anxious university eradicates its places of resistance and spaces of transgression? What happens when room for and tolerance with revolting thinking, wicked ideas and transgressive actions is diminishing? Is there any hope for the university to offer itself as an open ethical room for staff and students living there in ways that are welcoming to the Other and resistant to the conformity of the Same (Levinas, 1999)? Importantly, here, resistance and transgression does not entail a breaking down or demolition of the university, knowledge or HE practice, but rather, an acknowledgement and insistence on the inclusion of other forms, voices, and rooms for thinking. Consequently, boundaries are needed to ensure ethical and meaningful education – the purpose of HE is also an insistence on universal ethical imperatives and academic virtues as Nixon attests in Towards the Virtuous University: The moral bases of academic practice (2008). Transgressive thinking and defiant behavior in HE does not deny limits or boundaries, rather it engages them through dialogue to complete them. As such, transgression is not the same as disorder, and resistance not the same as riot, but the insistence on breaking into new territory, on caring for otherness, and on revolting against marginalization and exclusion of thinking into comfortable familiarity (Jenks, 2003). Thus, the university creating places of resistance and spaces for transgression, is also the university that dares to insist on being an ethical, caring and democratic university. For the future university to keep on thinking, it must include and embrace unsettled and heterotopic spaces for transgression and caring places for resistance in the form of revolt as 'a commitment to freedom' and 'an invitation to alterity' (Jenks, 2003). It is a purposeful offering of places and spaces where people can gather, experiment, explore, and think in radical democratic ways along the lines described by Jacques Ranciére's Hatred of Democracy (2005). Taken together, such a conceptualization of the purpose of the university is an invitation for staff and students to dare to be thinking on the other side of the known through reinserting possibilities for revolt, in a dissident thinking that haunts established knowledge hegemonies, constantly unsettling the already settled (Kristeva, 1996). In this view, the university must establish itself as vibrant matter that never allows thinking to sediment or become instrumental tools in the service of society. Here, the university must reclaim itself as a place of resistance and a space for transgression – as what Kristeva (1998) calls a 'space of life' that comes into being as an affectionate place through allowing and embracing defiance and revolt. Such a notion of the purpose of the university entails a university capable of defiance and able to resist the pressure for uniformity and consensus-seeking in thinking. It is a purposeful university unafraid and daring and insisting on staying polyphonic and heterotopic in both mood and mode. Even when its rationale, purpose, and worth is questioned as intelligible, valuable, viable, or reasonable it will strive to foster and promote Otherness of both knowing, doing, and being through nurturing and harboring what Kristeva (1998) and Peters (2016) call dissident thought. That is, thinking that aims at critical questioning, unruly subversion and transgression of hegemonies. Explicating the purpose of the university through the lens of a philosophy of resistance and transgression, we see the place of the future university as a place for vibrant and vital defiance and as offering spaces of revolting and revolutionary disturbance. It is, however, not a violent or belligerent university as some of the narrower understandings of transgression, revolt and resistance might suggest – but a call for a university of care and affection for the Other and seemingly non-sensical. The future university rises from the mongrel collective, the polyphonic voice, the heterotopic space, and the ethical transgression. It is not the sole virtuous trumpet calling the world but rather a cacophony of torn trumpets singing the ethical song of revolting Otherness. Can such a howl of torn trumpets make itself heard in a world overcome with trumpism, neoliberalism, fake news and the alt-right? Is there any place and space for the university to be defiant through insisting on doing philosophy through embracing Otherness? And can the future university simultaneously be a non-violent, affectionate, and caring place of resistance and space for transgression without losing its dangerousness, disorderliness, and disobedience? This paper offers thinking on what a future university that promotes places of resistance and spaces of transgression might bring about as it contests the lazy, marketable, useful university that has accidently dulled its own thinking through becoming opportunistic, utilitarian, and afraid of its own future.

It is next to impossible to present an exhaustive analysis of the comprehension of the concept of culture, which results from the fact that it is used in a variety of spheres and branches of science. The definitions of the concept of "culture" that are usually mentioned are of a postulative (i.e. operative) character, but – despite the multi-layered discourse on the subject – it is possible to point to several main directions or elements that matter. In the first place, attention should be drawn to the approaches to culture as a process and form of resource transformation, as well as the impact of the transformation on reality. Subsequently, culture can be approached as a special kind of the sphere of social awareness (Cf. Kłosowska, 1969; Kłosowska 1972; Keesing, 1974, pp. 73-94; Nowicka, 1991, pp. 55-88; Burszta, 1998, pp. 35-57; Gajda, 2008, pp. 17-60; Strinati, 1998, pp. 15-49). Hence, culture can be understood as all of the tangible and intangible effects of human activity. Noteworthily, such aspects of the phenomenon of culture as normativity, functionality, structurality, adaptiveness can be pointed out. As regards the research into the energy culture, the two above-mentioned ways of approaching culture come to be reflected in the methods and techniques of the research into the issue. The first direction of research into energy culture is related to the way resources are transformed. In the case in question, it is a presentation of the characteristic features connected with production of "energy" sensu lato. Most frequently, this approach is expressed in the presentation of analyses concerned with: (1) energy production (and its diversification), (2) energy consumption (and its diversification), (3) import dependence, (4) development of new energy technologies, (5) energy use-related pollution. The other direction of research presents analyses concerned with a particular kind of awareness on the part of individuals and social groups, which can be exemplified by research into environmental awareness within the context of energy generation problems. As regards the analyses concerned with a special kind of energy production, consumption and conversion practices, there are both qualitative and quantitative research projects. The qualitative research is usually based on the presentation of descriptive analyses that synthesise and generalise energy cultures. Such research results in synthetic "models" exposing dominant features of energy structures in individual states and/or groups of states (Łucki, Misiak, 2010, pp. 47-50, 72-78; Frączek, 2014, pp. 443-449). The quantitative research concerned with energy production and consumption practices can be exemplified by analyses conducted on the basis of a variety of classification algorithms. This kind of research will include the studies involving the Ward's method and the k-means method (Tapio et al., 2007, pp. 433-451; Pach-Gurgul, 2012, pp. 160-202; Pach-Gurgul, Soliński, 2013, pp. 17-30; Frączek, Majka, 2015, pp. 215-223; Rosicki, 2016, pp. 225-237). As regards the second current of research into energy cultures, that is the ones concerned with the research into awareness, environment-friendly behaviour and attitudes towards energy saving, quantitative research based on survey techniques and qualitative research based on various forms of open interviews are the most representative ones. The scientific research within this scope concerns such issues as the construction of the "model" of behaviour patterns and habits (frequently behaviour patterns among individual energy users). Furthermore, this current also features the results of the survey research targeted at a specified statistical sample selected from the population with a view to establishing the awareness, behaviour and habits concerned with the use of energy. With this goal in mind, in-depth analyses are conducted as regards the influence of socio-demographic and psychological factors on awareness, behaviour patterns and practices among energy users (Cf. Stern, Gardner, 1981, pp. 329-342 ; van Raaij, Verhallen, 1981, pp. 253-257; van Raaij, Verhallen, 1983a, pp. 39-63; van Raaij, Verhallen, 1983b, pp. 85-106; Stern, 2000, pp. 407-424; Lindén, Carlsson-Kanyama, Eriksson, 2006, pp. 1918-1927; Papuziński, 2006, pp. 33-40; Tuszyńska, 2007, pp. 233-236; Hłobił, 2010, pp. 87-94; Frederiks, Stenner, Hobman, 2015, pp. 573-609). In the case of the research presented in the text, a statistical analysis of the energy cultures in the European Union member states will be employed. Such an approach to the issues does not obviate the need to present the content of the concept of "clean" and "dirty" energy cultures. If we assume that an energy culture is a special kind of energy production, consumption and conversion practices, then belonging to either "clean" or "dirty" energy cultures will be determined by the values of parameters of individual indexes characterised by individual diagnostic features of energy cultures. The diagnostic features characteristic of the "clean" or "dirty" energy use have been recognised as: (1) emission performance, (2) energy production structure, (3) energy efficiency, (4) transport fuel structure. For instance, the clean energy culture will be determined by low GHG emissions, a considerable share of renewable sources in the energy production structure, a high level of energy efficiency, as well as a considerable share of renewable sources in transport fuels. The "dirty" energy cultures will be marked by opposite tendencies. ; The object of analysis in the text are "energy cultures" in the member states of the European Union (EU-28). The text attempts to verify the legitimacy of the statements pointing to the possibility of grouping the European Union member states according to a special kind of energy use practices. In order to elaborate the research problem the text features the following research questions: (1) Is it legitimate to claim that within the EU-28 there are special "energy cultures"?, (2) If the claim of the existence of special "energy cultures" is legitimate, what features determine the division among the EU-28 countries? These questions should be associated with the intention to establish the existence of the division of the EU-28 states into "clean" and "dirty" energy cultures. Such a division can be substantiated by individual features of the EU-28 member states, related to energy production, consumption and conversion, e.g. GHG emissions and the commitment to the coal sector. For the adopted premises to be verified, the analysis employed one of the agglomerative methods (i.e. the Ward's method) and one of the methods for optimising a given group of objects (i.e. the k-means method). Besides, with the aid of individual tests, the differences in the level of parameters between the isolated clusters of countries were analysed. Furthermore, with the aid of the principal component method groups of independent factors were isolated, and the scope of essential differences in the level of the isolated factors between the grouped EU-28 member states was determined. ; 11 ; 383 ; 398 ; Rocznik Integracji Europejskiej

General description of research questions, objectives and theoretical framework Higher education is characterized by the increasing presence of international faculty and students. At the same time, universities are focusing more on educating interculturally competent citizens and preparing graduates for careers in a globalized world. While international students and the effects of student diversity have received considerable attention from researchers, with the teaching and learning challenges being among the main areas in focus, the experiences, contributions and needs of international teaching faculty are under-explored. The need to further research their impact and experiences, including the extent to which they contribute to the transformation of the educational environment, appears timely in the context in which they are (and we wish them to continue to be) part of our higher education system. The presentation will draw on contemporary articulations of cosmopolitan discourse with its close ties to the theory of hospitality, on which the argument for a better understanding of the experiences of international teaching faculty is founded. Today's political and socio-cultural discourse of cosmopolitanism requires that we understand the world as inherently interconnected, multidimensional and hybrid, and that we question our traditional understanding of belonging. It is paralleled by the relatively recent discussion of the role of cosmopolitanism in the field of higher education research, which underlines the importance of creating and supporting inclusive teaching and learning communities, emphasizing critical thinking, contextualization, and dialogue. Cosmopolitanism points toward the need to engage more deeply with how we conceptualize and practice teaching and learning in the global context. Furthermore, cosmopolitanism underscores the importance of focusing on whether international faculty are included in the professional communities, on the opportunities for reciprocal learning among international and home faculty, and on international faculty's impact on student learning. The presenters' intention will be to draw from cross-contextual, cross-cultural, and cross-disciplinary experiences in order to: a) Address the gap in our knowledge about the international faculty experiences in US and European higher education; and B) Understand whether, and to what extent, these communities are or can be characterized as hospitable or inclusive communities of practice from the perspectives of international faculty. These are some of the specific questions tied to the two major goals that the presenters will address, focusing on faculty, institutional and societal perspectives: ●How do international faculty members experience and perceive the educational environment at their respective institutions? What challenges and opportunities do they identify in relation to workingteaching in international contexts? ● (How) are the experiences and potential of the international faculty to contribute to the internationalization agenda of higher education taken into account in their respective institutions? ●What are some of the social, disciplinary, departmental, and institutional policies, programs and support systems that (could) genuinely value the diversity that the international faculty bring to campuses? ●With the growing emphasis in the US universities of becoming 'global' and 'diverse,' what role do the international faculty have in creating, adopting and promoting institutional and cultural narratives? ●How does academia, arguably the most progressive segment of our society, advance or react to today's cosmopolitan ethics and rearticulate our traditional understanding of the rules and practice of hospitality? Is it (or can it be) a space that could be viewed as a model for our society's transformative appreciation of inclusiveness and diversity? And, what role can we, those who inquire into the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, play in this process? Methods/methodology The presenters will report on the results of interviews conducted with eight international faculty with teaching responsibilities employed at the presenters' home institutions: Elon University in North Carolina (US) and Aarhus University in Denmark. Elon University is a small liberal arts institution with particular emphasis on education, specifically engaged learning and the development of students that are global citizens engaged with the world and capable of working in international environments. Although it strives to achieve more diversity, Elon's student body is predominantly white, middle to upper class, and American. The four teaching Faculty members who participated in interviews come from the department of World Languages and Cultures and identify as international (foreign-born). Aarhus University is a major northern European research and teaching-intensive university with a strategic goal of fully internationalizing its research and teaching, including developing students intercultural competence for the benefit of all. Currently, about 25 percent of its faculty members are foreign-born nationals, and the student body consists of about 10 percent international students. The four international teaching faculty members who participated in interviews come from the Faculty of Arts and were chosen due to their relatively recent transition into the university teaching environment in Denmark (under six years of employment). The interviews conducted as part of the study were predominantly oral, semi-structured, and audio recorded, lasting between one and one-and-a-half hours; although some chose to answer the interview questions in writing. Faculty members gave free and informed consent to participate in the interviews and were assured anonymity, in the US following the IRB (Institutional Review Board) requirements of the institution. The researchers used an inductive approach to analyze the qualitative data in order to summarize the findings, find major trends in and links between the interviews, and to establish clear connections between our research questions and focus and interview results. In addition, the interviews have been analyzed from the perspectives of hospitality theory and critical cosmopolitan theory within the framework of higher education. Expected outcomes/results The presentation is part of an international research project that we are pursuing on the topic. Main goals of the research project are to: a) address the gap in our knowledge about the international faculty experiences in US and European higher education; and b) understand whether, and to what extent, these communities are or can be characterized as hospitable or inclusive communities of practice from the perspectives of international faculty. By increasing and improving our knowledge of international academics' experiences, values and beliefs and their impact on local and international teaching communities, we aim to point towards ways in which institutions will be better able to address the needs of international faculty and improve the international communities of teaching practice. Increased knowledge about international faculty experiences can also contribute to improved academic and intercultural learning among both national/local and international academics and ultimately students. The results will arguably also be relevant with respect to the professional integration of local faculty as they are equally as diverse a cohort and may experience similar issues. This knowledge will, in turn, help inform universities' policies and practices as they move towards transforming student learning outcomes through deeper engagement with difference. One of the major goals of the study will be to identify the factors or patterns that contribute to the functions or existence of transformative spaces in higher education examine if and propose that higher education institutions function as transformative spaces where our society's views about inclusivity, diversity and interdependence are rearticulated and where a different form of hospitality is practiced.

The main purpose of this research was to determine the conditions that favor the development of Cultural Tourism in the town of Otuzco, and to have a technical diagnosis that serves as a tool for planning and managing cultural tourism in that community. This research focused on the treatment of six variables: the cult of the Virgen de la Puerta and the Gastronomic identity, the receiving community, the tourist demand, the superstructure, the road infrastructure and the tourist plant which were analyzed as components of the Tourist system. The main motivation of tourists to visit the town of Otuzco is the worship of the Virgen de la Puerta, the tourist flow is increased in celebration of the feast of the Virgin, as for the Gastronomic identity we have that 96% of the Tourists are interested in tasting the gastronomy of Otuzco, and also said that their favorite dish is the ham with 100% cassava followed by fried cuy 90%. In relation to the receiving community, it has been determined that 53.33% of the population is female and 46.67% are male, and 91% of them practice values and only 1% do not usually do 98 % (353) is willing to receive tourists and only 2% says not to be, the most practiced ancestral knowledge are stories 35%, traditional medicine 32%, legends 29%, myths 15%, the way of learning these is parents To children. 99% of tourists expressed interest in cultural tourism activities and only 1% said they were not willing, as far as their perception of the place, we found that 57% (57) considered Otuzco as a place Pleasant and 43% qualify as safe; Likewise, 56% of tourists consider that the villagers are friendly and 31% say that they are very kind. The tourist superstructure is represented by the Provincial Municipality of Otuzco, the association of hotels and affiliates AHORA Otuzco, who are working together to boost the tourism development of their community. The access roads to the town of Otuzco are evidenced in the presence of an asphalted road and in good conditions, are 76 km of paved road whose construction was valued at 33 million soles and was made under the government of Alejandro Toledo; The tourist has a good perception of the access routes, so they qualify as good 53.47% and 44.55% say they are regular. The presence of transport companies that allow the movement of tourists to the community. The tourist plant is represented by lodging and catering establishments. 53% of tourists rate the catering service as good 45% of regular; 83% of tourists rate the accommodation service as regular only 12% say that it is good, this is not optimal but it is a good indicator since it can work to improve the perception of the tourist with respect To this service. The methods used were Ethnographic and Synthetic Analytical. Surveys were applied to residents to know their characteristics and willingness to receive tourists, 100 surveys were also applied to tourists in order to identify the motivations to visit this town, if they are willing to carry out activities related to cultural tourism and the perception they have about Of the settler. ; La presente investigación tuvo como propósito principal determinar las condiciones que favorecen el desarrollo del Turismo Cultural en el pueblo de Otuzco, y contar con un diagnóstico técnico que sirva de herramienta para la planificación y gestión de la oferta turística cultural en esa comunidad. Esta investigación se centró en el tratamiento de seis variables: El culto a la Virgen de la Puerta y la identidad Gastronómica, la comunidad receptora, la demanda turística, la superestructura, la infraestructura vial y la planta turística las mismas que fueron analizadas como componentes del sistema turístico. La principal motivación de los turistas para visitar el Pueblo de Otuzco es el culto a la Virgen de la Puerta, el flujo turístico se incrementa en la celebración de la festividad de la Virgen, en cuanto a la identidad Gastronómica tenemos que el 96% de los turistas tienen interés por degustar la gastronomía de Otuzco, así mismo manifestaron que su plato preferido es el jamón con yuca 100% seguido del cuy frito 90%. En relación a la comunidad receptora, se ha determinado que el 53.33% de la población es de sexo femenino y el 46.67% es de sexo masculino, así mismo que el 91% de ellos practica valores y sólo un 1% no suele hacerlo el 98%(353) está dispuesto a recibir turistas y sólo un 2% dice no estarlo, los conocimientos ancestrales más practicados son cuentos 35%, medicina tradicional 32%, leyendas 29%, mitos 15%, la forma de aprendizaje de estos es de padres a hijos. El 99% de los turistas manifestó estar interesado, en realizar actividades de turismo cultural y sólo un 1% dijo no estar dispuesto, en cuanto a la percepción que tienen del lugar, encontramos que el 57%(57) considera a Otuzco como un lugar agradable y el 43% lo califica como seguro; así mismo el 56% de turistas considera que el poblador es amable y el 31 % dice que es muy amable. La superestructura turística está representada por la Municipalidad Provincial de Otuzco, la asociación de hoteles restaurantes y afines AHORA Otuzco, quienes se encuentran trabajando articuladamente para impulsar el desarrollo turístico de su comunidad. Las vías de acceso al pueblo de Otuzco se evidencian en la presencia de una carretera asfaltada y en buenas condiciones, son 76 km de carretera asfaltada cuya construcción estuvo valorizada en 33 millones de soles y se realizó en el gobierno de Alejandro Toledo; el turista tiene una buena percepción de las vías de acceso tal es así que las califican como buenas 53.47% y el 44.55% dice que son regulares. La Presencia de empresas de transporte que permiten el desplazamiento de los turistas hacia dicha comunidad. La planta turística está representada por establecimientos de hospedaje y restauración. El 53% de los turistas califica el servicio de restauración como bueno el 45% de regular; el 83% de los turistas califica el servicio de hospedaje como regular solo el 12% dice que es bueno, esto no es lo óptimo sin embargo se constituye en un buen indicador puesto que se puede trabajar para mejorar la percepción que tiene el turista con respecto a este servicio. Los métodos utilizados fueron el Etnográfico y el Analítico Sintético. Se aplicaron encuestas a pobladores para conocer sus características y disposición para recibir turistas, se aplicaron también 100 encuestas a turistas a fin de identificar las motivaciones para visitar este pueblo, si están dispuestos a realizar actividades vinculadas con el turismo cultural y la percepción que tienen acerca del poblador. ; Tesis

The article is devoted to the analysis of media influence on social mass consciousness. Based on foreign and national scientific heritage author describes three fundamental degrees of media impact, that provide quenching the desires of members of the mass society. Research aims to show that distortion of reality in the minds of masses through the media is the consequence human choice. Density and continuity of modern communications is quite clearly shows us the trend of rapid increase in the value of timely information received. Within these realities, the communicative impact of the media is the qualitatively new phenomenon that needs proper scientific analysis and deeper understanding. As a result, quite topical scientific analysis of media influence on awareness of the average Ukrainian social reality in which it exists. The working hypothesis of our study is the assumption on which the perception of reality thoughts final recipient of the outlets are dictated operated based media owners, but is a response to the unconscious desire of recipients to participate in events without the active participation in it. Thinking the reality of the stories, articles and news, there is one member communication without the need to enter into its essence and without active intervention in the collective understanding of the events. Yet today it is a necessity without which it is difficult to imagine everyday life of the consumer media. Therefore, it is important to realize that the media can not cover completely unbiased information to us, and thus they give knowledge about reality can not be absolute. Curiosity as a way to "review" of interest ignores the essence of things guided only displays events that cause the desired emotional response. It is this aspect and leads the way coverage in the media: attempts as closely as possible to satisfy the curiosity of the recipient. When you enable the TV to see the political talk show on Sunday evening the consumer sees before him all the same recurring conflict equivalent of politicians who end the sense of completely changing her political beliefs. At the moment of contemplation verbal confrontation passive viewer becomes a participant interviews ranked one of the parties sometimes even voicing their experiences to the TV. Enabling people to experience the events happening on screen and the main recipe for success rating talk shows. However, entry into the essence of the political position of the ruling or opposition is under a merely secondary. Banner communication in this case is, first and foremost, as an emotional communication. The crowd faced in everyday life as a way of condemning the objectification of the Other, apply judgment in relation to what he saw without a specific cognitive goal. Censuring politicians on TV convince man himself that he can not be deceived, because the deception was exposed it is implicit in the state. Therefore condemnation audience is the main emotional to political talk shows. Impact of media on the minds of the recipients is a certain structure, which can be roughly divided into three levels: sequence information, symbolic, symbolic and emotional pathos. Thus, in the small study we have demonstrated the great importance of understanding the influence of media on everyday human reality in which it exists. Based on the works of Bourdieu, Bryant, Thompson, Baudrillard, Dobrosklonskа, Kozlov proved a key role in reforming the media all the cultural activities of mankind. Intervention Journalism in the public interest priority schedule based on elevated heteronym of individual spiritual sphere of society that enjoys the actual popularity and commercial demand. It was pointed out that the dependence of the individual on the media as a source of news and information continually increases and becomes the climax in times of general crisis and instability. Painting the world in the mind of modern man is almost entirely formed of the media, and thus responsible for the products of mass culture is largely lies on journalism. We have identified three major structural levels of media influence on public consciousness recipients: sequence information, semantic- and symbolic-emotional pathos. Consistently, the level of information associated with selective temporal resolution media to enter the sequence coverage, which creates a special pre-and post- attitude to just heard. In addition, the result of alternating blocks of information are unconscious construction of various events and information to uniqueness. On the other hand semantic-symbolic level is characterized with the leading media in shaping the mythology of mass society. However, due to the selection of the structure of media messages key equivalent character in the subconscious recipient is time dissonance between the real thing and what is happening on the screen. As a result, personal experience of the events at the time of watching the news, that sense of witness without active contemplation. Pathetic emotional level of exposure associated with the inclusion of external events in personal moral values and experiences of the viewer. Transfer its interest to a higher level of passion – feelings and emotions, including fear, mercy, compassion, anger and others. We analyzed the communicative content of online media, demonstrating the need for a reliable means of verification of electronic network material. In the course of our work confirmed the working hypothesis of the study: to provide the means of mass media information about reality based on immediate needs and desires of the mass subconscious mind, which consumes those foods culture. ; Статья посвящена научному анализу влияния СМИ на массовое общественное сознание. Основываясь на иностранном и отечественном наследии, автор описывает три фундаментальных уровня медийного воздействия, обеспечивающих утоление желаний членов массового общества. Исследование призвано показать, что ис- кажение реальности в сознании масс есть следствие выбора человека. Структурно выделено три основных уровня влияния СМИ на массовое сознание реципиентов: последовательно-информационный, знаково-символический и пафосно-эмоциональный. Проанализировано коммуникативное наполнение интернет-медиа и продемонстрированы необходимость создания надежного средства верификации электронно-сетевого материала. Подтверждена рабочая гипотеза исследования: предоставление средствами СМИ информации о реальности осуществляется на основе непосредственных потребностей и подсознательных желаний самого массового сознания, которое потребляет соответствующие продукты культуры. ; Стаття присвячена науковому аналізу впливу мас-медіа на масову суспільну свідомість. Ба- зуючись на іноземній та вітчизняній спадщині, автор описує три фундаментальних рівні медійного впливу, які забезпечують втамування бажань членів масового суспільства. Дослідження покликано показати, що спотворення реальності в свідомості мас є наслідком людського вибору. Структурно виділено три основних рівні впливу мас-медіа на масову свідомість реципієнтів: послідовно-інформаційний, знаково-символічний та пафосно-емоційний. Проаналізовано комунікативне наповнення інтернет-медіа та продемонстровано необхідність створення надійного засобу верифікації електронно-мережевого матеріалу. Підтверджено робоча гіпотеза дослідження: надан- ня засобами мас-медіа інформації про реальність здійснюється на основі безпосередніх потреб та підсвідомих бажань самої масової свідомості, що споживає відповідні продукти культури

In the building of the so-called informational city, there is a explicit willingness to channel the social interaction towards innovation. lt starts from the idea that the exchange of information who manage people from their specific areas of action. make easy and prometes creativity, innovation. Knowing that today We can accessed to immeasurable amounts of information, different authors suggest that the important thing is not to have it, but process it intellectually, to transform it and make a profit from it. That is that the information has come to be seen as the raw material to transform to thereby achieve a final product, a pro­ duct of value, called knowledge, this being the most valuable product of the new era. Hence the economy that aims to move from the industrial age to the informational, worry about creating the right environment in which in­ novation occurs with maximum fluidity and frequency, and that has been called the innovative milieu. Being on the characteristics of places considered innovatives, now they try to build innovative milieux, which would be con­ tained in the plans and projects, under the title refers to a new kind of town: informational city, knowledge city, te­ chnopolis, digital, of the science and others associated with the use of lnformation Technology and Communica­ tion ICT. In the case of Barcelona, under the concept of digital city (MPGM 2000). But this explicit will to prosecute the interaction towards innovation could be invading or removing really sponta­ neous interaction spaces , where all players are on equal rights. The question that tries to reveal, with regard to the informational city is: Is social inclusion warranted when promete interaction in the areas of the so-called digital city? This is the fundamental question being solved, revealing why, if the informational city values the sponta­ neous interaction between different actors, is indifferent to the use of public space? What kind of interactions looks for? What are the actors that promete interaction: what is their role and their interests? What is the role of society in the areas of interaction that prometes informational city? What changes does the innovative milieu over the city? Really it demand changes?. All these questions it will try to solve under two entries interest of the city: political I social and physical I spatial. lt is taken as a case study the 22 @ Barcelona. with an analysis on two scales: a urban scale, in the polygons fur­ ther advancement of the plan, and proximity scale on three areas where it would be promoting interaction with regard to the innovative milieu. Spaces which are selected according to the proposed methodology, to know to what extent citizen inclusion is guaranteed when promete such interaction. Composed of the following specific ob­ jectives: (i) deepen the conceptualizati on of interaction for innovation, with an approach to the milieu that inspired, (ii) identify and classify the various physical spaces that would be shaping the interaction space, the role of public space and the private space that prometes interaction, (iii) identifying the interaction agents, their roles, their free­ dom of action and interest in innovation, (iv) meet the targeting of policies, programs and actions that would pro­ mete, (v) understand the role of society or citizens in shaping the innovative melieu and (vi) identify the spatial changes with regard to the innovative milieu to urban level and the architectural level and the role of ICT in these. For that, it contrast the physical platform of innovative milieu that prometes 22@Barcelona with it proposed in the plan. ; Sabiendo que en la actualidad se puede acceder a cantidades inmensurables de información, diferentes autores sugieren que lo importante no es tenerla, sino procesarla intelectualmente para transformarla y obtener un beneficio de ella. Es decir que la información ha pasado a ser vista como la materia prima a transformar para conseguir con ello un bien final un producto de valor denominado conocimiento siendo éste el producto más preciado de la nueva era. De ahí que la economía que aspira a pasar de la era industrial a la informacional, se preocupe por la creación del medio adecuado en donde la innovación se produzca con la máxima fluidez y frecuencia, y es a éste al que se ha dado en llamar el medio innovador. Siendo bajo las características de lugares considerados innovadores, que hoy se tratan de construir medios innovadores, que estarán contenidos en los planes y proyectos que nacen bajo el título que hace alusión a un nuevo tipo de ciudad: ciudad informacional, del conocimiento, tecnópolis, digital, de la ciencia y otros asociados al uso de las Tecnologías de la Información y Comunicación TIC. En el caso de Barcelona, bajo el concepto de ciudad digital (MPGM 2000). Pero esta voluntad explícita de encausar la interacción hacia la innovación, podría estar invadiendo o anulando los espacios de interacción realmente espontánea, en donde todos los actores están en igualdad de derechos. Siendo la pregunta que se intenta develar, a propósito de la ciudad informacional: ¿Se garantiza la inclusión social al promover la interacción en los espacios de la denominada ciudad digital? Ésta es la pregunta fundamental que se intenta resolver, develando ¿Por qué, si la ciudad informacional valora la interacción espontánea entre los distintos actores, se muestra indiferente con el uso del espacio público? ¿Qué tipo de interacciones busca? ¿Cuáles son los actores de la interacción que se promueve: cuál es su rol y sus intereses? ¿Qué papel juega la sociedad en los espacios de interacción que promueve la ciudad informacional? ¿Qué cambios espaciales trae el medio innovador sobre la ciudad? ¿Realmente se demanda cambios? Todas estas preguntas se intentan resolver bajo dos entradas de interés de la ciudad: político/social y físico/espacial. Se toma como caso de estudio el 22@Barcelona, con un análisis a dos escalas: a escala urbana, en los polígonos de mayor avance del plan, y a escala próxima en tres espacios en donde se estaría promoviendo las interacciones a propó¬sito del medio innovador. Espacios que se seleccionan según la metodología planteada, para conocer en qué medida se garantiza la inclusión ciudadana, al promover dicha interacción. Compuesto de los siguientes objetivos específicas: (i) profundizar en la conceptualización de la interacción para la innovación, con un acercamiento a los medios que sirvieron de inspiración, (ii) identificar y clasificar los diversos espacios físicos que estarían conformando el espacio de interacción, el rol del espacio público y el espacio privado en la interacción que se promueve, (iii) identificar los agentes de la interacción, sus roles, su libertad de acción e intereses en la innovación, (iv) conocer el direccionamiento de las políticas, programas y acciones que lo estarían promoviendo, (v) conocer el papel de la sociedad o ciudadanía en la conformación del denominado medio innovador e (vi) identificar los cambios espaciales introducidos a propósito del medio innovador a nivel urbano y a nivel arquitectónico y el papel de las TIC en estos. Para esto se contrasta la plataforma física del medio innovador que promueve el 22@Barcelona, con lo propuesto en el plan. ; Postprint (published version)

Статья посвящена рассмотрению сущности глобализационных процессов, их влияния на образование и реализацию права. Выявлены закономерности развития правовой системы Украины, а также положительные и негативные последствия глобализации для государства вцелом ; Problem statement. Globalization is universal in nature and the nature of the phenomenon. It covers not only the global economy, finance, the media, where it manifests itself in the most developed form, and other areas of public life, including the right. This right is not just a means of securing formal processes of globalization and manages, but also feel the same on their part to significant influence. In this regard, the study of any issues related to the transformation of legal phenomena and processes in the context of globalization, today is important.The topical value of the research. A characteristic feature of the modern world is the interpenetration of cultures and principles of law that can be described by such concepts as convergence, integration, assimilation, creative interaction. Covered by the notions of dynamic processes on the one hand, contribute to the formation of a unified world community on the other, accompanied by contradictory processes aimed at identifying cultural identity, legal autonomy and generate a number of important theoretical and practical issues affecting the different sides of law. It comes to the requirements that apply modern legal systems globalization. These requirements cannot be underestimated, since all legal systems regardless of their own free will involve in the changes that are taking place and the conditions of their existence.The aim of the article. The relevance of the proposed research problems caused by the realities of today. In the context of globalization there is a need for theoretical and methodological understanding the nature and trends of the national legal system. The new research paradigms based legal system in the science of state and law, which is important for the formation of legal awareness and implementation of the rule of law in Ukraine.Historical experience shows that proclaimed as universal determinants «universal values» are not always relevant to national legal systems. Templates mechanically transferred often are not zhyttyediyalnymy because it does not take into account the features of the mentality and legal culture, formed in a particular society in the historical and cultural development.The effectiveness and viability of the legal system reflected in the extent to which the modern state links its development with the formation of legal awareness; develop legal culture, the achievement of stability in the legal intrastate and international relations.The article is a review of the main approaches to understanding the processes of globalization, the analysis of the forms and directions of separating from related processes and phenomena that determine the trends of the legal system of Ukraine in the context of globalization.An example of the impact of globalization on the legal system of the state is to take 4 November 1950 in Rome ten member states of the Council of Europe (Belgium, UK, Germany, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, France) Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the establishment to ensure obligations under the Convention 21 January 1959 the European court of human rights to consider complaints of violations of the Convention. Ratification of the European Convention enables all persons under its jurisdiction; apply to the European Court if they believe their rights have been violated. This also applies to citizens of Ukraine, which is confirmed by Article 55 of the Constitution of Ukraine.The main systemic risk factor in the formation of a single global world economy that emerged in the context of globalization is that the global economy with its inherent system of international economic relations is increasingly spreading properties market economy as a system of self-organizing, with very weak, uncertain and unstable, crisis management processes.In modern conditions of statehood in Ukraine has intensified the process of reform and renewal of national legislation. These processes caused the transformation period of society and the complexity of social relations that requires not only the most improvement of regulations, but also enhance research problems of formation of law, rulemaking and institute the right.Rule-making in the context of globalization transformed primarily towards the expansion of its social base, that an increasing number of takes not passive, but active and direct participation in the process. This process is transformed and influenced by the fact that in the legal field, new problems whose solution requires mandatory legal regulations at national and supranational levels. Environmental issues, security of information. Demographics require a new approach and new thinking, in which the need to combine all aspects of legal regulation. It would be fair comment is that globalization requires a different view of the rulemaking process, in accordance with other principles of regulation of modern social processes. He has held ethical turn in international relations, which are based need to put ethical principles of human existence in the world: justice, freedom, equality, consensus pluralism. It is impossible to ignore the legal framework traditions and mentality of peoples and impose uniform legal norms.One of the fundamental problems is the right exercise control globalization, harmonization of processes and neutralization of negative consequences. The right should act as a tool of globalization while managing its processes means. The process of globalization in the legal field is developing in two directions, which represent only the transformation of law. On the one hand, it is clear the impact globalization processes on the right, resulting in convergence and convergence of our legal systems. This formed the general trends of development, which include a tendency implementation of national legal systems universally recognized norms and principles; the emergence of new areas of law, such as space, information, change of legislation in connection with the integration processes and more. On the other hand, through the law attempts to steer globalization in a certain way, for example, the introduction of domestic law standards of other countries, thus adapted to the mentality of national legal and other historical and cultural features.Conclusions of the research. So whatever aspects of life of law did not affect the process of globalization should not be destroying national legal cultures. Identity national legal cultures preserved, including the identity of law. States can borrow one of the same law, institutions, law, but the legal system as a whole. Also integrated into the legal system of foreign law acquire national identity in the process of their application. This suggests that the relative autonomy law. ; Розглянуто сутність глобалізаційних процесів, їх вплив на утворення та реалізацію права. Виявлено закономірності розвитку правової системи України, а також позитивні й негативні наслідки глобалізації для держави в цілому

The research is originated from the concern of understanding the role of architecture in a complex social phenomenon, as is the tangibility of social abstractions through institutions. lt is studied why and how this relationship between social and physical is produced in architecture, and specifically, how it is manifested in the case of the State of Chile, in a singular political social period, marked by a republican ethical sense. This investigation is born from the need to understand the role architecture has in the materialization of social abstractions through institutions, beyond stylistic or formal considerations. lt allows to demonstrate that the recognition of the main architectural works is simultaneously a recognition of a social volition which has an ethical and value-based character that is embodied in architecture, in parallel to its own spatial and technical values. Projects therefore are a social co-construction, a specific praxis that changes the behavior of the daily social life organization. History is observed in relation to a specific project and the categories of its time and its society, because they are a product of an evolution based on a social dialogue. The sociocentrism is revalidated in the study of architecture and history in general. The investigation is divided into three parts: first, an elaboration of a theoretical framework that addresses the concepts of abstraction, dialog and identity, as parts of a social significance process. This framework is orientated to explain the existence and strengthening of social abstractions that acquire identity by means of a social dialog and that operate over certain institutions to configure them as ideological state apparatuses. Second, an elaboration of the development of the Chilean state and its actions in the 1932-1973 period, in function of a group of ideas that are key to understand the institutions which establish a modern ethos, associated to social progress ideas. Third, the focus is on specifically, how the state has materialized a certain architecture, which has played a relevant social role in the configuration ofthe nation·s identity, through 8 key buildings: the Law School of the University of Chile, the Military Academy, the Votive Church of Maipu, the Bank of the State, the Medicine School of the University of Chile, the Naval Academy in Valparaíso, the Cepal Headquarters and the Ministry of Labor. These buildings were chosen from a series of public tenders, and are the most significant in the public works of the State. Finally, two emblematic cases are analyzed in depth: the Law School of the University of Chile and the Cepal Headquarters.These cases are considered paradigmatic examples of the relationship with national social abstractions: from the national developmentalist discourse to the abstraction of structural changes, which means, the ideology-utopia with which these study cases are refigured. For the Thesis is it relevant to study the state works as a whole, by its condition of being the physical support and simultaneously the testimony of an interaction between the particular abstraction of a peripheric and open mind society as the chilean one, with the generic abstractions of the dominant world culture. The study cases can be recognized as a partial synthesis situation in that interaction, and with identity value. lt is attached, in addition, a series of theoretical, historical, political annexes, that bring specific information about the study cases, that are part of the investigation, that allow timely deepening o wider frameworks to understand the presented phenomena. ; La investigación nace de la inquietud por comprender el papel de la arquitectura en un fenómeno social complejo como lo es la tangibilización de sus abstracciones sociales a través de instituciones. Se estudia por qué y cómo se produce esta relación de puente entre lo social con lo físico en la arquitectura y específicamente cómo se ha dado en el caso del Estado de Chile, en un período político social marcado por un sentido ético republicano. La utilidad de esta investigación está en incorporar una dimensión histórico social más abstracta en los antecedentes, que permitan valorar una cierta arquitectura sobre una base identitaria, más allá de consideraciones estilísticas o formales. Permite demostrar que el reconocimiento a algunas de las más importantes obras en Chile es simultáneamente un reconocimiento a una voluntad social de carácter ético y valórico que se plasmó en la arquitectura, en paralelo a sus propios valores espaciales y técnicos. Los proyectos por lo tanto, constituyen una co-construcción social, una praxis concreta que modifica conductas de la organización social de la vida diaria. Se observa la historia en función de un proyecto y de las categorías de su época y su sociedad, pues son producto de su evolución en base a un diálogo social. Se revalida el sociocentrismo en el estudio de la arquitectura y de la historia en general. Se desarrolla en tres partes: primero se elabora un marco teórico que aborda los conceptos de abstracción,dialogía e identidad, como partes de un proceso de significación social. Este marco se orienta a explicar la existencia y consolidación de abstracciones sociales que producto del diálogo socialadquieren identidad y que operan sobre ciertas instituciones para configurarlas como aparatos ideológicos del Estado. Segundo, se desarrolla el devenir del Estado de Chile y sus acciones en el período entre 1932 y 1973, en función de un grupo de ideas que son claves para comprender las instituciones que instauran un ethos moderno, asociado a ideas de progreso social. Tercero, se desarrolla específicamente cómo el Estado ha materializado una cierta arquitectura, que ha cumplido un rol social relevante en la conformación de la identidad nacional, a través de 8 proyectos claves: la Escuela de Derecho de la Universidad de Chile, la Escuela Militar, elTemplo Votivo de Maipú, el Banco del Estado, la Escuela de Medicina de la Universidad de Chile, la Escuela Naval de Valparaíso, la sede para la Cepal y el Ministerio del Trabajo. Estos edificios son los más significativos en la obra del Estado en el período y fueron convocados mediante concurso. Finalmente se resumen dos de ellos (la Escuela de Derecho de la Universidad de Chile y la sede para la Cepal) como ejemplos paradigmáticos de relación con las abstracciones sociales nacionales: desde el discurso nacional desarrollista a la abstracción de los cambios estructurales, es decir, la ideología-utopía con que se pueden refigurar estos casos de estudio. Para la tesis es relevante estudiar la obra del Estado como conjunto por su condición de ser el soporte físico y a la vez el testimonio de una interacción entre las particulares abstracciones de una sociedad periférica y abierta como la chilena con las abstracciones genéricas de la cultura mundial dominante. Los casos en estudio pueden ser reconocidos como situaciones de síntesis parcial en dicha interacción y con valor de identidad. Se adjuntan además una serie de anexos de carácter teórico, histórico, político y de información específica de los casos de estudio que forman parte de la investigación, que permiten profundizaciones puntuales o marcos más amplios para entender los fenómenos presentados. ; Postprint (published version)

The internationalisation of investments and the globalisation of the markets have created a high level of competition among manufacturing and services companies which has transcended the competition among nations. In this environment, quality information and exact timing are the sole answers for generating comparative and competitive advantages with respect to other manufacturers and providers. Inspired by these challenges, Latin American countries have searched for ways to increase and diversify their exports in order to heighten their trade balance surpluses. This, in turn, helps them to overcome their debt problems and gain access to a better quality of life. With these criteria in mind, these countries have begun to join the economic aperture and globalisation processes. United by their common ethnic heritage, they are driven by the growing need to co-ordinate national and regional decisions in order to achieve a harmonic community development. The efficiency principle imposed by the present international trade scenario requires extreme attention to detail in the administration of production costs and in placing products on the market. Because a product's success is highly sensitive to cost and distribution methods, maritime transport and its associated systems require very specific management techniques. Those management techniques must take into account that as transport is a service it gives added value to the cargo. Thus, the management model, costs involved, planning processes, and area policies are topics of vital importance for achieving these nations' development objectives. The design of specific policies, both operational as well as for development (investments), should comply with certain minimum conditions. The resulting policies should satisfy integrally and harmoniously the requirements the State establishes in its general National Development Strategy. This strategy considers factors of monetary and trade uncertainty. States must be particularly careful to interpret changes, tendencies, circumstances and difficulties which emerge in the international markets they serve, correctly. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to analyse the existing maritime transport logistic system in Chile, beginning with the history of ports and economic development. Subsequently, this study will analyse all relevant information related to logistics and the lessons learnt during the process of modernization. For analytical purposes, the study establishes an evaluation area which has been represented by a "graph" built up from nodes and links.These symbolise the complex network of port systems, hinterlands, roads, railways and coastal shipping. Likewise, the links and nodes have direction, intensity and values that the study intends to describe and evaluate. Moreover, hinterlands are not as exclusive as they were before. Consequently, most of the port systems face a very competitive market in offering services for international hinterlands/foreland. Therefore, this thesis will conclude that at least some Latin American countries establish land bridges between them. There have been some studies about the land bridges, "inter-oceanic corridors" or "integration corridors" options in South America.The Pacific Ocean Basin and the APEC countries represent a huge market for those Atlantic countries which have products to export and import from that vast area of the globe. The existence of the main industrial site of South America running from the Atlantic side of South America to the Pacific Coast, which forms an "Industrial Banana", is the foundation of a massive demand to and from both coasts. The study evaluated the logistics system through different criteria, such as logistics, physical capacities, and economic, social, environmental and political considerations. Having established these criteria, the researcher can better evaluate the relevant parameters and variables to consider in the design of the parametric model. ; La internacionalizacion de las inversiones y la globalizacion de los mercados, han creado un alto nivel de competitividad entre los proveedores de manufactura o de servicios, lo que trasciende a la competitividad entre las naciones. En este escenario, la informacion de calidad y respuesta en tiempo real son la respuesta para generar ventajas comparativas y competitivas respecto de otros productores y proveedores. Inspirados en estos cambios, los paises Latinoamericanos han buscado formas como aumentar y diversificar sus exportaciones, con el proposito de incrementar sus balanzas comerciales. Esto les ayuda a sobrellevar sus problemas de deuda, accediendo a mejor calidad de vida. Con estos criterios en mente, los paises de la Region han accedido a los procesos de apertura economica y globalizacion de los mercados. Unidos por la herencia etnica comun, ven una creciente necesidad por la coordinacion de sus decisiones nacionales y regionales, de manera de alcanzar el desarrollo comun de manera harmonica. Los principios de eficiencia impuestos por el presente esquema de comercio internacional, requiren de una atencion especial en la gestion de los costos de produccion y en la colocacion de los productos en los mercados. Considerando que el exito del producto es sensible a su costo, los sistemas de distribucion y logistica requiren de tecnicas especificas de gestion. Por ello, los modelos de gestion, costos, procesos de planificacion y politicas sectoriales son de vital importancia para alcanzar los objetivos nacionales de desarrollo. El diseno de politicas sectoriales, tanto operacionales como de desarrollo (inversiones), deberian cumplir con los minimas condiciones para lograr su objetivo pais. Las politicas resultantes debieran satisfacer de manera integral y harmonica, los requirimientos que el Estado ha establecido en su Estrategia Nacional de Desarrollo. Dicha estrategia debe incluir las incertidumbres monetarias y de commercio. Los Estados deben ser particularmente cuidadosos para interpretar correctamente los cambios, tendencias, circunstancias y dificultades que emergen de los mercados internacionales que ellos sirven. Por lo indicado anteriormente, el proposito de esta tesis es analizar el sistema de logistica maritima en Chile, comenzando con la historia de sus puertos y desarrollo economico, posteriormente el analisis de la informacion relevante a logistica y las lecciones aprendidas durante el proceso de modernizacion economica. Con propositos analiticos, el estudio determino una zona fisica de evaluacion que esta representada por la "teoria de grafos". Esta simboliza la compleja red de puertos, hinterlands, caminos, ferrovias y transporte maritimo costero. Los nodos y sus enlaces tienen direccion, intensidad y valores que el estudio pretende evaluar y dimensionar. Mas aun, en la actualidad el hinterland de los puertos ha dejado de ser exclusivo, consecuentemente, los sistemas portuarios enfrentan una agresiva competencia para ofertar servicios a sus hinterland/foreland, por lo cual algunos paises latinoamericanos construyeron "puentes terrestres" entre ellos, el estudio indica algunas opciones de "puentes terrestres", "corredores inter-oceanicos" o "corredores de integracion" identificados en America del Sur. La cuenca del Pacifico y los paises APEC representan un mercado enorme para los paises de la costa Atlantica. La existencia de la principal area industrial de Sudamerica se configura entre el Atlantico y Pacifico, forma lo que el autor denomina como la "Banana Industrial", lo que origina una enorme demanda en los dos sentidos. El estudio evalua los sistemas desde diferentes criterios, tales como: sus capacidades fisicas y logisticas, sus consideraciones economicas, politicas, sociales, y medio ambientales. Una vez establesidos los criterios, el investigador puede identificar y evaluar de mejor forma los parametros y variables a considerar en el diseno del "modelo parametrico". ; Postprint (published version)

Introduction. Francis Fukuyama in his famous book "The End of History and the Last Man" assumes that human history should be considered as the battle of ideologies that reaches its goal in the universalization of Western liberal democracy. Author's ideas have gained many supporters. At the same time, they were subjected to severe criticism that reflected the important trends of political life and ideological preferences. Leaving aside the criticism based on geopolitical and civilizational confrontation and confusion which confronts Fukuyama's theory, it should be stated that anthropological aspect of Fukuyama's theory has vastly evaded philosophical comprehension. Purpose. This article attempts to test Fukuyama's theory through the lens of philosophical anthropology and analyze human desire for recognition in the context of Fukuyama's World History. Methodology. The analysis is focused on human desire for recognition as a significant dimension of human nature. The author has used hermeneutical methodology and anthropological integrative approach. Theoretical basis and results. Fukuyama is not satisfied by merely economic interpretation of history emphasizing that human is not simply an economic animal. Economic development fails to explain why people advocate the principles of liberal democracy. The author goes back to Hegel's non-materialistic view of history based on the struggle for recognition. According to Fukuyama, this deeply rooted human desire for recognition is the great motor of history and cause of tyranny, conflicts, and wars. But at the same time, it also acts as a psychological foundation of many virtues – the spirit of citizenship, courage, and justice. Throughout history, this desire for recognition was not satisfied. Only modern liberal democracy provides universal recognition of all humans ensuring and protecting their rights. Originality. Fukuyama's concept is important and interesting because it draws attention to the sphere of human values, which essentially influences the basis of personality structure. Unlike traditional liberalism, which focuses on materialism and justice, Fukuyama considers the struggle for recognition, the spiritual search for human dignity and equality (or superiority) the major component of social transformation. Human acts as a central point of political, cultural, economical space: he/she is the creator and the creation. Conclusions. Over time, the concept of Fukuyama has undergone significant changes. Modern civilization has been facing with an acute problem of growing inequality, serious financial crisis, political havoc and military conflicts, migrants and refugees problem. But so far the idea of liberal democracy has no real competitors. ; Введение. Фрэнсис Фукуяма в своей знаменитой книге «Конец истории и последний человек» отмечает, что человеческая история должна рассматриваться с точки зрения битвы идеологий, достигшей своей цели в универсализации западной либеральной демократии. Новая теория приобрела много сторонников, которые восторженно встретили ее появление. Одновременно она была подвергнута острой критике, в которой отразились важные тенденции мировой политической жизни, а также идеологические пристрастия авторов. Оставив в стороне критику, основанную на геополитическом и цивилизационном противостоянии, необходимо отметить, что антропологическая составляющая теории Фукуямы практически исчезла из поля зрения критиков. Цель. В статье предпринята попытка взглянуть на теорию Фукуямы сквозь призму философской антропологии и подвергнуть анализу человеческое стремление к признанию в контексте мировой истории Фукуямы. Методология. Автор использовал философскую герменевтику и антропологический интегративный подход. Основная часть. Фукуяма не удовлетворяется лишь экономической трактовкой истории, подчеркивая, что человек – это не просто экономическое животное. Экономическое развитие не в состоянии объяснить, почему люди становятся сторонниками принципа народного суверенитета и гарантий основных прав под управлением закона. Автор обращается к гегелевскому нематериалистическому взгляду на историю, основанному на борьбе за признание. Именно стремление к признанию со стороны других людей Фукуяма рассматривает в качестве двигателя истории и причины тирании, конфликтов и войн. Но вместе с тем оно же выступает как психологический фундамент многих добродетелей – духа гражданственности, храбрости и справедливости. На протяжении почти всей истории человечества стремление к признанию не реализовывалось. По мнению Фукуямы, только современная либеральная демократия дает универсальное признание всем людям, гарантируя им права и защищая эти права. Новизна. Концепция Фукуямы важна и интересна тем, что привлекает внимание к ценностной сфере человека, существенно влияющей на формирование структуры личности. В отличие от традиционного либерализма, ставящего во главу угла материализм и справедливость, американский исследователь основным компонентом социальных трансформаций считает борьбу за признание, духовный поиск человеческого достоинства и равенства/преимущества. Именно человек выступает как центральная точка цивилизационного пространства, одновременно его творец и творение. Выводы. С течением времени концепция Фукуямы претерпела существенные изменения. Современная цивилизация столкнулась с острой проблемой растущего неравенства, серьезным финансовым кризисом, политическим хаосом и острыми военными конфликтами, проблемой мигрантов и беженцев. Однако до сих пор в сфере идей либеральная демократия не имеет реальных конкурентов. ; Вступ. Френсіс Фукуяма у своїй славетній книзі «Кінець історії та остання людина» наголошує на тому, що людська історія повинна розглядатися з точки зору битви ідеологій, що досягла своєї мети в універсалізації західної ліберальної демократії. Нова теорія здобула багато прихильників, які захоплено зустріли її появу. Одночасно вона була піддана гострій критиці, в якій відбилися важливі тенденції політичного життя, а також ідеологічні пристрасті авторів. Залишивши осторонь критику, засновану на геополітичному і цивілізаційному протистоянні, необхідно зазначити, що антропологічна складова теорії Фукуями практично зникла з поля зору критиків. Мета. У статті здійснено спробу дослідити теорію Фукуями крізь призму філософської антропології та піддати аналізу людське прагнення до визнання у контексті Світової Історії Фукуями. Методологія. Автор використовував філософську герменевтику та антропологічний інтегративний підхід. Основна частина. Фукуяма не задовольняється лише економічним трактуванням історії, підкреслюючи, що людина не є просто економічною твариною. Економічний розвиток неспроможний пояснити, чому люди стають прихильниками принципу народного суверенітету і гарантій основних прав під управлінням закону. Автор повертається до гегелівського нематеріалістичного погляду на історію, заснованого на боротьбі за визнання. Саме прагнення до визнання з боку інших людей Фукуяма розглядає в якості двигуна історії і причини тиранії, конфліктів і війн. Але разом з тим воно ж постає як психологічний фундамент багатьох чеснот – духу громадянськості, хоробрості і справедливості. Протягом майже всієї історії людства прагнення до визнання не реалізовувалося. На думку Фукуями, лише сучасна ліберальна демократія дає універсальне визнання всім людям, гарантуючи їм права і захищаючи ці права. Новизна. Концепція Фукуями важлива і цікава тим, що привертає увагу до ціннісної сфери людини, яка суттєво впливає на формування структури особистості. На відміну від традиційного лібералізму, що ставив на чільне місце матеріалізм і справедливість, американський дослідник основним компонентом соціальних трансформацій вважає боротьбу за визнання, духовний пошук людської гідності та рівності/переваги. Саме людина виступає як центральна точка цивілізаційного простору, одночасно його творець і творіння. Висновки. З плином часу концепція Фукуями зазнала суттєвих змін. Сучасна цивілізація зіткнулася з гострою проблемою зростаючої нерівності, серйозною фінансовою кризою, політичним хаосом і гострими військовими конфліктами, проблемою мігрантів та біженців. Однак і досі в сфері ідей ліберальна демократія не має реальних конкурентів.

In most climate studies, climate change is approached by focusing on the evolution between a fixed current baseline and a future period, emphasizing stronger warming as we move further over the 21st century. Under climate conditions that are continuously evolving, human and natural systems might have to constantly adapt to a changing climate. This thesis proposes an alternative approach to climate projections. Here, I consider and analyze indicators of the pace of changes relative to temperature, precipitation and vegetation in order to be relevant for both urban and rural populations. An ensemble of CMIP5 simulations from 18 climate models is selected. The pace is represented by differences between two subsequent 20-year periods. Considering the pace of change would be beneficial for climate impacts and adaptation analyses.The models predict that the warming rate strongly increases without any mitigation policies (RCP8.5 scenario). It is twice as high by the end of the century compared to the current period, and even three times higher in some regions. Significant shifts in temperature distributions between two subsequent 20-year periods are projected to involve almost half of all land surfaces and most tropical areas by 2060 onwards (i.e. at least four times as many regions than currently). In these regions, an extremely warm year with a return period of about 50 years would become quite common only 20 years later. The fraction of the world population exposed to such shifts might reach about 60% (6 billion people, i.e. seven times more than currently). Low mitigation measures (RCP6.0) allow the warming rate to be kept at current values, and reduce the fraction of the world population exposed to significant shifts of temperature distributions by one third.Under RCP8.5, rainfall moistening and drying rates both increase by 30-40% above current levels. As we move further over the century, their patterns become geographically stationary and the trends become persistent. The stabilization of the geographical rate patterns that occurs despite the acceleration of global warming can be physically explained: it results from the increasing contribution of thermodynamic processes compared to dynamic processes in the control of precipitation change. The combination of intensification and increasing persistence of precipitation rate patterns may affect the way human societies and ecosystems adapt to climate change, especially in the Mediterranean basin, Central America, South Asia and the Arctic. Such an evolution in precipitation has already become noticeable over the last few decades, but it could be reversed if strong mitigation policies were quickly implemented (RCP2.6).Changes in vegetation could be visual landmarks of climate change. In mid- and high-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, the phenology of grass and trees follows the warming rate. Without any mitigation policies, the start of spring occurs earlier, and its duration is extended faster as we move over the century. The vegetation cover becomes denser, regardless of the selected pathway, in proportion to the temperature rise. The seasonal cycle of mid-latitude crops also depends on the temperature, and the seasonal cycle of tropical crops directly follows the features of the wet season. In all other latitudes, no robust evolution of the seasonal cycle is projected. The pace of change of vegetation cover since 1880 already doubled before 1950, mainly due to a strong change in land use. This pace is then projected to be stable over the entire 21st century if the vegetation dynamically interacts with the climate system in the models. This corresponds to a reduction of land-use change and to the acceleration of changes of vegetation cover under climate change. ; Dans la plupart des études, on s'intéresse au changement climatique futur en analysant l'évolution du climat entre une référence actuelle fixée et une période future. Le réchauffement est de plus en plus fort au fil du 21ème siècle. Dans un contexte où les conditions climatiques sont toujours en train d'évoluer, les écosystèmes doivent continuellement s'adapter à des modifications diverses du climat. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, je propose d'analyser les projections climatiques sous un angle alternatif. Afin d'être caractéristique des représentations des populations urbaines et rurales, je définis et analyse des indicateurs liés à la vitesse des changements de température, de précipitations et de végétation. Un ensemble de simulations CMIP5 de 18 modèles de climat est sélectionné. La vitesse est représentée par des différences entre deux périodes successives de 20 ans. Cette notion de vitesse pourrait offrir de nouveaux outils pour interagir avec les communautés scientifiques travaillant sur les impacts et l'adaptation.Sans politiques d'atténuation du changement (scénario RCP8.5), le réchauffement global sera au moins deux fois plus rapide à la fin du siècle qu'actuellement, et même trois fois dans certaines régions. Près de la moitié des surfaces continentales, principalement les zones tropicales, seront touchées par des décalages significatifs de la distribution de la température entre deux périodes de 20 ans d'ici à 2060, i.e. au moins 4 fois plus qu'actuellement. Dans ces régions, des années extrêmement chaudes ayant un temps de retour de 50 ans deviendront habituelles en l'espace de 20 ans seulement. La fraction de la population mondiale étant exposée à ces changements pourrait atteindre environ 60% (i.e. 6 milliards de personnes et 7 fois plus qu'actuellement). Il suffit de relativement légères mesures d'atténuation (RCP6.0) pour que la vitesse du réchauffement ne dépasse pas les valeurs actuelles et que 3 fois moins de personnes soient exposées à des décalages significatifs de température.Les vitesses d'humidification et d'assèchement en termes de précipitations augmenteront de 30 à 40%. Leur répartition géographique deviendra plus stable spatialement et les tendances tendront à persister sur les mêmes régions, et ce malgré l'accélération du réchauffement global. Cette stabilisation résulte de la contribution grandissante des processus thermodynamiques par rapport à ceux contrôlés par la circulation générale. La combinaison de l'accélération des tendances et de leur persistance peut avoir un impact sur l'adaptation des sociétés et des écosystèmes, particulièrement sur le bassin méditerranéen, en Amérique centrale, en Inde et dans les régions arctiques. Une telle évolution est déjà visible actuellement, mais pourrait disparaître avec de fortes mesures d'atténuation (RCP2.6).Les changements de la végétation peuvent être des repères visuels du changement climatique. Dans les moyennes et hautes latitudes Nord, le cycle saisonnier des arbres et des herbacées suit la vitesse du réchauffement. Sans politiques d'atténuation, le début de la saison foliaire avance et sa durée augmente plus rapidement au fil du siècle. La couverture de la végétation se densifie quelque soit le scénario proportionnellement à l'augmentation de la température. Le cycle saisonnier des cultures des moyennes latitudes dépend directement de la température et celui des cultures tropicales de l'évolution des caractéristiques de la saison des pluies. Sous les autres latitudes, aucune évolution robuste du cycle saisonnier n'est projetée. La vitesse des changements de répartition de la végétation a déjà doublé entre 1880 et 1950 correspondant à un changement marqué de l'utilisation des sols. Elle est stable tout au long du siècle si la végétation interagit dynamiquement avec le climat dans les modèles, traduisant un ralentissement du changement de l'utilisation des sols et l'accélération des changements de végétation sous l'effet du changement climatique.

INTRODUCCION: las dosis de referencia (DRLs) son los niveles de dosis administradas a los pacientes en exposiciones de radiodiagnóstico médico que no deben sobrepasarse y pueden ser utilizados como indicadores en los procesos de optimización radiológica. A raíz de las publicaciones iniciales para reducir las dosis de radiación en los EE.UU. En odontología, se incluyen estas recomendaciones en las directrices europeas sobre protección radiológica en radiología dental; sin embargo, hemos encontrado solamente algunas referencias aisladas sobre dicho tema. No hemos encontrado estudios previos realizados de forma continuada durante varios años en ningún país que describan la evolución de las DRLs como se pretende, una guía para la optimización de la protección radiológica como se recoge en las recomendaciones internacionales. Este estudio describe la evolución de las DRL y las dosis medias administradas a pacientes de radiología intraoral durante un período de dieciocho años (1997-2014) en España. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: se estudian 34.143 informes oficiales de control de calidad emitidos durante un período de 18 años (1997-2014) de instalaciones radiológicas de radiodiagnóstico intraoral y están distribuidas en 16 comunidades autónomas. Las variables analizadas son las descritas en el Real Decreto 2071/1995 modificado posteriormente por el Decreto 1976/1999 y son: características físicas de los equipos de rayos X, las anomalías encontradas en los equipos y procesamiento de la película, tiempos de exposición, dosis de radiación administradas para cada exploración, teniendo en cuenta las prácticas de trabajo habituales de cada clínica. La dosis media de radiación (10 exposiciones, en mGy, de acuerdo con la legislación española) para obtener una imagen radiográfica del segundo molar superior bajo las condiciones normales de trabajo en cada instalación, se determinó utilizando un detector UNFORS XI (Billdal, Suecia) o PMX III (RTI Electronics, Mölndal, Suecia) Se ha aplicado un factor de retrodispersión de 1,1 a los valores obtenidos siguiendo la normativa española El grado de dependencia y correlación entre variables se evaluó mediante un Análisis de Varianza complementado por una comparación de medias mediante la diferencia mínima significativa (p <0,05). Las medias cuantitativas se compararon mediante análisis de regresión y correlación lineales. RESULTADOS: desde 1997, las películas radiográficas han sido sustituidas progresivamente por sistemas digitales en España a una tasa anual del 3,1%. En 2007, se determinó que el 50% de las instalaciones dentales utiliza sistemas digitales de imágen. Sin embargo, en los últimos años (2007-2014) la tasa de crecimiento para los sistemas digitales ha sido sólo del 1,2% anual. Hemos determinado una DRL de 2,8 mGy en 2014, lo que representa una disminución de 41,7% en comparación con la dosis que establecimos en 2002 (4,8 mGy). Las dosis medias de radiación se ha reducido en un 54,5% desde el inicio del estudio; nuestro estudio muestra que el 99,4% de las instalaciones dentales cumple con las dosis recomendadas por la Unión Europea. Además, hemos determinado una dosis media de 1,3 mGy en 2014, lo que representa un descenso del 55,2% en comparación con la dosis que previamente describíamos en 2002 (2,9 mGy), aunque en los últimos tres años se ha mantenido estabilizada en 1,3 mGy. Durante este período de tres años, la dosis media no ha sido reducida y las DRLs sólo han disminuido en un 6,3%. En conclusión, el progreso en DRLs en los últimos años es el de una reducción gradual, que pueda ser interpretada como un aumento en la optimización de las técnicas de radiología intraorales en España, sin embargo, fundamentalmente es debido a la sustitución de los sistemas de imágenes convencionales a los modernos sistemas digitales. INTRODUCTION: Diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) are patient dose reference levels for diagnostic medical exposures that can be used as research indicators as part of optimization processes. In dentistry, recommendations are included in the European guidelines on radiation protection in dental radiology. No studies performed continuously over several years in any country which describe the evolution of DRLs as a guide to optimising radiological protection as mentioned in all international recommendations have been found. The present study describes the current progress of DRLs and mean doses administered to intraoral radiology patients monitored over a period of eighteen years (1997--2014) in Spain. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 34,143 official reports from 1997 to 2014 on radiological standards of private dental surgeries were examined. The variables analysed are those described in Royal Decree 2071/1995 modified later by Decree 1976/1999 as described in previous publications, briefly: physical characteristics of the X-ray units, anomalies found in the equipment and film processing procedure, exposure times and radiation doses administered for each dental surgery, taking into account the regular working practices of each clinic. The installations covered in the reports encompass 16 Spanish autonomous regions. The actual mean radiation dose (10 exposures, in mGy, according to Spanish legislation for obtaining a radiographic image of the upper second molar under normal working conditions in each installation was determined using a UNFORS XI (Billdal, Sweden) or PMX III (RTI Electronics, Mölndal, Sweden) detector. A back-scattering factor of 1.1 was applied to the values obtained following the Spanish norm. The degree of dependence and correlation between variables was assessed by an Analysis of Variance complemented by a comparison of means using the minimum significant difference method (p<0.05). Quantitative means were compared by regression and linear correlation analysis. RESULTS Since 1997, radiographic films have been replaced by digital systems in Spain at an annual rate of 3.1%. In 2007, we determined that 50% of dental services utilized digital imaging systems while the other 50% used radiographic film. However, in recent years (2007-2014) the rate of growth for digital systems has been 1.2% only. We set a DRL of 2.8 mGy in 2014, which represents a 41.7 % decrease compared with the dose we set in 2002 (4.8 mGy). Over this same period, the mean dose fell by 54.5%. The DRL recommended by the European Union in 2004 for intraoral radiology was 4 mGy, and our study shows that 99.4% of the installations used a dose below this. Furthermore, we set a mean dose of 1.3 mGy in 2014, which represents a decrease of 55.2% compared with the dose we set in 2002 (2.9 mGy), although over the last three years it has remained at 1.3 mGy. Over this three year period, the mean dose has undergone no reduction whatsoever and DRLs have only decreased by 6.3%. In conclusion, the progress in DRLs over recent years is that of a gradual reduction, which may be interpreted as an increase in the optimization of intraoral radiology techniques in Spain, yet fundamentally is due to the substitution of conventional imaging systems for modern digitals ones.

The internationalisation of investments and the globalisation of the markets have created a high level of competition among manufacturing and services companies which has transcended the competition among nations. In this environment, quality information and exact timing are the sole answers for generating comparative and competitive advantages with respect to other manufacturers and providers. Inspired by these challenges, Latin American countries have searched for ways to increase and diversify their exports in order to heighten their trade balance surpluses. This, in turn, helps them to overcome their debt problems and gain access to a better quality of life. With these criteria in mind, these countries have begun to join the economic aperture and globalisation processes. United by their common ethnic heritage, they are driven by the growing need to co-ordinate national and regional decisions in order to achieve a harmonic community development. The efficiency principle imposed by the present international trade scenario requires extreme attention to detail in the administration of production costs and in placing products on the market. Because a product's success is highly sensitive to cost and distribution methods, maritime transport and its associated systems require very specific management techniques. Those management techniques must take into account that as transport is a service it gives added value to the cargo. Thus, the management model, costs involved, planning processes, and area policies are topics of vital importance for achieving these nations' development objectives. The design of specific policies, both operational as well as for development (investments), should comply with certain minimum conditions. The resulting policies should satisfy integrally and harmoniously the requirements the State establishes in its general National Development Strategy. This strategy considers factors of monetary and trade uncertainty. States must be particularly careful to interpret changes, tendencies, circumstances and difficulties which emerge in the international markets they serve, correctly. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to analyse the existing maritime transport logistic system in Chile, beginning with the history of ports and economic development. Subsequently, this study will analyse all relevant information related to logistics and the lessons learnt during the process of modernization. For analytical purposes, the study establishes an evaluation area which has been represented by a "graph" built up from nodes and links.These symbolise the complex network of port systems, hinterlands, roads, railways and coastal shipping. Likewise, the links and nodes have direction, intensity and values that the study intends to describe and evaluate. Moreover, hinterlands are not as exclusive as they were before. Consequently, most of the port systems face a very competitive market in offering services for international hinterlands/foreland. Therefore, this thesis will conclude that at least some Latin American countries establish land bridges between them. There have been some studies about the land bridges, "inter-oceanic corridors" or "integration corridors" options in South America.The Pacific Ocean Basin and the APEC countries represent a huge market for those Atlantic countries which have products to export and import from that vast area of the globe. The existence of the main industrial site of South America running from the Atlantic side of South America to the Pacific Coast, which forms an "Industrial Banana", is the foundation of a massive demand to and from both coasts. The study evaluated the logistics system through different criteria, such as logistics, physical capacities, and economic, social, environmental and political considerations. Having established these criteria, the researcher can better evaluate the relevant parameters and variables to consider in the design of the parametric model. ; La internacionalizacion de las inversiones y la globalizacion de los mercados, han creado un alto nivel de competitividad entre los proveedores de manufactura o de servicios, lo que trasciende a la competitividad entre las naciones. En este escenario, la informacion de calidad y respuesta en tiempo real son la respuesta para generar ventajas comparativas y competitivas respecto de otros productores y proveedores. Inspirados en estos cambios, los paises Latinoamericanos han buscado formas como aumentar y diversificar sus exportaciones, con el proposito de incrementar sus balanzas comerciales. Esto les ayuda a sobrellevar sus problemas de deuda, accediendo a mejor calidad de vida. Con estos criterios en mente, los paises de la Region han accedido a los procesos de apertura economica y globalizacion de los mercados. Unidos por la herencia etnica comun, ven una creciente necesidad por la coordinacion de sus decisiones nacionales y regionales, de manera de alcanzar el desarrollo comun de manera harmonica. Los principios de eficiencia impuestos por el presente esquema de comercio internacional, requiren de una atencion especial en la gestion de los costos de produccion y en la colocacion de los productos en los mercados. Considerando que el exito del producto es sensible a su costo, los sistemas de distribucion y logistica requiren de tecnicas especificas de gestion. Por ello, los modelos de gestion, costos, procesos de planificacion y politicas sectoriales son de vital importancia para alcanzar los objetivos nacionales de desarrollo. El diseno de politicas sectoriales, tanto operacionales como de desarrollo (inversiones), deberian cumplir con los minimas condiciones para lograr su objetivo pais. Las politicas resultantes debieran satisfacer de manera integral y harmonica, los requirimientos que el Estado ha establecido en su Estrategia Nacional de Desarrollo. Dicha estrategia debe incluir las incertidumbres monetarias y de commercio. Los Estados deben ser particularmente cuidadosos para interpretar correctamente los cambios, tendencias, circunstancias y dificultades que emergen de los mercados internacionales que ellos sirven. Por lo indicado anteriormente, el proposito de esta tesis es analizar el sistema de logistica maritima en Chile, comenzando con la historia de sus puertos y desarrollo economico, posteriormente el analisis de la informacion relevante a logistica y las lecciones aprendidas durante el proceso de modernizacion economica. Con propositos analiticos, el estudio determino una zona fisica de evaluacion que esta representada por la "teoria de grafos". Esta simboliza la compleja red de puertos, hinterlands, caminos, ferrovias y transporte maritimo costero. Los nodos y sus enlaces tienen direccion, intensidad y valores que el estudio pretende evaluar y dimensionar. Mas aun, en la actualidad el hinterland de los puertos ha dejado de ser exclusivo, consecuentemente, los sistemas portuarios enfrentan una agresiva competencia para ofertar servicios a sus hinterland/foreland, por lo cual algunos paises latinoamericanos construyeron "puentes terrestres" entre ellos, el estudio indica algunas opciones de "puentes terrestres", "corredores inter-oceanicos" o "corredores de integracion" identificados en America del Sur. La cuenca del Pacifico y los paises APEC representan un mercado enorme para los paises de la costa Atlantica. La existencia de la principal area industrial de Sudamerica se configura entre el Atlantico y Pacifico, forma lo que el autor denomina como la "Banana Industrial", lo que origina una enorme demanda en los dos sentidos. El estudio evalua los sistemas desde diferentes criterios, tales como: sus capacidades fisicas y logisticas, sus consideraciones economicas, politicas, sociales, y medio ambientales. Una vez establesidos los criterios, el investigador puede identificar y evaluar de mejor forma los parametros y variables a considerar en el diseno del "modelo parametrico". ; Postprint (published version)