Suchergebnisse

In Italy, among the priorities of the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (PNRR), a strategic position is taken by the tax reform, which is part of the actions to remedy the structural weaknesses of the country's system and to stimulate economic recovery after the Covid-19 crisis. In this context, in order to design a new tax structure, in terms of economic growth and competitiveness, a legislative rethink of indirect taxation of trusts and other destination constraints is desirable. 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Background Payments to healthcare providers create a set of economic incentives that influence their behavior, considerations and decision-making. Diagnosis related groups (DRGs) incentivize hospitals to (a) increase the number of cases; (b) increase the income per patient; and (c) reduce costs per patient. For each incentive there may be positive and negative consequences. For example, increasing the number of cases is a positive consequence if the procedures are clinically desirable and appropriate, and if they contribute to reducing waiting times and improving the efficiency of the hospital. However, if the hospital carries out unnecessary or inappropriate procedures, the financial incentive produces a negative result. Responses to economic incentives have important consequences on the patients' clinical outcomes and the providers' financial stability. A principal-agent relationship occurs when one individual (the principal) engages another (the agent), and delegates decision-making power to the agent to perform a service on its behalf. Physicians are perfect agents if they are fully committed to their patients. However, the reality is more complex, and physicians have a range of commitments and considerations, such as their own financial well-being or their organizations' objectives of fiscal equilibrium or profit maximization. Physicians and hospital managers are employed by hospitals and are supposed to act in the interest of their employer. At the same time, they are consulted by patients to make treatment decisions on their behalf. Thus, hospital professionals are "dual agents" because they must reconcile patients' clinical needs and the best treatment available with economic considerations. These simultaneous commitments are sometimes compatible, but may collide or create dilemmas. In some situations, these may result in distorted decision-making or professional burnout, but in others, professionals may be able to fulfill at least some of these considerations. When handled poorly, misaligned considerations may lead to improper care or unbalanced finances. In 2010, the Israel Ministry of Health intensified the adoption of a local variant of DRGs, known as Procedure-Related Group (PRGs) based payments. The main difference between the methods is that while DRGs classify patients based on the main diagnosis, PRGs classify them based on the main procedure performed, and are not adjusted to case-mix or severity of case like DRGs. The PRG reform opened a window of opportunity to study these new economic incentives, and how they impact hospital activities and health professionals' considerations, decision-making, and behavior. The reform created a "natural experiment" that enabled comparison between "before with per diem payments" and "after with PRGs" at various levels. It also made possible a set of interesting comparisons between the Israeli PRG and other countries' DRG-based payments. Objectives This dissertation had four main objectives: 1. To analyze the effects of the PRG reform on hospital activities, as measured by the number of patients and lengths of stay at the ward level. 2. To examine the impact of the introduction of PRG-based payments on average length of stay (ALoS) at the procedure level. 3. To examine the impact of PRG payments from the perspectives of hospital professionals (managers and physicians). Specifically, the goal was to explore which economic incentives were created by the reform, how it affected admission and treatment decision-making, clinical practice, what changes occurred and how hospitals as organizations responded to the payment reform. 4. To examine how hospital professionals work to balance and reconcile clinical and economic considerations in their decision-making in two countries with activity-based payment systems. Methods A mixed-methods design was applied. Sections ‎5.1 and 5.2, which are quantitative, examined the effect of the adoption of PRGs on hospital activity as measured by number of patients and ALoS. We analyzed inpatient data provided by the Ministry of Health from all 29 public hospitals in Israel between 2005 and 2016. In section ‎5.1, the observations were made at the level of hospital wards, as proxies for clinical fields. We used difference-in-differences analyses, where the intervention group was surgical wards for which many PRG codes were created between 2010-2013, and the control group was surgical wards for which no PRG codes were created. In section 5.2 the unit of analysis was 14 procedures. We employed a mixed-effects duration analysis approach to address the strictly non-negative and right-skewed ALoS data. We opted for a Bayesian approach to estimate the relative change in ALoS. Since a quantitative analysis may not capture all the impacts of the payment reform, we expanded the data collection and analysis by applying a qualitative approach. In sections ‎5.3 and ‎5.4 we examined the perspectives of hospital professionals in terms of the effects of the PRGs' economic incentives and impact. Data were collected through semi-structured in-depth interviews with hospital directors (chief executive officers [CEOs] and chief financial officers [CFOs]), chief physicians and physicians in five Israeli and five German hospitals, purposefully sampled by maximum variation. The interviews were conducted between December 2017 and August 2018 in Israel, and between March and August 2019 in Germany. We interviewed 33 hospital professionals from Israel and 13 from Germany. We used thematic analysis that also involved intercoder reliability and triangulation. Results The findings detailed in section ‎5.1 revealed that discharges increased more in the control group wards (surgical wards for which no new PRG code was created) than in the intervention wards as a group (surgical wards where many new PRG codes were created). However, a more in-depth analysis of each intervention ward separately indicated that discharges increased in some, but decreased in other wards. The ALoS decreased more in intervention wards from 3.85 to 3.59 days, which represents 6%, compared to 1% in the control group. Difference-in-differences results suggested no causality between the PRG payment reform and changes in inpatient activity. The study reported in Section 5.2 showed that when refining the unit of analysis to procedures (instead of wards), the changes became more visible. Length of stay declined in half of the procedures analyzed, and in particular in six out of seven urological procedures. In these procedures, there was a 14% average reduction in ALoS, which ranged from 11% to 20%. In section ‎5.3, hospital professionals reported that the payment reform led to organizational changes such as increased transparency due to better reporting of activity and enhanced supervision of activities by the MoH and hospital managers. The interviewees also reported several steps taken in response. These included (1) shifting activities to afterhours and using operating rooms more efficiently to enable increased surgical activity; (2) reducing costs by shortening lengths of stay, as well as cost-consciousness in procurement; and (3) increasing revenues by improving coding and a more judicious selection of procedures. Respondents also reported moderating factors that reduced the effects of the reform. For example, organizational factors such as the public nature of hospitals or the (un)availability of healthcare resources did not always allow hospitals to increase the number of cases treated. In addition, conflicting incentives such as multiple payment mechanisms or the underpricing of procedures tended to blur the incentives of the reform. Finally, managers and physicians noted that they have many other considerations that outweigh economic issues. Compared to managers, clinicians were more careful with the economic incentives in their daily work. Extending the latter conclusion in section ‎5.3, section ‎5.4 reports on how hospital professionals, as "dual agents" attempt to re-equilibrate misaligned considerations in Israel and Germany. The focus was on dilemmas between clinical and economic considerations, and strategies to mitigate them. Hospital professionals report many situations in which activity-based payment incentives, proper treatment, and clinical and economic considerations are aligned. In this case, efficiency can be improved; e.g., by curbing unnecessary expenditures, or specializing in certain procedures. When considerations misalign, the hospital professionals identified a range of strategies that can contribute to reducing dilemmas in decision-making or reconciling competing considerations. These included 'reshaping management', such as planning the treatment ahead and improving the coding, and 'reframing decision-making', which involves working with averages and developing toolkits for decision-making. Discussion In this dissertation, we evaluated the direct and indirect impact of PRGs on providers; namely, both the hospital as an organization and its professionals. Through a case study of the hospital payment reform in Israel, we analyzed the economic incentives created and subsequent responses at different levels: the ward, the procedure, the manager and the physician. The quantitative analysis did not suggest causality between the PRG payment reform and changes in inpatient activity at the ward level. However, a more fine-grained analysis at the procedure level found decreases in ALoS in half of the procedures under consideration. This might have freed resources to treat more patients, which may have reduced waiting times. It may have been easier to reduce ALoS in the urological procedures since these had relatively long initial ALoS. The factors that may have hampered the effects of the reform as measured by the number of patients and ALoS emerged to reflect inadequate pricing of procedures, and conflicting incentives created by other co-existing hospital-payment components such as caps and retrospective subsidies. Stretched hospital resources may have also blunted the hospitals' ability to reduce ALoS. Secondly, the findings from the qualitative methodology indicated that PRG payments affected the organizational dynamics of the hospitals and altered decision-making on admission and treatment policies. The findings also unpacked potential explanations to the (apparently) mitigated effects of the payment reform in the quantitative analysis. The perspectives of a range of Israeli hospital professionals at various levels (CEOs, CFOs, ward directors, physicians) helped clarify that the potential effects were moderated by many other factors such as organizational characteristics, conflicting incentives, and other considerations that outweighed the economic issues. These explanations can also account for the inconclusive evaluations of payment reforms in other countries. Finally, the results suggested that the misalignment between economic and clinical considerations may not be necessarily negative if professionals manage to balance and reconcile them. Context is important in determining whether considerations are aligned or not. Reconciling strategies are fragile and can be easily disrupted as a function of the context. Creating toolkits for better decision-making such as clear criteria or clinical guidelines, planning the treatment course in advance to reduce waste, working with averages, and having interdisciplinary teams to think together about ways to improve efficiency can help mitigate the dilemmas of hospital professionals. Different actors had different approaches regarding reconciling strategies. While physicians focused more on the clinical practice and how to solve dilemmas at the patient level (e.g., reducing LoS), chief physicians could take into consideration the entire ward and "work with averages", and CEOs could rethink the coding policy. Yet, professionals in all roles developed strategies to mitigate dilemmas. Similarly, in some cases, actors in the different countries had also different approaches and some reconciliation strategies depended on the context. For example, specialization in specific clinical fields was reported only by German participants in small hospitals. Israeli professionals are more used to work under pressure and resource constraints than their German colleagues, and are therefore less critical about "working faster". Yet, comparing Germany to Israel also highlights the fundamentally similar dilemmas faced by hospital professionals, despite different levels of resources, as well as commonalities in reconciliation strategies Conclusions and recommendations for policymakers Payment reforms for health providers such as hospitals need to consider the entire provider market, available resources, other – potentially conflicting – payment components, and the various parties involved and their interests. When designing and implementing payment reforms for health providers, policymakers need to pay attention to moderating factors that may blunt the reform's intended objectives. Economic incentives are important tools that shape hospital professionals' decision-making, but they are not the only ones. The commitment to the patients, their families, managerial needs and prestige are other considerations that matter. As "dual agents", managers and physicians may face difficult dilemmas when attempting to disentangle these considerations. Decision-makers and managers can help overcome these dilemmas, and support professionals to make optimal clinical and economic decisions. ; Hintergrund Zahlungen an Leistungserbringer im Gesundheitswesen beinhalten eine Reihe von ökonomischen Anreizen, die deren Verhalten, Überlegungen und Entscheidungen beeinflussen. DRGs setzen Anreize für Krankenhäuser, (a) die Anzahl der Fälle zu erhöhen; (b) die Einnahmen pro Patient zu erhöhen; und (c) die Kosten pro Patient zu senken. Alle diese Anreize können sowohl zu positiven als auch zu negativen Konsequenzen führen. Zum Beispiel ist die Erhöhung der Fallzahl eine positive Konsequenz, wenn die Eingriffe klinisch wünschenswert und richtig sind und wenn sie dazu beitragen, die Wartezeiten zu reduzieren und die Effizienz des Krankenhauses zu verbessern. Wenn das Krankenhaus jedoch unnötige oder unangemessene Eingriffe durchführt, dann hat der finanzielle Anreiz eine negative Folge. Eine Prinzipal-Agenten-Beziehung liegt vor, wenn eine Person (der Prinzipal) eine andere Person (den Agenten) beauftragt und dem Agenten die Entscheidungsbefugnis überträgt, eine Aufgabe in seinem Namen durchzuführen. Ärzte sind perfekte Agenten, wenn sie sich voll und ganz für ihre Patienten einsetzen. Die Realität ist jedoch komplexer, und Ärzte haben verschiedene Verpflichtungen und Überlegungen, wie z. B. ihr eigenes finanzielles Wohlergehen oder die Ziele ihrer Organisationen in Bezug auf finanzielles Gleichgewicht oder Gewinnmaximierung. Ärzte und Krankenhausmanager sind bei Krankenhäusern angestellt und sollen im Interesse des Arbeitgebers handeln. Gleichzeitig werden sie von Patienten konsultiert, um Behandlungsentscheidungen in deren Namen zu treffen. Damit sind Angestellte im Krankenhaus "duale Agenten", weil sie die klinischen Bedürfnisse der Patienten und die beste verfügbare Behandlung mit wirtschaftlichen Überlegungen in Einklang bringen müssen. Diese gleichzeitigen Verpflichtungen sind manchmal miteinander vereinbar, können aber auch kollidieren oder Dilemmata erzeugen. In manchen Situationen können Dilemmata zu einer verzerrten Entscheidungsfindung oder einem Burnout führen, aber in anderen Situationen können Angestellte in der Lage sein, die Überlegungen miteinander in Einklang zu bringen. Im Jahr 2010 verstärkte das israelische Gesundheitsministerium die Einführung einer lokalen Variante der DRGs, der Procedure-Related Groups (PRGs) basierten Vergütung. Die PRG-Reform eröffnete die Möglichkeit, die geschaffenen ökonomischen Anreize zu erforschen und zu untersuchen, wie sich diese auf die Aktivitäten der Krankenhäuser und die Überlegungen, Entscheidungen und das Verhalten des medizinischen Personals auswirken. Die Reform schaffte ein "natürliches Experiment", das einen Vergleich zwischen "vorher mit Tagespauschalen" und "nachher mit PRGs" auf verschiedenen Ebenen ermöglicht. Es erlaubt auch einen interessanten Vergleich zwischen der israelischen PRGs mit den DRG-basierten Vergütungssystemen anderer Länder. Zielsetzungen Diese Dissertation hat vier Hauptziele: 1. Die Analyse der Auswirkungen der PRG-Reform auf die Krankenhausaktivitäten, gemessen an der Anzahl der Patienten und der Verweildauer auf Stationsebene 2. Die Untersuchung der Auswirkungen der Einführung von PRG-basierten Vergütungen auf die durchschnittliche Verweildauer auf der Prozedurenebene 3. Die Untersuchung der Auswirkungen der PRG-Zahlungen aus der Perspektive der Krankenhausmitarbeiter (Manager und Ärzte). Insbesondere soll untersucht werden, welche ökonomischen Anreize die Reform schuf, wie sie die Aufnahme- und Behandlungsentscheidungen sowie die klinische Praxis beeinflusste, welche Veränderungen auftraten und wie Krankenhäuser als Organisationen auf die Vergütungsreform reagierten. 4. Die Untersuchung, wie Krankenhausfachkräfte klinische und ökonomische Überlegungen bei ihren Entscheidungen in zwei Ländern mit aktivitätsbezogenen Vergütungssystemen abwägen und miteinander in Einklang bringen. Methoden Ich habe verschiedene Methoden angewandt. Kapitel 5.1 und 5.2 basieren auf quantitativen Analysen und untersuchen den Effekt der Einführung von PRGs auf die Krankenhausaktivität, gemessen an der Anzahl der Patienten und der Aufenthaltsdauer. Wir analysierten stationäre Daten, die vom Gesundheitsministerium aus allen 29 öffentlichen Krankenhäusern in Israel für die Jahre 2005-2016 bereitgestellt wurden. In Kapitel 5.1 waren die Beobachtungseinheiten Krankenhausabteilungen. Wir verwendeten Difference-in-Difference-Analysen, wobei die Interventionsgruppe chirurgische Stationen waren, für die viele PRG-Codes zwischen 2010-2013 erstellt wurden, und die Kontrollgruppe chirurgische Stationen, für die keine PRG-Codes erstellt wurden. In Kapitel 5.2 waren die Einheit der Analyse 14 Prozeduren. Wir verwendeten einen Mixed-Effects-Duration-Analysis-Ansatz, um die streng nicht-negativen und rechtsschiefen Verweildauer-Daten (LoS) zu berücksichtigen. Wir haben uns für einen Bayes'schen Ansatz entschieden, um die relative Veränderung der LoS zu schätzen. Da die quantitative Analyse möglicherweise nicht alle Auswirkungen der Vergütungsreform erfasst, haben wir die Datenerhebung und -analyse durch die Anwendung eines qualitativen Ansatzes erweitert. In den Kapiteln 5.3 und 5.4 wurden die Perspektiven von Krankenhausfachleuten hinsichtlich der Auswirkungen der ökonomischen Anreize und Effekte der PRGs untersucht. Die Daten wurden durch halbstrukturierte Tiefeninterviews mit Krankenhausdirektoren (CEOs und CFOs), Chefärzten und Ärzten in fünf israelischen und fünf deutschen Krankenhäusern erhoben, die gezielt nach maximaler Variation ausgewählt wurden. Die Interviews fanden zwischen Dezember 2017 und August 2018 in Israel und zwischen März und August 2019 in Deutschland statt. Wir befragten 33 Krankenhausmitarbeiter aus Israel und 13 aus Deutschland. Wir verwendeten eine thematische Analyse und bezogen Intercoder-Reliabilität und Triangulation mit ein. Ergebnisse Die Ergebnisse aus Kapitel 5.1 zeigen, dass die Entlassungen auf den Stationen der Kontrollgruppe (chirurgische Stationen, für die kein neuer PRG-Code erstellt wurde) stärker zunahmen als auf den Stationen der Interventionsgruppe (chirurgische Stationen, auf denen viele neue PRG-Codes erstellt wurden). Eine verfeinerte Analyse jeder behandelten Station separat zeigt jedoch, dass die Entlassungen in einigen Stationen zunahmen, in anderen jedoch abnahmen. Die durchschnittliche Verweildauer (ALoS) nahm auf den Stationen der Interventionsgruppe stärker ab. Die Difference-in-Differences-Ergebnisse konnten keine Kausalität zwischen der PRG-Reform und den Veränderungen der stationären Aktivität nahelegen. Kapitel 5.2 zeigt, dass bei einer Verfeinerung der Analyseeinheit auf Prozeduren (anstelle von Stationen) die Veränderungen deutlicher sichtbar sind. Bei der Hälfte der analysierten Prozeduren ging der LoS zurück, insbesondere bei sechs von sieben urologischen Prozeduren. Bei diesen Prozeduren gab es eine durchschnittliche Reduzierung des LoS um 14%, die zwischen 11% und 20% lag. In Kapitel 5.3 berichteten die Krankenhausberufe, dass die Vergütungsreform zu organisatorischen Veränderungen wie erhöhter Transparenz und verbesserter Überwachung führte. Die Befragten berichteten auch über verschiedene Maßnahmen als Reaktion. Dazu gehörten (1) die Verlagerung von Aktivitäten in den Feierabend und die effizientere Nutzung von Operationssälen (OPs), um eine erhöhte chirurgische Aktivität zu ermöglichen; (2) die Reduzierung von Kosten durch Verkürzung der Verweildauer und Kostenbewusstsein bei der Beschaffung; und (3) die Steigerung der Erlöse durch verbesserte Kodierung und Auswahl von Verfahren. Die Befragten berichteten auch von moderierenden Faktoren, die die Auswirkungen der Reform reduzierten. Zum Beispiel erlaubten organisatorische Faktoren wie der öffentliche Charakter von Krankenhäusern oder die (Un-)Verfügbarkeit von Gesundheitsressourcen den Krankenhäusern nicht immer, die Anzahl der behandelten Fälle zu erhöhen. Auch widersprüchliche Anreize unterschiedlicher Vergütungsmechanismen oder die zu niedrig angesetzten Preise von bestimmten PRGs reduzierten die Anreize der Reform. Schließlich berücksichtigen Manager und Ärzte bei ihren Entscheidungen viele unterschiedliche Überlegungen, die die ökonomischen häufig überwiegen. Im Anschluss an die letzte Erkenntnis aus Kapitel 5.3 berichtet Kapitel 5.4 darüber, wie Krankenhausmitarbeiter in Israel und Deutschland als "duale Agenten" zwischen den unterschiedlichen Überlegungen abwägen. Der Fokus lag auf klinischen und ökonomischen Erwägungen und den verwendeten Strategien, um Dilemmata zwischen ihnen zu entschärfen. Krankenhausmitarbeiter berichten von vielen Situationen, in denen die Vergütung Anreize für eine angemessene Behandlung bietet und klinische und wirtschaftliche Überlegungen in Einklang stehen. Dies ist der Fall, wenn die Effizienz verbessert werden kann, z.B. durch die Eindämmung unnötiger Ausgaben oder die Spezialisierung auf bestimmte Verfahren. Für Situationen, in denen die klinischen und wirtschaftlichen Überlegungen nicht übereinstimmen, haben Krankenhausmitarbeiter eine Reihe von Strategien identifiziert, die dazu beitragen können, die gegensätzlichen Überlegungen in Einklang zu bringen. Diese Strategien beinhalten: 'Umgestaltung des Managements', wie z.B. die Planung der Behandlung im Voraus und die Verbesserung der Kodierung; und 'Reframing der Entscheidungsfindung', was die Arbeit mit Durchschnittswerten und die Entwicklung von Tool-Kits für die Entscheidungsfindung beinhaltet. Diskussion In dieser Dissertation habe ich die direkten und indirekten Auswirkungen von PRGs auf die Leistungserbringer untersucht, sowohl auf das Krankenhaus als Organisation als auch auf seine Fachkräfte. Anhand der Fallstudie der Krankenhausvergütungsreform in Israel analysierte ich die geschaffenen ökonomischen Anreize und die nachfolgenden Reaktionen auf verschiedenen Ebenen: der Station, dem Verfahren, dem Manager und dem Arzt. Die quantitative Analyse konnte keine Kausalität zwischen der PRG-Vergütungsreform und Veränderungen der stationären Aktivität auf der Stationsebene aufzeigen. Eine verfeinerte Analyse auf der Prozedurenebene fand jedoch bei der Hälfte der analysierten Prozeduren einen Rückgang der LoS. Dies könnte Ressourcen freigesetzt haben, um mehr Patienten zu behandeln, was die Wartezeiten reduziert haben könnte. Möglicherweise war es einfacher, die LoS bei den urologischen Prozeduren zu reduzieren, da diese ursprünglich relativ lange LoS aufwiesen. Faktoren, die die Auswirkungen der Reform, gemessen an der Anzahl der Patienten und der LoS, behindert haben könnten, sind nicht sachgerecht kalkulierte Preise und widersprüchliche Anreize, die durch andere, nebeneinander bestehende Komponenten der Krankenhausvergütung, wie z. B. Obergrenzen und rückwirkende Zuschüsse, geschaffen wurden. Angespannte Krankenhausressourcen könnten auch die Fähigkeit der Krankenhäuser, die LoS zu reduzieren, beeinträchtigt haben. Zweitens fand ich mit qualitativen Methoden heraus, dass die PRG-Zahlungen die organisatorische Dynamik der Krankenhäuser beeinflussten und die Entscheidungsfindung über die Aufnahme- und Behandlungspolitik veränderten. Die Ergebnisse dieser zweiten Analyse enthüllten auch mögliche Erklärungen für die (scheinbar) uneindeutigen Effekte der Vergütungsreform, die in der quantitativen Analyse berichtet wurden. Durch die Perspektiven von israelischen Krankenhausmitarbeitern aus verschiedenen Ebenen (CEOs, CFOs, Stationsleiter, Ärzte) verstanden wir, dass mögliche Effekte von vielen verschiedenen Faktoren wie organisatorische Eigenschaften, widersprüchliche Anreize und andere Überlegungen, die die wirtschaftlichen überwiegen, beeinflusst wurden. Diese Erklärungen können möglicherweise die Ergebnisse bestehender Evaluierungen von Vergütungsreformen in anderen Ländern erklären, in denen keine signifikanten Effekte festgestellt wurden. Schließlich habe ich gelernt, dass ein (scheinbarer) Konflikt zwischen ökonomischen und klinischen Erwägungen nicht zwangsläufig negativ ist, wenn es den Fachleuten gelingt, sie auszubalancieren und in Einklang zu bringen. Der Kontext ist wichtig, um festzustellen, ob die Überlegungen aufeinander abgestimmt sind oder nicht. Strategien zur Vereinbarkeit sind fragil und können je nach Kontext leicht gestört werden. Die Erstellung von Tool-Kits für eine bessere Entscheidungsfindung, die Planung des Behandlungsverlaufs im Voraus, die Arbeit mit Durchschnittswerten und interdisziplinäre Teams, die gemeinsam über Wege zur Verbesserung der Effizienz nachdenken, können dazu beitragen, die Dilemmata des Krankenhauspersonals zu mildern. Schlussfolgerungen und Empfehlungen für politische Entscheidungsträger Vergütungsreformen für Leistungserbringer wie Krankenhäuser müssen den gesamten Leistungserbringermarkt, die verfügbaren Ressourcen, andere - möglicherweise widersprüchliche - Vergütungskomponenten sowie die verschiedenen beteiligten Parteien und ihre Interessen berücksichtigen. Bei der Gestaltung und Umsetzung von Vergütungsreformen für Leistungserbringer muss die Politik auf moderierende Faktoren achten. Ökonomische Anreize sind wichtige Instrumente, die die Entscheidungsfindung von Krankenhausmitarbeitern beeinflussen, aber nicht die einzigen. Das Engagement für die Patienten, die Bedürfnisse des Managements und das Prestige sind weitere Überlegungen, die eine Rolle spielen. Als "duale Agenten" können Manager und Ärzte vor schwierigen Dilemmata zwischen diesen Überlegungen stehen. Entscheidungsträger und Manager können dazu beitragen, diese Dilemmata zu entschärfen, und die Fachkräfte dabei unterstützen, optimale klinische und wirtschaftliche Entscheidungen zu treffen.

This is the preliminary publication of the collection of artefacts found in the burial ground near to Komarovka of the Ulyanovsk region. The items came from a cremation burial destroyed by treasure-hunters. A long single-edged blade, a spearhead and a combat knife, as well as elements of horse harness, and garnets, form the set of artefacts. As it is clear from their condition, the grave goods were intentionally damaged in the past as a part of the rite. We date this artefact complex to the middle or to the second half of the 6th c. CE. The fact that the burial includes a blade, as well as some specifi cities of the funeral rite, makes it unique for the Imen'kovo culture. Northern Caucasus and the Danube are the regions where one can fi nd the analogues for the artifacts included in Komarovka burial set. We suggest their introduction to the Middle Volga could be related to cultural interactions of when the Avarian and Turkic Khaganates established. The same processes started the formation of new military equipment of the Imen'kovo population which included melee weapons and plate armor as well, in addition to bow and arrows. ; Статья посвящена предварительной публикации набора артефактов из грунтового могильника у с. Комаровка Ульяновской области. Предметы происходят из разрушенного несанкционированными раскопками погребения, совершенного по обряду кремации с преднамеренным повреждением погребального инвентаря. В состав анализируемого комплекса входят длинный однолезвийный клинок, наконечник копья и боевой нож, а также предметы конского снаряжения, украшения и детали костюма. Вероятная датировка комплекса - середина - вторая половина VI в. н.э. Наличие клинкового оружия и особенности погребального обряда делают публикуемый комплекс уникальным для именьковской культуры. Аналогии составляющим его артефактам обнаруживаются в материалах Северного Кавказа и Подунавья, а также Западной Сибири. Появление их в Среднем Поволжье может быть связано с культурными взаимодействиями периода формирования Аварского и Тюркского каганатов. С этими же событиями, вероятно, связано складывание нового набора военного снаряжения именьковского населения, включающего, наряду с луком и стрелами, оружие ближнего боя и пластинчатый доспех. Библиографические ссылки Айбабин А.И. Крым в середине III - начале VI века (период миграций) // Крым, Северо-Восточное Причерноморье и Закавказье в эпоху средневековья IV-XIII века. М.: Наука, 2003. С. 10−26. Альбом древностей мордовского народа / под ред. Института истории Академии наук СССР. Саранск: Издание Мордовского научно-исследовательского института, 1941. 137 с. Аксенов В.С. К вопросу об уровне вооруженности населения салтовской культуры (по материалам погребений с сожжением Сухогомольшанского и Красногорского могильников) // Вісник Харківського державного університету. 1998. № 413: Історія. Вип. 30. С. 39−51. Аксенов B.C., Михеев В.К. 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The research activity carried out during the three years of the PhD course attended, at the Engineering Department of the University of Palermo, was aimed at the identification of an alternative predictive model able to solve the traditional building thermal balance in a simple but reliable way, speeding up any first phase of energy planning. Nowadays, worldwide directives aimed at reducing energy consumptions and environmental impacts have focused the attention of the scientific community on improving energy efficiency in the building sector. The reduction of energy consumption and CO2 emissions for heating and cooling needs of buildings is an important challenge for the European Union, because the buildings sector contributes up to 36% of the global CO2 emissions [1] and up to 40% of total primary energy consumptions [2]. Despite the ambitious goals set by the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) at the European level [1], which states that, by 2020, all new buildings and existing buildings undergoing major refurbishments will have to be Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB) [3,4], the critical challenge remains the improvement of the efficiency when upgrading the existing building stock to standards of the NZEB level [5]. The improvement of the energy efficiency of buildings and their operational energy usage should be estimated early in the design phase to guarantee a reduction in energy consumption, so buildings can be as sustainable as possible [6]. While a newly constructed NZEB can employ the "state of the art" of available efficient technologies and design practices, the optimization of existing buildings requires better efforts [7]. One way or the other, the identification of the best energy retrofit actions or the choice of a better technological solution to plan a building is not so simple. It has become one of the main objectives of several research studies, which require deep knowledge in the field of the building energy balance. The building thermal balance includes all sources and sinks of energy, as well as all energy that flows through its envelope. More in detail, the energy demand in buildings depends on the combination of several parameters, such as climate, envelope features, occupant behaviour and intended use. Indeed, the assessment of building energy performance requires substantial input data describing structures, environmental conditions [8], thermo-physical properties of the envelope, geometry, control strategies, and several other parameters. From the first design phases designers and researchers, which are trying to respect the prescriptions of the EPBD directive and to simultaneously ensure the thermal comfort of the occupants, must optimize all possible aspects that represent the key points in the building energy balance. As will be shown in Chapter A, the literature offers highly numerous complex and simplified resolution approaches [9]. Some are based on knowledge of the building thermal balance and on the resolution of physical equations; others are based on cumulated building data and on implementations of forecast models developed by machine-learning techniques [10]. Several numerical approaches are most widespread; these have undergone testing and implementing in specialised software tools such as DOE-2 [11], Energy Plus [12], TRNSYS [13] and ESP-r [14]. Such building modelling software can be employed in several ways on different scales; they can be simplified [15,16] or detailed comprehensively by different methods and numerical approaches [17]. Nevertheless, they are often characterised by a lack of a common language, which constitutes an obstacle for making a suitable choice. It is often more convenient to accelerate the building thermal needs evaluation and use the simplified methods and models. For example, a steady state approach for the evaluation of thermal loads is characterised by a good level of accuracy and low computational costs. However, its main limitation is that some phenomenon, such as the thermal inertia of the building envelope/structure, may be completely neglected. On the other hand, the choice of a more complex solution, such as the dynamic approach, uses very elaborate physical functions to evaluate the energy consumption of buildings. Although these dynamic simulation tools are effective and accurate, they have some practical difficulties such as collecting detailed building data and/or evaluating the proper boundary conditions. The use of these tools normally requires an expert user and a careful calibration of the model and do not provide a generalised response for a group of buildings with the same simulation, because they support a specific answer to a specific problem. Meanwhile the lack of precise input can lead to low-accuracy simulation. Anyway, in all cases it is necessary to be an expert user to implement, solve and evaluate the results, and these phases are not fast and not always immediately provide the correct evaluation, conducting the user to restart the entire procedure. In the field of energy planning, in order to identify energy efficiency actions aimed at a particular context, could be more convenient to speed up the preliminary assessment phase resorting to a simplified model that allows the evaluation of thermal energy demand with a good level of accuracy and without excessive computational cost or user expertise. The aim of this research, conducted during the three years of the PhD studies, is based on the idea of overcoming the limits previously indicated developing a reliable and a simple building energy tool or an evaluation model capable of helping an unskilled user at least in the first evaluation phase. To achieve this purpose, the first part of the research was characterised of an in-depth study of the sector bibliography with the analysis of the most widespread and used methods aimed at solving the thermal balance of buildings. After a brief distinction of the analysed methods in White, Black and Grey Box category, it was possible to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of each one [9]. Based on the analysis of this study, some alternative methods have been investigated. In detail, the idea was to investigate several Black-Box approaches; mainly used to deduce prediction models from a relevant database. This category does not require any information about physical phenomena but are based on a function deduced only by means of sample data connected to each other and which describes the behaviour of a specific system. Therefore, it is fundamental the presence of a suitable and well-set database that characterise the problem, so that the output data are strongly related to one or more input data. The completely absence of this information and the great difficulty in finding data, has led to the creation of a basic energy database which, under certain hypotheses, is representative of a specific building stock. For this reason, in the first step of this research was developed a generic building energy database that in a reliable way, and underlining the main features of the thermal balance, issues information about the energy performances. In detail, two energy building databases representative of a non-residential building-stock located in the European and Italian territory have been created. Starting from a well-known and calibrated Base-Case dynamic model, which simulates the actual behaviour of a non-residential building located in Palermo, it was created an Ideal Building representative of a new non-residential building designed with high energy performances in accordance whit the highest standard requirements of the European Community. Taking into consideration the differences existing in the regulations and technical standards about the building energy performance of various European countries, several detailed dynamic simulation models were developed. Moreover, to consider different climatic characteristics, different locations were evaluated for each country or thermal zone which represent the hottest, the coolest and the mildest climate. The shape factor of buildings, which represents the ratio between the total of the loss surfaces to the gross heated volume of a building, was varied from 0.24 to 0.90. To develop a representative database where the data that identify the building conditions are the inputs of the model linked to an output that describes the energy performances it was decided to develop a parametric simulation. In detail different transmittance values, boundary conditions, construction materials, and energy carriers were chosen and employed to model representative building stocks of European and Italian cities for different climatic zones, weather conditions, and shape factor; all details and the main features are described in Chapter B. These two databases were used to investigated three alternative methods to solve the building thermal balance; these are: • Multi Linear Regression (MLR): identification of some simple correlations that uses well known parameters in every energy diagnosis [18–20]; • Buckingham Method (BM): definition of dimensionless numbers that synthetically describe the relationships between the main characteristic parameters of the thermal balance [21]; and • Artificial Neural Network (ANN): Application of a specific Artificial Intelligence (AI) to determine the thermal needs of a [22] building. These methods, belonging to the Black-Box category, permit solving a complex problem easier with respect to the White-Box methods because they do not require any information about physical phenomena and expert user skills. Only a small amount of data on well-known parameters that represent the thermal balance of a building is required. The first analysed alternative method was the MLR, described in Chapter C. This approach allowed to develop a simple model that guarantees a quick evaluation of building energy needs [19] and is often used as a predictive tool. It is reliable and, at the same time, easy to use even for a non-expert user since an in-depth knowledge in the use phase is not needed, and computational costs are low. Moreover, the presence of an accurate input analysis guarantees greater speed and simplicity in the data collection phase [23]. The basis for this model is the linear regression among the variables to forecast and two or more explanatory variables. The feasibility and reliability of MLR models is demonstrated by the publication of the main achieved results in international journals. At first, the MLR method was applied on a dataset that considered heating energy consumptions for three configurations of non-residential buildings located in seven European countries. In this way, it was developed a specific equation for each country and three equations that describe each climatic region identified by a cluster analysis; these results were published in [19]. In a second work [18], it was applied the same methodology to a set of data referring to buildings located in the Italian peninsula. In this case, three building analysed configurations, in accordance to Italian legislative requirements regarding the construction of high energy performance buildings, have been employed. The achievement of the generalised results along with a high level of reliability it was achieved by diversifying each individual model according to its climate zone. It was provided an equation for each climate zone along with a unique equation applicable to the entire peninsula, obviously with different degrees of reliability. An improved version of the latest work concerning the Italian case study appeared in the paper published in [20]. The revised model provided an ability to predict the energy needs for both heating and cooling. Furthermore, to simplify the data retrieval phase that is required for the use of the developed MLR tool, an input selection analysis based on the Pearson coefficient has been performed. In this way the explanatory variables, needful for an optimal identification of thermal loads, have been identified. Finally, a comprehensive statistical analysis of errors ensured high reliability. The second analysed alternative method represents an innovative approach in developing a flexible and efficient tool in the building energy forecast framework. This tool predicts the energy performance of a building based some dimensionless parameters implemented through the application of the Buckingham theorem. A detailed description of the methodology and results is discussed in the Chapter D and is also published in [21]. The Buckingham theorem represents a key theorem of the dimensional analysis since it is able to define the dimensionless parameters representing the building balance [24]. These parameters define the relationships between the descriptive variables and the fundamental dimensions. Such a dimensional analysis guarantees that the relationship between physical quantities remains valid, even if there is a variation of the magnitudes of the base units of measurement [25]. The dimensional analysis represents a good model to simplify a problem by means of the dimensional homogeneity and, therefore, the consequent reduction in the number of variables. Therefore, this model works well with different applications such as forecasting, planning, control, diagnostics and monitoring in different sectors. The application of the BM for predicting the energy performance of buildings determined nine ad hoc dimensionless numbers. The identification of a set of criteria and a critical analysis of the results allowed to immediately determine thought the dimensionless numbers and without using any software tool, the heating energy demand with a reliability of over 90%. Furthermore, the validation of the proposed methodology was carried out by comparing the heating energy demand that was calculated by a detailed and accurate dynamic simulation. The last Black-Box examined model was the application of Artificial Neural Networks. The ANNs are the most widely used data mining models, characterised by one of the highest levels of accuracy with respect to other methods but generally have higher computational costs in the developing phase [26]. The design of a neural network, inspired by the behaviour of the human brain, involves the large number of suitably connected nodes (neurons) that, upon applications of simple mathematical operations, influence the learning ability of the network itself [27]. Also in this case, as described in Chapter E, this methodology was applied at the two different energy databases. In [22], the ANN was used to predict the demand for thermal energy linked to the winter climatization of non-residential buildings located in European context, while in another work under review, the ANN was used to determine the heating and cooling energy demand of a representative Italian building stock. The validation of the ANNs was carried out by using a set of data corresponding to 15% of the initial set which were not used to train the ANNs. The obtained good results (determination coefficient values higher than 0.95 and Mean Absolute Percentage Error lower than 10%) show the suitability of the calculation model based on the use of adaptive systems for the evaluation of energy performance of buildings. Simultaneously, a deep analysis of the investigated problem, underlines how to determine the thermal behaviour of a building trough Black-Box models, particular attention must be paid to the choice of an accurate climate database that along with thermophysical characteristics, strongly influence the thermal behaviour of a building [9]. In detail, to develop a predictive model of thermal needs, it is also necessary to pay close attention to the climate aspects. In the literature, many studies use the degree day (DD) to predict building energy demand, but this assessment, through the use of a climatic index, is correct only if its determination is a function of the same weather data used for the model implementation. Otherwise, the predictive model is generally affected by a greater evaluation error; all these aspects are deeply discussed analysing a specific Italian case study in Chapter F, and the main results are published in [8]. The results achieved during the three years of PhD research, make it possible to affirm that each model can be used to solve thermal building balance by knowing merely a few parameters representative of the analysed problem. Nonetheless, some questions may be asked: Which of these models can be identified as the most efficient solution? Is it possible to compare the performances of these models? Is it possible to choose the most efficient model based on some specific phase in the evaluation? To attempt to answer these questions, during the research period it was decided to compare the three selected alternative models by applying a Multi Criteria Analysis (MCA), that explicitly evaluates multiple criteria in decision-making. It is a useful decision support tool to apply to many complex decisions by choosing among several alternatives. The idea rising thanks to the scientific collaboration with the VGTU University of Vilnius, Lithuanian, in the person of Prof. A. Kaklauskas and Prof. L. Tupènaitè, experts in the field of multi-criteria analysis. At the first time a multi-criteria procedure was applied to determine the most efficient alternative model among some resolution procedures of a building's energy balance. This application required extra effort in defining the criteria and identifying a team of experts. To apply the MCA, it was necessary to identify the salient phases of the evaluation procedure to explain the most sensitive criteria for acquiring conscious, truthful answers that only a pool of experts in the field can provide. Details of this work were carried out during the period of one-month research in Vilnius, from April to May 2019, where it was possible to improve the application of the Multiple Criteria Complex Proportional Evaluation (COPRAS) method for identifying the most efficient predictive tool to evaluate building thermal needs. These results are collected in Chapter G and the main results are explained in a paper under review in the Journal "Energy" from September. The identification of the most efficient alternative model to solve the building energy balance through the application of a specific MCA, allowed to deepen the identified methodology and improve research. In particular, the most efficient alternative resolution model was the subject of the research that took place during the research period at the RWTH in Aachen University, Germany with Prof. M. Traverso, Head of the INaB Department, from September 2018 to March 2019. The experience in the field of LCA and the possibility of identifying the environmental impacts linked to the building system, has led the research to investigate neural networks for a dual and simultaneous environmental-energy analysis. The results confirm that the application of ANNs is a good alternative model for solving the energy and environmental balance of a building and for ensuring the development of reliable decision support tools that can be used by non-expert users. ANNs can be improved by upgrading the training database and choosing the network structure and learning algorithm. The results of this research are collected in Chapter H and published in [28].

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir RF1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 643 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 339 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 293 ha by forest and 11 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 53 per cent area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 29 per cent area is very shallow (150 cm).  About 10 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 4 per cent loamy soils and 38 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 10 per cent area in the microwatershed is gravelly (15-35%) and 42 per cent is non gravelly (200 mm/m).  About 44 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 9 per cent has gently sloping (3-5% slope) lands.  An area of about 3 per cent is slightly eroded (e1), 17 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 33 per cent area is severely (e3) eroded.  An area of about 0.75%).  An area of about 34 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 6 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) and 13 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 31 per cent area and low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the cultivated soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 24 per cent of cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 1 (<1) 7 (1) Guava - - Maize - 8 (1) Sapota - - Bajra - 8 (1) Pomegranate - 8 (1) Groundnut - - Musambi 8(1) - Sunflower 1(<1) 7(1) Lime 8(1) - Redgram - 8 (1) Amla - 8(1) Bengal gram 8(1) - Cashew - - Cotton 8(1) - Jackfruit - - Chilli - 1(<1) Jamun - 8(1) Tomato - 1(<1) Custard apple 8(1) - Brinjal - 8(1) Tamarind - 8(1) Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - 8(1) Marigold - 8(1) Drumstick - 8 (1) Chrysanthemum - 8(1) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. The data on households sampled for socio economic survey indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgiri Rf-1 micro-watershed among them 5 (14.29 %) were landless, 12 (34.29 %) were marginal farmers, 15 (42.86 %) were small farmers and 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium farmers.  The data indicated that there were 86 (50 %) men and 86 (50 %) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.6, marginal farmers' was 4.66, small farmers' was 5.33 and semi medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 18 (10.47 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 82 (47.67 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 60 (34.88 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 12 (6.98 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Yadgiri Rf-1 had 58.72 per cent illiterates, 16.28 per cent of them had Primary School, 4.07 per cent of them had Middle School, 5.23 per cent of them had High School, 9.88 per cent of them had PUC education and 4.52 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.58 per cent of them had Diploma and ITI and 2.33 per cent of them had Degree education.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 18.60 per cent of the household members, 62.79 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.58 per cent were in Household industry, 16.28 per cent were students, 15.08 per cent were housewives and 1.16 per cent were children.  The results show that, 0.58 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in NGOs.  The results indicate that 11.43 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 68.57 11.43 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 20 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 31.43 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 25.71 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 91.43 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 2.86 per cent of the households possess Computer/Laptop.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,468, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,018, Motor Cycle was Rs. 51,111, Computer/Laptop was Rs. 25,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,359.  About 17.14 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 11.43 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess Sprayer, Harvester and Chaff Cutter and 11.43 per cent of them possess weeder. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,571, plough was Rs. 2,250, Sprayer was Rs. 3,000, Harvester was Rs. 200 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 453.  The results indicate that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 14.29 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess buffalo and goat.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.69, average own labour (women) available was 1.51, average hired labour (men) available was 7.03 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.43.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.67, average own labour (women) was 1.42, average hired labour (men) was 5.33 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.50. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2.07, average own labour (women) was 1.87, average hired labour (men) was 9.13 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.93. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men and average own labour (women) was 2.67, average hired labour (men) and average hired labour (women) available was 15.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Yadgiri Rf-1 micro-watershed possess 25.56 ha (75.66 %) of dry land and 8.22 ha (24.34 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 9 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 13.61 ha (73.36 %) of dry land and 4.94 ha (26.64 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.95 ha (47.37 %) of dry land and 3.28 ha (52.63 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 348,052.57 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 534,842.51. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 544,199.65 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 264,485.43 for dry land and Rs. 687,796.88 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 135,342.46 for dry land and Rs. 304,562.26 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 6 functioning and De-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 17.14 per cent of the farmers and Canal was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.86 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 7.86 meters.  The results indicate that, small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 3.15 ha and 3.28 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (15.55 ha), groundnut (3.83 ha), Sorghum (7.06 ha), paddy (3.59 ha), Cotton (3.32 ha) and green gram (0.4 ha). 3 Marginal farmers have grown red gram, sorghum, cotton and green gram. Small farmers have grown red gram, Sorghum, groundnut, green gram and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram and groundnut.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Yadgiri Rf-1 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of the households have bank account and 82.86 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 6.67 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 3.33 per cent of the households have borrowed from Friends/Relatives and 16.67 per cent of the households have borrowed from Grameena Bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 9,500.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from private sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households not paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 33379.52. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 72595.32. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 39215.80. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.17.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 24105.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 5534.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.23.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 39775.87. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 78894.86. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 39118.99. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.98. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 50356.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49841.64. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -514.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.99.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 28851.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21024.38. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -7826.87. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.73.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 32775.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39934.16. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 7158.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.22.  The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 61,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 80,583.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 165,033.33 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 144,666.67.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,990.93. For landless households it was Rs. 6,800, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 8,155.56, for small farmers it was Rs. 3,676.62 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 30,888.89.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 3 coconut and 13 custard apple, 4 Jack fruit, 2 Sapota and 7 mango tree in their field and also 2 coconut and 1 Mango trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 48 Teak, 74 neem, 1 Banyan and 5 tamarind trees in their field and also 3 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, Cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, green gram was sold to the extent of 50 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 89.58 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 72.97 per cent, Sorghum was sold to the extent of 75.90 per cent, and red gram to the extent of 87.29 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 8.57 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 77.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation and 2.86 per cent of the households have used Cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 60 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. 5  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households used firewood and 8.57 per cent of them used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 60 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and Bore Well was the source of drinking water for 40 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 97.14 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 77.14 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 85.71 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 80 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 54.29 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 57.14 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.86 per cent, Milk were adequate for 28.57 per cent, Egg were adequate for 2.86 per cent and Meat were adequate for 8.57 per cent.  The results indicated that, Cereals and pulses were inadequate for 17.14 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 45.71 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 42.86 per cent and fruits were inadequate for 77.14 per cent of the households, Milk were inadequate for 51.43 per cent, Egg were inadequate for 94.29 per cent and Meat were inadequate for 91.43 per cent.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, Wild animal menace on farm field was the constraint experienced by 88.57 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases (65.71 %), inadequacy of irrigation water (34.29 %), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40 %), High rate of interest on credit (17.14 %), Low price for the agricultural commodities (28.57 %), Lack of marketing facilities in the area and Inadequate extension services (14.29 %), Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (28.57 %), Less rainfall (37.14 %) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (40 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Sidganhalli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 808 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 96 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by mining and industrial area, 2 per cent by rock outcrops and 1 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 27 soil phases (management units) and 7 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 11 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 68 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 17 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 36 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 5 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 91 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 78 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 18 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 42 per cent soils are moderately acid to slightly acid (pH 5.5-6.5), 26 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 28 per cent soil are slightly alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.3-9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in 46 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 1 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 94 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in 48 per cent area and high (>20 ppm) in 48 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 59 per cent is low (1.0 ppm) in available boron content.  An area of about 64 per cent is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) and 32 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 41 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 77(9) 301(37) Sapota 44(5) 274(34) Maize 44(5) 334(41) Pomegranate 44(5) 425(53) Bajra 44(5) 655(81) Guava 44(5) 274(34) Groundnut - 465(58) Jackfruit 44(5) 274(34) Sunflower 77(9) 195(24) Jamun - 417(52) Cotton 33(4) 345(43) Musambi 77(9) 392(49) Red gram 44(5) 228(28) Lime 77(9) 392(49) Bengalgram 57(7) 445(55) Cashew 44(5) 269(33) Chilli 44(5) 183(23) Custard apple 102(13) 670(83) Tomato 44(5) 183(23) Amla 44(5) 729(90) Brinjal 69(9) 336(42) Tamarind - 195(24) Onion 44(5) 234(29) Marigold 44(5) 334(41) Bhendi 44(5) 362(45) Chrysanthemum 44(5) 334(41) Drumstick 44(5) 253(31) Jasmine 44(5) 183(23) Mulberry 44(5) 498(68) Crossandra 44(5) 183(23) Mango - 98(12) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 114 (52.53%) men and 103 (47.47%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 6.33, small farmers' was 5.2, semi medium farmers' was 5.9, medium farmers' was 8.63 and large farmers' was 6.5.  The data indicated that, 39 (17.97%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 115 (53%) were in 16-35 years of age, 54 (24.88%) were in 36-60 years of age and 9 (4.15%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Sidganahalli-2 had 25.81 per cent illiterates, 27.65 per cent of them had primary school education, 11.52 per cent of them had middle school education, 17.51 per cent of them had high school education, 6.45 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.38 per cent had diploma, 0.92 per cent did ITI, 4.61 per cent of them had degree education, 1.84 per cent did masters and 0.46 per cent of them did PhD.  The results indicate that, 67.65 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 32.35 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 54.84 per cent of the household members, 10.60 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.84 per cent were in government service, 2.76 per cent were in private service, 2.76 per cent were in trade and business, 21.20 per cent were students, 1.84 per cent were children and 4.15 per cent were housewives.  The results show that, 0.46 per cent of the households participated in NGO and 99.54 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 41.18 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 8.82 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 52.94 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 94.12 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 55.88 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 97.06 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,382, mixer grinder was Rs. 3,030, motor cycle was Rs. 34,473 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,350.  About 38.24 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 44.12 per cent of them possess plough, 5.88 per cent of them possess power tiller, 8.82 per cent possess tractor, 58.82 per cent of them possess sprayer and 85.29 per cent of them possess weeder. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17,538, plough was Rs. 2,600, power tiller was Rs. 25,000, tractor was Rs. 533,333, sprayer was Rs. 3,742 and the average value of weeder was Rs.36.  The results indicate that, 47.06 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 61.76 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.94 per cent possess buffalo and 2.94 per cent of the households possess sheep.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.45, average own labour (women) available was 1.86, average hired labour (men) available was 7.69 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.55.  The results indicate that, 88.24 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Sidganahalli-2 micro-watershed possess 25.59 ha (38.53%) of dry land and 40.83 ha (61.47%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 1.42 ha (76.96%) of dry land and 0.43 ha (23.31%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 6.27 ha (82.89%) of dry land and 1.30 ha (17.11%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 7.28 ha (39.41%) of dry land and 11.20 ha (60.59%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.95 ha (21.14%) of dry land and 18.45 ha (78.86%) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 5.67 ha (37.45%) of dry land and 9.46 ha (62.55%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 386,669.83 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 443,082.26. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 842,045.43 for dry land and Rs. 1,846,728.88 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 430,258.06 for dry land and Rs. 1,234,999.98 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 397,944.44 for dry land and Rs. 598,084.57 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 384,042.55 for dry land and Rs. 384,752.08 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers it was Rs. 211,714.29 for dry land and Rs. 200,727.12 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 19 functioning and 8 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 55.88 per cent of the farmers and open well was the major source of irrigation for 2.94 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 59.08 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.90 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers had an irrigated area of 0.43 ha, 1.30 ha, 9.15 ha, 15.79 ha and 7.29 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (6.21 ha), cotton (1.21 ha), groundnut (11.49 ha), maize (32.95 ha), mango (3.24 ha), navane (0.81 ha), paddy 3 (2.02 ha) and sunflower (2.02 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra and maize while small farmers have grown bajra, groundnut and maize. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, maize, mango, navane and paddy. Medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize, mango paddy and sunflower. Large farmers have grown groundnut, maize and mango.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Sidganahalli-2 micro-watershed was found to be 72.18 per cent.  The results indicate that, 82.35 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 82.35 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 25906.52. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 30262.58. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 4356.06. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.17.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 68808.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67654.56. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. -1153.48. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.98.  The total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 86548.76. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. 12251.24. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.14.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 20913.36. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21082.35. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 169. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.01.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 11965.51. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 25084.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.1.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 47294.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 154841.56. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 107546.92. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.27.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 45974. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 101887.50. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 55913.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.22.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 21407.24. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22230. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 822.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.04.  The results indicate that, 64.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate for 2.94 per cent of the households.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 40,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 77,166.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 4 192,833.33, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 93,250, for medium farmers it was Rs. 257,812.50 and for large farmers it was Rs. 169,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,285.54. For landless households it was Rs. 1,800, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 2,222.22, for small farmers it was Rs. 8,486.11, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 1,962.50, for medium farmers it was Rs. 11,562.50 and for large farmers it was Rs. 17,500.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 65 coconut trees and 640 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 1 tamarind and 60 neem trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8,235.29 for land development, Rs. 3,441.18 for irrigation facility, Rs. 4,705.88 for improved crop production, Rs. 1,852.94 for improved livestock management and Rs. 88.24 for orchard development and maintenance.  The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 76.47 per cent for land development, for 52.94 per cent for irrigation facility, for 61.76 per cent for improved crop production, for 29.14 per cent for improved livestock management and for 2.94 per cent for orchard development/maintenance. Soft loans were the source of funds for additional investment for 5.88 per cent for land development, 2.94 per cent for improved crop production and for 11.76 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 82.5 per cent, cotton was sold to the extent of 87.5 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 76.17 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 99.69 per cent, mango and sunflower were sold to the extent of 100 per cent, navane was sold to the extent of 83.33 per cent and paddy was sold to the extent of 86.67 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 135.29 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 5.88 per cent of them sold their produce through contract marketing arrangement.  The results indicated that, 2.94 per cent of the households used cart, 126.47 per cent of the households used tractor and 8.82 per cent of them used truck as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 61.76 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 5 17.14 per cent and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 2.94 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 55.88 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 5.88 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 55.88 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 97.06 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.94 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 85.29 per cent, milk was adequate for 91.18 per cent and eggs were adequate for 11.76 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 2.94 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 94.12 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 14.17 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 100 per cent, milk was inadequate for 5.88 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 88.24 per cent and meat was inadequate for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 2.94 per cent of the households and milk was market surplus for 2.94 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.29 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (85.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.35%), inadequacy of irrigation water (20.59%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.24%), low price for the agricultural commodities (55.88%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (67.65%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (32.35%) and inadequate extension services (5.88%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Koyalur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 554 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 511 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, rock outcrops about 27 ha and 15 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 60 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100 -150 cm) and 33 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity,13 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 20 per cent is very low (0.75%).  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha).  About 37 per cent is low (145 kg/ha) in available potassium and 55 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 15 per cent  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 330(60) 69(13) Guava - - Maize - 399(72) Sapota - - Bajra - 399(72) Pomegranate - 330(60) Groundnut - 21(4) Musambi 330(60) - Sunflower 330(60) - Lime 330(60) - Red gram - 330(60) Amla - 399(73) Bengal gram 330(60) 69(13) Cashew - - Cotton 330(60) 69(13) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 399(73) Jamun - 330(60) Tomato - 399(73) Custard apple 330(60) 69(13) Brinjal 30(5) 369(67) Tamarind - 330(60) Onion 330(60) 69(13) Mulberry - - Bhendi 30(5) 369(67) Marigold - 399(73) Drumstick - 330(60) Chrysanthemum - 399(73) Mango - 30(5)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data on households sampled for socio economic survey indicated that 34 farmers were sampled in Koyalur micro-watershed among them 15 (44.12 %) were marginal farmers, 7 (20.59 %) were small farmers and semi medium farmers, 4 (11.76 %) were medium farmers and 1 (2.94 %) were large farmers.  The data indicated that there were 90 (60.40 %) men and 59 (39.60 %) women among the sampled households. The average family size of marginal farmers' was 3.66, small farmers' was 5.14, semi medium farmers' was 4.28, medium farmers' was 5.5 and large farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 21 (14.09 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 62 (41.61 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 57 (38.26 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 9 (6.04 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Koyalur had 53.02 per cent illiterates, 18.12 per cent of them had primary school, 2.68 per cent of them had middle school, 13.42 per cent of them had high school education, 3.36 per cent of them had PUC, 1.34 per cent of them had Diploma and ITI and 6.04 per cent of them had Degree education.  The results indicate that, 55.88 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 41.18 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 5.88 cent of the household heads were housewives.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 38.93 per cent of the household members, 32.21 per cent were agricultural labourers, 3.36 per cent were private service, 18.79 per cent were students, 5.37 per cent were housewives and 1.34 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 8.82 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 67.65 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 23.53 per cent of them possess Pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 79.41 per cent of the households possess TV, 70.59 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 2.94 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 38.24 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Auto and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 9,000, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,000, Bicycle was Rs. 2,000, motor cycle was Rs. 45,846, Auto was Rs. 80,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,591.  About 17.65 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 29.41 per cent of the households possess plough, 11.76 per cent of the households possess Sprayer and 2 Thresher, 2.94 per cent of them possess Sprinkler and 88.24 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 15,500, plough was Rs. 1,550, sprayer was Rs. 3,500, sprinkler was Rs. 3,000, Thresher was Rs. 148 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 57.  The results indicate that, 17.65 per cent of the households possess bullocks, local cow and Buffalo, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Crossbred cow, Goat and Sheep.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.92, average own labour (women) available was 1.34, average hired labour (men) available was 9.97 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.11.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.73, average own labour (women) was 1.20, average hired labour (men) was 7.27 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.60. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2.22, average own labour (women) was 1.50, average hired labour (men) was 11.25 and average hired labour (women) available was 10. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.57, average own labour (women) was 1.43, average hired labour (men) was 12.14 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.43. In case of medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.50 and average own labour (women) was 1.50, average hired labour (men) was 13.75 and average hired labour (women) available was 12.50. In case of large farmers, average own labour men available was 2 and average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Koyalur micro-watershed possess 28.49 ha (52.44 %) of dry land, 14.38 ha (26.47 %) of irrigated land and 11.46 ha (21.10 %) of Permanent Fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 9.19 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 9.41 ha (98.27 %) of dry land and 0.10 ha (1.01 %) of irrigated land and 0.07 ha (0.72 %) of Permanent Fallow land. Semi medium farmers possess 9.89 ha (70.29 %) of dry land and 3.35 ha (23.84 %) of irrigated land and 0.83 ha (5.87 %) of Permanent Fallow land. Medium farmers possess 9.71 ha (82.19 %) of irrigated land and 2.10 ha (17.81 %) of Permanent Fallow land. Large farmers possess 1.21 ha (12.55 %) of irrigated land and 8.46 ha (87.45 %) of Permanent Fallow land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 374,770.64, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 344,117.65 and the average value of Permanent Fallow land was Rs. 266,013.42. In case of marginal famers, the 3 average land value was Rs. 609,339.20 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 302,774.20 for dry land, Rs. 514,583.34 for irrigated land and Rs. 4,358,823.48 for Permanent Fallow land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 282,978.72 for dry land, Rs. 595,898.68 for irrigated land and Rs. 484,313.72 for Permanent Fallow land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 226,416.67 for irrigated land and Rs. 237,500.01 for Permanent Fallow land. In case of large farmers, the average land value was Rs. 576,333.33 for irrigated land and Rs. 218,531.80 for Permanent Fallow land.  The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning open wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 23.53 per cent of the farmers and Open Well was the irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.94 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 25.10 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 3.14 meters.  The results indicate that, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers had an irrigated area of 0.08 ha, 3.36 ha, 9.72 ha and 1.21 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (23.46 ha), green gram (1.19 ha), groundnut (2.02 ha), Paddy (5.40 ha) and red gram (7.37 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, cotton and green gram. Small farmers have grown cotton, red gram, green gram and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton, red gram and paddy. Medium farmers have grown cotton, groundnut and paddy. Large farmers have grown cotton and groundnut.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Koyalur micro-watershed was found to be 88.23 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 37224.40. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 87496.97. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 50272.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.35.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 89427.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 218265.67. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 128837.98. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.44.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 61010.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 84391.67. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 23381.53. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.38. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 31766.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 51298.37. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 19532.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.61.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 209393.71. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95681.30. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -113712.41. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.46.  The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 79,146.67 for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 144,714.29, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 177,857.14, medium farmers it was Rs. 153,500 and large farmers it was Rs. 175,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 23,505.21. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,463.25, for small farmers it was Rs. 33,297.96, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 22,877.55, medium farmers it was Rs. 52,750 and large farmers it was Rs. 128,000.  The results indicate that, households have planted 59 Neem and 2 Banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5,676.47 for land development, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,205.88 for Irrigation facility, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,647.06 for improved crop production and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,352.94 improved livestock management.  The results indicated that Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 50 per cent for land development, 17.65 per cent for irrigation facility, 47.06 per cent for improved crop production and 20.59 per cent for improved livestock management. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 5.88 per cent for land development, 2.94 per cent for irrigation facility, improved crop production and improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, Green gram was sold to the extent of 92.86 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 38.0 per cent, Paddy was sold to the extent of 88.28 per cent and Red gram was sold to the extent of 92.73 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 2.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Agent/Traders and 2.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants. 5  The results indicated that, 2.94 per cent of the households have used Head Load as a mode of transportation and 97.06 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel and 2.94 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 100 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 32.35 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 82.35 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, Pulses were adequate for 73.53 per cent of the households, Oilseed were adequate for 2.94 per cent of the households, Vegetables were adequate for 94.12 per cent, Egg were adequate for 100 per cent, Fruits were adequate for 11.76 per cent, Milk and were adequate for 97.06 per cent and Meat and were adequate for 97.06 per cent.  The results indicated that, Pulses were inadequate for 32.35 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 97.06 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 5.88 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 88.24 per cent and milk was inadequate for 2.94 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 100 per cent of the households, Wild animal menace on farm field (38.24 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (64.71 %), High cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (97.06 %), High rate of interest on credit (2.94 %), Lack of marketing facilities in the area (5.88 %) and Low price for the agricultural commodities (64.71 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yargol-2Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 357 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 350 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 3 ha by railway line and 3 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 350 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 64 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) and 34 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately deep (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 17 per cent area medium (101-150 mm/m), 4 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 12 per cent area very low (0.75%) in organic carbon content and medium (0.5-0.75%) in 16 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 97 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 2 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) and 28 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 62 per cent and high (> 20 ppm) in 36 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient ( 0.6 ppm) in 31 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 60(17) 245(69) Guava - 60(17) Maize 60(17) 245(69) Sapota - 60(17) Bajra 60(17) 245(69) Pomegranate - 171(48) Groundnut - 76(21) Musambi - 171(48) Sunflower - 171(48) Lime - 171(48) Redgram - 289(81) Amla 60(17) 16(4) Bengal gram - 111(31) Cashew - - Cotton - 171(48) Jackfruit - 60(17) Chilli 60(17) 127(36) Jamun - - Tomato 60(17) 16(4) Custard apple - 187(53) Brinjal 60(17) 16(4) Tamarind - - Onion 60(17) 16(4) Mulberry - 60(17) Bhendi 60(17) 127(36) Marigold 60(17) 127(36) Drumstick - 60(17) Chrysanthemum 60(17) 127(36) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 93 (53.14%) men and 82 (46.86%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 5.2, marginal farmers' was 5.5, small farmers' was 4.9 and semi medium farmers' was 7.  The data indicated that, 25 (14.29%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 76 (43.43%) were in 16-35 years of age, 61 (34.86%) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (7.43%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Yargol-2 had 61.71 per cent illiterates, 12 per cent of them had primary school, 10.29 per cent of them had high school education, 3.43 per cent of them had PUC, diploma and ITI and 2.86 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 63.64 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 21.21 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers and 33 cent of the household heads were General Labour and housewives.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 53.14 per cent of the household members, 12 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.57 per cent were in household industry and retired, 1.51 per cent in government service, 4.57 per cent were private service, 1.14 per cent were trade and business, 14.29 per cent were student, 8.57 per cent were housewives and 3.43 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 12.12 per cent of the households possess thatched 60.61 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 27.27 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 72.73 per cent of the households possess TV, 66 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 12.12 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,291, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,750, motor cycle was Rs. 53,750 and mobile phone was Rs. 4,300.  About 99 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, 33.33 per cent each of the households possess Plough, 18.18 per cent each of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill, 33 per cent each of the households possess tractor and sprinkler, 21.21 per cent of the households possess sprayer and 30.30 per cent each of the households possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 29,333, plough was Rs. 3,600, seed/ fertilizer drill was Rs. 4,233, tractor was Rs.650, 000, sprayer was Rs. 2,457, sprinkler weeder was Rs. 350 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 146. 2  The results indicate that, 36.36 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 15.15 per cent of the households possess local cow and 33 per cent of the households possess sheep and goat.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.97, average own labour (women) available was 1.7, average hired labour (men) available was 11.27 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.2.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Yargol-2 micro-watershed possess 25.29 ha (79.3%) of dry land and 5.33 ha (16.67%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.84 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 17.45 ha (86.38%) of dry land and 2.75 ha (13.62%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.58 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 573,223.44 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 693,399.10. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 930,872.49 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 412,526.10 for dry land the average land value was Rs. 762,794.15 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 619,435.73 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 4 functioning and 7 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 12.12 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 8.31 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.95 ha and 1.37 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (12.69 ha), groundnut (7.65 ha), cotton (5.63%), green gram (3.59 ha), paddy (1.37 ha) and jowar (0.36 ha). Marginal farmers have grown cotton, red gram, groundnut, green gram and sorghum. Small farmers have grown cotton, red gram, groundnut, green gram, sorghum and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton, red gram, groundnut and paddy. Medium farmers have grown groundnut and green gram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Yargol-2 micro-watershed was found to be 75.63 per cent.  The results indicate that, 84.85 per cent of the households have bank account and 60.61 per cent of the households.  The results indicate that, 78.79 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. 3  The results indicate that, 50 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank and 100 per cent of the households have borrowed from cooperative bank, grameena bank and money lender.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 879,000.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 31843.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 512118. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 19367.39. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.61.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 45343.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 73504.92. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 281619. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.62.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 31311.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50037.11. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 18725.28. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.6.  The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 23820.27. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 14820. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -9000.27. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.62.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 34652.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35076.92. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 424.24. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:11.  The total cost of cultivation for Green gram was Rs. 57412.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44503.54. The net income from Green gram cultivation was Rs. -12909.19. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.78.  The total cost of cultivation for coconut was Rs. 25005.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44107.14. The net income from coconut cultivation was Rs. 19101.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.76.  The results indicate that, 48.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 33 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 157,500, for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 158,183.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 157,006.67 and semi medium farmers it was Rs. 92,210. 4  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 16,003.63. For landless households it was Rs. 48,300, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 17,214.16, for small farmers it was Rs. 5,773.33 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 20,875.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 3 custard apple and mango, 5 coconut tree in their field and 2 custard apple trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 1 teak, 83 neem, 4 tamarind and 1 peepul, 2 acacia and banyan trees in their field and also 2 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,1066 for land development, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3,181.82 and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,515.15 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that own funds was the source of additional investment for 36.36 per cent for land development and 99 per cent for irrigation facility and improved crop production.  The results indicated that, coconut was sold to the extent of 90 per cent, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, green gram was sold to the extent of 71.43 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 81.98 per cent, jowar was sold to the extent of 25 per cent, paddy and red gram was sold to the extent of 83.33 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 93.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 33 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 96.97 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 42.42 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 90.91 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 27.27 per cent of the population adopted field bunding, 33 per cent of the population adopted contour bund and farm pond and 66 per cent of the population adopted loose border checks.  The results indicated that, condition of contour bund and farm pond was 100 per cent were slightly damaged. Field bunding was 66.67 per cent was good and 33.33 per cent were slightly damage and loose border checks was 50 per cent was good and slightly damage.  The results indicated that, 21.21 per cent of the population involved own agency, 99 per cent of the population involved government agency and 66 per cent of the population involved farmer's organization in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 51.52 per cent of the households used fire wood, 66 per cent of the households used LPG and 51.52 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel. 5  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 72.73 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and bore well was the source of drinking water for 21.21 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 66.67 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 81.82 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 69.7 per cent of the households, pulse were adequate for 96.97 per cent, oilseed were adequate for 24.24 per cent, vegetables and meat were adequate for 33 per cent, milk were adequate for 27.27 per cent and egg were adequate for 21.21 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 30.3 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 33 per cent, oilseed were inadequate for 72.73 per cent, vegetables and meat were inadequate for 93.94 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 100 per cent, milk were inadequate for 69.7 per cent and egg were inadequate for 75.76 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, egg, meat were market surplus for 33 per cent were market surplus of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil, frequent incidence of pest and diseases, low price for the agricultural commodities and lack of marketing facilities in the area was the constraint experienced by 87.88 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (84.85%), Inadequacy of irrigation water and inadequate extension service (42.42%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals and high rate of interest on credit (90.91%), and Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (69.7%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Máster Universitario en Ingeniería Industrial ; Los deportes extremos, cada día más comunes en la dedicación lúdica del usuario medio, generalmente se caracterizan por aprovechar distintos tipos de energía – como la potencial almacenada en cotas altas de montaña o la energía de las olas – en energía cinética para el disfrute de la sensación de velocidad y adrenalina que, por norma general, transmiten. La necesidad del estudio hacia la innovación de este proyecto surge de las limitaciones actuales de los medios empleados en deportes de deslizamiento como el esquí – similares como el surf, wakeboard, kitesurf, sandboard -. En el caso concreto del esquí, seleccionado como dedicación especial de este estudio el 99,6% la de esquí internacional se distribuye tan solo en 56 países. España se sitúa muy cerca de uno de los principales núcleos de este deporte con más del 45% de afluencia, los Alpes, y además cuenta común importante mercado interior, sin embargo, la cifre de visitantes media en los últimos años a las estaciones españolas no ha superado los 5,5 millones de usuarios – muy lejos de los 56 de Francia o los 28 de Italia -. Tras adquirir los conocimientos sobre patentes, vías para adquirir la protección, su legislación y el procedimiento de solicitud; el estudio se encamina a lograr un salto creativo en la técnica del campo de interés. Este proceso contempla distintas fases de estudio y diseño. Las fases – definidas en el Capítulo 3 de la memoria – siguen el principio de la ingeniería concurrente empleando la sinergia entre metodologías tradicionales de estudio de patentes TRIZ, la valoración cuantitativa de diseños funcionales mediante QFD y el empleo de técnicas modernas de la industria para la síntesis de conceptos a partir de la patentometría (Método de los Escenarios Ponderados). La primera fase, la vigilancia tecnológica, elaborará una base de conocimiento con 367 patentes relacionadas con el campo de la técnica que se pretende desarrollar – en concreto los campos A63C10/11 y A63C5/08 dentro de la clasificación IPC- que son los medios de asistencia motorizados al deporte del esquí. Las patentes se clasificaron de manera cronológica de manera que el proceso permite adquirir una noción de los saltos evolutivos de las soluciones propuestas lo largo de la historia. Se pueden identificar de los estudios extraídos una tendencia creciente en este campo. La reciente influencia de las cámaras de acción y las redes sociales ha generado un boom por la práctica de nuevas actividades y deportes extremos; como consecuencia la acción inventiva recibe un gran impulso. También se analiza los datos geopolíticos de las patentes. determinar el ámbito de protección es un hito clave de la fase de vigilancia. Los resultados del análisis muestran que los principales países donde se busca proteger este tipo de invenciones son EEUU, Alemania, Francia, Japón y en una proporción no tan comparable Canadá y el resto de países europeos. Es cierto que gran parte de las patentes apuntan a un marco mundial o europeo desde un principio, lo que indica que es un mercado muy extenso en cuanto a geografía. Un 15% de las solicitudes proviene de fabricantes mientras que el 85% restante ha sido explotado por el propio inventor o probablemente licenciado a posteriori al mejor postor. Los fabricantes con más solicitudes son Atomic Gmbh, Saroy Engineering, Bibollet SA, Yamaha y Head Sport. Todos ellos son fabricantes con un gran catálogo de productos dedicados al deporte del esquí o similares, y que probablemente puedan verse interesados en la adquisición de una patente como la que se propone en caso de suponer un éxito de mercado. Esto enmarca el proyecto en un escenario ideal para buscar la inversión particular en este tipo de invención. Además, el análisis particular de los productos de estos fabricantes no lleva a ver la magnitud que realizan en I+D, la clase de productos que buscan y las posibilidades de mejora que se pueden incluir en el diseño. Todas las patentes se clasifican en problemas y sub-problemas. El objetivo es centrarse en uno de ellos para el diseño enfocado. Los problemas identificados como principales son: medios de propulsión, maniobrabilidad, versatilidad, seguridad y entrenamiento, estructura y forma y reducción del coste. La conclusión del análisis muestra que un campo que aún presenta capacidad de mejora, la versatilidad de las invenciones en distintos medios – agua, nieve, tierra -. Una vez focalizado el problema se pasa al diseño funcional. Este inicio ya parte de la opinión de usuarios potenciales en cuanto a qué conceptos entienden como funcionalidades necesarias en la invención y su importancia relativa. En base a esto, se construye un modelo de calidad con evaluaciones cuantitativas (QFD) para proponer la mejor estructura funcional. Mediante los métodos TRIZ de descomponen los elementos esenciales de las soluciones. De la descomposición de las soluciones, empleando el Métodos de Escenarios Ponderados para una síntesis de elementos a modo de rompecabezas, se conforman varias soluciones que mejoran las patentes existentes hasta la fecha. La valoración cuantitativa de estas soluciones nos lleva a la toma de decisión por una de ellas. La invención será un sistema de tracción formado por un elemento tractor dron multirrotor, de seis o más rotores accionados por motores de DC; una línea de arrastre y un sistema de control. Dicho sistema de control está conformado por un manillar de dirección, donde se alojan los controles electrónicos a distancia del vuelo del dron y los dispositivos de visualización digital del estatus de la marcha; y por un arnés, unido a la línea de arrastre principal mediante un sistema de liberación rápida en caso de caída o peligro. La línea principal pasa a través de un orificio en el manillar y está anclada a otros dos puntos en los extremos de la barra mediante un sistema regulable en longitud. El paso posterior es adecuar el diseño a un concepto visualmente atractivo y convincente para el usuario. En concreto el elemento de mayor influencia es el mencionado manillar de control. Se emplea el método Kansei para validar un diseño visual a través de síntesis de propiedades físicas y emociones del usuario. Los datos se toman mediante una encuesta en formato electrónico y sobre un set de muestras conceptuales compuesto de bocetos digitales y fotografías. a. Los resultados indican que la inclusión del arnés en el sistema es fundamental para garantizar seguridad. Asimismo, un manillar amplio y horizontal proporciona al usuario sensación de maniobrabilidad y comodidad que otras configuraciones no aportan. El contorneado del agarre, la inclusión de muchos materiales y un acabado cuidado presentan un diseño más atractivo a todos los públicos. Dicha invención fue dimensionada y validada en el Capítulo 7 de la memoria. En éste se calculó la potencia necesaria a desarrollar por un multirrotor de arrastre para tirar de un esquiador en el ascenso de una pendiente a velocidad constante. EL planteamiento estático del problema permite un primer dimensionamiento de los principales componentes del multirrotor, así como una especificación de sus capacidades de carga. En concreto, para el arrastre de un esquiador a una velocidad constante de 5 m/s y en unas condiciones de pendiente y viento desfavorables el empuje necesario en los impulsores se sitúa en torno a los 16kg de fuerza por rotor – con un número mínimo de 8 rotores para aportar redundancia – y una potencia total de 26 KW. El multirrotor tendrá una envergadura aproximada de 2,2m y sus rotores, un diámetro de 85 cm (23 pulgadas). Todo ello teniendo en cuenta un factor de sobredimensionamiento para efectos dinámicos transitorios. La selección de componentes permite elaborar el presupuesto para el prototipo inicial a construir. El prototipo inicial se sitúa en un intervalo de coste entre los 20.000€ y los 30.000€. Valor razonable al compararlo con productos de aplicación similar y prototipos de competidores directos. El cliente al que se enfoca la invención queda muy por encima del gasto medio del usuario (español) en ocio y deporte. El nicho de mercado por tanto deberán ser las grandes corporaciones que gestionan los resorts de esquí y sus actividades, de manera que la innovación pueda introducirse como valor añadido en su modelo de negocio y éstos saquen rentabilidad de la patente a través de su alquiler al usuario final como actividad. Al conocer los costes y el enfoque de ventas, junto con la inversión en la propiedad industrial se puede elaborar un estudio de viabilidad económica para la inversión en el desarrollo de esta patente. En el capítulo 8 se detalla el marco económico propicio para el desarrollo de esta inversión. El método de valoración escogido es un descuento de flujos libres de caja. Los resultados, para la estimación de crecimiento y ventas, ofrecen un VAN por encima de los 100.000 €, una tasa de rentabilidad del 17% superior al retorno exigido por el mercado (11,5%). Teniendo en cuenta que la inversión se realiza hasta el fin de la protección industrial (20 años) el periodo de retorno son 13 años. Con todo ello la solicitud de patente se realizó el día 27 de Enero de 2017se realizó siguiendo las pautas establecidas por la Ley, como se puede observar en el Documento 2 de este proyecto. Se obtuvo el número de solicitud P201700061 para la patente "Sistema de remolque por multirrotor para deportes de deslizamiento". ; Extreme sports, more and more common in the leisure time of the average user, are usually characterized by taking advantage of different types of energy - such as the potential energy stored at high mountain heights or wave energy - in kinetic energy to enjoy the sensation of speed and adrenaline that, as a general rule, these kind of sports transmit. The need for study towards innovation of this project arises from the current limitations of the means employed in sliding sports such as skiing - similar to surfing, wakeboarding, kitesurfing, sandboarding. In the specific case of skiing, selected as the special dedication of this study, 99.6% of international skiing is distributed in only 56 countries. Spain is situated very close to one of the main centers of this sport with more than 45% of influx, the Alps, and also counts with an important domestic market, however the average number of visitors in recent years to the Spanish resorts has not exceeded 5.5 million users - far from the 56 in France or 28 in Italy. After gaining knowledge about patents, ways to acquire protection, its legislation and the application procedure; the study aims to achieve a creative leap in the technique on the field of interest. This process contemplates different phases of study and design. The phases - defined in Chapter 3 of the report - follow the principle of concurrent engineering using the synergy between traditional patent study methodologies TRIZ, the quantitative valuation of functional designs using QFD and the use of modern industry techniques for synthesis of concepts from the patentometry (Method of Weighted Scenarios). The first phase, technological surveillance, will develop a knowledge base with 367 patents related to the field of the technology that is intended to be developed - specifically fields A63C10/11 and A63C5/08 within the IPC classification - which are the means of motorized assistance to skiing. The patents were classified in a chronological way so that the process allows acquiring a notion of the evolution of the solutions proposed throughout the history. A growing trend in this field can be identified from the studies extracted. The recent influence of action cameras and social networks has generated a boom for the practice of new activities and extreme sports; as a result the inventive action receives a great impulse. The geopolitical data of patents is also analyzed. Determining the scope of protection is a key milestone of the monitoring phase. The results of the analysis show that the main countries who seek to protect this type of inventions are the USA, Germany, France, Japan and in a proportion not so comparable Canada and the rest of European countries. It's true that most patents point to a global or European framework from the outset, indicating that it's a very extensive market, geographically. 15% of the applications come from manufacturers while the remaining 85% has been exploited by the inventor himself or probably licensed after the highest bidder. Manufacturers with more applications are Atomic Gmbh, Saroy Engineering, Bibollet SA, Yamaha and Head Sport. All of them are manufacturers with a large catalog of products dedicated to the sport of skiing or similar, and may probably be interested in acquiring a patent like the one proposed, in the case of a market success. This frames the project in an ideal scenario to look for the particular investment in this type of invention. In addition, the particular analysis of the products of these manufacturers does not lead to seeing the magnitude they invest in R&D, the kind of products they are looking for and the possibilities of improvement that can be included in the design. All patents are classified into problems and sub-problems. The goal is to focus on one of them for the focused design. The problems identified as main are: means of propulsion, maneuverability, versatility, safety and training, structure and shape and cost reduction. The conclusion of the analysis shows that a field that still presents capacity for improvement, the versatility of inventions in different media - water, snow, earth. Once focused the problem we move on to functional design. This beginning already derives from part of the opinion of potential users as to what concepts they understand as necessary functionalities in the invention and its relative importance. Based on this, a quality model is constructed with quantitative evaluations (QFD) to propose the best functional structure. Through the TRIZ methods the essential elements of the solutions are decomposed. From the decomposition of the solutions, using the Weighted Scenario Methods for a synthesis of elements as a puzzle, several solutions are formed that improve the existing patents to date. The quantitative evaluation of these solutions leads us to the decision-making of one of them. The invention will be a traction system formed by a multi-rotor driving element, of six or more rotors driven by DC motors; a drag line and a control system. This control system is made up of a steering handle, which houses the remote electronic controls of the flight of the drone and the devices of digital display of the status of the march; and by a harness, attached to the main drag line by means of a quick release system in case of fall or danger. The main line passes through a hole in the handlebar and is anchored to two other points at the ends of the bar by a system adjustable in length. The next step is to adapt the design to a visually attractive and convincing concept for the user. In particular, the most influential element is the mentioned control handlebar. The Kansei method is used to validate a visual design through the synthesis of physical properties and emotions of the user. The data are taken through a survey in electronic format and on a set of conceptual samples composed of digital sketches and photographs. The results indicate that the inclusion of the harness in the system is fundamental to guarantee safety. Also, a wide horizontal handlebar gives the user a feeling of maneuverability and comfort that other configurations do not provide. The contouring of the grip, the inclusion of many materials and a careful finish present a design more attractive to all audiences. The mentioned invention was dimensioned and validated in Chapter 7 of the report. Here was calculated the power the dragging multi-rotor has to develop to pull a skier in the ascent of a slope at constant speed. The static approach of the problem allows a first dimensioning of the main components of the multi-rotor as well as a specification of its load capacities. Specifically, to drag a skier at a constant speed of 5 m/s and under unfavorable slope and wind conditions, the necessary thrust in the impellers is around 16 kg of force per rotor - with a minimum number of 8 Rotors to provide redundancy - and a total power of 26 KW. The multi-rotor will have an approximate span of 2.2m and its rotors, a diameter of 85cm (23 inches). All this taking into account an oversizing factor for transient dynamic effects. The selection of components allows the budget for the initial prototype to be constructed. The initial prototype is in a cost range between €20,000 and €30,000. Fair value when compared to products of similar application and prototypes of direct competitors. The customer to whom the invention is focused is well above the average expenditure of the user (Spanish) in leisure and sports. The market niche should therefore be the large corporations that manage the ski resorts and their activities, so that the innovation can be introduced as added value for their business model and these will make profitability of the patent through their rent to the final user as an activity. By knowing the costs and the approach of sales, together with the investment in the industrial property an economic feasibility study for the investment in the development of this patent can be elaborated. Chapter 8 details the economic framework conducive to the development of this investment. The valuation method chosen is a discount of free cash flows. The results, for the estimation of growth and sales, offer a NPV above 100,000 €, a rate of return of 17% higher than the return demanded by the market (11.5%). Considering that the investment is made until the end of industrial protection (20 years) the return period is 13 years. With all of this, the patent application was made on the 27th of January 2017, and was done following the guidelines established by the Law, as can be seen in Document 2 of this project. Application number P201700061 was obtained for the patent "Sistema de remolque por multirrotor para deportes de deslizamiento".

How to Cite This Article: Ahmadi Doulabi M, Sajedi F, Vameghi R, Mazaheri MA, Akbarzadeh Baghban AR. Socioeconomic Status Index to Interpret Inequalities in Child Development. Iran J Child Neurol. Spring 2017; 11(2):13-25.AbstractObjectiveThere have been contradictory findings on the relationship between Socioeconomic Status (SES) and child development although SES is associated with child development outcomes. The present study intended to define the relationship between SES and child development in Tehran kindergartens, Iran.Materials & Methods This cross-sectional survey studied 1036 children aged 36-60 month, in different kindergartens in Tehran City, Iran, in 2014-2015.The principal factor analysis (PFA) model was employed to construct SES indices. The constructed SES variable was employed as an independent variable in logistic regression model to evaluate its role in developmental delay as a dependent variable.Results The relationship between SES and developmental delay was significant at P=0.003. SES proved to have a significant (P<0.05) impact on developmental delay, both as an independent variable and after controlling risk factors.Conclusion There should be more emphasis on developmental monitoring and appropriate intervention programs for children to give them higher chance of having a more productive life. 1. Haghdoost AA. Complexity of the Socioeconomic Status and its Disparity as a Determinant of Health. Int J Prev 2012; 3(2):75. 2. Behavioral and social sciences research. Measuring Socioeconomic Status. e-Source 2013; Available from:http://www.esourceresearch.org 3. Bradley RH, Corwyn RF. Socioeconomic status and child development. 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Screening for developmental delay in the setting of a community pediatric clinic: a prospective assessment of parent-report questionnaires. J Pediatr 2006;118(4):e1178-e86. 26. Glascoe F. Early detection of developmental and behavioral problems. Pediatr Rev 2000;21(8):272-80. 27. Sajedi F, Vameghi R, Habibollahi A, Lornejad H, Delavar B. Standardization and validation of the ASQ developmental disorders screening tool in children of Tehran city. Tehran Univ Med J 2012;70(7). 28. Shahshahani S, Vameghi R, Azari N, Sajedi F, Kazemnejad A. Validity and Reliability Determination of Denver Developmental Screening Test-II in 0-6 Year– Olds in Tehran. Iran J Pediatr 2010;20(3):313. 29. Afraz F, Ahmadi M, Sajedi F, Akbarzadeh bagheban A. Development Status of 4-24 Months Children Born to Teenage Mothers Referred to Health Care Centers in Yasuj, 2013. YUMSJ 2015;20(3):253-63. 30. Shahshahani S, Vameghi R, Azari N, Sajedi F, Kazemnejad A. Comparing the Results of Developmental Screening of 4-60 Months Old Children in Tehran Using ASQ & PDQ. Iran Rehab J 2011;9:3-7. 31. Shaahmadi F, Khushemehri G, Arefi Z, Karimyan A, Heidari F. Developmental Delay and Its Effective Factors in Children Aged 4 to12 Months. Int J Pediatr 2015;3(1.1):396-402. 32. Karami K AL, Moridi F, Falah F, Bayat Z, Pourvakhshoori N. Evaluation criteria and factors associated with the development of one year old children in Khorramabad. J Pediatr Nurs 2015. 2015;1(3):57-64. 33. Dorre F, Fattahi Bayat G. Evaluation of children's development (4-60mo) with history of NICU admission based on ASQ in Amir kabir Hospital, Arak. J Ardabil Univ Med Sci 2011;11(2):143-50. 34. Sajedi F,Doulabi M, Vameghi R, Baghban A, Mazaheri MA, Mahmodi Z, Ghasemi E. Development of Children in Iran: A Systematic Review andMeta-Analysis. Glob J Health Sci 2016; 8(8): 145–161. 35. Tervo RC. Identifying patterns of developmental delays can help diagnose neurodevelopmental disorders. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2006;45(6):509-17. 36. Sajedi F, Vameghi R, Kraskian Mujembari A. Prevalence of undetected developmental delays in Iranian children. Child Care Health Dev 2014;40(3):379-88. 37. Spencer N. Social, economic, and political determinants of child health. Pediatrics 2003;112(Supplement 3):704- 6. 38. Rafiey H VM, Sajjadi H, Ghaed, Amini Gh. Family Income and Child Health in Iran: Recognition of Intermediary Variables' Role using Sructured Equation Models. Hakim Res J 2015(3).2010-2014 39. Poon JK, Larosa AC, Pai GS. Developmental delay: timely identification and assessment. Indian Pediatr 2010;47(5):415-22. 40. Conger RD, Conger KJ, Martin MJ. Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development. J Marriage Fam 2010;72(3):685-704. 41. Sajedi F, Vameghi R, Mohseni Bandpei MA et al. Motor developmental delay in 7500 Iranian infants: Prevalence and risk factors. Iran J Child Neurol 2009;3(3):43-50. 42. Potijk MR, Kerstjens JM, Bos AF, Reijneveld SA, de Winter AF. Developmental delay in moderately preterm-born children with low socioeconomic status: risks multiply. J Pediatr 2013;163(5):1289-95. 43. Brooks-Gunn J, Duncan GJ. The effects of poverty on children. Future Child 1997:55-71. 44. CatL-TEoP. Children and the Long-Term Effects of Poverty. The connecticut commission on children. 2004. June .Available from :https://www.cga.ct.gov. 45. Komro KA, Flay BR, Biglan A, Consortium PNR. Creating nurturing environments: A science-based framework for promoting child health and development within high-poverty neighborhoods. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 2011;14(2):111-34. 46. Canadian Institute for Health Information and Canadian Population Health Initiative,. Improving the Health of Canadians. Summary Report [electronic Resource]. Canadian Institute for Health Information.2004. Available from :https://www.cihi.ca 47. Evans GW. The environment of childhood poverty. Am Psychol. 2004;59(2):77.92 48. Elbers J, Macnab A, McLeod E. Article originale. Can J Rural Med 2008;13(1).9-14 49. Richter J, Janson H. A validation study of the Norwegian version of the Ages and Stages Questionnaires. Acta Paediatr 2007;96(5):748-52. 50. Glascoe FP. Screening for developmental and behavioral problems. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2005;11(3):173-9. 51. Squires J, Bricker D, Potter L. Revision of a parent-completed developmental screening tool: Ages and Stages Questionnaires. J Pediatr Psychol 1997;22(3):313- 28. 52. Lindsay NM, Healy GN, Colditz PB, Lingwood BE. Use of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire to predict outcome after hypoxic - ischaemic encephalopathy in the neonate. J Paediatr Child Health 2008;44(10):590-5. 53. Yu LM, Hey E, Doyle LW, Farrell B, Spark P, Altman DG, et al. Evaluation of the Ages and Stages Questionnaires in identifying children with neurosensory disability in the Magpie Trial follow - up study. Acta Paediatr 2007;96(12):1803-8. 54. Vameghi R, Sajedi F, Mojembari AK, Habiollahi A, Lornezhad HR, Delavar B. Cross-cultural adaptation, validation and standardization of Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ) in Iranian children. Iran J Public Health 2013;42(5):522. 55. Fukuda Y, Nakamura K, Takano T. Municipal socioeconomic status and mortality in Japan: sex and age differences, and trends in 1973–1998. Soc Sci Med 2004;59(12):2435-45. 56. Morasae EK, Forouzan AS, Majdzadeh R, Asadi-Lari M, Noorbala AA, Hosseinpoor AR. Understanding determinants of socioeconomic inequality in mental health in Iran's capital, Tehran: a concentration index decomposition approach. Int J Equity Health 2012;11(1):1-13. 57. Rohani-Rasaf M, Moradi-Lakeh M, Ramezani R, Asadi- Lari M. Measuring socioeconomic disparities in cancer incidence in Tehran, 2008. SN:1513-7368 (Print); 1513- 7368 (Linking).Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2012;13(6):2955- 60. 58. Moradi-Lakeh M, Ramezani M, Naghavi M. Equality in safe delivery and its determinants in Iran. Arch Iran Med 2007;10(4):446-51. 59. Krefis AC, Schwarz NG, Nkrumah B, Acquah S, Loag W, Sarpong N, et al. Principal component analysis of socioeconomic factors and their association with malaria in children from the Ashanti Region, Ghana. Malar J 2010;9(1):201. 60. Najafianzadeh M, Mobarak-Abadi A, Ranjbaran M, Nakhaei M. Relationship between the Prevalence of Food Insecurity and Some Socioeconomic and Demographic Factors in the Rural Households of Arak, 2014.Iran J Nutr Sci Food Technol 2015;9(4):35-44. 61. de Onis M, Blössner M, Villar J. Levels and patterns of intrauterine growth retardation in developing countries. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998;52:S5-15. 62. Paiva GSd, Lima ACVMd, Lima MdC, Eickmann SH. The effect of poverty on developmental screening scores among infants. Sao Paulo Med J 2010;128(5):276-83. 63. Najman JM, Aird R, Bor W, O'Callaghan M, Williams GM, Shuttlewood GJ. The generational transmission of socioeconomic inequalities in child cognitive development and emotional health. Soc Sci Med 2004;58(6):1147-58. 64. Evans GW, Kim P. Childhood poverty and health cumulative risk exposure and stress dysregulation. Soc Sci Med 2007;18(11):953-7. 65. Duncan GJ, Brooks-Gunn J. Consequences of growing up poor: Russell Sage Foundation; 1999.p . 132-189. 66. Duncan GJ, Yeung WJ, Brooks-Gunn J, Smith JR. How much does childhood poverty affect the life chances of children? Am Sociol Rev 1998:406-23. 67. Aber JL, Jones S, Cohen J. The impact of poverty on the mental health and development of very young children. 2nd ed. New York, NY, US: Guilford Press; 2000. p. 113- 128. 68. Stein AD, Behrman JR, DiGirolamo A, Grajeda R, Martorell R, Quisumbing A, et al. Schooling, educational achievement, and cognitive functioning among young Guatemalan adults. Food & Nutrition Bulletin 2005;26(Supplement 1):46S-54S. 69. Sigman M, McDonald MA, Neumann C, Bwibo N. Prediction of cognitive competence in Kenyan children from toddler nutrition, family characteristics and abilities. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1991;32(2):307-20. 70. Paxson C, Schady N. Cognitive development among young children in Ecuador the roles of wealth, health, and parenting. J Hum Resour 2007;42(1):49-84. 71. Hart B, Risley TR. Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children: Paul H Brookes Publishing Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children; 1995. 268. p 72. Lejarraga H, Pascucci MC, Krupitzky S, Kelmansky D, Bianco A, Martínez E, et al. Psychomotor development in Argentinean children aged 0–5 years. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2002;16(1):47-60. 73. Najman J, Bor W, Morrison J, Andersen M, Williams G. Child developmental delay and socio-economic disadvantage in Australia: a longitudinal study. Soc Sci Med 1992;34(8):829-35. 74. Nicholson JM, Lucas N, Berthelsen D, Wake M. Socioeconomic inequality profiles in physical and developmental health from 0–7 years: Australian National Study. J Epidemiol Community Health 2010:jech. 2009.103291. 75. Berger SE, Theuring C, Adolph KE. How and when infants learn to climb stairs. Infant Behav Dev 2007;30(1):36-49. 76. Sajedi F, Barati H. The effect of Perceptual Motor Training on Motor Skills of preschool children.Iran Rehab J 2014;12(19):30-40. 77. Eickmann SH, Lima AC, Guerra MQ, Lima MC, Lira PI, Huttly SR, et al. Improved cognitive and motor development in a community-based intervention of psychosocial stimulation in northeast Brazil. Dev Med Child Neurol 2003;45(08):536-41. 78. Garrett P, Ng'andu N, Ferron J. Poverty experiences of young children and the quality of their home environments. Child Dev 1994;65(2):331-45. 79. Walker SP, Chang SM, Powell CA, Grantham-McGregor SM. Effects of early childhood psychosocial stimulation and nutritional supplementation on cognition and education in growth-stunted Jamaican children: prospective cohort study. The Lancet 2005;366(9499):1804-7. 80. Thompson RA, Nelson CA. Developmental science and the media: Early brain development.Am Psychol 2001;56(1):5. 81. Jednoróg K, Altarelli I, Monzalvo K, Fluss J, Dubois J, Billard C, et al. The influence of socioeconomic status on children's brain structure. PLoS One 2012;7(8):e42486. 82. Hackman DA, Farah MJ. Socioeconomic status and the developing brain. Trends Cogn Sci 2009;13(2):65-73. 83. Otero GA. Poverty, cultural disadvantage and brain development: a study of pre-school children in Mexico. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102(6):512- 6. 84. Otero G, Pliego-Rivero F, Fernández T, Ricardo J. EEG development in children with sociocultural disadvantages: a follow-up study. Clin. Neurophysiol 2003;114(10):1918-25. 85. Hackman DA, Farah MJ, Meaney MJ. 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10/28/2020 Campus News - January 2016 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no5/index.html 1/7 Features | Around Campus | Events | Recognition | Service | SEARCH ARCHIVES January 2016 - Vol. 19, No. 5 P􀶋􈬍􀵾􇸍􀶌􈰍􀶂􈈍􀵽􇴍􀵾􇸍􀶇􈜍􀶍􈴧'􀶌􈰠 M􀵾􇸍􀶌􈰍􀶌􈰍􀵺􇨍􀶀􈀍􀵾􇸠 Welcome back to campus! I hope all of you had an enjoyable holiday break and are ready for a new year ofserving our students. We have some exciting events, projects and staff additions ahead, including: The annual Spring Assembly for Faculty and Staff is Thursday, Jan. 14, with a continental breakfastat 8:30 and program beginning at 9 a.m. I hope you'll come to the Save Mart Center for a brief recapof the fall semester. What's even more important, I have exciting news about the future. The Strategic Plan Committee worked throughout the fall to refine our plan based on the excellentinput received in our campus and community forums. Stay tuned for a final version of our StrategicPlan this spring. A new Cabinet member soon will be joining us. I've appointed Lawrence Salinas as executive directorof Government Relations, effective Feb. 1. He will develop and manage strategies to inform andinfluence public policy at the local, state and federal levels on issues and in areas of interest toFresno State and to advise the campus on legislative matters that may affect us. Lawrence, a FresnoState alumnus, has held leadership positions in governmental relations at UC Merced and the UCOffice of the President. I am thrilled that we again recruited our #1 choice in a Cabinet search! As we begin 2016, I am more convinced than ever that Fresno State's future is very bright. Let's go boldlyinto this new year! 10/28/2020 Campus News - January 2016 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no5/index.html 2/7 F􀵾􇸍􀵺􇨍􀶍􈴍􀶎􈸍􀶋􈬍􀵾􇸍􀶌􈱒 Red Wave honors faculty, staff Fresno State staff and faculty were honored Dec. 3 at a special men's basketball game appreciation night. Meet some ofthe player's favorite professors: Thea Fabian (Economics), Leonard Olson (Philosophy), Aric Min (Earth andEnvironmental Sciences) and Jonathan Hernandez (Communication). See more . EOP: Making a difference |The Educational Opportunity Program (EOP) at Fresno State continues to"make a difference" in helping first generation and historically low-incomestudents attain their goal of graduating from college. EOP recently announcedthat students in the fall 2009 cohort achieved a 6-year graduation rate of 59.7percent, which is higher than the campus rate of 58.4 percent. See more . FresnoStateNews.com is all new Stay current on the latest news, information and events happening at FresnoState by visiting the redesigned www.FresnoStateNews.com . This one-stop-shop for campus news features University produced videos, press releases,magazine and newsletter articles. FresnoStateNews.com is an easy way to follow the latest posts on the University'sofficial Facebook and Twitter accounts, and the live calendar is always up-to-date with the latest events on campus. Andif you have a question about a past event or issue facing the University, simply search the archives to access past newsarticles, videos and photos. The new FresnoStateNews.com is also the place to sign up for Fresno State's CommunityNewsletter. Created to showcase how Fresno State is making a bold difference in our region, this monthly newsletter isfilled with videos and features about all aspects of Fresno State. It's never been easier to stay in the know about allthings Fresno State. Bookmark www.FresnoStateNews.com today! Campus colors of fall The campus presents a beautiful show of color during the seasons, and this fall is a showstopper. Photos by CaryEdmondson. See slideshow . A look back at 2015 Revisit key moments from the past year. Photos by Cary Edmondson. See slideshow . A􀶋􈬍􀶈􈠍􀶎􈸍􀶇􈜍􀵽􇴠 C􀵺􇨍􀶆􈘍􀶉􈤍􀶎􈸍􀶌􈱎 New Warmerdam Field track project begins Warmerdam Field is undergoing a facelift as of December. The $2.6 million project is expected to continue through June2016. The project includes an eight-lane, all-weather track; a high-jump area; long- and triple-jump runways; two polevault runways; and shot put, discuss, hammer cage and javelin improvements. Also included are updates in utilities,landscaping and fencing. The current nine-lane, 400-meter track was constructed in 1976 and is named in honor ofCornelius "Dutch" Warmerdam, the former Fresno State head coach and former world-record holder in the pole vault.The track was last resurfaced in 1989. See more . Proposed Hmong minor option would be a first in western U.S. The University is developing a new minor program in Hmong Studies that will be the fifth such program in the nation andfirst in the western United States. The minor, which would be offered through the Linguistics Department in the College ofArts and Humanities, is in the final stages of the approval process with a decision due in the spring. The target date tolaunch is the fall 2016 semester. See more . Student Cupboard receives $25,000 endowment A Bay Area family joined together to establish an endowment that will help Fresno State students facing food insecurity.Michael Treviño, University of California director of undergraduate admissions, has established a $25,000 charitable giftannuity in honor of his aunt, Ermelinda Treviño. The annuity will provide lasting support of the Student Cupboard, whichprovides free food and hygiene products for Fresno State students in need. See more .10/28/2020 Campus News - January 2016 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no5/index.html 3/7 Global wireless connectivity is here On Jan. 14, Fresno State will launch eduroam(education roaming), a global wireless connectivityservice that enables students, faculty, staff, andguests to obtain secure internet connectivity. Theeduroam federation is a group of thousands ofuniversities and higher-education institutions across54 countries. These institutions have the eduroamnetwork at their locations and will grant you secureaccess to their network without having to go throughthe long process of setting up a guest login andpassword. Your device will work on their campusesthe same as if it were on Fresno State's. Additionalinformation about eduroam is available here . Benefits: Simplicity - Fresno State students, faculty and staff can log in to eduroam with their own Fresno State credentialsat any participating institution. Security - Eduroam' uses WPA2-enterprise authentication and encryption to prevent eavesdropping when usinginsecure applications on the network. The most significant change to the Fresno State network is that the process for logging in will require an email addressand corresponding email password instead of using computer login credentials. Contact the Help Desk at 278.5000 formore information. Salinas named director of governmental relations For Lawrence Salinas, a Fresno State alumnus with 30 years of political and public affairsexperience, coming home to serve as the University's new executive director of governmentalrelations is an opportunity to advocate for his alma mater. His primary role will be to develop andmanage strategies to inform and influence public policy at the local, state and federal levels inareas of interest to Fresno State. He will report directly to the president and advise the campuson legislative matters that may affect the University. See more . Philanthropist and supporter Dee Jordan dies Mrs. Dee Jordan, who, along with her husband and brother-in-law, was responsible for the largest cash gift in FresnoState's history, passed away on Nov. 17 in San Francisco at age 87. Her connection to Fresno State started at a socialgathering more than three decades ago when a retired Fresno State agriculture professor shared his enthusiasm for hiscollege's programs. That meeting led to a lasting relationship between the Jordans and Fresno State that ultimatelyresulted in a $29.5 million gift to Fresno State's Ag One Foundation in 2009. See more . Former psych professor, chair, Merry West, dies Dr. Merry West, professor emerita and former chair of the Psychology Department, died Nov. 20. She earned a Ph.D. inPsychology from Iowa State University in 1972 and joined the University soon after, then received emeritus status in1993. While at the University, she helped to initiate re-entry programs for students and to develop Women Studiesprograms. Dr. West loved traveling, but her favorite places were in California. See more . E􀶏􈼍􀵾􇸍􀶇􈜍􀶍􈴍􀶌􈱋 Keyboard Concerts presents Yefim Bronfman on Jan. 22 Yefim Bronfman performs at 3 p.m., Jan. 22, in the Concert Hall. Bronfman, a Russian-Israeli-American artist, regularly collaborates with the world's foremost conductors, including SirSimon Rattle, Daniel Barenboim, Herbert Blomstedt, Christoph von Dohnányi, Charles Dutoit,Valery Gergiev, Christoph Eschenbach, Zubin Mehta, Esa-Pekka Salonen, and David Zinman.General admission is $25, seniors $18 and students $5. For reservations and otherinformation, call 278.2337.10/28/2020 Campus News - January 2016 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no5/index.html 4/7 Comedian Drew Lynch performs Feb. 9 Student Involvement is hosting a special performance from comedian Drew Lynch on Feb. 9 at7 p.m. in the Satellite Student Union. This event is free to students with a valid Fresno StateI.D. and open to public for $5 per person. Drew Lynch starred on season 10 of America's GotTalent and advanced all the way to the finale. During his first audition, he shared his story ofhow a softball accident resulted in a permanent, severe stutter and how his life changedimmediately. Drew Lynch's comedy performance is being sponsored by Student Involvement,Services for Students with Disabilities, and Advocates for Students with Disabilities. For moreinformation, contact Shawna Blair at 559.278.2741. Library hosts Saleri exhibition Feb. 6-May 31; gala dinner is Feb. 5 During the spring 2016 semester, the Henry Madden Library presents a retrospective exhibition of artwork by KristinSaleri (1915 to 1987), a pioneering 20th century artist of Armenian heritage who lived and painted in Istanbul. Discovering Kristin Saleri runs Feb. 6 through May 31 in the Leon S. Peters Ellipse Gallery and Pete P. Peters BalconyGallery. The Gala Donors Opening Dinner is Feb. 5 at 6 p.m. in Henry Madden Library, second floor outside Leon S.Peters Ellipse Gallery. The exhibition is curated by Fresno natives Joyce Kierejczyk and Carol Tikijian, who also curateda spring exhibition at the Fresno Art Museum of works by artists of Armenian descent in commemoration of thecentennial of the Armenian genocide. The artworks exhibited are on loan from the family of the artist, who reside inHouston. For more information on the artist, visit www.kristinsaleri.com . For more information on the exhibit, visit the website . Save the date: Jan. 14 - International Fun Night, University Student Union Pavilion, 4 p.m. Jan. 16 - Men's basketball, Save Mart Center, 4 p.m. Meet members of the team . Jan. 20 - Women's basketball, Save Mart Center, 7 p.m. Jan. 21 - The Harlem Globetrotters, Save Mart Center, 7 p.m. Jan. 21 - Visual Arts Seminar, Satellite Student Union, 8 a.m. Jan. 22 - Women's basketball, Save Mart Center, 2 p.m. Jan. 27 - Club Sports Expo and Greek Day, University Student Union Balcony, starting at 7 a.m. Jan. 30 - SATAM Tai Chi group practice, South Gym 134, 7:30 a.m. R􀵾􇸍􀵼􇰍􀶈􈠍􀶀􈀍􀶇􈜍􀶂􈈍􀶍􈴍􀶂􈈍􀶈􈠍􀶇􈝅 Emmanuel Alcala (Central Valley Health Policy Institute) presented on air pollution in the Valley and its effects on children at the NationalInstitute of Environmental Health Sciences/Environmental Protection Agency Children's Centers Annual Meeting inWashington, D.C. See more . Nancy Delich and Stephen Roberts (Social Work and Communicative Disorders and Deaf Studies) are featured in the latest issue of Central California LifeMagazine, in which they discuss their underwater sign language course, which they teach at their dive shop, CentralValley Scuba Center. See more . Ethan Kytle and Blain Roberts (History) had their op-ed article advocating for a national slavery memorial published in the New York Times. See more .Roberts' book, "Pageants, Parlors, and Pretty Women: Race and Beauty in the Twentieth Century South" (University ofNorth Carolina Press, 2014) was recently awarded the 2105 Willie Lee Rose Prize by the Southern Association forWomen Historians. This award recognizes the best book in southern history published by a woman during the previouscalendar year. The book was also a finalist (among the top three, out of 70 submissions) for the 2015 BerkshireConference of Women Historians First Book Prize. Annette Levi (Agricultural Business) was named to the National Agricultural Research, Extension, Education, and Economics Advisory10/28/2020 Campus News - January 2016 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no5/index.html 5/7 Board by U.S. Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack. The board advises Vilsack and land-grant colleges and universities. Bradley Myers (Theatre Arts) received recognition from the Region VIII Governing Board of the Kennedy Center/American CollegeTheatre Festival for the production of the play, "Really, Really ." A scene from the play will be included at the regionalfestival at the University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii, held this February. Barlow Der Mugrdechian (Armenian Studies) had a book chapter published, "The Theme of Genocide in Armenian Literature," (pp. 273-286) in thenewly released book, The Armenian Genocide Legac y (Palgrave, 2015). The book was the product of a conference, "TheArmenian Genocide's Legacy, 100 Years On," held in The Hague, Netherlands, March 5-7, 2015. Saúl Jiménez-Sandoval (Arts and Humanities) was named dean of the College of Arts and Humanities, effective Jan. 1. He is a Fresno Stateprofessor of Spanish and Portuguese and served as interim associate dean of the college. Jiménez-Sandoval willsucceed Interim Dean José A. Díaz, who was not a candidate for the position. Díaz will be on special assignment in thespring semester. See more . Samendra Sherchan (Public Health) received the 2015-16 WRPI Faculty Research Incentive Award (from the Office of the Chancellor, WaterResources and Policy Initiatives) for his project, Understanding Public Perception to Direct Potable Reuse of MunicipalTreated Waste-water in the Central Valley. S􀵾􇸍􀶋􈬍􀶏􈼍􀶂􈈍􀵼􇰍􀵾􇹒 Reading and Beyond at Fresno State celebrates asuccessful semester The Reading and Beyond at Fresno State program (a partnershipbetween Fresno State's Richter Center and Reading and Beyond )recently took time to celebrate a successful semester. Over the courseof fall 2015, 60 work-study students served as tutors with the program,providing tutoring and mentoring services to children throughoutFresno County. Tutors worked directly with 183 elementary studentsproviding literacy and homework support. In addition, the tutors servedmore than 800 children intermittently. Reading and Beyond at FresnoState program also took part in several additional community serviceprojects, including school carnivals, local revitalization projects,educational community events, and a special letter-writing campaign benefiting military members and veterans. Save the Date: Spring Community Service Opportunities Fair The 13th annual Spring Community Service Opportunities Fair takes place Wednesday, Jan. 27, from 10 a.m. to 1 p.m.in the Satellite Student Union. The event is sponsored by The Jan and Bud Richter Center for Community Engagementand Service-Learning. During the Community Service Opportunities Fair students will have the opportunity to learn aboutvolunteer, service-learning, internship, and career opportunities offered through local community benefit organizations. Faculty and staff are encouraged to attend this event and send students who are interested in community service or whoare required to do service as part of a class assignment. For more information, please contact Trisha Studt in the RichterCenter at 559.278.7079. Registration open for Kids Day 2016 Kids Day is one the Valley's largest and most visible special events benefitting Valley Children's Hospital . Last year over1,400 Fresno State students participated in Kids Day and raised over $41,000! Kids Day will be held on March 8, 2016and is a great way for students, faculty, and staff to engage in a community-wide philanthropy project and can help inthree ways: (1) volunteer to sell papers, (2) help recruit other volunteers by sharing information on this event with friends,students and colleagues and (3) buy a paper on Kids Day from those around campus. Each year the Richter Centerhosts a friendly competition recognizing the top-selling student clubs and organizations. Register your club ororganization today by completing the online form . Individuals can also sign-up to volunteer using the same form . Formore information about participating, please contact Madison Dakovich in the Jan and Bud Richter Center for CommunityEngagement and Service-Learning at 559.278.7079 or send an email to fresnostatekidsday@gmail.com.10/28/2020 Campus News - January 2016 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no5/index.html 6/7 Fresno State for Summer Campaign a success This fall, Fresno State students Nancy Mohamed and Kelli Lowe, coordinated a campus-wide fundraising campaign builtaround the annual Giving Tuesday . This project raised money to support the wish of a Make-A-Wish CentralCalifornia child, Summer, whose wish is to visit to Walt Disney World with her family and meet Elsa from the movie Frozen . The campaign, "Fresno State for Summer" ran from November 1 - December 1, 2015. Over $1,400 was raisedto support Summer's wish. Mohamed and Lowe hope that this project will inspire future students to continue organizingfundraising efforts around Giving Tuesday and establishing a new philanthropic tradition at Fresno State. Richter Center student leaders provide nearly 3,000 hours of service In December, the Richter Center Student Leaders (RCSL) celebrated a successful fall semester. RCSL is made-up ofthree distinct teams including the Richter Center Ambassadors, Reflection Facilitators, and SERVE Committee. Theteam of 27 students provided a combined 2,734 hours of service to the campus and community. This service includedcoordinating and hosting two one-day service events (Make a Difference Day and Serving Fresno Day), conductingservice-related presentations and workshops for fellow Fresno State students, and promoting service through variousdigital and in-person campaigns. The team will return in the spring semester to continue these efforts including planningand hosting Spring into Service – a one-day service event – and National Volunteer Week activities. For more informationon RCSL, contact Mellissa Jessen-Hiser . Send us your photos! Campus News wants to share your most whimsical or memorable photo as a photo of the month . Faculty and staff, please submit your photo to campusnews@csufresno.edu . In case you missed it: Fresno State vs. San Francisco Catch some highlights from the Fresno State basketball win against San Francisco on Nov. 19. See slideshow . Fresno State vs. Colorado State Miss the Fresno State Bulldogs football game against Colorado State Rams, Nov. 28? See slideshow . International Cultural Night Enjoy the colors and vibrancy of International Cultural Night. See slideshow . ROTC Presentation Fresno State's ROTC made a presentation at the Oakland Raiders game, Dec. 6. See slideshow. Marching Band Moments A look back at some key Fresno State Marching Band moments. See slideshow . Happy Holidays Enjoy a glimpse of some of the seasonal decorations on campus, including displays in the Kennel Bookstore. Seeslideshow . Or enjoy holiday greetings from Victor E. Bulldog III. See slideshow . Slideshow photos by Cary Edmondson and courtesy of University Communications.10/28/2020 Campus News - January 2016 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no5/index.html 7/7 Still looking for more news? For the latest university press releases, visit FresnoStateNews.com. For sports news, visit GoBulldogs.com . Find announcements, events, and more on BulletinBoard . For the academic calendar, see the catalog . Find additional calendars through Academic Affairs . A listing of season stage performances is available through Theatre Arts and music performances through the Music Department . Campus News is the Fresno State employee newsletter published online the first day of each month – or the weekday closest to the first – fromSeptember through May. The deadline for submissions to the newsletter is 10 days prior to the first of each month. Please e-mail submissions to campusnews@csufresno.edu ; include digital photos, video clips or audio clips that are publishable online. Phone messages, PDFs, faxes, and printedhard copies will not be accepted. President , Joseph I. Castro Vice President for University Advancement , Paula Castadio . Campus News is published by the Office of University Communications. Archives | Academic Calendar | FresnoStateNews | Campus News Deadlines | University Communications Print this Page

Robert Stegen ; The Weber and Davis County Communities Oral History Collection include interviews of citizens from several different walks of life. These interviews were conducted by Stewart Library personnel, WeberState University faculty and students, and other members of the community. The histories cover various topics and chronicle the personal everyday life experiences and other recollections regarding the history of the Weber and Davis County areas. ; 9p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 video disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Robert Stegen Interviewed By Steven F. Crane 11 March 2013 i ii Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Robert Stegen Interviewed by Steven F. Crane 11 March 2013 Copyright © 2013 by Weber State University, Stewart Library iii Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in the University Archives, which also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description The Weber and Davis County Communities Oral History Collection include interviews of citizens from several different walks of life. These interviews were conducted by Stewart Library personnel, Weber State University faculty and students, and other members of the community. The histories cover various topics and chronicle the personal everyday life experiences and other recollections regarding the history of the Weber and Davis County areas. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Stegen, Robert, an oral history by Steven F. Crane, 11 March 2013, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, University Archives, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. Robert Stegen March 11, 2013 1 Abstract: Robert Stegen participated in an oral history interview with Steve Crane of the Ogden Rotary Club on March 11, 2013 to discuss his experiences as a veteran of World War II. Robert was drafted in 1943 and served until 1946 as a 1st Lieutenant. He is a Purple Heart recipient and also earned the Bronze Star for valor in combat. Following his military service, Robert began his career at the Army Defense Depot in Ogden, Utah and retired as a chief civilian of that facility in 1980 with 37 years of service. SC This is the first session of the 2013 Ogden Rotary Club and Weber State University Veteran's history Project held March 11, 2013 at the George E. Whalen Ogden Veteran's Home. I'm Steve Crane with the Ogden Rotary Club and I will be conducting this interview. Also present are Bob Harris from the Ogden Rotary Club, Stacie Gallagher from Weber State University and my wife, Donna Crane. Our guest at this session is Robert Stegen. This session is to talk about your service opportunity. We understand that your birthday is July 26, 1924, which makes you 88 years old. Your branch of service was the Army and you served from 1943 to 1946. Your highest rank was 1st Lieutenant and your position was a war bride escort. RS: It was a program to get back and process through all of the war brides whose husbands were soldiers and had already left for the states. It included medical examinations, counseling, and all the different language interpretation we could have and packing up everything for those that qualified for shipment. SC: Some of the awards you received were the Purple Heart and the Bronze Star. There is a little "2" by the Bronze Star, what does that mean? 2 RS: That's a "V" for "Valor". SC: We'd like to start talking a little bit about your service and I'd like to ask you how you came to be in the service? RS: I graduated from Ogden High School in 1942, right after Pearl Harbor. We were not looking for employment then, we had some assured. I went in the Army with the first 18-year-old draft on May 8, 1943. SC: Where did you receive your training? RS: I went to Fort Knox, Kentucky, which was the center for the armory corp. It was the tank corps of the U.S. Army. There, I was trained as a tank gunner and tank driver for a big Sherman three-quarter ton tank. Later, through events, I ended up in the infantry as a replacement officer in Europe. SC: What major campaigns were you involved in? RS: Central Europe and the Rhinelands. That's two of them. That was after the Battle of the Bulge. Fortunately, I missed the Bulge. My infantry division and my company did not miss the Bulge and they caught heck there. I was fortunate and came up as a replacement officer and I missed the Bulge. SC: Who was your leading general? RS: General Bradley. From the top it was Eisenhower and coming up on the pecking order, it was General Simpson with the 9th U.S. Army and we were under his majesty Montgomery, heir to the British crown. He was not liked by the typical American G.I. SC: During these campaigns, did you see combat? 3 RS: Yes. I was wounded at Dortman, Germany in the upper industrial part of Germany where the crop iron works and there was a big concentration of industry and chemistry. Of course, it was just bombed and we gave it heck trying to put it out of operation. I got pretty heavily involved in that for my time. SC: Were you shot? RS: I was wounded. I was shot by a 20 millimeter cannon in the left leg and it tore the meat all the way up from behind my knee. I was in the hospital for a little over two months for that. SC: What hospital did they send you to? RS: They sent me first to the Army General Hospital 221st, which was located in Reims, France. It was a comparatively new hospital over there. I developed gangrene in my left leg and it was bad news. They'd push it and it would shoot puss all over the bedding and everything else. I had some pain with that, it was miserable. The leader of the hospital came to tell me, "Lieutenant, I'm going to transfer you to the 36th General Hospital. They've been over here since North Africa and have had a lot of experience. Unfortunately, in the United States, we don't treat many gunshot wounds. We're a new hospital. We're good, but we're going to send you where there's more experience." That got me to Dijon and I was in Dijon at the 36th General Hospital when the Germans surrendered. SC: What was your experience like during close combat? How did you feel? RS: I am alive today because I was kind to a German soldier. SC: Can you tell us about that? 4 RS: We had a machine gun nest. There were four Germans turned up on it and two of us with hand grenades and one with a bazooka blew the front of it and charged it. The whole area was encompassed by a big red brick wall. We would restrict the entry from where the machine gun nest was right out of this exit. I was the last one out of the brick area and I looked down and there was a German soldier with a raincoat on who was leaning on his left arm. He raised his arm up and said, "I am injured, help me." I stopped. There was nobody else around. My troops had run on to a railroad embankment out of sight just beyond the brick wall. I don't know why I stopped, but I said, "Do you have a weapon?" He said, "Yes," in broken English. I asked, "Where is it?" He pointed and he took out this P-38 and threw it out on the ground with his one good arm. He was bleeding really badly. All of a sudden, all hell broke loose. There were screams, children crying and everything. Out of a bomb shelter came I don't know how many children and women. I didn't even know the bomb shelter was there. It was a dugout affair with a lid. All these kids came charging out of there. They were terror stricken. That stops you and you start wondering, "Where am I?" One woman about 60 years old came out of that thing and she looked at my face—and I'm not being melodramatic—but I can't describe the hatred that she showed for me in her face. I looked at her and pointed at the wounded German soldier and said, "Help that man." You should have seen what effect it had on her. Her face softened and she said, "Ya, ya, ya." She got down and started helping him. I heard this noise and I turn around and not even 20 feet from me, in high weeds, was a 5 German paratrooper. He got up and threw an M-42 machine gun on the ground right in front of me and surrendered to me. He had watched all of that go on when I was helping that other soldier. So, I say, "I'm alive today because I was kind to that soldier." There are several of those kinds of stories, and yet, I killed Germans. Anyone can tell you the same story. It's a matter of what you're cast into and what the role is. I killed some, but I didn't hate them all. SC: Did you make close friends during your service? RS: My company commander is 84-years-old and still alive. I was platoon leader of the first platoon until I was wounded and he's still my best friend today. He lives in St. Charles, Missouri. You form all kinds of friendships. We ran our own reunions for the division and for our company for 25 to 30 years after the war. We've quit now. Everybody is too darn old and can't make it anymore. You really do form some friendships. SC: Any other memorable experiences that you could share with us? RS: A platoon attacked toward this big chemical plant of some kind in Dorsten, Germany. We got up there and by my estimate there were probably 3,000 displaced workers in there that the Germans held. They were well fed, which confused us because they wouldn't want to feed people they were trying to starve to death. We got in there and these people had run the German guards off. It was a place called Maral and it was the largest synthetic rubber plant in the world we were told. It was never bombed because of the number of prisoners that were there. They were Belgian, French, and everything. The British didn't want it and it was particularly safe at that time. When we broke through the gates 6 of that place, you should have seen the celebration that took place. Those people must have been in there for three years or more before we came in and freed them. That was an experience. SC: Did you ever come across any concentration camps? RS: No. The only thing I came to was that one at Maral. Those were talented workers, so the Germans were feeding them well and treating them decently. SC: Did you come back to Ogden? RS: Yes, I came back to Ogden. I was born and raised in Ogden and stayed here all my career. In fact, this place where we are right now was part of the old Ogden Army Depot and I retired as a chief civilian of this facility. You know what it's done for me? They've got me in room 120—that's the furthest you can get from the front gate—and I sit there and I look at my domain and it is a three inch window sill. That's all of my glory for retiring as a chief civilian with 37 years of service. I think, "Well, it all comes back to haunt you one way or the other." SC: You worked at the defense depot in Ogden? RS: I retired from there. SC: How long ago did you retire? RS: I retired on the 4th of January 1980. A long time ago. SC: What have you been doing since? RS: Well, I have not worked for pay any place one single day. I love history and my wife and I used to love to travel and see history and things like that. We traveled 7 all over the country looking at sites. I'm a history buff when it comes to the Civil War and several others. I've had no trouble staying occupied. SC: Is your wife still with you? RS: No, my wife died of Alzheimer's eight years ago. SC: Do you have children? RS: I have three. SC: Where are they located? RS: One of them is located eight miles north of Tucson, Arizona. He's chief geologist for a big American mining company. He's got a good job and he's earned it all. My other son has been employed for 37 years as a switchman for the Union Pacific railroad. My daughter left when they closed the depot and now she's working at Hill Field. SC: How about grandchildren? RS: I have seven grandchildren around here and another in Arizona. SC: Is there anything else that you'd like to share with us having to do with your military service? RS: I had some success, but I'll tell you why I might have had some success. I was a one-striper—a private first-class—and one-stripers aren't told much in the Army because they haven't been around long enough. They had this big review by two major generals, General Anderson and General Green and my sergeant who was in charge of this tank that I happened to be the driver in. I'd been back at Ft. 8 Knox Kentucky on a course on the armaments of a tank. My damn worthless sergeant, that's all I can call him, went on sick leave so all these tanks were lined up there and I'm the only one that's in the head row. Here come the two major generals, Anderson and Green, who do you suppose they head for in that big row? They aren't looking for sergeants; they're looking for one-stripers. They walked over and I looked at the look on my company commander's face and I think he was saying that my career was over. Anyway, these guys walked right over to me and General Anderson said, "Where's your sergeant?" I said, "He's on sick call, sir." He was mumbling. He said, "Can you explain the working of that 75mm gun in that tank you're driving?" I had just come out of the armory center a week before, so I had all the confidence in the world and said, "Yes, sir." I lead them up to the top of the tank and I got down in the turret so they could listen and these two generals sat and listened to me go through the name, chapter and verse. That's not bragging because I ought to be able to do that. That's opportunity and timing. Those things change your life and that one changed mine. SC: In what way did it change your life? RS: It changed mine from being a one-striper private to getting recognized and being a corporal the next day and a sergeant in three weeks. Then, I was sent to Officer's Candidate School in Fort Benning to get commissioned. That one event changed all of that. I recall when I had been major sergeant, my company commander called me in and said, "Sergeant Stegen, I want you to apply for Officer's Candidate School." I said, "I can't be an officer." He said, "I didn't ask 9 you. Get the papers from the First Sergeant and have them on my desk Tuesday morning, do you understand that?" I said, "Yes, sir." So, almost against my will, I'm on the way to Fort Benning to be a major infantry officer. The thing I'm saying is, "A lot of what you do is opportunity." You've got to perform when it comes to you. I was very fortunate on timing. SC: Well, I want to thank you for coming today. As a citizen of the United States, I want to thank you for your service. My dad served in World War II, but he died when I was eight so he never got to tell me about his experience. We all appreciate what you all did. RS: I would have felt terrible if I hadn't been able to go. It's just the way it was. SC: We, as a nation, are really grateful for what you and your associates did. Thank you very much for being here. RS: I hope I didn't saturate you, but the things that impress me are the human events that occur. SC: Yes. Thank you for being here. We appreciate your time. It has been a wonderful experience for us all.

AMÉRICA LATINA Rousseff veta la amnistía a los deforestadores de la Amazonia.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2012/05/25/veto-partiel-a-une-loi-reduisant-la-protection-de-l-amazonie-au-bresil_1707787_3222.html http://sociedad.elpais.com/sociedad/2012/05/25/actualidad/1337974767_878665.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/25/world/americas/brazil-forest-code/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-brazil-forests-20120529,0,2383595.storyIndígenas en Brasil piden ante Ministerio de Salud mejoras sanitarias.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/indigenas-en-brasil-piden-ante-ministerio-de-salud-mejoras-sanitarias_11908841-47"El País" de Madrid entrevista al ex presidente chileno Patricio Aylwin.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/26/actualidad/1338051981_784799.htmlDevaluaciones en el Cono Sur: Brasil y Argentina luchan de forma opuesta contra las oscilaciones del dólar.Para más información: http://economia.elpais.com/economia/2012/05/25/actualidad/1337961496_336481.html http://www.economist.com/node/21555901 Controles de divisas: el oficialismo argentino cree "un suicidio" liberar dólares.Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/29/internacional/internacional/noticias/F1EE250C-583F-4E2F-98CF-96BE208BA64A.htm?id={F1EE250C-583F-4E2F-98CF-96BE208BA64A} FreeEconomía de Argentina se 'venezolaniza' tras restricción al dólar.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/economa-de-argentina-se-venezolaniza_11887521-4 FARC anuncia liberación de periodista francés Roméo Langlois.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/farc-anunciam-libertacao-de-jornalista-frances-5035675 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/27/world/americas/colombia-farc-hostage/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/28/internacional/internacional/noticias/F9974F49-23DC-492D-8CC3-F453FACD1FD2.htm?id={F9974F49-23DC-492D-8CC3-F453FACD1FD2}http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2012/05/27/les-farc-annoncent-la-liberation-prochaine-de-romeo-langlois_1708053_3222.html Intensas lluvias afectan la costa pacífica mexicana tras rastros del huracán Bud.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/47522794/ns/weather/#.T8WMKFLMqw4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mexico-cartel-war-20120528,0,5990329.storyEl cartel Mexicano "Zetas" reescribe la guerra contra el narcotráfico con sangre: se cobró 55000 vidas en los últimos 5 años.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/47534398/ns/world_news-americas/#.T8WMRlLMqw4Movimiento juvenil 'Yo soy 132' sacude elección presidencial mexicana.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/movimiento-yo-soy-132-sacude-a-mxico_11887421-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mexico-election-students-20120525,0,6629519.storyBomba en hotel en la frontera mexicana hiere a 10 personas.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/25/world/americas/mexico-violence/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8"The Economist" analiza los derechos y la lucha de los homosexuales en Chile.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21555943"CNN" cubre conmovedora historia de hija de desaparecidos.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/25/world/americas/argentina-body-identified/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Estado de emergencia en Perú tras violentos choques entre manifestantes y fuerzas gubernamentales.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/27/world/americas/peru-confronts-wounds-of-civil-war.html?ref=world&gwh=B327C152762581AEE5F5B5F77441F8DB http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18245924 http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/world_now/2012/05/reporting-from-lima-and-bogota-the-peruvian-government-on-tuesday-declared-a-state-of-emergency-in-a-southeastern-provin.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/29/internacional/internacional/noticias/64A09014-C569-48BA-A3C8-CA2C016CE10E.htm?id={64A09014-C569-48BA-A3C8-CA2C016CE10E} Haití pagará incentivos a madres que envíen a sus hijos a escuela a través de una inusual vía.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18245302Oposición estudia interpelar al ex Presidente Lula. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/28/internacional/_portada/noticias/C8A32906-5B14-4E71-AD3A-A201D804D377.htm?id={C8A32906-5B14-4E71-AD3A-A201D804D377} Honduras es fuertemente afectada por la violencia y el narcotráfico.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/47583232/ns/world_news-americas/#.T8WMI1LMqw4 http://photoblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/05/23/11824962-hunt-for-drug-trafficker-terrorizes-honduras-village?liteEl rascacielos más alto de América Latina está ahora en Chile.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/rascacielos-en-amrica-latina_11887384-4"Los Angeles Times" analiza cambio económico de la zona de Recife.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-brazil-migration-20120524,0,4095576.storyPerspectivas ante la crisis: la falta de innovación es el principal riesgo para las economías de América Latina. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/29/internacional/_portada/noticias/ECE4BAE6-8780-495C-B6E2-9BC958EBE50B.htm?id={ECE4BAE6-8780-495C-B6E2-9BC958EBE50B} ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁRomney se convierte oficialmente en el candidato republicano en Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-05/30/content_15422399.htmhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/romney-se-convierte-oficialmente-en-candidato-republicano-en-ee-uu_11910083-4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/850343.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/27/actualidad/1338069757_779175.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/primarias-en-texas-coronaran-a-romney_11893382-4 Diversos medios presentan portales sobre las elecciones en Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://elpais.com/tag/elecciones_eeuu_2012/a/ http://www.economist.com/world/us-elections-2012 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/28/internacional/_portada/noticias/658CC1D5-B1F1-461C-8380-9A2CA90E907E.htm?id={658CC1D5-B1F1-461C-8380-9A2CA90E907E}Día de los Caídos en Estados Unidos marcado por un expreso patriotismo.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-05/30/content_15420651.htmEstados Unidos expulsó a diplomáticos sirios tras matanza de Hula.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/pases-expulsaron-a-diplomticos-sirios-en-protesta-por-masacre_11903962-4 http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/05/29/11933554-us-expels-syria-diplomat-after-un-finds-houla-victims-were-executed?liteTerrorismo: Estados Unidos revela complot iraní para atacar diplomáticos.Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/29/internacional/internacional/noticias/2DAFABD8-2AA4-4E1C-B786-33025575B939.htm?id={2DAFABD8-2AA4-4E1C-B786-33025575B939} Obama condecora a activistas sociales y personalidades culturales.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/850302.htmlObama espera la ayuda de Rusia para sacar a Assad del poder.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/27/world/middleeast/us-seeks-russias-help-in-removing-assad-in-syria.html?ref=world&gwh=90658E13179241E506FC2332C0AC042B"The Economist" analiza situación de la economía canadiense.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/world/americasEUROPAItalia, sacudida por dos fuertes terremotos en diez días.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-05/30/content_15419005.htm http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/850161.html http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/05/29/11931934-at-least-16-die-as-58-magnitude-earthquake-hits-italy?lite http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/italia-sacudida-por-dos-terremotos-en-diez-dias-_11908781-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-italy-quake-20120530,0,7310236.story Países europeos retiran sus misiones diplomáticas en Siria.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-05/30/content_15421937.htm Francia no descarta una intervención armada en Siria.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/850265.htmlRusia critica reporte del Departamento de Estado de los Estados Unidos sobre Derechos Humanos.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-05/29/content_15411545.htm Rusia escéptica frente a la violencia gubernamental siria. Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/russia-diz-nao-acreditar-que-massacre-foi-obra-do-governo-sirio-5037946#ixzz1w7qg16kP http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18235965 Varios portales presentan noticias sobre la actual situación económica europea.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/27/business/economy/in-the-euro-zone-a-lethal-vacuum-economic-view.html?ref=world&gwh=81BD5CCF2311C5C59EA666F0CA958D7E http://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2012/05/europes-biggest-fear http://economia.elpais.com/economia/2012/05/25/actualidad/1337978907_477033.html http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/28/business/global/in-euro-zone-a-debate-over-bonds.html?hp&gwh=5898A980191E7A17FA2FD866662ADF60"The Economist" analiza el futuro de la Unión Europea.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21555916Indignación griega por palabras de la directora del FMI.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21555923 http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2012/05/27/lagarde-demande-aux-grecs-de-payer-leurs-impots_1708007_3214.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/indignacin-griega-por-palabras-de-christine-lagarde_11893261-4 Berlín trabaja en propuestas concretas de crecimiento y empleo.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/25/actualidad/1337956415_596350.html Merkel y su política para enfrentar la crisis. Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-europe-merkel-debt-20120523,0,4350685.story España temerosa de una posible corrida bancaria.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-spain-banks-20120527,0,5484420.story http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/27/world/europe/small-and-medium-businesses-suffer-as-spain-bank-loans-shrivel.html?ref=world&gwh=7C182BC6AD40B86611BBD4E3BD3A1468Escocia abre la campaña por la independencia con escaso apoyo.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/25/actualidad/1337946515_309380.html Alexis Tsipras, líder del principal partido griego de izquierda: El hombre que tiene en vilo a Europa. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/28/internacional/internacional/noticias/C9E09C46-902D-4B72-BE69-E491B323A291.htm?id={C9E09C46-902D-4B72-BE69-E491B323A291} Primer Ministro francés supera a Hollande en popularidad Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/28/internacional/internacional/noticias/07B6C2CE-345A-47CC-B3B8-6545FCDE9C7F.htm?id={07B6C2CE-345A-47CC-B3B8-6545FCDE9C7F}Los socialistas franceses buscan una mayoría cómoda en el Parlamento.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/26/actualidad/1338053308_457391.htmlPresidente francés quiere diseñar una nueva arquitectura para la Unión Europea.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/25/actualidad/1337969518_099803.htmlHollande estrena su diplomacia balsámica en Europa.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/24/actualidad/1337878262_956877.html Policía española captura al jefe del aparato militar de ETA y a su lugarteniente en elsuroeste de Francia.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2012/05/27/deux-membres-de-l-eta-arretes-dans-le-sud-ouest_1708059_3214.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/28/internacional/_portada/noticias/AA04D948-AA22-42DE-B07D-9D88DFB508B0.htm?id={AA04D948-AA22-42DE-B07D-9D88DFB508B0}Futuro de Assange se define en Londres.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/850237.html Unos 100.000 opositores se manifiestan contra Saakashvili en Georgia.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/27/actualidad/1338153555_951248.htmlEl Vaticano prepara más detenciones por la filtración de documentos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/27/actualidad/1338149211_138021.html Cuarenta personas fueron arrestadas tras protestas por derechos de homosexuales en Moscú.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/quarenta-presos-apos-confusao-em-protestos-por-direitos-gays-em-moscou-5037143#ixzz1w7qcyJkhBlair explicó su relación con magnate Rupert Murdoch.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/relacin-entre-tony-blair-y-el-magnate-rupert-murdoch_11903021-4 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/29/internacional/internacional/noticias/4B2743A3-7187-47ED-85E8-CDFBF2835211.htm?id={4B2743A3-7187-47ED-85E8-CDFBF2835211} http://www.miamiherald.com/2012/05/28/2821686/tony-blair-says-he-ducked-fight.html#storylink=cpy Juez Baltasar Garzón cumplirá su pena de inhabilitación en 2022.Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/29/internacional/internacional/noticias/1C0F5B3C-4550-439B-97CE-9BE8A5C55F8F.htm?id={1C0F5B3C-4550-439B-97CE-9BE8A5C55F8F}Policía danesa arresta a dos personas que planeaban ataque.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/05/29/11936205-police-arrest-two-men-over-denmark-terror-attack-plot?liteLiberada una joven que vivió ocho años bajo esclavitud en Bosnia.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/05/29/11939390-teenager-allegedly-held-as-slave-in-bosnia-for-years?lite http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/liberada-una-joven-alemana-mantenida-bajo-esclavitud-en-bosnia_11890061-4 ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTECondena internacional por masacre en Siria.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18245225http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/consejo-de-seguridad-de-la-onu-se-rene-por-masacre-en-siria_11890661-4 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/27/world/middleeast/syrian-activists-claim-death-toll-in-village-soars.html?ref=world&gwh=67B04E7912451E677DEE6773B7179BAC http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/28/internacional/_portada/noticias/604ED812-6034-469E-B16D-5F0436CD735F.htm?id={604ED812-6034-469E-B16D-5F0436CD735F} http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/conselho-de-seguranca-da-onu-condena-siria-por-massacre-5038570#ixzz1w7qOQ8YB http://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/27/from-massacres-to-shortages-syria-under-pressure/?ref=world&gwh=65F95E3CDDE403D02C5EF1CA3B9FB77E http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-05/30/content_15418534.htm http://www.miamiherald.com/2012/05/27/2819716/syria-denies-responsibility-for.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/27/actualidad/1338118040_536355.html http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-syria-massacre-20120528,0,7172304.storyKofi Annan llega a Siria para reunirse con Bashar Al Asad.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/labor-de-kofi-annan-en-siria_11902983-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/28/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=wo_c1 http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-05/30/content_15418697.htm http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2012/05/27/un-bombardement-de-l-otan-en-afghanistan-tue-8-civils_1708010_3216.html http://www.economist.com/node/21555954 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-syria-diplomacy-20120530,0,7401114.storyIrán construirá otra central nuclear pese a presión internacional.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/25/world/meast/iran-nuclear/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/28/internacional/internacional/noticias/5B3F3499-5FAF-42BB-A84C-7A6B72303A21.htm?id={5B3F3499-5FAF-42BB-A84C-7A6B72303A21} http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/ira-nao-ha-razao-para-parar-de-enriquecer-uranio-20-5038218#ixzz1w7qTLWur http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/28/world/middleeast/iran-wont-halt-production-of-higher-grade-uranium.html?hp&gwh=E2CBDB8DF857566C8E740DEBFE56BACF http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-05/30/content_15418626.htm http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2012/05/25/des-traces-d-uranium-enrichi-a-plus-de-20-decouvertes-en-iran_1707751_3218.html http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-iran-nuclear-20120526,0,418614.story http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/irn-construir-otra-central-nuclear_11893162-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-iran-nuclear-deal-20120523,0,962424.story Incidente en Afganistán: bombardeo de la OTAN mata a ocho civiles.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/oito-civis-morrem-em-ataque-aereo-da-otan-no-afeganistao-5035213#ixzz1w7qb0qol http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/28/internacional/internacional/noticias/1C353FD5-18DD-47E3-8634-E7B66E4080C2.htm?id={1C353FD5-18DD-47E3-8634-E7B66E4080C2} http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/27/actualidad/1338115272_791136.html http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/27/world/asia/drug-traffic-remains-as-us-nears-afghanistan-exit.html?hp&gwh=A033766A24E5EC848586C446126DEAB9 http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-05/30/content_15423180.htm]OTAN mata al número 2 de Al-Qaida en Afganistán.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/05/29/11931081-number-2-al-qaida-leader-in-afghanistan-killed-in-nato-airstrike?lite Suu Kyi sale de Birmania por primera vez en 24 años.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/850197.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18245929Horror en campos de trabajo en Corea del Norte.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/27/world/asia/north-korea-labor-camps-hancocks/index.html?hpt=wo_t3Fuego desata tragedia en centro comercial de Qatar.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/28/world/meast/qatar-fire/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/29/internacional/internacional/noticias/0103A387-1CEA-45C0-83AB-9861D652D75C.htm?id={0103A387-1CEA-45C0-83AB-9861D652D75C} http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18243136Ex Premier de Japón reconoce responsabilidad estatal por Fukushima. Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/27/world/asia/concerns-grow-about-spent-fuel-rods-at-damaged-nuclear-plant-in-japan.html?ref=world&gwh=0974E928305A7AA97DDC39A42499632A http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/29/internacional/_portada/noticias/C1E9801B-5164-4E03-8D86-0B4018172F42.htm?id={C1E9801B-5164-4E03-8D86-0B4018172F42} http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/47592012/ns/us_news-environment/#.T8WMZ1LMqw4 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/28/world/asia/japan-nuclear/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7Pakistán prueba alcance de sus misiles.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-05/29/content_15416524.htmLa caída de Bo Xilai facilita el camino a los reformistas en ChinaPara más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/27/actualidad/1338128173_085638.html Dos tibetanos se inmolaron en las cercanías de un popular templo.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/28/world/asia/tibet-immolations-lhasa/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/05/28/11915646-protesters-set-themselves-on-fire-near-temple-popular-with-tourists-in-tibet-capital?liteChina y sus intentos por controlar internet.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/47596791/ns/world_news-asia_pacific/#.T8WMVFLMqw4 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/28/world/asia/china-weibo-rules/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Activista de Bahrain, Al-Khawaja, culmina su helga de hambre.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-18239695"The Economist" analiza la prosperidad de la economía china.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21555762 Hija de Saddam busca editorial para publicar memorias póstumas. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/29/internacional/internacional/noticias/CFF123E0-22A2-4F0C-AB58-92B7E6CBF863.htm?id={CFF123E0-22A2-4F0C-AB58-92B7E6CBF863} ÁFRICANace en el corazón de África el Estado islámico del Azawad.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/27/world/africa/two-rebel-groups-in-mali-merge-to-form-islamic-state.html?ref=world&gwh=1CCB56E2C53E1879A0018658B454AB65 http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2012/05/27/la-rebellion-touareg-fusionne-avec-un-groupe-islamiste-au-nord-du-mali_1708003_3212.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/27/actualidad/1338080043_901876.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/27/world/africa/mali-rebel-groups/index.html?hpt=wo_bn10 Violencia tras conocerse oficialmente los resultados electorales en Egipto. Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-elections-20120527,0,3534501.story http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/05/29/internacional/internacional/noticias/B84A3FF7-AF9D-4D9C-A221-C4D5300B5C97.htm?id={B84A3FF7-AF9D-4D9C-A221-C4D5300B5C97} http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/28/world/meast/egypt-election/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/prenden-fuego-a-oficinas-de-candidato-a-la-presidencia-en-egipto_11900801-4 http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2012/05/egypts-presidential-election http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/27/world/middleeast/some-in-egypt-disdain-both-candidates.html?ref=world&gwh=DF70159F604EFCBA310372F56CA02562 http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2012/05/26/egypte-le-candidat-chafiq-promet-ne-pas-revenir-a-l-ere-moubarak_1707941_3212.htmlSiete años de prisión por corrupción para el jefe de Gabinete de MubarakPara más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/05/27/actualidad/1338147851_363736.htmlGrupo islámico Boko Haram genera terror en Nigeria. Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-nigeria-boko-haram-20120527,0,572578.storyExplosión en centro comercial en Nairobi-Kenia.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18232621 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/28/world/africa/kenya-explosion/index.html?hpt=wo_bn10 http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/world_now/2012/05/nairobi-kenya-blast-called-bomb-attack.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-05/29/content_15408978.htmAgencia de Naciones Unidas propone a Mugabe como "líder para el turismo" .Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/05/29/11940600-un-agency-appoints-mugabe-as-a-leader-for-tourism?lite OTRASONU rinde homenaje a 112 caídos en servicio en 2011.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/850190.html"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21555625

"Liberal states are different. They are indeed peaceful". (1)Michael Doyle. IntroducciónComo es materia sabida, la disciplina de las Relaciones Internacionales se ha desarrollado a lo largo del siglo XX a través de una serie de grandes escuelas de pensamiento. Realismo, Liberalismo, Marxismo y más recientemente Constructivismo, entraron en competencia para explicar la complejidad de la política mundial, en un proceso por el cual han puesto a prueba sus fortalezas y debilidades y apuntalado su respectivo refinamiento (Walt, 1998). La influencia de buena parte de estas concepciones intelectuales, asimismo, ha ido mucho más allá del mero ámbito de las aulas universitarias para impregnar también la cosmovisión y el proceso decisorio de los responsables políticos de los principales Estados en el sistema internacional (Snyder, 2005).Un caso muy particular donde se advierte un importante debate por parte de la academia, así como una materialización marcada en el discurso y enfoque de ciertos gobiernos, es el de la Paz Democrática. Considerada como "lo más cercano a una ley empírica en las Relaciones Internacionales", la Paz Democrática resulta aún en el nuevo siglo materia controvertida y de amplio interés precisamente por esta doble dimensión científico-política. En este sentido, el presente trabajo aborda el tópico con el objetivo de repasar y reflexionar sobre su sentido y su contenido, sobre la evolución de su estudio y sobre su manifestación concreta en la política exterior de Estados Unidos y los dilemas que esto entraña.La Paz DemocráticaEn su noción más general la idea de la Paz Democrática es bien simple y consiste en la sencilla afirmación de que "las democracias no hacen la guerra entre sí". Esta presunción se complementa a su vez con otros dos postulados: el primero que las democracias liberales no son más propensas a la guerra que los Estados no democráticos, pero tampoco lo son menos y, el segundo, que aunque las democracias liberales no se hacen la guerra entre ellas, sí han tenido conflictos armados con los Estados no liberales (Peñas, 1997: 120). Puesta de otra forma, la Paz Democrática implica una variable independiente, el carácter democrático de un régimen estatal, y una variable dependiente, la ausencia de guerras entre las democracias (Ibíd.: 126). En las formulaciones más contemporáneas, pueden identificarse dos grandes variantes fundamentales de la Paz Democrática. Como señala Mónica Salomón (2001), se encuentran: la "tesis monádica", que sostiene que siempre las democracias son más pacíficas en sus relaciones con los demás Estados que los Estados no democráticos, yla "tesis diádica", menos ambiciosa en términos predictivos, que entiende expresamente que las democracias nunca (o rara vez) hacen la guerra a otra democracia.Aceptando esta postulación de que el tipo de régimen democrático determina la no propensión a la guerra contra otras democracias, la explicación de sus causas ha discurrido también en dos direcciones: por un lado, la dimensión institucional y por el otro, la dimensión normativa. En la primera se entiende que son los controles democráticos que penden sobre los gobernantes, como la opinión pública o las contiendas electorales, los que determinan este pacifismo. Precisamente, su punto débil es su incapacidad para explicar la frecuencia observada de las guerras entre democracias y países no democráticos. En la segunda, se sostiene en cambio que la política exterior de una democracia está regida por los mismos principios de conciliación y moderación que rigen la política interna, o bien, en la versión constructivista, que son las percepciones de los estadistas y decisores de política exterior (amistosas hacia otras democracias) lo que determina el comportamiento internacional singular de las democracias (Risse-Kappen, 1995; Peceny, 1997).En general se ha reconocido como el origen de la tesis de la Paz Democrática a las obras de Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Thomas Paine y especialmente la de Immanuel Kant (Schwartz y Skinner, 2002: 159). Fue el filósofo prusiano quien escribió en 1795 el clásico La Paz Perpetua, en tiempos en que la Revolución Francesa se debatía entre jacobinos y girondinos, y sólo Francia, Suiza y Estados Unidos podían ser considerados como democracias. Su punto de partida es la convicción en que el hombre es irrevocablemente empujado hacia la paz a causa de la razón práctico-moral. La paz mundial requiere de un Estado mundial y cosmopolita regido por un derecho mundial, desarrollo que Kant percibe sin embargo como irrealizable. Ello no lo desanima de todas formas para sugerir el camino hacia la paz consistente en un proyecto (cuya estructura es la de un tratado de paz) que contiene seis condiciones preliminares y tres definitivas para alcanzar (o tender a alcanzar) la paz perpetua (Salomón, 2001: 257), a saber:Bases previas:No debe considerarse válido un tratado de paz al que se haya arribado con reservas mentales sobre algunos objetivos capaces de causar una guerra en el futuro.Ningún Estado independiente, sea cual fuere su tamaño, puede pasar a formar parte de otro Estado por medio de trueque, compra, donación o herencia. (El Edo. es una sociedad de hombres que dispone sobre sí misma.)Los ejércitos permanentes deben desaparecer permanentemente.El Estado no debe contraer deudas que tiendan a mantener su política exterior.Ningún Estado debe inmiscuirse por la fuerza en la constitución y el gobierno de otro Estado.Un Estado que esté en guerra con otro no debe admitir el uso de hostilidades que impidan la confianza mutua en una futura paz. (Proscripción de la guerra de exterminio.)Bases definitivas:En todo Estado, la constitución política debe ser republicana (entendida como separación de poderes y en oposición al gobierno despótico).Principio de la libertad de los componentes de una sociedad, como hombres.Principio de la dependencia de todos, de una legislación común, como súbditos.Principio de la igualdad de todos, como ciudadanos.El derecho de gentes se debe basar en una Federación de Estados Independientes. (Referencia a una Sociedad de Naciones o Federación de Paz.)El derecho de la ciudadanía mundial debe limitarse a las condiciones de una hospitalidad universal.De esta forma, republicanismo (entiéndase aquí democracia), federación internacional (foedus pacificum) y derecho de gentes universal se articulan en La Paz Perpetua con el respeto por la soberanía ajena, la proscripción de ejércitos permanentes y la guerra limitada. Ciertamente Kant cifra sus esperanzas en una nación que sea puntal de estos valores y que a través de la irradiación de su ejemplo, no así de la promoción violenta de los mismos, vaya generando una creciente zona de paz mundial. Debe señalarse al respecto que, como afirma Peñas (1997: 121), "la herencia de Kant, de su concepción del individuo, de la historia y del tipo de régimen que permita al individuo llevar una vida racional y moral impregna" la tesis de la Paz Democrática.En gran parte, este vínculo se debe al rescate de su obra por Michael Doyle en 1983, a partir de cuándo se volvió moda referenciar a la Paz Perpetua como el basamento de partida para el análisis de la Paz Democrática. Asimismo, ha sido este trasfondo kantiano lo que ha facilitado la conexión estrecha entre la discusión filosófico-normativa y la teoría.El debate académicoPlanteada su esencia y sus orígenes, repasemos ahora el discurrir contemporáneo de esta tesis por el ámbito académico occidental. El primer estudio directo sobre la correlación positiva entre regímenes políticos democráticos y ausencia de conflictos armados interestatales es el de Dean Babst, publicado en 1964, que utilizaba la base de datos sobre guerras modernas elaborada en 1942 por Quincy Wright. Esta primera aproximación fue retomada luego por Melvin Small y David Singer (1976) quienes sometieron a verificación sus postulados y hallaron que, por un lado, si las democracias casi no habían combatido entre sí en el período 1816-1965 ello se debía a la distancia física entre ellas —y a las escasas fronteras compartidas—, y por el otro, que las guerras en que habían participado las democracias tenían en promedio la misma duración y causaban el mismo número de víctimas que las guerras internacionales en general. De esta forma, fueron los primeros en presentar argumentos causales distintos al tipo de régimen y en llamar la atención, en el marco del posterior debate,a la belicosidad normal de las democracias.El trabajo de Small y Singer le sirvió de insumo a Michael Doyle para su artículo Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs (1983), el cual dio el puntapié definitivo al debate más reciente sobre la Paz Democrática. Allí, este autor pretendía demostrar que las instituciones y los principios liberales llevan a los Estados liberales a tener políticas exteriores bien distintas a las observadas en Estados no liberales. Estos Estados liberales se definían a partir de cuatro condiciones: i) Economías de mercado, ii) autonomía en política exterior, iii) derechos jurídicos para los ciudadanos y iv) gobierno representativo y separación de poderes. Para Doyle, el liberalismo alcanzó "un éxito extraordinario" en las relaciones entre Estados liberales en la medida en que éstos nunca entraron en guerra entre sí, pero condujo simultáneamente a "una confusión excepcional" en las relaciones entre Estados liberales y no liberales. Lo interesante de su aporte fue, como ya se anticipó, la (re)introducción de los postulados de Kant sobre la Paz Perpetua, al considerar que las relaciones internacionales liberales conformaban una "unión pacífica" semejante a la "federación de paz" de Kant. Ese mismo año, Rudolph Rummel publicó también su investigación en la que defendía la tesis monádica de la Paz Democrática. En este contexto, otros investigadores (Chan, 1984; Weede, 1984; Maoz y Abdoladi, 1989; Bremer, 1992) se lanzaron a comprobar estadísticamente los postulados y se llegó a la conclusión general a favor de que las democracias no tienden a combatir entre sí. Fue entonces que Jack Levy (1988) afirmó: "la ausencia de guerra entre democracias es lo más cercano que tenemos a una ley empírica en Relaciones Internacionales".Ahora bien, la formulación teóricamente más refinada de la Paz Democrática vino unos años después con Bruce Russett y su libro Grasping the Democratic Peace (1993). Allí sostenía que:1. Los sistemas políticos organizados democráticamente actúan, en general, bajo restricciones que los hacen más pacíficos en sus relaciones con otras democracias. Sin embargo, las democracias no son necesariamente pacíficas en sus relaciones con otras democracias.2. En el sistema internacional moderno, las democracias tenderán menos a usar violencia letal contra otras democracias que hacia Estados gobernados autocráticamente o que los Estados gobernados autocráticamente entre sí. Además, no hay casos claros de guerras entre democracias soberanas estatales en el moderno sistema internacional.3. La paz relativa entre democracias es, fundamentalmente, consecuencia de determinados rasgos de la democracia, y no se debe exclusivamente a las características económicas o geopolíticas correlacionadas con la democracia (Peñas, 1997: 128; Salomón, 2001: 243).La formulación de Russett coincide con el "optimismo liberal" despertado por el colapso soviético y el fin de la guerra fría. Fue entonces que la tesis de la paz democrática suscitó gran entusiasmo, sobre todo entre aquellos estudiosos de las Relaciones Internacionales que ansiaban acabar con la hegemonía teórica del realismo-neorrealismo en la disciplina (Salomón, 2001: 242).La importancia de la obra de este autor yace en que la corroboración afirmativa de la tesis entraña la responsabilidad política de adoptar las medidas oportunas para conseguir el fortalecimiento tanto de las condiciones que hacen posible la democracia en otros estados, como promover su expansión —preferentemente desde una óptica multilateral y pacífica. Asimismo, se deben fortalecer las normas que hacen posible una comunidad de paz, haciendo frente a amenazas como el nacionalismo o el fundamentalismo. Como se puede ver, es una idea que en principio aparece como pacífica, inocente e incluso en ciertos aspectos algo cándida. Sin embargo, a la luz de las críticas realizadas por autores como Waltz, puede convertirse en el instrumento de una política mesiánica e incluso de una cruzada para expandir la democracia (Tovar Ruíz, 2009: 13). Tal evolución se distancia abiertamente de la formulación kantiana original que es más bien pro-soberanía,como se ha mencionado.Ya en el nuevo siglo, la Paz Democrática ha recibido el aporte de los nuevos desarrollos teóricos en la disciplina de las Relaciones Internacionales, en particular del Constructivismo. En un número de International Politics dedicado exclusivamente al tópico, Ewan Harrison (2004) por ejemplo explora el vínculo entre la paz democrática, las estructuras domésticas de política exterior y los procesos de socialización de los Estados en la política internacional desde lentes constructivistas, mientras que Matthew Rendall (2004) testea la tesis en un caso concreto: la crisis franco-británica de 1840 sobre Siria, en la que demuestra la importancia de las percepciones en las relaciones internacionales, antes que la fuerza causal de la Paz Democrática.Pero esto representa sólo una de las líneas evolutivas del debate académico. En todo caso, lo que parece imperar en la actualidad es el reconocimiento de que no existe una única versión, científicamente autenticada, de la Paz Democrática, sino varias lecturas de la relación entre liberalismo-democracia y paz-guerra (MacMillan, 2004), entre las cuales la versión más difundida es aquella articulada por Doyle y Russett, perteneciente al ala más conservadora del Liberalismo, avocada a las cruzadas.•* Candidato doctoral, Universidad Nacional de General San Martín (UNSAM, Argentina). Investigador del Centro de Estudios Interdisciplinarios en Problemáticas Internacionales y Locales (CEIPIL-UNCPBA).(1) "Liberalism and World Politics", The American Political Science Review, Vol. 80, No. 4., Dec. 1986.Referencias BibliográficasBabst, Dean: "Elective Governments - A Force for Peace", The Wisconsin Sociologist, No. 3 (1964), pp. 9-14.Barceló Sasía, Alejandra: Anti-americanismo: ¿Problema de percepción o de formulación de política exterior? (Puebla: Universidad de las Américas Puebla, 2006). Bremer, Stuart A.: "Dangerous Dyads: Conditions Affecting the Likelihood of Interstate War, 1816-1965", Journal of Conflict Resolution, No. 36 (1992), pp. 309-341.Chan, Steve: "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall. Are the Freer Countries More Pacific?" Journal of Conjlict Resolution,No. 28 (1984), pp. 617-648. Cohen, Raymond: "Pacific unions: a reappraisal of the theory that 'democracies do not go to war with each other'", Review of International Studies, No. 20 (1994), pp. 202-232.Deutsch, Karl: Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957).Doyle, Michael: "Kant, Liberal Legacies and Foreign Affairs, Part I & Part II", Philosophy & Public Affairs, No.12 (1983), pp. 205-235 y 323-353.Doyle, Michael: "Liberalism and World Politics", The American Political Science Review, Vol. 80, No. 4 (Dec. 1986).Elman, Miriam Fendius (ed.): Paths to Peace. Is Democracy the Answer? (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1997).Farber, Henry & Joan Gowa: "Polities and Peace", International Security, No. 20 (1995), pp. 123-146.Harrison, Ewan: "State Socialization, International Norm Dynamics and the Liberal Peace",International Politics, No. 41 (2004), pp. 521-542.Hewitt, J. Joseph, Jonathan Wilkenfeld & Ted Robert Gurr: Peace and Conflict 2008. Executive Summary (College Park, MD: CIDCM, University of Maryland, 2008).Ikenberry, John: "Why Export Democracy?: The 'Hidden Grand Strategy' of American Foreign Policy", The Wilson Quarterly, Vol. 23, no. 2 (Spring 1999).Kant, Immanuel: La Paz Perpetua (Buenos Aires: Longseller, 2001).Kegley, Charles & Margaret Hermann: "How Democracies Use Intervention: A Neglected Dimension in Studies of the Democratic Peace", Journal of Peace Research, No. 33 (1996), pp. 309-322.Kissinger, Henry: La Diplomacia (México: Fondo de cultura económica, 1995).Levy, Jack: "Domestic Politics and War", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, No. 18 (1988), pp. 653-673.MacMillan, John: "Whose Democracy; Which Peace? Contextualizing the Democratic Peace",International Politics, No. 41 (2004), pp. 472-493.Maoz, Zeev & Nasrin Abdolali: "Regime Types and International Conflict, 1817-1976", Journal of Conflict Resolution, No. 33 (1989), pp. 3-35.Maoz, Zeev: "The Controversy over the Democratic Peace", International Security, No. 22 (1997), pp. 162-198.Peceny, Mark: "A Constructivist Interpretation of the Liberal Peace: The Ambiguous Case of the Spanish-American War", Journal of Peace Research, No. 34 (1997), pp. 415-430.Peñas, Francisco Javier: "Liberalismo y relaciones internacionales: la tesis de la paz democrática y sus críticos", Isegoría, Núm. 16 (1997), pp.119-140.Rendall, Matthew: "'The Sparta and the Athens of our Age at Daggers Drawn': Polities, Perceptions, and Peace", International Politics, No. 41 (2004), pp. 582-604.Risse-Kappen, Thomas: "Democratic Peace - Warlike Democracies? A Social Constructivist Interpretation of the Liberal Argument", European Journal of International Relations, No. 1 (1995), pp. 491-517.Rummel, Rudolph: "Libertarianism and Interstate Violence", Journal of Conflict Resolution, No. 27 (1983), pp. 27-71.Russett, Bruce: "A neo-Kantian perspective: democracy, interdependence, and international organizations in building security communities", en Emanuel Adler & Michael Barnett (eds.):Security Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).Russett, Bruce: Grasping the Democratic Peace (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993).Salomón, Mónica: "El debate sobre la «paz democrática». Una aproximación crítica", Revista de Estudios Políticos (Nueva Época), Núm. 113 (Julio-Septiembre 2001), pp. 237-265.Schwartz, Thomas & Kiron K. Skinner: "The Myth of the Democratic Peace", Orbis (Winter 2002), pp. 159-172.Small, Melvin & David Singer: "The War-Proneness of Democratic Regimes", Jerusalem Journal of International Relations, No. 1 (1976), pp. 50-69.Snyder, Jack: "Un mundo, teorías rivales", Foreign Policy edición española (dic.-enero 2005).Tovar Ruíz, Juan: "De Königsberg a Kosovo. La Paz Democrática: del planteamiento filosófico al discurso político y su aplicación en el régimen de los protectorados internacionales", Revista Académica de Relaciones Internacionales, núm. 10 (febrero de 2009). Van Tijen, Tjebbe: "NATO's collateral tyrannicide", Open Democracy (7 May, 2011). Walt, Stephen M.: "International Relations: One World, Many Theories", Foreign Policy(Spring 1998), pp. 29-46.Weede, Eric: "Democracy and War Involvement", Journal of Peace Research, No. 28 (1984), pp. 649-664.Wright, Quincy: A Study of War (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1942).

1-. International relations (IR) theory has suffered a restructuring among several lines over the past two decades. The gradual but uninterrupted decline of systemic theories - primus inter pares in the discipline since the 1970s- is one of those. (1) This decline was accompanied by a rise of those approaches that privilege domestic politics as the place to look for answers. For reasons I will develop below, such an intellectual step was logical, expected, and partially appropriate. (2) While the current state of affairs should not be seen as immutable and a systemic comeback is plausible, the truth is that domestic politics, and non-systemic approaches in general, are well entrenched in a semi-hegemonic position. In this essay I will explain the reasons behind the aforementioned shift, assess its consequences, and advance some hypotheses on the future of systemic theories of IR.2-. Born between the interwar period and the dawn the Cold War world, IR was created with the explicit objective of explaining the causes of war –particularly great wars, understood under the lenses of the two devastating conflicts of the first half of the 20th century. Since then, IR scholars have struggled to respond to the main challenges –or what they perceive as the main challenges- in world politics. (3) This "duty" to explain the world drives theory to follow the patterns of change in international politics, which, as they develop, suggest new problématiques and novel ways to approach them. In important ways then –although, as discussed later, this is not the whole picture- (4) a sociology of inquiry is needed to better understand some of the key transformations in IR theory -e.g. the shift from systemic to domestic theories. Systemic approaches (5) made their meteoric rise under the shelter of K. Waltz's Neorealism. (6) They were created as a tool for a particular time with particular problems. (7) This was a world in which the primary preoccupation was how to manage the bilateral relationship between the United States and the USSR so that it would not en up in World War III. There were certainly other interests in the discipline, but this one outweighed all the rest. A Cold War context made systemic theories very appropriate. Needless to say, the bipolar conflict had been in place a long time before Waltz's path-breaking Theory of International Politics. (8) The essential point is, however, that Neorealism proved to be very successful in explaining the basic patterns of interest in this particular period of the history of IR –i.e. dynamics of polarity, relevance of nuclear weapons, consequences of anarchy and its relationship with war and cooperation, inter alia- in a more parsimonious and convincing way than the discipline had ever been able to do.The IR community recognized this "Copernican turn", as Waltz defined it, as progress and systemic approaches were established as mainstream, maybe even as "normal science." Anyone trying to explain something in international politics had to reckon with the system. This was true for realists (see the work of Gilpin, Walt, and Grieco) but also for scholars with a line of inquiry that differed substantially from Waltz's (see Keohane's Cooperation after Hegemony for a good example). 3-. A dramatic event that shakes the bases of an academic discipline is sometimes needed to motivate scholars to devise new lines of inquiry and surpass research programs that appear to be losing heuristic power. This is what the fall of the Soviet Union did with Neorealism, and systemic approaches in general. (9) Structural realism was in many ways, and problematically so, a theory for the Cold War. Its discussion on nuclear weapons, bipolarity, uncertainty, and superpower dynamics seemed to be too tied to a specific historical context. (10) The inability of neorealism, or any other systemic theory for that matter, to foresee –or even explain- the disappearance of the bipolar world –a systemic change par excellence-supposed a hard blow to its appeal. (11) Both the fall of the USSR and the subsequent appearance (or uncovering, once the Cold War veil was lifted) of new "themes" in international politics -IPE, civil wars, the role of leaders, the democratic peace, inter alia- opened a fertile camp over which to argue for the need to "go beyond systemic theory." (12) I argued supra that this was an appropriate move (or partially appropriate). But the reasons implicitly inferred up to know -failure in predicting events and a crisis in the IR community (in a Kuhnian sense)- cannot support this claim. The other face of the coin is that the thorough self-examination of the 1990s also responded to internal problems of systemic theories as research programs. For example, in the 1980s the discipline was stuck in the mud of absolute vs. relative gains debate, a degenerative discussion from a Lakatosian perspective. (13) Visible problems of heuristic power were calling for a partial move beyond the system. This was the real cause for the shift, and the best argument to characterize it as "appropriate". The exogenous shock (fall of the USSR) had the role, not at all minor, of opening a window of opportunity for dissenting scholars. Helen Milner was one of the most eloquent advocates for this turn. Her argument, in short, was that "systemic theory simply cannot take us far enough" (Milner, 1992). The assumption that anarchy was the principal variable defining states preferences and the primacy of a straight causal line from the system to the state and then to policy-making was excessively simplistic, Milner argued. How could the discipline solve this quagmire? By studying domestic politics to understand states' preferences and, consequently, the differing patterns of conflict and cooperation in international politics. (14) As Milner contended: "…cooperation may be unattainable because of domestic intransigence, and not because of the international system." (15) A reaction against systemic theories was not exclusive to the liberal trenches. Following this turn toward domestic politics, some realist scholars directed their efforts at the incorporation of domestic variables as a way to add complexity to systemic models that they saw as too crude. In his From Wealth to Power, F. Zakaria argued that anarchy and the distribution of power were not enough to explain the behavior of rising powers. After observing that at the end of the 19th century the US was not as assertive as a structural approach would have predicted, he hypothesized that this was because it did not have the governmental capacity to do so. To solve this puzzle he argued for the incorporation of models of resource extraction and governmental capability to try to get through the Neorealist corset. This was an important intra-realist challenge to a somewhat ossified systemic realism. (16)The rise of domestic approaches represented a generalized discontentment with the excessive importance given to parsimony and the inflexibility that came with it. Parsimony, which should be no more than a tool in theory building, was placed as a goal in itself, restricting research in a way that went against the discipline's own progress. Those boundaries had to be overcome if we wanted to say something about some of the important issues left unstudied by a focus on the system. Once again, the Cold War world with its apparently clear strategic problems may have seemed more propitious to a highly parsimonious approach to theory building. In a post Cold War world, the costs of parsimony were too heavy. Domestic theories certainly lost in parsimony, but they gained in a more real approach to IR problématiques. This was the primary rationale behind the turn here discussed, and in this limited sense, the shift was appropriate. (17)4-. It would be nice to unambiguously assert that the fall of systemic theories made IR a coherent and progressive discipline. This, unfortunately, is not the case. The past two decades have seen the formation of a different ethos of theory building and discipline development that may end up doing more harm than good to our broader understanding of international politics. Something not mentioned up to now is the ascent of quantitative and strategic-choice approaches in the discipline. Quantitative approaches gained prominence by the same time that, and related to, domestic theories were supplanting systemic theories. (18) Strategic choice and game theory, following developments in other academic areas -especially economics-, also gained importance in the 1990s under the idea of formalizing theories and going beyond the "isms." There is nothing wrong with these approaches per se. Quantitative work has been very important in the empirical development of IR -maybe too neglected in the past. Formal theory, on the other hand, is a powerful and clear tool to build and evaluate theories while avoiding problems of underspecification all too common in the discipline –though, this is only true if one can get through its assumptions. (19)The problems of this new "methodological bets" are to be found in the costs for the general development of the discipline. The most pressing are the ones related to the idea that theory construction should be a bottom to top affair, and the implicit notion that by building the parts individually we will eventually end up in a progressive accumulation of theoretical knowledge. However, this epistemological decision may well result in the proliferation of particularistic theories of problems ever more sophisticatedly studied, increasingly particular and micro, and in crescendo uninteresting. (20) By depending on a kind of magical automatic accumulation of theoretical knowledge we are risking to end up with an even more chaotic and incoherent discipline (more on this in the conclusion). 5-. As said in the introduction, the fall of grace of systemic theories cannot be taken as an irreversible given; it is possible to devise some scenarios in which systemic approaches could make a comeback.The first one is linked to the relationship between theory and History discussed earlier. The post Cold War world, particularly the 1990s, was a strange period for the discipline. The study of IR has historically dealt with great power politics as its core. The "curious" 1990s came with a certain absence of great power politics, especially due to the overwhelming power position of the US. This goes a long way in explaining the growing emphasis on domestic politics, civil wars, international organizations, inter alia, during those years. A partial return of classical great power politics (or the perception of it) -for example under the banner of the rise of China and some other middle powers- might motivate a recasting of systemic theories -particularly for those wanting to study polarity (a passé topic in the unipolar 1990s), (21) systemic change and its consequences, etc. (22)Another plausible scenario would be the success of some of the ongoing projects to make systemic theories more sophisticated and comprehensive by, for example, incorporating domestic variables. A good example is "Neo-classical Realism" (see fn. 16). This research project proceeds from a systemic assumption of the influences of the system (that is, a neorealist basis) but incorporates domestic politics as an intervening variable between systemic pressures and decision-making. Though a rather interesting proto-school, Neoclassical Realism is still in its infant stages and has yet to produce work of remarkable characteristics. Lastly, domestic politics, as should have been expected, were not the panacea for the development of IR theory. There might well be a social exhaustion with the results of domestic and micro-theory –a Kuhnian crisis analogous to the one that discredited systemic theories. This may eventually take IR on unexpected paths. Nevertheless, if measured by academic output and Geist, predicting a comeback of systemic approaches seems a risky bet. The discipline appears to be quite comfortable with increasing its empirical production, formalizing theories towards an Icarian "scientism", and avoiding, at its own peril, a "wholist" view of international politics. 6-. Going beyond systemic theories –not in the sense of vanishing them, but of relaxing some of their strictures, increasing their sophistication, and trying new approaches- was the necessary thing to do for a methodology that was unable to cope with many of the relevant problems in IR. The turn to domestic and particularistic perspectives brought much needed renovation, indeed. However, the excesses incurred by systemic theorists as a result of an obsession with parsimony and structural effects may now seem analogous (although for the opposite reasons) to a fixation with the particular and micro-level studies in contemporary IR theory. A blind push to obtain ever more data of increasingly micro phenomena puts at risk what we can say about international relations in general. We may, for example, be more much prepared to sophisticatedly answer why a specific insurgent group responded in a specific way to the level of aggression of a specific state, (23) but we may also be losing our interest and capacity to think about the nature of conflict in its most elemental condition. The stakes are too high for the IR community to avoid an honest discussion on how far we are willing to continue on this path. (1) This essay works with the assumption of a relative decline of systemic apporaches. To argue that they have vanished would be utterly incorrect. For a convincing argument on the inevitability of structural constraints see Jervis'sSystem Effects.(2) Although a change may be welcomed, the results are not always as encouraging as expected (more on this qualification of "appropriate" later).(3) This does not mean, of course, that there is an exclusive focus on policy or immediacy, It means that in its most basic essence, the idea of the discipline is to be able to provide some answers to the pressing problems in the international system. To give an example, few people would be interested in studying the prospects of war between France and Germany in the 21st century per se –though it surely is studied as a historical case that can shed light on other issues-, while this was one of the main topics in the nascent IR discipline.(4) Social science does not progress only by exogenous shocks, but also for endogenous reasons that cannot be explained by what happens outside theoretical disscusions.(5) Understood simply as those that privilege the influence of the structure over the behavior of the units.(6) This type of theories certainly were not born with Waltz; systemic is a much broader category than Neorealism. The important point is that Waltz devised the more convincing type of systemic theory. For simplicity, Waltz' Neorelism will be used here as the epitome and a kind of proxy for systemic theory. (7) It must be said that the rise of systemic theories also responded to changes in the social sciences in general; for example, the influence of structuralist anthorpoligist Levi-Strauss' work, which Waltz knew well.(8) Theories of IR before Waltz hosted a diverse group of analysts: Classical realism from the hand of a Hans Morgenthau, Geroge Kennan and Raymond Aron; liberal approaches from a Stanley Hoffman, Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye; Bureacratic Organization and foreign policy from a Graham Allison; and a long et cetera.(9) See R. N. Lebow, "The Long Peace, the End of the Cold War and the Failure of Realism."(10) See I. Oren's Our Enemies and US: America´s Rivalries and the Making of Political Science.(11) As with its rise the decline of systemic theories was also linked to broader transformations in the world of ideas, to which IR seems to always be a latecomer. From a broad perspective, this phenomenon had started in the 1960s with the work of Foucault, Derrida, Geertz and others.(12) The end of the immediate preoccupation with bipolarity also gave the opportunity to rethink some long-term historical problems of Neorealism (see Schroeder 1994).(13) Some of the scholars engaged in this deabate were: Keohane, Grieco, Axelrod, and Mastanduno; cf. Milner (1992).(14) In another article in International Organization (1987) she argues that to understand the way in which states make decisions in the international economy it is not enough to look at anarchy. Her model studies the type of economic links between countries (high or low interdependence) and the influence of interests groups that may pressure the state to make particular decisions; these policy outcomes would have been incomprehensible from a systemic/anarchic stance. According to Milner, there is an important dynamic of preference construction and strategies adopted that are to be found in domestic politics.(15) See also Putnam (1988) for an interesting effort to move beyond lists of domestic factors and towards a coherent two level theory.(16) This line of research has been given the title of Neoclassical Realism (see G. Rose 1998). See the work of R. Schweller, J. Taliaferro, A. Friedberg, and T. Christensen.(17) Systemic theories were also attached to what has been discussed as the "paradigm wars" between realism, liberalism, constructivism, etc. The turn away from them can also be given credit for helping to discredit this unproductive way of theorizing.(18) This trend was tied to the notoriety of the "democratic peace" project that was, and still is, an empirical enterprise at its core. See Russett and Oneal (1999); cf. Gartzke (2007).(19) See Wagner, War and the State, and Lake and Powell Strategic Choice and International Relations.(20) This is not the nature of all the work in this approach, of course, but just a possible trend of the school as a whole. See Walt's "Rigor or Rigor Mortis" for a sharp, but not always convincing, critique.(21) For an exception see the work by N. Monteiro on unipolarity. This does not mean that polarity disappeared from the IR map, but it was certainly shrinked as a research question.(22) Some young scholars on this line of research are: P. MacDonald, J. Parent, D. Kliman and M. Beckley.(23) See Jason Lyall's "Does Indiscriminate Violence Incite Insurgent Attacks? Evidence from Chechnya" To be fair, Lyall's work attempts to generalize from this specific case –how convincing he is not very clear, however. *Ph.D. StudentDepartment of Political ScienceUniversity of Pennsylvania.E-mail: gcastro@sas.upenn.edu