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This series contains documents that pertain to Varick's position as deputy muster master general and his service on courts-martial trials. Also included are various military orders and memoranda and several inventories that detail Captain Varick's clothing and possessions during his military service. ; Richard Varick, born in New Jersey in 1753, served as Captain, deputy muster-master-general, and secretary to George Washington during the Revolutionary war. He was appointed one of the first mayors of New York and served from 1789-1801. He died in 1831.

This series contains a multitude of bills, receipts, and accounts, the majority dating from and relating to Varick's time in military service during the Revolutionary War. In addition there are a number of bills and receipts from New York tradesmen for property repairs. ; Richard Varick, born in New Jersey in 1753, served as Captain, deputy muster-master-general, and secretary to George Washington during the Revolutionary war. He was appointed one of the first mayors of New York and served from 1789-1801. He died in 1831.

Die hier vorliegende Daten-Kompilation beschäftigt sich mit der deutschen Überseewanderung zwischen 1683 und 1945. Im Zentrum der Datenübersicht stehen die Tabellen, welche die Zeit ab 1820 umfassen, da zuvor die deutsche Wanderung vorwiegend in den Osten ging, d.h. auf den Balkan und in das Russische Reich. Vornehmlich wurden in den einschlägigen wissenschaftlichen Publikationen Statistiken zur Auswanderung ausgewertet; zusätzlich wurden noch diejenigen Einwanderungsstatistiken des jeweiligen Landes berücksichtigt, welche die deutsche Einwanderung behandeln.

Die Datenkompilation ist in sechs Teilbereiche unterteilt, die nach Zeitabschnitten gegliedert sind.
Teilbereich A umfasst die Langen Reihen, basierend auf verschiedenen Quellen u.a. Marschalck und Willcox;
Teilbereich B die Zeit von 1683 und 1820, basierend auf Wokeck und Grabbe;
Teilbereich C die Zeit von 1820 bis 1870, hauptsächlich basierend auf Mönckmeier, Willcox und Burgdörfer;
Teilbereich D die Zeit von 1871 bis 1919, hauptsächlich basierend auf Mönckmeier, Willcox und Burgdörfer;
Teilbereich E die Zeit von 1919 bis 1945, hauptsächlich basierend auf Bickelmann;
Teilbereich F die internationalen Tabellen, basierend auf verschiedenen Quellen u.a. Willcox und Bickelmann.

Themen:

Tabellen in der ZA-Online-Datenbank HISTAT
A: Lange Reihen
A.01 Auswanderung aus Deutschland nach Zielgebieten (1820-1939)
A.02 Deutsche Auswanderung (1820-1914)
A.03 Gesamteinwanderung und deutsche Einwanderung in verschiedene Länder (1820-1924)
A.04 Die Bestimmungsländer der deutschen Auswanderer (1847-1910)
A.05 Deutsche Einwanderung nach verschiedenen Ländern an deren Gesamteinwanderung nach Jahresintervallen (1821-1924)
A.06 Gesamteinwanderung und deutsche Einwanderung nach den USA (1820-1939)
A.07 Deutsche und gesamte Einwanderung und Rückwanderung nach Argentinien, Uruguay und Mexiko (1857-1924)
A.08 Deutsche Auswanderung nach Einschiffungshäfen (1832-1939)
A.09 Deutschbürtiger Einwohneranteil ausgewählter Städte in den USA (1850-1940)

B: Vor 1820
B.01 Geschätzte deutsche Einwanderung und ankommende Schiffe nach Nordamerika nach Häfen (1683-1775)
B.02 Einwanderung in die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika nach Herkunft der Einwanderer (1783-1820)
B.03 Wachstum der deutschstämmigen Bevölkerung in den dreizehn Kolonien/ den USA (1683-1790)

C: 1820-1871
C.01 Berichtigung der Zahl der deutschen Auswanderer (1820-1849)
C.02 Direkte und indirekte Auswanderung über Bremen und Hamburg (1832-1870)
C.03 Deutsche Auswanderer über Hamburg nach Geschlecht (1855-1870)
C.04 Deutsche Auswanderer über Hamburg nach Alter (1855-1870)
C.05 Herkunftsländer der deutschen Auswanderer über Hamburg und Bremen (1851-1870)
C.06 Deutsche und ausländische Auswanderung über die deutschen Häfen Bremen und Hamburg (1832-1870)
C.07 Auswanderung aus Preußen nach Provinzen (1844-1871)
C.08 Auswanderer aus Preußen nach Beruf (1862-1880)
C.09 Anteil der Auswanderung nach Texas an der deutschen Gesamtauswanderung (1842-1860)
C.10 Im Zollbezirk Galveston, TX ankommende überseeische Einwanderer (1846-1900)

D: 1871-1919
D1:Allgemein
D1.01 Deutsche Auswanderung nach ausgewählten Ländern nach der deutschen Auswanderungs- und Einwanderungsstatistik der jeweiligen Länder (1871-1928)
D1.02 Deutsche Auswanderung nach Zielland in den deutschen Auswandererstatistiken und den Einwandererstatistiken des jeweiligen Ziellandes (1871-1928)
D2: Speziell – Alter, Geschlecht, Beruf
D2.01 Deutsche Auswanderer nach Geschlecht und Alter (1871-1924)
D2.02 Alter und Geschlecht der deutschen Auswanderer über deutsche und fremde Häfen (1872-1910)
D2.03 Altersaufbau der Auswanderung im Verhältnis zur Bevölkerung (Auswanderungsziffer) nach Geschlecht (1885-1896)

D2.04 Deutsche Auswanderer nach Geschlecht und Beruf (1899-1924)
D2.05 Berufe und Berufsstellung der deutschen Auswanderer (1899-1910)
D2.06 Berufe der deutschen Auswanderer über die Häfen Hamburg, Bremen und Stettin (1871-1898)
D2.07 Index, Anteil und Gesamtzahl der Berufe der deutschen Auswanderer über Hamburg (1871-1898)
D2.08 Selbsttätige und Angehörige in den Berufen der deutschen Auswanderer über Hamburg (1871-1886)
D2.09 Selbstständige und unselbstständige deutsche Auswanderer nach Berufsgruppen (1899-1910)
D2.10 Familien- und Einzelauswanderung nach Geschlecht und Familienstand (1879-1910)
D3: Häfen – Auswanderer über deutsche Häfen und nach Einschiffungshafen
D3.01 Die deutsche Auswanderung nach Einschiffungshäfen (1871-1924)
D3.02 Auswandernde fremde Staatsbürger über deutsche Häfen nach Einschiffungshafen (1871-1924)
D3.03 Auswandernde fremde Staatsbürger über deutsche Häfen nach Herkunftsländern (1871-1924)
D3.04 Auswanderung fremder Staatsbürger über deutsche Häfen nach Zielgebieten (1871-1924)
D4: Region – Herkunfts- und Zielregion der Auswanderer
D4.01 Die Beteiligung der einzelnen Länder und Landesteile an der deutschen überseeischen Auswanderung (1871-1910)
D4.02 Durchschnittliche jährliche Zahl der überseeischen Auswanderer auf je 100000 der mittleren Bevölkerung (Auswandererziffer) nach Ländern und Landesteilen im Deutschen Reich (1871-1928)
D4.03Die Beteiligung der einzelnen Länder und Landesteile an der deutschen überseeischen Auswanderung im Vergleich zur Einwohnerzahl (Auswanderungsziffer) (1887-1910)
D4.04 Beteiligung der Gebietsgruppen an der deutschen Auswanderung in Prozent (1871-1910)
D5: Sonstige
D5.01 Einwanderung aus Deutschland nach den USA nach Sprachen und Volkszugehörigkeit (1899-1924)
D5.02 Einwanderung Deutschstämmiger und Deutschsprachiger in die USA nach Herkunft (1899-1924)
D5.03 Deutsche, deutschstämmige und deutschsprachige Einwanderer in die USA nach Berufen (1899-1924)

E: 1919-1945
E.01 Vergleich zwischen deutscher Auswanderungsstatistik und ausländischer Einwanderungsstatistik (1919-1932)
E.02 Gliederung der deutschen Auswanderer über Hamburg nach Geschlecht und Zielland (1926-1932)
E.03 Gliederung der Auswanderer nach Geschlecht in Prozent (1913-1938)
E.04 Gliederung der Auswanderer nach Alter in Prozent (1913-1938)
E.05 Ledige und verheiratete Auswanderer in Prozent (1913-1934)
E.06 Gliederung der Auswanderer nach Berufsgruppen in Prozent (1913-1935)
E.07 Deutsche Auswanderer über deutsche und ausländische Häfen sowie fremde Auswanderer über deutsche Häfen (1905-1939)
E.08 Deutsche und ausländische Auswanderer über Hamburg und Bremen (1913-1936)
E.09 Deutsche Überseewanderung nach Herkunftsgebieten im Verhältnis zum Reichsdurchschnitt (1911-1934)
E.10 Anteile bei einzelnen Landesteilen in Prozent bei der Auswanderung nach Argentinien (1922-1932)
E.11 Anteile bei einzelnen Landesteilen in Prozent bei der Auswanderung nach Brasilien (1922-1932)
E.12 Anteile bei einzelnen Landesteilen in Prozent bei der Auswanderung nach Kanada (1924-1932)
E.13 Anteile bei einzelnen Landesteilen in Prozent bei der Auswanderung in die USA (1922-1932)
E.14 Prozentualer Anteil der Auswanderung in einzelne Zielländer im Verhältnis zur Gesamtauswanderung nach der deutschen Auswanderungsstatistik (1920-1939)
E.15 Arbeitslosigkeit unter Gewerkschaftsmitgliedern in Prozent, deutsche Überseeauswanderung, deutsche Auswanderung über Hamburg nach Bestimmungsländern jeweils nach Monaten (1919-1932)
E.16 Gesamte und deutsche Einwanderung nach Kanada und den USA (1928-1945)

F: International
F.01 Gesamtauswanderung in die Überseeländer (Übersee-Einwanderung) (1920-1933)
F.02 Menschen, die eine legale dauerhafte Aufenthaltserlaubnis für die USA erhalten haben, nach Land und Region des letzten permanenten Aufenthaltes, in Tausend, 10-Jahres-Werte (1820-1939)
F.03 Einwanderung in die USA (1914-1918)
F.04 Einwanderer in die USA nach Berufen (1820-1924)
F.05 Einwanderung nach Brasilien (1930-1936)
F.06 Einwanderung nach Kanada nach Herkunft (1907-1915)
F.07 Italienische Auswanderung während des Ersten Weltkriegs nach Zielländern (1914-1917)

Book Reviewed in this article:M. M. Postan. Essays on Medieval Agriculture and General Problems of the Medieval Economy.M. M. Postan. Medieval Trade and Finance.Richard W. Kaeuper. Bankers to the Crown: The Riccardi of Lucca and Edward I.Alan Crossley (Ed.). A Victoria History of the County of Oxford, vol. X. Banbury Hundred.David Underdown. Somerset in the Civil War and Interregnum.Margaret Roake and John Whyman (Eds.). Essays in Kentish History.Alan Everitt (Ed.). Perspectives in English Urban History.David Baker (Ed.). The Inhabitants of Cardington in 1782.J. A. Robey and L. Porter. The Copper and Lead Mines of Ecton Hill, Staffordshire.John Foster. Class Struggle and the Industrial Revolution: Early Industrial Capitalism in Three English Towns.Philip J. Riden. The Butterley Company, 1790–1830: A Derbyshire Ironworks in the Industrial Revolution.Patricia Hollis (Ed.). Class and Conflict in Nineteenth‐Century England, 1815–1850.Douglas C. North and Robert Paul Thomas. The Rise of the Western World: A New Economic History.D. V. Glass and Roger Revelle (Eds.). Population & Social Change.Henry A. Landsberger (Ed.). Rural Protest: Peasant Movements and Social Change.Georges Duby. The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth Century.Peter Earle (Ed.). Essays in European History, 1500–1800.Marcello Carmagnani. Les Mécanismes de la Vie Economique dans une Société Coloniale: Le Chili (1680–1830).Eugen Mewes (Ed.). Terra Nostra; Culegere de Materiale Privind Istoria Agrará a Romanici.Imre Wellmann (Ed.). Proceedings of the Hungarian Agricultural Museum, 1971–2.I. T. Berend and G. Ranki. Hungary. A Century of Economic Development.Theodore Zeldin. France: 1848–1945. Volume One. Ambition, Love and Politics.Ronald Dore. British Factory—Japanese Factory: The Origins of National Diversity in Industrial Relations.Internationaal Colloquium (Spa 5–8‐IX‐1968). De burgerlijke openbare gebouwen in de Europese steden en hun financiering in de Middeleeuwen en onder het Ancien Régime. Handelingen.D. Degreve, D'une analyse de la révolution industrielle à un diagnostic du sous‐développement (suite et fin).H. Thomas, A. L. Constantse, et alia. 'De Spaanse Burgeroorlog en zijn gevolgen.J. H. Munro. Wool, Cloth and Gold: The Struggle for Bullion in Anglo‐Burgundian Trade, 1340–1478.K. Bertels. Geschiedenis tussen struktuur en evenment. Een methodologisch en wijsgerig onderzoek.'Special Issue on Agricultural History in Nineteenth Century Belgium', Revue belge d'histoire contemporaineS. Hart. 'Amsterdam Shipping and Trade to Northern Russia in the Seventeenth Century', Mededelingen van de Nederlandse Vereniging voor zeegeschiedenisJ. Everaert. De internationale en koloniale handel der Vlaamse firma's te Cadiz, 1670–1700 (avec un résumé français: le commerce international et colonial des firmes flamandes à Cadix, 1670–1700). Acta Historiae Neerlandicau: Studies on the History of the Netherlands. P. Creutzberg (Ed.). Het ekonomisch beleid in Nederlandsch‐Indië. Capita selecta. Een bronnenpublikatie, Vol. I.W. De Vries. 150 Jaar Welstand, de Maatschappij tot bevordering van welstand, voornamelijk onder landlieden, 1822–1972.J. De Vries. De Nederlandse economie tijdens de 20ste eeuw. Een verkenning van het meest kenmerkende.M. Van Durme (Ed.). Les Archives générales de Simancas et l'histoire de la Belgique (IXe–XIXe siècles)P. M. M. Klep. Het huishouden in westelyk Noord‐Brabant: Structuur en ontivikkeling, 1750–1849.H. A. Enno Van Gelder. Gegevens betreffende roerend en onroerend bezit in de Nederlanden in de 16e eeuwJ. De Vries. De Coöperatieve Raffaisen‐ en Boerenleenbanken in Nederland, 1948–1973: Van exponent tot component.J. F. Bläsing. Das goldene Delta und sein eisernes Hinterland, 1815–1851. Von niederländischpreussischen zu deutsch‐niederlandischen Wirtschaftsbeziehungen.T. Van der Wal. Op zoek naar een nieuwe vrijheid: Een kwart eeuw arbeidersbeweging in Friesland, 1870–1895.L. Vire. La distribution publique d'eau à Bruxelles, 1830–1870.J. van Herwaarden (Ed.). Lof der Historie. Opstellen over geschiedenis en maatschappij.L. Schepens. Van Vlaskutser tot Franschman. Bijdrage tot de Geschiedenis van de Westvlaamse plattelandsbevolking in de negentiende eeuw.G. Hansotte. La principauté de Stavelot‐Malmédy à la fin de l'Ancien Régime. Carte de la principauté en 1789; dénombrement des maisons, des chevaux et des bestiaux vers 1750.J. Fichefet. Histoire de la commune de Saint‐Martin.M. Claeys‐Van Haegendoorn. Hendrik de Man: Biografie.C. Verlinden et. al. Dokumenten voor de Geschiedenis van Prijzen en Lonen in Vlaanderen en Brabant (XVIe‐XIXe E.)W. P. Blockmans (Ed.). Handelingen van de leden en van de staten van Vlaanderen. Regeringen van Maria van Bourgondië en Filips de Schone (5 januari 1477–26 september 1506). Excerpten uit de rekeningen van de Vlaamse steden en kasselrijen en van de vorstelijke ambtenaren. Deel I: tot de vrede van Kadzand, 1492. Histoire Economique de la Belgique. Traitement des Sources et Etat des Questions—Economische Geschiedenis van België. Behandeling van de Bronnen en Problematiek. Actes du Colloque de Bruxelles—Handelingen van het Colloquium te Brussel. 17–19 nov. 1971 Histoire Economique de la Belgique. Traitement des Sources et Etat des Questions P. M. M. Klep. Groeidynamiek en stagnatie in een agrarisch grensgebied. De ekonomische ontwikkeling in de Noordanlwerpse Kempen en de Baronie van Breda, 1750–1850. Studies over de sociaal‐economische geschiedenis van Limburg F. Pollentier. De Admiraliteit en de oorlog ter zee onder de Aartshertogen (1596–1609).

Announcement by Alden Partridge of the opening of the Pennsylvania Scientific and Military Collegiate Institute, at Reading, Pennsylvania. Includes a general description of the system of education and course of study offered at the school. A note about the possibility of opening a female seminary at this location is also included. ; Printed at Norwich, Vermont? ; THE PENNSYLVANIA SCIENTIFIC AND MILITARY COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE AT READING, PENNSYLVANIA. CA.PT. A. PARTRIDGE would inform the public that the above Institution will be opened under his superinten-dence, assisted by able and faithful Instructors, on the FIRST MONDAY IN APRIL, 1850. The following branches of Literature, Science and practical Instruction will constitute the course of Education, at this Institution, viz : The Latin, Greek, aud English Languages; Arithmetic ; the Construction and Use of Logarithms ; Algebra: Geometry; Trigonometry; Planometry ; Stereometry; Mensuration of Heights and Distances; Practical Geo-metry, includiug particularly Surveying and Levelling; Civil Engineering; Conic Sections ; The Use of the Ba-rometer, with its application to measuring the altitudes of Mountains and other Eminences; Natural Philosophy ; Astronomy ; the Elements of Chemistry and Electricity ; Optics; Navigation ; Geography, with the use of Maps ^nd Globes; Composition and Declamation; Logic; History; Moral Philosophy; Natural and Political Law; the Law of Nations ; Military Law ; the Constitution of the United States, and the Science of Government gene-rally ; Metaphysics; Political Economy; Agriculture ; Permanent and Field Fortification, both Ancient and Mod-ern ; Field Engineering; the Construction of Marine Batteries ; Artillery Duty; the Principles of Gunnery; a complete Course of Military Tactics; the Attack and Defence of Fortified Places, both in ancient and modern times; Castrametation ; Military and Topographical Drawing; Architecture; Book Keeping. The Military Exercises will be attended to at such hours of the day as not to interfere with the studies and rec-itations ; they will conduce equally to health and improvement. The charge for Tuition, per quarter of eleven weeks, will be as follows, viz; For the Latin and Greek Languages, $10,00 For the English Course, - 8,00 Students between the ages of ten and fourteen years, will be charged per quarter, for Tuition, as follows, viz ; For the Latin and Greek Languages, $7,00 For the English Branches, 6,00 No deduction will be made for absence in term time. A Primary Department will be established, should there be sufficient encouragement, in which will be taught all the elementary branches necessary to prepare the students to enter on the higher branches of study in the Institute. The Tuition will be four dollars per quarter. Youths under eleven years of age will be admitted into this Department. The tuition in all of the departments must be paid quarterly in advance. Board will be furnished on reasonable terms. Students, whose parents reside at such distance that they cannot attend to the pecuniary affairs of their sons, can be furnished with Board, Tuition, the use of study rooms and furniture, with washing, lights, and fuel, for one hundred and seventy five dollars for the Collegiate year of forty four weeks—one half to be paid to the Superintendent, at the time of joining, and the oth-er half at the expiration of twenty two weeks. Capt, P. will take charge of the funds of all such students, and see that they are appropriated for necessary purposes only. No extra charge will be made for this duty. Capt. P. has engaged Professors Rehrer and Batehelder, as his assistants in the Institute. These gentlemen are well ac-quainted with the system of Education, (having been educated under it,) and are in every respect well qualified for their respective stations. Students who may not wish to complete the full course of studies, can attend to such branches as they, or their parents or guardians may designate. The full course will prepare a young man for any of the learned professions, for Civil and Military Engineers, for practical Science, and all the practical business of life; in fine it will make good scholars, good citizens, and good soldiers. Capt. P. will deliver an annual course of Lectures on Military Science, Political Economy, Philosophy, Astronomy, Geography, &c., which will be free to all the members of the Institute. For further information, prior to the first of April, application can be made to Capt. P. at Pembroke, New Hampshire, also to Gen. WM. H. KEIM, the Hon. J. P. JONES, and Judge BANKS, at Reading. NORWICH, VERMONT, NOVEMBER 8, 1849. NOTE. A Seminary for Young Ladies will be opened at Reading, under the patronage of the Institute, as soon as sufficient encouragement shall be given. The course of Instruction will be of as high an order as at the best Female Seminaries in the country.

William Watts Hart Davis writes from Doylestown, Pennsylvania, to Alden Partridge in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania; he wishes for better news from Norwich University; sorry T. B. Ransom has taken the present course of action; believes the school at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, will flourish if suitable buildings are erected and Partridge is in residence; would like help procuring an appointment to West Point for Hugh Dungan; mentions a convention related to the militia and asks Partridge's opinion on the Oregon question. ; Transcription by Raymond Bouchard. Transcriptions may be subject to error.

Introduction. The article is devoted to the problem of historiography of historical and legal research in independent Ukraine. This aspect of the history of law and the state in Ukraine has been in the process of formation these days. Historical and legal studies of the state apparatus and local self-government bodies of the Russian and Austrian Empires (since 1867 - the Austro-Hungarian empires) have been selected by subject area. Legal and historiographic analysis of the achievements of Ukrainian science on this issue has been carried out for the first time. Summary of the main research results. This period was one of the most difficult in the history of our country. In both cases, the imperial authorities sought to assimilate Ukrainian people, deprive them of their identity and cultural identity, as well as legal traditions. Ukrainian national statehood was abolished by the cultural-national and political-legal offensive of the Russian Empire in the late eighteenth century. On the one hand, in these extremely difficult conditions of oppression and violent acculturation pressure, the task of preserving cultural and legal identity was fulfilled, on the other hand, after the Great reforms of the 1860s-1870s, a more effective state apparatus was formed than before, which relatively successfully performed its tasks in the new historical conditions of the Ukrainian national revolution of 1917-1921. Based on the above, historical and legal studies of these periods and problems have significant scientific relevance. Ukrainian science of the history of the state and law after the collapse of the USSR and the restoration of independent Ukrainian statehood, faced the task of moving away from ideological and class stereotypes, the transition to methodological pluralism. In general, leading Ukrainian scientists have successfully coped with this task. Conclusions. Along with the deideologized and modernized historical-materialist (Marxist) method in accordance with modern conditions, culturological and civilizational method, genetically close to it, began to be increasingly used. The application of the functional theory of the origin and development of state authorities was particularly successful, which led to a stronger analysis of law enforcement activities. This was a factor in the spread of sociological and legal understanding of law in domestic historical and legal research, analysis of social causes of law-making and social consequences of the application of law, i.e. historical and legal study of the social depth of legal and state institutions. ; Введение. Статья посвящена проблеме историографии историко-правовых исследований в независимой Украине. Предметная сфера – государственный аппарат и органы местного самоуправления Российской и Австрийской (Австро-Венгерской империй). Такого рода историографический анализ в украинской историко-правовой науке осуществляется впервые. Краткое содержание основных результатов исследования. С одной стороны, в этих исключительно сложных условиях выполнялось задание сохранения украинской культурно-правовой идентичности, с другой – сформированный после Великих реформ 1860-х – 1870-х гг. сформировался более эффективный государственный аппарат, который относительно успешно выполнял свои задания в новых исторических условиях Украинской национальной революции 1917 – 1921гг. Этот период потребовал от украинских историков права новых подходов. Выводы. Была осуществлена деидеологизация науки, она перешла к методологическому плюрализму. Получили развитие наряду с историко-материалистическим, культурологический, социологический подходы, в частности, функциональная теория происхождения и развития органов государственной власти. ; Вступ. Статтю присвячено проблемі історіографії історико-правових досліджень у незалежній Україні. Цей напрям історії права та держави в Україні лише формується. За предметною сферою обрано історико-правові дослідження державного апарату та органів місцевого самоврядування Російської та Австрійської (з 1867року – Австро-Угорської імперій). Юридико-історіографічний аналіз здобутків української науки за вказаною проблематикою здійснюється вперше. Короткий зміст основних результатів дослідження. Вказаний період був одним із найбільш складних у вітчизняній історії. Імперська влада у обох випадках прагнула асимілювати український народ, позбавити його самобутності та культурної ідентичності, правових традицій. Українська національна державність була ліквідована культурно-національним та політико-правовим наступом Російської імперії у кінці ХVІІІст. З одного боку, у цих винятково складних умовах гноблення та насильницького акультураційного тиску виконувалося завдання збереження культурно-правової ідентичності, з іншого – після Великих реформ 1860-х – 1870-х років сформувався більш ефективний ніж раніше державний апарат, який відносно успішно виконував свої завдання в нових історичних умовах Української національної революції 1917 – 1921рр. Виходячи з викладеного, історико-правові дослідження цих періоду та проблематики мають суттєву наукову актуальність. Українська наука історія держави і права після розпаду СРСР і відновлення незалежної Української державності постала перед завданням відходу від ідеологічно-класових стереотипів, переходу до методологічного плюралізму. Провідні українські науковці в цілому успішно впоралися з ним. Висновки. Поруч із деідеологізованим і модернізованим відповідно до сучасних умов історико-матеріалістичним (марксистським методом) почали все більше застосовуватися культурологічний та генетично близький до нього цивілізаційний метод. Особливо успішним стало застосування функціональної теорії походження та розвитку органів державної влади, що обумовило до посилення аналізу правозастосовної діяльності. Це стало чинником поширення соціологічно-юридичного розуміння права у вітчизняних історико-правових дослідженнях, аналізу соціальних причин правотворення та соціальних наслідків застосування норм права, тобто історико-правового студіювання соціальної глибини дії правових та державних інститутів.

В июле 2013 г. в Издательстве НТЛ вышла книга «Принципы практического менеджмента: от Конфуция до наших дней». В ней систематизирован материал в области управленческой мысли в хронологическом порядке на русском и английском языках, начиная с Древнего мира и кончая нашим временем. Мудрые мысли ученых, мыслителей прошлого и настоящего, общественных и политических деятелей это принципы практического менеджмента и правила поведения сегодня. Они не должны забываться и к ним необходимо периодически обращаться и прислушиваться. Книга является результатом плодотворного сотрудничества трех структурных подразделений Национального исследовательского Томского государственного университета. ; In modern society, management is a subject which both scientists and practitioners pay close attention to, and this is not by accident. After all, management allows us to understand how to effectively control the actions of personnel, increase production efficiency, and successfully complete socio-economic tasks. In literature management is examined from two basic aspects: firstly, it is the science of managing people in specific organisational systems, and secondly, it is the art of administration, which includes a set of principles, methods, techniques and means of administration, in which a professional manager or entrepreneur has become proficient. O.S. Vikhansky and A.I. Naumov, leading specialists in management, affirm that there cannot be a singular definition of management, as it is multifaceted, but, undoubtedly, it is a specific type of action which supports the vital functioning of an organisation. In management, the worker occupies the central position; it is he who brings innovation to a company and makes it attractive for investment. That is why a market economy specifies strict requirements for the personnel's professional knowledge, skills, abilities, and business activity. The term "management" in scientific literature appeared relatively recently at the turn of the 20th century, and was introduced by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). The father of "scientific management", he was the first to use the terms "management" and "manager" in their modern-day meaning. The birth of management theory is connected with both Henri Fayol (1841-1925), who was the head of a large mining and smelting company in France for 40 years, and Walther Rathenau (1867-1992) in Germany, who, for the first time, addressed labour organisation and organisational structure in business. Further research showed that organisational structure is not an end in itself, but a tool to increase joint labour productivity. Each organisational structure is necessary in order to complete particular tasks under specified conditions and in a specified amount time. Thus, management is focused on the organisation of any form of ownership that achieves the planned results, which appear only in an external environment. The greatest and the most unique achievement of management in the 20 th century was higher labour productivity in manufacturing. The most valuable parts of any organisation in the 21 st century are its intellectual capital, knowledge workers, and their productivity, which is measured by the quality of their results. The term "knowledge worker" was introduced by Peter Drucker in the late 1960s. International experience in management is indisputable, but at the same time we should remember the important contribution made by Russian scientists and experts to the scientific organization of labour and production management. The period of 1920-1930 was the most productive for Russian administrative ideas. Even the simple enumeration of names shows the invaluable contribution to the advancement of science in organisation (A.A. Bogdanov), social engineering (A.K. Gastev), scientific organisation of labour and administration (O.A. Yermansky), management activity (P.M. Kerzhent-sev), social and labour concepts of production management (N.A. Vitke), and the theory of administrative capacity (F.R. Dunayevsky). In this work an attempt was made to examine the positions stated by scientists, philosophers, political figures, economists, writers, and businessmen in various epochs and time periods. As a matter of fact, these wise thoughts are the principles of practical management today. They should not be forgotten and it is necessary for us to consider and refer to them periodically. Considering that administrative thought has a long history, the material is arranged in chronological order alphabetically, from antiquity until the present day. There are no comments; the right to think is reserved for the reader. Our goal has predetermined the work's structure. It is composed of an introduction, nine sections, an afterword, tasks for evaluation and discussion, and a list of references. The foreword and tasks have been written by E.V. Nekhoda, a professor in the Department of Economics at Tomsk State University. This work is an illustrative example of the productive cooperation by the Department of Economics, the Biological Institute, and the Department of Foreign Languages at Tomsk State University. It is presented in both Russian and English. This anthology is dedicated to students, graduate students, lecturers, and everyone who is interested in the problems of effective management.

The physical construction of modern Italy began in 1861, with the foundation of the Kingdom of Italy. The historical period coincided with the early industrial development of north-western Italy, and so the new infrastructure system developed in response, on the one hand, to the need to join together all the fragmentary pieces that formed the country and, on the other, to the general tendency to strengthen those areas that were economically and industrially stronger even before unification. The system that was being created in the 1860s by the Italian State before unification suffered continuous interruptions and was substantially without transverse connections, those with more difficult construction caused by the need to cross the Apennines. Within five years, from 1861 to 1866, the size of the railway system doubled, going from little more than 2,000 km to more than 4,000. The management of railway was entrusted to limited companies. The government guaranteed the company a contribution for each kilometer of railway built. In 1863 the tracks extended down the Adriatic coast as far as Brindisi, in order to attract the transit of the India Mail London- Brindisi-Bombay, the most important trade of the world. In 1863 Rome was linked to Naples, in 1864 the line from Bologna to Florence via Pistoia was opened, in 1866 Rome was linked to Florence and Ancona and in 1867 with Pisa. In 1874 the Genoa-Pisa line were completed as far as the frontier with France; later, in 1879 the Naples-Foggia line went into operation. In the same period some of the longer tunnels were opened. Those of Fréjus was realised between 1857 and 1871. The Gottardo tunnel came into being in 1882 and the Sempione tunnel in 1906. The opening of the alpine passes effectively permitted the connection of Italy to central Europe, flinging open the doors to more and more easily reachable markets. In last twenty years of the 19th century, in Italy began the strong development of the secondary railways, with a generalised movement to promote the branching out of the railway, as an instrument of progress. With the completion of the main lines, the outlying centers began to clamor for the trains that, in an agricultural society without for the moment the automobile, seemed the only tie with civilised life capable of bringing economic development and political and social modernisation. Italy was a country with an ancient infrastructure and numerous lively towns. These towns were often, in their municipal activity, the protagonists of the completion and management of a secondary railway system on the peninsula. The development of narrow gauge technology, that allowed narrower curves and steeper slopes thereby reducing the need for great engineering works, and the achievement of particular gripping systems like the rack railway, made it possible to link by rail the many small towns and villages located in the hills and on the slopes of mountains. ; Se si rileggono i testi dei patrioti del Risorgimento, si trovano frequenti accenni alle "strade ferrate", come allora si chiamavano, ritenute indispensabili per collegare gli Italiani, divisi fra i diversi Stati preunitari. Abolizione dei dazi, libertà del commercio, circolazione delle idee furono associati all'idea di nazione italiana, trovando la realizzazione "fisica" nelle ferrovie, che dovevano unire il territorio della penisola dalle Alpi alla Puglia e alla Calabria. Al momento dell'unità d'Italia, non esisteva una rete ferroviaria nazionale, sebbene il Piemonte di Cavour avesse sviluppato un cospicuo reticolo di strade ferrate, che misuravano 850 km. Seguivano, per l'estensione dei binari, il Lombardo-Veneto con 607 km, il Granducato di Toscana con 323 km, lo Stato Pontificio con 132 km, il Regno delle Due Sicilie con 128 km, il Ducato di Parma con 99 km, il Ducato di Modena con 50 km. Molti tratti erano in corso di costruzione, ma non si aveva una rete interstatale, perché gli Stati preunitari avevano operato separatamente l'uno dall'altro. Con l'eccezione della tratta da Torino a Bologna, in corso di completamanto nel 1860, per il resto le reti erano state pensate per servizi interni a ciascuno Stato. Per mettere in comunicazione gli Italiani delle diverse regioni e creare un mercato nazionale, i governi post-unitari dedicarono dunque alle ferrovie i maggiori investimenti per lavori pubblici. Nell'arco di un decennio, si completò l'ossatura fondamentale della rete, con 6.600 km nel 1871, anno in cui fu anche inaugurata la galleria del Fréjus di 13,6 km, la più lunga del mondo, che poneva l'Italia sulla rotta della "Valigia delle Indie", il più intenso traffico mondiale di merci fra l'Inghilterra e la popolosa colonia delle Indie britanniche. Negli anni '70 furono estesi i collegamenti e nel 1879 fu approvata la legge sulle ferrovie complementari - destinate a completare la rete della penisola e delle isole maggiori - che aprì un cinquantennio di costruzione di ferrovie secondarie, con la ramificazione della rete. Allo stesso tempo, fu estesa la rete delle strade ordinarie, che dovevano servire soprattutto a collegare i centri minori con le stazioni ferroviarie, trasformando le mulattiere in carreggiabili.

The physical construction of modern Italy began in 1861, with the foundation of the Kingdom of Italy. The historical period coincided with the early industrial development of north-western Italy, and so the new infrastructure system developed in response, on the one hand, to the need to join together all the fragmentary pieces that formed the country and, on the other, to the general tendency to strengthen those areas that were economically and industrially stronger even before unification. The system that was being created in the 1860s by the Italian State before unification suffered continuous interruptions and was substantially without transverse connections, those with more difficult construction caused by the need to cross the Apennines. Within five years, from 1861 to 1866, the size of the railway system doubled, going from little more than 2,000 km to more than 4,000. The management of railway was entrusted to limited companies. The government guaranteed the company a contribution for each kilometer of railway built. In 1863 the tracks extended down the Adriatic coast as far as Brindisi, in order to attract the transit of the India Mail London- Brindisi-Bombay, the most important trade of the world. In 1863 Rome was linked to Naples, in 1864 the line from Bologna to Florence via Pistoia was opened, in 1866 Rome was linked to Florence and Ancona and in 1867 with Pisa. In 1874 the Genoa-Pisa line were completed as far as the frontier with France; later, in 1879 the Naples-Foggia line went into operation. In the same period some of the longer tunnels were opened. Those of Fréjus was realised between 1857 and 1871. The Gottardo tunnel came into being in 1882 and the Sempione tunnel in 1906. The opening of the alpine passes effectively permitted the connection of Italy to central Europe, flinging open the doors to more and more easily reachable markets. In last twenty years of the 19th century, in Italy began the strong development of the secondary railways, with a generalised movement to promote the branching out of the railway, as an instrument of progress. With the completion of the main lines, the outlying centers began to clamor for the trains that, in an agricultural society without for the moment the automobile, seemed the only tie with civilised life capable of bringing economic development and political and social modernisation. Italy was a country with an ancient infrastructure and numerous lively towns. These towns were often, in their municipal activity, the protagonists of the completion and management of a secondary railway system on the peninsula. The development of narrow gauge technology, that allowed narrower curves and steeper slopes thereby reducing the need for great engineering works, and the achievement of particular gripping systems like the rack railway, made it possible to link by rail the many small towns and villages located in the hills and on the slopes of mountains. ; Se si rileggono i testi dei patrioti del Risorgimento, si trovano frequenti accenni alle "strade ferrate", come allora si chiamavano, ritenute indispensabili per collegare gli Italiani, divisi fra i diversi Stati preunitari. Abolizione dei dazi, libertà del commercio, circolazione delle idee furono associati all'idea di nazione italiana, trovando la realizzazione "fisica" nelle ferrovie, che dovevano unire il territorio della penisola dalle Alpi alla Puglia e alla Calabria. Al momento dell'unità d'Italia, non esisteva una rete ferroviaria nazionale, sebbene il Piemonte di Cavour avesse sviluppato un cospicuo reticolo di strade ferrate, che misuravano 850 km. Seguivano, per l'estensione dei binari, il Lombardo-Veneto con 607 km, il Granducato di Toscana con 323 km, lo Stato Pontificio con 132 km, il Regno delle Due Sicilie con 128 km, il Ducato di Parma con 99 km, il Ducato di Modena con 50 km. Molti tratti erano in corso di costruzione, ma non si aveva una rete interstatale, perché gli Stati preunitari avevano operato separatamente l'uno dall'altro. Con l'eccezione della tratta da Torino a Bologna, in corso di completamanto nel 1860, per il resto le reti erano state pensate per servizi interni a ciascuno Stato. Per mettere in comunicazione gli Italiani delle diverse regioni e creare un mercato nazionale, i governi post-unitari dedicarono dunque alle ferrovie i maggiori investimenti per lavori pubblici. Nell'arco di un decennio, si completò l'ossatura fondamentale della rete, con 6.600 km nel 1871, anno in cui fu anche inaugurata la galleria del Fréjus di 13,6 km, la più lunga del mondo, che poneva l'Italia sulla rotta della "Valigia delle Indie", il più intenso traffico mondiale di merci fra l'Inghilterra e la popolosa colonia delle Indie britanniche. Negli anni '70 furono estesi i collegamenti e nel 1879 fu approvata la legge sulle ferrovie complementari - destinate a completare la rete della penisola e delle isole maggiori - che aprì un cinquantennio di costruzione di ferrovie secondarie, con la ramificazione della rete. Allo stesso tempo, fu estesa la rete delle strade ordinarie, che dovevano servire soprattutto a collegare i centri minori con le stazioni ferroviarie, trasformando le mulattiere in carreggiabili.

Das Interesse am technischen Fortschritt als einer der wichtigsten Determinanten des wirtschaftlichen Wachstums ist sowohl Gegenstand der theoretischen wie der empirischen Forschung. Die vorliegende Arbeit versucht, nach beiden Seiten Beiträge zu liefern. Zunächst wird der Begriff in der Weise kritisch beleuchtet, indem nach den potentiellen Quellen des technischen Fortschritts gefragt wird. Auf dieser theoretischen Grundlage wird im empirischen Teil der Arbeit der Einfluss des technischen Fortschritts auf das Wachstum der deutschen Volkswirtschaft im Zeitraum 1850 bis 1913 analysiert. Von den im theoretischen Teil als weitere mögliche Wachstumsquellen ausgewiesenen Faktoren wird der Beitrag der Strukturkomponente des wirtschaftlichen Wachstums und der verbesserten Ausbildung quantitativ erfasst. Als Strukturkomponente wird der Anteil des wirtschaftlichen Wachstums betrachtet, der auf die Verlagerung der Produktionsfaktoren aus Sektoren niedriger in Sektoren höherer Produktivität zurückzuführen ist. Der Anteil, der der verbesserten Ausbildung zuzurechnen ist, wird auf Grund eines als realistisch angenommenen Zusammenhangs zwischen verlängerter Ausbildungszeit und höherer Produktivität der Beschäftigten gemessen.
Der Untersuchungszeitraum - die Periode von 1850 bis 1913 - liegt zwar relativ weit zurück, für Untersuchungen mit allgemeiner Fragestellung hat dieser Zeitraum jedoch den Vorteil, dass eine ökonomisch recht einheitlich geprägte Phase vorliegt, innerhalb deren die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung von politischen und sonstigen nicht ökonomischen Faktoren relativ wenig beeinflusst wurde. Auf Grund der in der Arbeit angestrebten engen Verbindung von theoretischer und empirischer Fragestellung sind die Ergebnisse keineswegs nur von historischem Interesse, sondern dienen einem besseren Verständnis der Rolle des technischen Fortschritts für das wirtschaftliche Wachstum.
"Ziel ist dabei nicht eine möglichst umfassende Beschreibung dieses historischen Wachstumsprozesses, sondern die Ermittlung der Fortschrittskomponente. Mit den verschiedenen Messungskonzepten wird eine eindeutige Isolierung der Fortschrittskomponente angestrebt und ihr Beitrag zur Entwicklung des Realprodukts in der Gesamtwirtschaft und ihren einzelnen Sektoren aufgezeigt. Da die als Residualgröße errechnete Fortschrittskomponente noch eine sehr heterogene Größe ist, wird weiterhin versucht, einzelne der sie beeinflussenden Wachstumsfaktoren in die Analyse einzubeziehen und damit die zunächst errechnete Fortschrittskomponente weiter aufzuspalten. Die nachfolgende Analyse der Fortschrittskomponente des Wirtschaftswachstums im Zeitraum von 1850 bis 1913 stützt sich auf das Zahlenwerk, dass HOFFMANN zusammengestellt hat (Hoffmann, W. G. (unter Mitarbeit von F. Grumbach und H. Hesse), 1965: Das Wachstum der deutschen Wirtschaft seit der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts. Berlin/Heidelberg/New York). Als Beginn der Untersuchungsperiode bietet sich zunächst aus rein statistischen Gründen das Jahr 1850 an, da etwa von diesem Zeitpunkt an von den statistischen Ämtern der Staaten des Deutschen Bundes Erhebungen durchgeführt wurden. Aber auch aus materiellen Gründen ist es zweckmäßig, mit der Analyse um die Jahrhundertmitte einzusetzen. Der Industrialisierungsprozess hatte in Deutschland einige Jahrzehnte vorher begonnen, und mit der Gründung des Deutschen Zollvereins im Jahre 1833 war ein einheitliches Wirtschaftsgebiet entstanden Um 1850 hat sich dann in Deutschland der Wachstumsprozess voll entfaltet. Kennzeichnend für diesen Wachstumsprozess sind Verbesserungen der Transportmöglichkeiten, insbesondere durch den Ausbau des Eisenbahnnetzes, die Erschließung neuer Energie- und Rohstoffquellen, eine Steigerung der Geldversorgung sowie zunehmende unternehmerische Initiative. Dabei vollzieht sich das wirtschaftliche Wachstum bis zum Beginn des ersten Weltkrieges relativ störungsfrei, verglichen mit der weiteren Entwicklung, die durch die tiefen Einbrüche der Weltwirtschaftskrise und der beiden Weltkriege unterbrochen wird. Im Vergleich zu jeden anderen Zeitraum von mehr als sechs Jahrzehnten in der deutschen Wirtschaftgeschichte seit Beginn der Industrialisierung ist die Zeit von 1850 bis 1913 insgesamt am besten für eine Wachstumsanalyse geeignet. Da der Wachstumsprozess – gerade in den frühen Stadien der Industrialisierung – von Strukturveränderungen begleitet war, ist eine Disaggregation der gesamtwirtschaftlichen Daten – zumindest in einige Sektoren – wünschenswert … Aufgrund des vorliegenden Datenmaterials ist lediglich eine Disaggregation möglich, die nur annähernd der Einteilung, die aus theoretischen Erwägungen anzustreben wäre, entspricht. Mit Hilfe der HOFFMANN'schen Zahlen kann eine Unterscheidung der folgenden drei Sektoren vorgenommen werden: (1) Landwirtschaft; (2) Gewerbe (umfasst Bergbau, Industrie und Handwerk, Handel, Banken, Versicherungen und den Verkehr mit Ausnahme von Eisenbahnen und Post); (3) Übrige Bereiche (umfasst heterogene Bereiche wie nichtlandwirtschaftliche Wohnungen, den öffentlichen Dienst, Eisenbahnen und Post, häusliche Dienste und die Verteidigung). Im Rahmen dieser Unterscheidung werden größere Bereiche des tertiären Sektors dem Sektor 'Gewerbe' zugerechnet, während der dritte Sektor ('Übrige Bereiche') eine Vielzahl von Wirtschaftszweigen enthält, für die jeweils eigene und völlig unterschiedliche Produktionsbedingungen gelten. Die Analyse der auf diese Weise unterschiedenen drei Sektoren erlaubt es u. a., die erheblichen Faktorwanderungen, die sich aus der Landwirtschaft in das Gewerbe vollzogen haben, zu berücksichtigen und – wenn auch mit Einschränkungen – der unterschiedlichen technischen Entwicklung in diesen Sektoren Rechnung zu tragen" (André, D., a. a. O., S. 73-75).



Datentabellen in HISTAT (Thema: Wachstum, Konjunktur und Krisen):


Tab.01 Produktion, Beschäftigte und Kapitalbestand nach Wirtschaftszweigen (1850-1913)

Tab.02 Durchschnittliche jährliche Wachstumsraten der Produktion, Beschäftigten und des Kapitalbestandes (1850-1913)

Tab.03 Entwicklung der Kapitalintensität (1850-1913)

Tab.04 Prozentuale Anteile der einzelnen Sektoren an Produktion, Beschäftigten und Kapitalbestand der Volkswirtschaft (1850-1913)

Tab.05 Die Entwicklung der Arbeitsproduktivität (Produktion pro Beschäftigten) (1850-1913)

Tab.06 Die Indices der Arbeitsproduktivität (1850-1913)

Tab.07 Durchschnittliche wöchentliche Arbeitszeit in Stunden (1850-1913)

Tab.08 Die Indices der Arbeitsproduktivität pro Beschäftigtenstunde (1850-1913)

Tab.09 Sektorale Arbeitsproduktivität und Beschäftigtenanteile in Prozent der insgesamt Beschäftigten (1850-1913)

Tab.10 Die Entwicklung der globalen Faktorproduktivität in der Gesamtwirtschaft (1850-1913)

Tab.11 Die Entwicklung der globalen Faktorproduktivität in den einzelnen Sektoren (1850-1913)

Tab.12 Durchschnittliche jährliche Wachstumsraten der globalen Faktorproduktivität (1850-1913)

Tab.13 Entwicklung der globalen Faktorproduktivität unter Berücksichtigung der veränderten wöchentlichen Arbeitszeit (1850-1913)

Tab.14 Sektorale Kapitalproduktivitäten und die Kapitalanteile der einzelnen Sektoren in % des gesamtwirtschaftlichen Kapitalstocks (1850-1913)

Tab.15 Sektorale Indices der globalen Faktorproduktivität, bezogen auf den gesamtwirtschaftlichen Index mit Basis 1850=100 (1850-1913)

Tab.16 Anteil des Inputs an Arbeit und Kapital der einzelnen Sektoren am Faktorinput der Gesamtwirtschaft (1850-1913)

Tab.17 Die globale Faktorproduktivität der Gesamtwirtschaft unter Berücksichtigung der veränderten Qualität der Arbeit infolge verringerter Arbeitszeit (1850-1913)

Tab.18 Die globale Faktorproduktivität des gewerblichen Sektors unter Berücksichtigung der veränderten Qualität der Arbeit infolge verringerter Arbeitszeit (1850-1913)

Tab.19 Öffentliche Aufwendung je Schüler und Jahr in den öffentlichen Volksschulen (1867-1911)

Tab.20 Die Errechnung eines Qualitätsindex der Arbeit auf Grund verbesserter Ausbildung der Arbeitskräfte

Tab.21 Die Entwicklung der globalen Faktorproduktivität unter Berücksichtigung der Qualitätsverbesserung des Faktors Arbeit infolge verlängerter Ausbildung (1870-1913)

Tab.22 Vergleich der Indices der globalen Faktorproduktivität mit und ohne Berücksichtigung der verbesserten Ausbildung (1870-1913)

Tab.23 Die Berechnung des Auslastungsgrades des Kapitalstocks (1850-1913)

Tab.24 Die Entwicklung der globalen Faktorproduktivität unter Berücksichtigung der veränderten Kapazitätsauslastung des Kapitals (1850-1913)

Tab.25 Die durchschnittliche jährlichen Wachstumsraten der globalen Faktorproduktivität für einzelne Teilperioden und den Gesamtzeitraum (1850-1913)

Tab.26 Die durchschnittlichen Verteilungsquoten in den einzelnen Sektoren und in der Gesamtwirtschaft (1850-1913)

Tab.27 Durchschnittliche jährliche Wachstumsraten des technischen Fortschritts und Entwicklung der Fortschrittsindices (1850-1913)

Tab.28 Fortschrittskomponente bei Annahme variabler Verteilungsquoten (1850-1913)

Tab.29 Berechnung der Fortschrittskomponente bei Berücksichtigung der geleisteten Arbeitsstunden (1850-1913)

Tab.30 Vergleich der Indices der globalen Faktorproduktivität mit den Fortschrittsindices der Cobb-Douglas-Funktionen (1850-1913)

Tab.31 Die Fortschrittskomponente im gewerblichen Sektor und Gesamtwirtschaft bei Berücksichtigung der Qualitätsverbesserung der Arbeit (verkürzte Arbeitszeit) (1850-1913)

Tab.32 Die Fortschrittskomponente bei Berücksichtigung der Qualitätsverbesserung der Arbeit infolge verbesserter Ausbildung (1870-1913)

Tab.33 Vergleich der Fortschrittsindices mit und ohne Berücksichtigung der verbesserten Ausbildung (1870-1913)

Tab.34 Die Fortschrittskomponente bei Berücksichtigung einer veränderten Auslastung des Kapitalstocks (1850-1913)

En resumen, estudiamos dentro de un contexto histórico-social, a una de las figuras clave de la Sanidad Militar Española del Siglo XIX. Licenciado en Medicina y Cirugía en la Universidad Central de Madrid en Julio de 1854 y recibió el doctorado por la misma Universidad el 7 de Octubre de 1856. Médico y humanista, fue uno de los fundadores y director del periódico titulado "Memorial de Sanidad del Ejército y la Armada", primera publicación del C.S.M. del Ejército Español. Publica numerosos trabajos relacionados con la higiene militar, alimentación del soldado y sobre todo estudia a fondo y crea la "Táctica de Sanidad Militar" en el Ejército. Es también el principal inspirador del Reglamento Orgánico del C.S.M. (1 de Septiembre de 1873) actualmente en vigor. Hombre valeroso (posee cinco ascenso por méritos de guerra) y de gran imaginación, en 1865 publica un folleto donde a conocer el "Mandil de Landa". Este no tuvo buena acogida en el Ejército Español, pero sí fue profusamente utilizado por el Ejército prusiano y más tarde por el Ejército Francés. Es designado representante por España en la Conferencia Internacional de Ginebra (1863) donde toma parte activa y es uno de los redactores de las Resoluciones finales de dicha conferencia, deseosa de favorecer a los heridos en los casos de que el servicio sanitario sea insuficiente. Un año más tarde, se crea la Cruz Roja, institucionalizando las resoluciones de dicha Conferencia. En 1866 publica un tratado sobre el "Transporte de heridos por vías férreas y navegables", con poca acogida también en España, pero más tarde adoptado por el Ejército de los Estados Unidos. Fundador de la Cruz Roja Española, el 11 de Julio de 1867, esta le nombra su inspector general y tres años más tarde funda y dirige el periódico "La Caridad en la Guerra", órgano oficial de dicha institución. Miembro de la Real Academia de Medicina en 1862 y de la Real Academia de Historia cinco años más tarde. En ese mismo año, pública el libro "Derecho de la Guerra conforme a la moral", que a punto estuvo de ser aceptado como libro de texto en la Academia General Militar, de no ser por la presión ejercida por el Cuerpo de Artillería. En 1873, la Conferencia de Gante le nombra miembro efectivo del Instituto de Derecho Internacional. Miembro de la Real Academia de Ciencias Médicas de Palermo en 1880, fecha en la que publica su obra cumbre: "Estudios sobre táctica de Sanidad Militar", en el que partiendo de las experiencias adquiridas y sometiéndolas a un estudio con otras tácticas de Sanidad Militar, sobre todo, de los Ejércitos francés, alemán e inglés, sienta las bases de la táctica de Sanidad Militar del Ejército Español, la cual, en su fundamento, persiste hasta nuestros días. Hay ocasiones en que la decisión acerca de la conveniencia de iniciar la investigación sobre un determinado tema puede pasar a depender de factores laterales al tema en sí. Tal puede ser el caso del Ejército. Recuerdo, cuando hace algún tiempo, el eminente historiador militar Aguilar Olivencia, me indicó la conveniencia de aventurarme por este mundo, sin explorar más que una mínima parte, y pese a no estar habituado al ambiente militar, sentí una vaga inquietud que afortunadamente no duró más que hasta el momento de establecer un primer contacto con los historiadores militares. No deja de ser paradójico, me comentaban, que siendo el Ejército el más importante protagonista de la vida política española durante nuestro siglo XIX, fuera a la vez una de las instituciones menos estudiadas de la época. Fue este, con el Coronel Gárate Córdoba, cuya cordialidad no sería sino el prolegómeno de unas relaciones con otros muchos militares estudiosos de una institución, siempre amables y desprendidos, la ayuda y colaboración de hombres como Ramón Salas Larrazábal, Alonso Baquer, Barrios, Puel de la Vila, Fernández Bastarreche, Manso Platero, etc… supera las esperanzas más optimistas. Y el afán de adentrarme en este nuevo Mediterráneo de la Historia de España del siglo XIX, con la colaboración de los historiadores militares previamente mencionados, me llevó al estudio antes de profundizar en su estudio en cuanto a institución propiamente dicha – de un aspecto colateral de nuestro Ejército decimonónico: La Sanidad Militar… y dentro de la misma, el estudio de una figura que brilla con luz propia: D. Nicasio Landa y Álvarez de Carballo, el primer gran táctico de la Sanidad Militar Española. Una vez dado el primer paso me encontré con un mundo apasionante, dotado de uno fondos riquísimos y con posibilidades ilimitadas, que me ocuparán largos años de dedicación.

The intervention of the Canadian government in financing Quebec universities has taken many forms over the years. Ottawa has been involved in supporting general as well as vocational education, academic as well as para-academic activities and pure as well as applied university research. Such intervention has also followed various paths, Ottawa intervening sometimes through individual or institutional direct or indirect grants, sometimes through operating or investment grants, and sometimes through fiscal transfers. In trying to unravel the complexity of Ottawa-Quebec relations in university education, the article describes the historical evolution of federal grants to Quebec universities. Four periods are singled out, each one representing a crucial turning-point. The picture that one can draw from the development of Ottawa's involvement in higher education becomes less confusing when one is conscious of the fact that it is multiform and, in many respects, inconsistent. The article shows, for instance, how the massive intervention of the central government in financing university research contrasts with the freedom left to the provinces in the area of student loans. It also contrasts the nature of the federal involvement in financing univer-sity investments with the much more important intrusion of the same government in the area of general operating grants. Finally, the author points out that the opposition mani-fested by the Canadian provinces - and especially Quebec - vis-à-vis the many federal initiatives varied from sector to sector. L'article 93 de la Constitution canadienne de 1867 accorde aux législatures provinciales une compétence législative et une responsabilité exclusive en matière d'éducation. Cependant, cette attribution de pouvoir comporte une réserve: le Parlement fédéral est investi du pouvoir d'intervenir, au besoin, pour défendre les droits de certaines minorités.1 Or, malgré cette disposition constitutionnelle, l'intervention du gouvernement fédéral dans le secteur de l'éducation, que l'on peut faire remonter au début du siècle, ne s'est limitée ni à un type, ni à un niveau d'enseignement. Elle s'est manifestée, en effet, tant au niveau élémentaire qu'aux niveaux secondaire, collégial et universitaire. Elle a aussi touché tous les types de formation, qu'il s'agisse de formation générale ou professionnelle, de formation scolaire ou extra-scolaire. Elle a, enfin, emprunté plusieurs voies tantôt prenant la forme de subventions individuelles ou institutionnelles, tantôt la forme de subventions directes ou de transferts fiscaux. C'est dans le but de démêler — un tant soit peu — cet écheveau, que nous nous proposons ici de faire le point sur les divers types d'intervention du gouvernement central dans le secteur de l'enseignement universitaire québécois. L'analyse de l'évolution historique de cette intervention devrait non seulement permettre une meilleure compréhension des relations intergouvernementales dans un secteur souvent considéré comme étant de juridic-tion provinciale exclusive, mais aussi de soulever certaines questions concernant les orientations gouvernementales dans les ann ëes à venir. ; L'intervention du gouvernement fe´de´ral dans le financement des universite´s que´be´coises a pris diverses formes au cours des anne´es. Ce financement a touche´ aussi bien la formation ge´ne´rale que professionnelle, laformation proprement scolaire aussi bien que les activite´s para-scolaires, la recherche fondamentale et la recherche applique´e. Cette intervention a aussi emprunte´ plusieurs voies, tanto^t prenant la forme de subven- tions individuelles ou institutionnelles, tanto^t la forme de subventions directes ou de transferts fiscaux. En faisant le point sur ces divers types et modalite´s d'intervention, l'auteur en analyse l'e´volution historique et distingue, pour une meilleure compre´hension du lecteur, quatre pe´riodes d'e´volution, chacune correspondant a` un tournant important dans les relations Ottawa-Que´bec. Le tableau de l'intervention fe´de´rale qui se de´gage de l'analyse est relativement com- plexe. L'intervention d'Ottawa dans le secteur de l'enseignement et de la recherche uni- versitaires apparai^t multiforme et a` maints e´gards inconsistante. En e f f e t , l'auteur note d'une part l'intervention directe massive du gouvernement central dans le domaine de la recherche universitaire et, a` l'oppose´, la lattitude laisse´e aux provinces dans le secteur des pre^ts aux e´tudiants. Il note e´galement l'intervention "marginale"du gouvernement central dans le domaine des investissements universitaires par opposition a` l'intervention massive du me^me gouverne- ment, via notamment la formule de financement du niveau post-secondaire, dans le domaine des ope´rations ou du fonctionnement des universite´s. Enfin, l'auteur souligne que l'opposition des provinces, et en particulier du Que´bec, a porte´ davantage sur certaines initiatives fe´de´rales que sur d'autres. Elle s'est manifeste´e, par exemple, beaucoup plus clairement au chapitre des subventions de fonctionnement qu 'a` celui des investissements. En somme, le bilan que trace l'auteur permet de conclure que l'enseignement universi- taire est, a` toutes fins pratiques, un domaine de juridiction concurrente, malgre´ la lattitude laisse´e aux provinces - dont le Que´bec - dans certains secteurs.

Title supplied by the University of California. ; The petition of the newspaper stamp abolition committee, 1850? -- v.3 Property and income tax, schedule A and schedule D, 1852 -- An examination of some prevailing opinions, as to the pressure of taxation in this, and other countries, 4th ed., George Warde Norman, 1864 -- Local taxation: an essay on the injustice, inequalities, and anomalies of the present poor-rate assessment, Christian F. Gardner, 1868? -- The personal payment of rates and the reform act of 1867, 2nd e.d., G. Shaw Lefevre, 1868 -- Local taxation, R. H. Inglis Palgrave, 1874 -- Local taxation. Observations on the rating of "ground rents" and "mineral rents" and the "present irregularity in the mode of assessing local rates", Thos. F. Hedley, 1882 -- Fifty-three years' taxation and expenditure 1827-28 to 1879-80, John Noble, 1882 -- Local taxation, especially in English cities and towns, James E. Thorold Rogers, 1886 -- Land values and taxation, Edwin Adam, [1907] ; The people's mirror; or, corruption & taxation unmasked, 3rd ed., 1816 -- A letter to the Marquis of Lansdown, president of the Bath and West of England Society, on the subject of the late tax on wool, 1820 -- Letter to Lord Viscount Althorp, on the proposed reduction in newspaper stamp and advertisement duties, R.K.D, 1831 -- On the taxes on knowledge, from the Westminster review, no.XXIX, 1831 -- A property tax the only effectual remedy for the present embarrassment of the country, 3rd ed., 1832 -- Outline of a plan for amending the system of taxation, 1833 -- Will cheap bread produce low wages? 1840? -- Daily bread; or, taxation without representation resisted, [1841] -- Aristocratic taxation: its present state, origin, and progress, with proposals for reform, 2nd ed., Richard Hilditch, 1842 -- The income and property tax. An act (5 & 6 Vict. Cap. 35) for granting duties on profits arising from property, professions, trades, and offices, 1842 -- The "taxation injustice" John O'Connell, 1843 -- Thoughts on the principles of taxation, Charles Babbage, 1848 -- Evidence of G. Cornewall Lewis . before a select committee of the House of Lords, 1850 -- An examination of some prevailing opinions, as to the pressure of taxation in this, and other countries, George Warde Norman, 1850 ; An act (passed 12th October 1799) to amend so much of an act, made in the last session of parliament, for granting certain duties upon income, as relates to the appropriation of the said duties, and of the duties upon goods imported and exported, 1799 -- An act (passed 21st March 1799) to amend and render more effectual two acts, passed in the thirty-eighth year of his present majesty's reign and the present session of parliament for the redemption and purchase of the land tax, 1799 -- An act (passed 10th May 1799) for enlarging the times limited by certain acts passed for the redemption of the land tax, for receiving contracts and making transfers of stock thereon, 1799 -- An act (passed 12th July 1799) to amend and render more effectual several acts for the redemption and purchase of the land tax, 1799 -- Redemption and sale of land-tax, 1799 -- An abstract of the act upon income, with the alterations and amendments, as passed in the houses of Lords and Commons, containing the qualifications of surveyors and inspectors, 3rd ed., [1799] -- v.2 An act (passed 28th July 1800) for explaining and amending so much of an act passed in the present session of parliament, relating to the duties on income, 1800 -- An act (passed 12th July 1799) to amend an act, made in this present session of parliament, 1800 ; V.1. Letter to a freeholder, on the late reduction of the land tax to one shilling in the pound, [1732] -- The rise and fall of the late projected excise, impartially consider'd, A friend to the English Constitution, (London) 1733 -- The rise and fall of the late projected excise, impartially consider'd, A friend to the English Constitution, (Dublin) 1733 -- A brief examination into the increase of the revenue, commerce, and navigation of Great Britain, since the conclusion of the peace in 1783, 4th ed., [G. Rose], 1793 -- A letter to a member of parliament, on a tax upon absentees, 1783 -- A letter to the right Hon. the Lord Mayor, upon the present prohibitory tax on the commerce of the city of York, [1791] -- The speech of the right Hon. William Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer, on Friday, the 17th day of February 1792, 1792 -- An address to the right Hon. William Pitt, &c. &c. &c. on some parts of this administration, [Thomas James Mathias], [1797] -- Observations upon the act for the redemption of the land tax, 6th ed., [1798] -- An act (passed 22d December, 1798) to enlarge the time limited for the redemption of the land tax, 1798 -- Interesting suggestions to proprietors and trustees of estates, respecting the land-tax sale and redemption act, Simeon Pope, 1798 ; Mode of access: Internet.

International audience ; In the mid-19th century, Emperor Alexander II was carrying out large scale liberal reforms in Russia. In the course of these reforms, a problem was put forward about public preservation of historical monuments and archaeological sites as national cultural heritage. A step to this direction was undertaken in 1859 when the Imperial Archaeological Commission (IAC) was organized in Saint-Petersburg. Over the second half of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, the Commission remained the single State body concerned with archaeology and protection of sites and monuments on the territory of Russian Empire. In its activities, this Institution combined scientific research, organizational, monitoring and controlling functions. In the present monograph mainly created by the collective of the Institute for the History of Material Culture, Russian Academy of Sciences, the history of the first archaeological institution in Russia is systematically presented and analysis of its activities proposed for the first time. The organization of IAC was preceded by a long process of formation of the interest of the Russian society to the archaeology. The immediate precursor of IAC was the "Office of Archaeological Researches" founded in 1841 by the Minister for Home Affairs Lev Perovsky (1796–1856). The activities of the Office were concerned with investigations of archaeological sites of Kerch and Bosporos, Chersonesos, kurgans in the surroundings of Vladimir and Suzdal and settlements of the Golden Horde on the Volga River. During this period, the main principles which afterwards lay in the foundation of IAC were established. After the death of Lev Perovsky, the investigations were entrusted to Count Sergey Stroganov (1794–1882). The result of this appointment was that the assistant of Lev Perovsky and his nephew Count Alexey Uvarov (1824–1884), who planned to stand himself at the head of Russian archaeology, left Saint-Petersburg and moved to Moscow where in 1864 he founded the Moscow Archaeological Society in opposition to the Imperial Archaeological Commission. The confrontation between two Institutions however became actually a stimulus for the progressive advancement of the science and protection of monuments of antiquity. In 1857, Sergey Stroganov proposed to organize the "Main Archaeological Commission". That project became the basis of IAC, the statute of which was approved on February 2, 1859, by Emperor Alexander II. That statute secured for the Commission the right to conduct "earthen excavations", monitoring of the discoveries of hoards and archaeological objects in Russia and supervision over building activity at archaeological sites. The principles underlying the foundation of IAC were partly oriented to France and its "Commission des Monuments Historiques" (1837). The experience of the activities of IAC was used in organizing archaeological institutions in some European countries (Austria, Italy). The activity of IAC may be subdivided through three periods connected with its chairmen: 1859–1882 when Sergey Stroganov was the chairmen of IAC, 1882–1886 when it was headed by the Director of the Imperial Hermitage Museum Alexander Vasil'chikov (1832–1890), and 1886–1918 when the Commission was directed by Count Alexey Bobrinskoy (1852–1927). Originally, the staff of the Commission consisted of eight persons. In the activity of the Commission, such famous historians and archaeologists took part as Ivan Zabelin (1859–1876), Vladimir Tiesenhausen (1825–1902) and Nikodim Kondakov (1876–1891). Initially, the Commission was housed in the palace of Stroganov in Nevsky Prospect in Saint-Petersburg. The activities of the Commission have established the system of regulation of archaeological researches in Russia, which with several alterations existed until the beginning of the 21st century. This system was based on the "Otkryty list" (laissez-passer) as individual authorizations for researchers to conduct excavations with the indispensable submission of a report to the archives of the Commission. This practice has initiated the creation of the unique corpus of sources for the archaeology, architectural monuments and sites of different nations and modern states of East-Central Europe and Asia. The main activity of the Commission in 1859–1886 included excavations of sites of the Scythian culture and Classical Greek antiquities on the Taman Peninsula, in the Crimea (Kerch, Bosporos) and on some other territories, now in Ukraine. Nevertheless, the widespread opinion that the Commission studied exclusively the Classical and Scythian antiquities is incorrect: already then the first investigations in Siberia, Central Asia were conducted as well as studies of sites of the Bronze and Stone ages in Northern Russia. The finds came predominantly to the collections of the Imperial Hermitage Museum in Saint-Petersburg and Historical Museum in Moscow. Another important responsibility of the Commission was the acquisition of monetary hoards and treasures of historical objects found on the territory of Russian Empire. The first investigator of hoards was a curator of the Hermitage collections Julian Iversen (1859–1900). Simultaneously, the Commission consulted the restoration and conservation activities of the Ministry of Home Affairs, primarily for the monuments of the defensive architecture and church buildings. For that purpose, the staff of the Commission included a representative of the Academy of Arts Feodor Solntsev (1859–1892). Protection of the monuments of archaeology also was an important task of the Commission. In 1866, Sergey Stroganov achieved the prohibition of treasure-hunting in Russia. The Commission, as the central state institution, actively collaborated with provincial Statistic Committees and Archive Commissions in the field of studies and protection of local monuments and sites. During the chairmanship of Alexander Vasil'chikov, the reforms of the Commission's activities were prepared. These reforms took place already under Count Alexey Bobrinskoy. In 1886–1887, an interdisciplinary program for studies of Slavic-Russian archaeology, the eastern Black-Sea region, Siberia etc. was developed. During that period, the Commission was moved to an office in the Winter Palace in Saint-Petersburg. On March 11, 1889, Emperor Alexander III approved by his decree the exclusive right of the Commission to conduct archaeological excavations and to license their execution on state and public lands. Simultaneously, the Commission, together with the Academy of Arts, was charged with supervision over restoration and protection of objects of art and architectural monuments. In 1890, the "Regulations for the Archaeological Commission and Academy of Arts on the order of consideration of petitions about restoration of historical monuments" were approved. Beginning with 1894, special sessions of IAC began to consider projects of restorations an conservations. The main specialists of IAC in the branch of restoration were Petr Pokryshkin (1870–1922), Konstantin Romanov (1882–1942) and Dmitry Mileev (1878–1914). The Commission got also Vladimir Suslov (1857–1921), Nikolay Sultanov (1850–1908), Ieronim Kitner (1839–1929) and Georgy Kotov (1859–1942) to take part in the architectural restorations. These activities resulted in establishment of standards of modern scientific restoration, using primarily the archaeological approach, which are efficacious even in the 21st century. Among the most successful restoration projects of IAC, noteworthy are the Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour on the Nereditsa hill near Novgorod, Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour at Berestovo in Kyiv, the Saint Boris and Gleb church at Kolozha in Grodno, the Saint George church in Yuryev-Polskoy, Cathedral of the Dormition of Mother of God in the Moscow Kremlin, Ipatyevsky Monastery in Kostroma, Ferapontov Monastery in Vologda region, Bakhchisarai Palace in Crimea, Smolensk and Pskov city walls etc. Among the most important problems of IAC in the restoration issues were its relations with the Russian Orthodox Church. As early as 1893, the Ober-Procurator of the Holy Synod Konstantin Pobedonostsev (1827–1907) confirmed that restoration of churches must be conducted with permission of the Commission, however in practice many churches were disfigured by illiterately made repairs. Part of the difficulties proceeded from contradictions in Russian law. Notwithstanding the fact that the Commission had succeeded in developing an algorithm of its relations with the clergy, during the World War I, under the conditions of the general crisis of the Russian State and society, the Synod attempted to withdraw religious monuments from the public control.The new objectives and expansion of the geography of researches of IAC demanded a new staff of the Commission. That approval was received in 1888 and 1902. The membership of the Commission included Alexander Spitsyn (1858–1931), Nikolay Veselovsky (1848–1918), Vasily Latyshev (1855–1921), Boris Farmakovsky (1870–1928) and others. Alexey Bobrinskoy actively used his right of appointment of corresponding members and honorary members of the Commission. Among the corresponding members appointed in 1886–1917 were Vladimir Stasov (1824–1906), Vasily Radlov (1837–1918), Dmitry Samokvasov (1843–1911), Innokenty Lopatin (1839–1909), Alexander Bertier-Delagard (1842–1920), Alexander Lappo-Danilevsky (1863–1919), Yulian Kulakovsky (1855–1919), Nikolay Pantusov (1849–1909), Valentin Zhukovsky (1858–1919), Vladimir Malmberg (1860–1921), Sergey Zhebelev (1867–1941), Emil Roesler (?–?), Alexey Markov (1858–1920), Nikolay Marr (1864–1934), Mstislav Farmakovsky (1873–1946), Alexander Malein (1869–1938) and others. There was yet another category of assistants of the Commission — supernumerary members. They included Nikolay Pokrovsky (1848–1917) — an expert on Christian archaeology and Orthodox art, Vladimir Antonovich (1834–1908), Bohdan Khanenko (1849–1917), Ernst von Stern (1859–1924), Mikhail Rostovtsev (1870–1952), Alexey Shirinsky-Shikhmatov (1862–1930), Feodor Braun (1862–1942), Nikolay Bulychev (1852–1919) et al.In 1909, the 50th anniversary of the Commission and 25th anniversary of the activities of its chairman Alexey Bobrinskoy became something like summing up of the results of the works of IAC. The special role of the Commission is noteworthy regarding the studies of Scythian and Greek and Roman antiquities. The commission excavated about fifty 'Royal' kurgans containing rich Scythian burials from which the artistic gold objects are housed now in the Special Treasury of the State Hermitage Museum in Saint-Petersburg. Studies of Bosporan sites were continued: the Commission was in charge of the Kerch Museum of Antiquities which directed the archaeological excavations in this region. The museum was headed by Alexander Lyutsenko (1807–1884), Stepan Verebryusov (1819–1884), Fedor Gross (1822–1897), Karl Dumberg (1862–1931) and Vladislav Shkorpil (1853–1918). Funerary catacombs, important Classical, Jewish and Christian antiquities were here discovered. Since 1888, according to an order of Emperor Alexander III, IAC was entrusted with the direction of researches in the area of the Tauric Chersonesos and its surroundings. Karol Kościuszko-Waluszyński (1847–1907) was appointed the head of the excavations in Chersonesos. During the later years, the excavations were directed by Robert Loeper (1865–1918) and Leonid Moiseev (1882–1946). Under the direction of the Archaeological Commission, living blocks, buildings and necropolis dated to the Classical, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods had been discovered and investigated, as well as several dozens of Christian churches and basilicas. In 1902, the systematic excavations of Olbia began under the direction of Boris Farmakovsky, and in 1904 – the archaeological researches of Berezan Island began under the direction of Ernst von Stern. An expansive project came to be that of excavations in 1908–1914 of one of the first medieval stone church of Eastern Europe — the Church of the Tithe in Kyiv conducted under the direction of Dmitry Mileev. During the period of 1890–1914, the Commission was financing altogether up to twenty expeditions annually throughout more than fifteen provinces and regions of Russian Empire. It must be noted however that the level of understanding of archaeological evidence gained remained behind its accumulation. In the field of the archaeology of the Stone Age, the studies of the Commission revealed several important Neolithic sites of Eastern Europe. In 1905, Alexander Spitsyn discovered a Paleolithic site at Borshevo, Voronezh region. The same researcher also wrote in 1915 a synthetic and generalizing work on the Russian Paleolithic where he had summarized the results of archaeology of the Early Stone Age in Eastern Europe and comprehensively characterized the sites of Caucasus and Siberia. Nevertheless, it must be noted here that the major researches on the Stone Age were carried out the sphere of activities of the Commission.During investigations of archaeological sites of Siberia separated by thousands kilometers from the scientific centers of European Russia, the Commission maintained close relations with local archaeologists and ethnologists directing their efforts and licensing their excavations. At the funds and on the instructions of the Commission, the archaeological sites of Siberia were studied since the 1860s by Vasily Radlov (1837–1918), Dmitry Klements (1848–1914), Alexander Adrianov (1854–1920) and other scholars.Members of the Commission participated personally in investigations of antiquities of the Caucasus and Ciscaucasia. In 1887, Dmitriy Bakradze (1826–1890) proposed a program of archaeological exploration of the area of Sukhumi, and in 1889 IAC carried out description and photographing of objects of Georgian Christian art from sacristies of churches and monasteries in Georgia. Since 1892, Nikolay Marr conducted longstanding investigations of the ancient Armenian capital Ani, medieval towns, fortresses and churches (Dvin, Akhtamar). Simultaneously, the explorations of sites of the Bronze and Middle Ages (dolmens, the Maikop kurgan and the Koban culture) were carried out through the efforts of Nikolay Veselovsky and Emil Roesler.The initiative of studies of architectural and archaeological monuments in Central Asia also mainly belongs to IAC. In 1900s–1915, IAC just kept under control the works in this region, gathered and distributed local collections and stray finds through museums. Photographing of architectural, ethnographic and historical monuments was conducted. The first archaeological excavations are connected with the names of Nikolay Pantusov who investigated in 1860s–1890s Christian Nestorian cemeteries near the Syr-Darya River, and Nikolay Veselovsky who continued archaeological and architectural researches since 1884 until the beginning of the 20th century. In 1890 and 1896, Valentin Zhukovsky observed several archaeological sites. In the 1880s, Alexey Bobrinskoy and Vladimir Antonovich developed a program of interdisciplinary research in the field Slavic and medieval archaeology on the territory of Ukraine. Excavations of kurgans were started in the Dnieper River region, Bielorus' and Novgorod region. At Gnezdovo near Smolensk, the Commission organized in 1890s-1900s excavations of kurgans and the settlement which initiated researches in the Viking Age in Eastern Europe. The systematization of mediaeval Slavic archaeology was proposed by Alexander Spitsyn. Of note is the IAC's contribution to studies of mediaeval archaeological sites of Eastern Europe. These included the Malaya Pereshchepina hoard found in 1912 — the supposed funerary complex of Khan Kubrat, excavations of the settlement of Mayatskoe conducted by Nikolay Makarenko (1877–1938) in 1908–1909, sites of Ugro-Finnish and Baltic tribes — Lyadinsky and Lyutsinsky necropolis investigated in 1889–1891 by Evdokim Romanov (1855–1922), Vladimir Sizov (1840–1904), Vladimir Yastrebov (1855–1899) et al. The archaeology of the region of Perm of the 8th-9th centuries and sites of the Vyatka region also were included in the sphere of interests of IAC, inter alia due to the fact that a very rich collection of local archaeological materials belonged to Sergey Stroganov. Alexander Spitsyn proposed the first archaeological periodization of the Perm and Kama regions local history and distinguished a number of local archaeological cultures. By 1917, the Commission was a serious academic institution both in the branch of architectural and archaeological researches. It became the organizing centre of Russian archaeology actively collaborating with public structures and planning new directions of researches. It is exactly inside the academic community rather than at the communistic authority after the October 1917 that the idea sprang up to transform the Commission into the "Academy of Archaeological Sciences" in order to focus efforts of its members exclusively onto the scientific sphere. In October of 1918, Anatoly Lunacharsky (1875–1933) approves the new regulations of the Russian State Archaeological Commission. Nikolay Marr became its chairman whereas Alexey Bobrinskoy had to emigrate. On April 19, 1919, the decree on the foundation of the Russian Academy for the History of Material Culture was signed by the chairman of the Bolsheviks government Vladimir Ulyanov. In the early August, elections to the new Academy took place. The Academy was housed in the Marble Palace in Petrograd. We should regard August 7, 1919, as the first day of the Academy for the History of Material Culture and the last day of the history of the Archaeological Commission.On the basis of the Imperial Archaeological Commission and Academy for the History of Material Culture the modern archaeological institutions of Russia have emerged. The practices established by the Commission were put into the foundation of the present-day regulation of archaeological researches and the system of protection of archaeological sites. The experience of the Commission undoubtedly indicates that the protection of the cultural heritage may be effective only in the case where it is carried out within an academic system. The protection and restoration of historical monuments must be subdued to scientific goals and architectural researches. The role of IAC manifested in the establishing national archaeological and site protection systems of the European and Asiatic countries which once constituted the Russian Empire. The editorial activities of IAC have been reflected in 65 titles of periodicals and nonperiodicals: Reports of IAC, Proceedings of IAC, and Materials on the Archaeology of Russia etc. Nikodim Kondakov's publication "Russian Hoards" (1896) and Yakov Smirnov's "Oriental Silver" (1909) are special contributions to the Art history. The materials of IAC kept in the Manuscript and Photographic departments of Scientific archives of the Institute for the History of Material Culture, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint-Petersburg (9,030 files and over 100,000 photographic imprints and negatives) conceal unique possibilities for future scientific discoveries and constitute an invaluable contribution of the Commission to studies and preservation of archaeological and cultural heritage of the World.