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This report explores the potential financing mechanism options that can be employed to catalyze more private sector investment in clean energy (renewable energy and energy efficiency) in the small island developing states (SIDS). Various financial instruments that have been used successfully to date are described and placed in the context of the issues and constraints of the SIDS, with suggested options for discussion and follow up. Green infrastructure finance, as defined in the report, makes the important point that is the combination of financial and nonfinancial interventions and instruments that can make green investments in infrastructure more affordable and less risky to private sponsors, financial markets, and governments. The objective of this report is to identify and assess options that can help increase investment in renewable energy and energy efficiency in SIDS through the adoption and funding of financing mechanisms by SIDS and development partners with special attention given to the role that the private sector can play. Many renewable energy technologies are characterized by high initial capital costs with relatively low operating costs compared to thermal alternatives. By providing an analysis of options for a financing facility to catalyze renewable energy and energy efficiency, this work is intended to inform the discussions among SIDS and development partners interested in actions to stimulate investment in renewable energy and energy efficiency. This report summarizes the results of the two stages. The assessment and selection of options identifies a number of measures that will be needed to stimulate increased private sector participation - project sponsors and developers, equity funds, lending institutions - for energy efficiency and renewable energy. The background material reviewed for this report has been summarized in the annexes.

Over the last decade, Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) programs have become one of the most widely adopted anti-poverty initiatives in the developing world. Inspired particularly by Mexico's successful program, CCTs are viewed as an effective way to provide basic income support while building children's human capital. These programs have had a remarkable global expansion, from a handful programs in the late 1990s to programs in close to 30 countries today, including a demonstration program in the United States. In contrast to many other safety net programs in developing countries, CCTs have been closely studied and well evaluated, creating both a strong evidence base from which to inform policy decisions and an active global community of practice. This paper first reviews the emergence of CCTs in the context of a key theme in welfare reform, notably using incentives to promote human capital development, going beyond the traditional focus on income support. The paper then examines what has been learned to date from the experience with CCTs in the South and raises a series of questions concerning the relevance and replicability of these lessons in other contexts. The paper concludes with a call for further knowledge sharing in two areas: between the North and South as the experience with welfare reform and CCTs in particular expands, and between behavioral science and welfare policy.

Inhaltsangabe: Introduction: 1.1 Motivation and objective of thesis: According to the German government the future German energy mix shall be mainly based on renewable energy sources. Offshore wind energy plays a key role in this new energy strategy and is expected to provide the major share of renewable energy to be produced in Germany in the future. Nevertheless, the German offshore wind energy sector has developed much slower than expected, despite considerable supporting efforts taken by the government. Compared to other European countries, there is only little installed offshore wind energy capacity available in Germany today, but the German legislator's medium-term growth targets for this industry are enormous. In this context, the following two questions are to be asked: Does the German government turn a blind eye to the contradictory development just mentioned and/or is there reason for hope that the German offshore wind energy sector will accelerate and grow much stronger in the future? The purpose of this thesis is to describe the general conditions applicable in Germany, which a project developer or potential investor has to consider when planning an offshore wind park (OWP) in the German exclusive economic zone (EEZ). Furthermore, it analyses specific challenges related to the realisation of such kind of projects, identifies existing problems, and outlines possible solutions where appropriate. In doing so, the following chapters will mainly focus on the political environment for the offshore wind energy industry in Germany, the relevant legal framework applicable when realising an OWP, as well as on the bankability challenges a project developer might be exposed to when trying to secure a debt financing for an OWP project in Germany. Apart from giving a theoretical overview about the main subjects referred to above, this thesis also tries to address recent developments one can observe in practice. Hence, personal interviews have been conducted with experienced practitioners to get a better picture of the current market situation in general and possible future developments, as well as to get a practical insight into the mandatory OWP approval process and the recent perceptions and sentiments of banks involved in the financing of OWP in Germany. 1.2 Structure of thesis: The following Section 2 contains definitions of some key terms used throughout this thesis. Subsequently, a brief illustration of the European and German offshore wind energy market is given to get a better idea of how Germany is currently positioned in this field among its peers. From an OWP investors' point of view, a stable and supporting political environment considerably reduces the political risks related to such kind of projects, which is usually an important pre-condition for major investments in this field. Section 3 deals with the political environment OWP project developers or investors are exposed to in Germany and particularly focuses on Germany's offshore wind energy strategy as well as on the German government's recently introduced new energy concept, which is mainly based on renewable energy sources. In addition, a wise OWP project developer should also be familiar with all relevant legal statutes when planning an OWP and consider all important legal aspects in his project plan accordingly. Section 4 discusses the legal framework applicable in Germany when intending to realise an OWP in the German EEZ. The main focus is laid on the Renewable Energies Act, RE-Act (Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz, EEG) and the wind energy priority areas in both the North and the Baltic Sea, which have been defined by the legislator in the course of its spatial planning. Subsequently, this section outlines the mandatory approval process necessary for the realisation of an OWP project, containing, inter alia, references to the relevant legal statutes and a detailed description of each individual approval phase. The investment volume for a German OWP can easily amount to EUR 1 billion (bn) or more and thus normally requires also a sufficient amount of debt to be injected into the project. Hence, it is also of utmost relevance for an OWP project developer to be very well aware what has to be done to arrange for a project structure which is bankable at the end, in order to be able to secure the debt financing needed. Section 5 addresses bankability issues related to the realisation of an OWP in the German EEZ and contains an evaluation of the banks' main financing challenges, an outline of applicable banking standards for OWP projects to be considered by the project developer to secure a successful project placement, as well as a brief description of some peculiarities one should be aware of when it comes to granting or taking collateral over assets located in the German EEZ. Finally, Section 6 concludes with a summary of the main outcomes and results developed throughout this work.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: AbstractI AcknowledgementsII List of FiguresVI List of AbbreviationsVII 1.Introduction1 1.1 Motivation and objective of thesis1 1.2 Structure of thesis2 2.Offshore wind energy in Germany - a pioneer industry in the renewable energy sector3 2.1 Definitions4 2.1.1Renewable energy and wind energy4 2.1.2Offshore wind generator and offshore wind park4 2.1.3Territorial Sea4 2.1.4Exclusive Economic Zone4 2.2The European and German (offshore) wind energy market5 2.2.1(Offshore) wind energy in Europe5 2.2.2(Offshore) wind energy in Germany7 3.The political environment for offshore wind energy in Germany10 3.1Influence of international and European climate policy12 3.1.1Kyoto Protocol12 3.1.2Relevant EU legislation13 3.2Government policy and support in Germany13 3.2.1Germany's offshore wind energy strategy13 3.2.2Germany's overall energy concept before Fukushima14 3.2.3Germany's overall energy concept after Fukushima17 3.3 Chapter summary and outlook20 4.Legal framework and approval process for the construction of OWP in the German EEZ21 4.1Legal framework21 4.1.1Renewable Energies Act21 4.1.2Energy Industry Act29 4.2 Getting approval for the construction of an OWP33 4.2.1Legal basis and main applicable statutes34 4.2.2Phases of the OWP approval process44 4.3Outlook49 4.4Chapter summary53 5.The bankability of OWP projects in Germany54 5.1OWP (project) financing in Germany: major challenges andbankability issues56 5.1.1Wind prognosis56 5.1.2Technology57 5.1.3Installation59 5.1.4Insurance60 5.1.5Grid connection61 5.1.6Operation Maintenance (OM)63 5.1.7Overview of results65 5.2Financing OWP in Germany66 5.2.1Typical banking standards in OWP financings67 5.2.2Project placement68 5.3 Security package69 5.3.1Usual elements of security in OWP project finance70 5.3.2Taking collateral in the German EEZ70 5.4Chapter summary and outlook72 6.Summary74 BibliographyIX AppendixXVITextprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3., The political environment for offshore wind energy in Germany: An unexperienced investor might wonder what politics have to do with the successful realisation of an OWP, which seems to be a purely commercial project at first glance. However, in practice a positive political environment, i.e. one which is supportive and reliable, is very important for the success of such kind of projects. This is even more so when technologies in their early development stage, such as the offshore wind energy sector, shall be financed with no recourse to the project sponsors (i.e. by the use of a project finance structure). Hence, a positive attitude of politicians towards the subject matter is essential for many reasons: They can put issues on the political agenda which are important for the offshore wind industry or refrain from doing that, they can be supportive when it comes to the identification of new marine offshore wind energy sites or not, they can arrange for an efficient and fast OWP approval process with less bureaucracy or fail to do that, they can pass encouraging legal reforms (e.g. implement adequate fixed feed-in tariffs) or not, and introduce other supplemental measures supporting the development of the industry or just leave it. Therefore, it should be worthwhile for an OWP investor or project developer to spend at least some time to make himself familiar and comfortable with the respective political environment in the course of his project due diligence. With its overall energy policy, the German government aims to secure an affordable and reliable energy supply for the industry and private consumers in Germany, strengthen the economy by the development and use of state-of-the-art renewable energy technologies and consequently implement its climate protection targets (Klimaschutzziele). However, apart from its own national political goals, the German legislator needs also to consider the requirements of applicable existing international and European agreements as a factor in its policy making, such as the Kyoto Protocol or relevant EU legislation, which are briefly introduced in the following Section 3.1. The subsequent Section 3.2 describes in more detail the national strategies and policy measures set by the German government. The development and use of renewable energy technologies in general has been promoted by the legislator already since 1990. However, having been a highly risky and unproven technology, for long time the offshore wind energy sector played only a marginal role despite its huge potential. To specifically push the developments in this field, the German government introduced an offshore wind energy strategy in 2002 (Section 3.2.1). Since then further policy measures have been implemented, which, inter alia, had (significant) influence on the offshore wind industry too. The main cornerstones have been the new energy concept of the German government introduced in September 2010 (Section 3.2.2) as well as the additional governmental measures (Maßnahmenpaket) passed after the disastrous nuclear accident at the Fukushima power plant in Japan in March 2011 (Section 3.2.3). 3.1, Influence of international and European climate policy: 3.1.1, Kyoto Protocol: With the ratification of the internationally applicable Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ('Kyoto Protocol") passed in 1997, the EU gave a joint binding commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 8% compared to 1990 levels until 2012, which was later distributed between the EU member states by a burden sharing agreement setting the individual reduction target for Germany at 21%. Thus, every EU member state was required to implement adequate measures to be able to comply with its respective emission reduction target. Germany was successful in this respect, by promoting, for example, renewable energy technologies (including the wind energy sector). By the end of 2009, German greenhouse gas emissions had already been reduced by approximately 29% compared to 1990 levels. 3.1.2, Relevant EU legislation, In addition, the EU determined for each member state an individual national target for its respective share of energy from renewable energy sources in gross final energy consumption (Endenergieverbrauch) to be reached until 2020. The individual target for Germany was set at 18%. By the end of 2010, Germany reached a share of about 11%. In order to meet the aforementioned target at the end of this decade, Germany has to continue with taking supportive measures and additional efforts. As we will see in the following section, the constant promotion of renewable energies, and the offshore wind energy sector in particular, is one of the main cornerstones of the German government's energy policy to achieve both compliance with its climate protection and emission reduction goals and a successful implementation of its new energy policy (i.e. the transformation of the existing energy mix mainly based on fossil and nuclear sources into an energy mix with its main focus on renewable sources).

El G-20 es un bloque de países constituido en 1999 por las ocho naciones más industrializadas y los once países con las principales economías emergentes de diversas partes del globo y la Unión Europea como unidad. Este bloque se reunió en Washington para realizar un foro de cooperación y consultas entre los países sobre temas relacionados en encontrar una solución a la crisis financiera mundial. Los asistentes a la cumbre rechazaron el proteccionismo y coincidieron en renunciar a establecer en los próximos 12 meses "nuevas barreras a la inversión y al comercio de bienes y servicios". Varios medios informan al respecto: "El País" de Madrid: "El G-20 acuerda una acción pública masiva: La cumbre fija que los Gobiernos usen estímulos fiscales a la economía - Se crean grupos de trabajo para la reforma financiera - Impulso a la liberalización comercial": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/G-20/acuerda/accion/publica/masiva/elppgl/20081116elpepieco_2/Tes"Bush: "Ha sido un éxito, pero queda mucho por hacer": Los líderes del G-20 se muestran satisfechos con los resultados de la cumbre de Washington": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/Bush/Ha/sido/exito/queda/mucho/hacer/elppgl/20081116elpepueco_1/Tes""Es el momento de que el G-20 sustituya al G-7"": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/momento/G-20/sustituya/G-7/elppgl/20081116elpepieco_12/Tes "Le Monde":"Le G20 se donne 4 mois pour renouer avec la croissance": http://www.lemonde.fr/la-crise-financiere/article/2008/11/16/le-g20-se-donne-4-mois-pour-renouer-avec-la-croissance_1119294_1101386.html#ens_id=1118383"Les pays du G20 s'accordent sur des grands principes et un plan d'action": http://www.lemonde.fr/la-crise-financiere/article/2008/11/15/les-pays-du-g20-s-accordent-sur-des-grands-principes-et-un-plan-d-action_1119261_1101386.html#ens_id=1118383"Le G20 tout près d'adopter un "plan d'action" contre la crise": http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2008/11/15/le-g20-tout-pres-d-adopter-un-plan-d-action-contre-la-crise_1119225_3234.html#ens_id=1118383 "New York Times":"World Leaders Vow Joint Push to Aid Economy":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/16/business/worldbusiness/16summit.html?ref=world"As Leaders Wrestle With Economy, Developing Nations Get Ringside Seats": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/16/washington/16leaders.html?_r=1&ref=world&oref=slogin "New York Times" presenta sitio con links a artículos relacionados a la cumbre: http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/organizations/g/group_of_20/index.html "CNN": "CNN" presenta sitio con links a artículos relacionados a la cumbre: http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/business/2008/11/15/quest.intv.hennessey.g20.cnn "Time":"Europe's Hopes for G-20 Summit Risk Being Dashed":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1858863,00.html "MSNBC":"Reshaping of world financial system outlined: China, Brazil, India would take a greater role, G-20 leaders say": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27742573/ "Los Ángeles Times":"G-20 economic summit brings pledges of teamwork": http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-summit16-2008nov16,0,3993269.story"Text of Bush's remarks on economic summit": http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-bushtext16-2008nov16,0,4618769.story"Summit of G20 nations is unlikely to produce quick solutions": http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-summit14-2008nov14,0,2420401.story "Times":"Brown claims G20 success as world leaders agree tax and interest rate cuts": http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/economics/article5163072.ece"G20 declaration: text in full.Summit on financial markets and the world economy": http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/economics/article5162735.ece "La Nación":"Bush, en una cena que tuvo el sabor de la despedida: Fue la última que compartió como presidente con otros mandatarios":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1070719"El G-20 impulsó más regulaciones: Acordó mejorar los controles sobre los mercados internacionales y coordinar los esfuerzos para evitar una nueva debacle mundial": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1070714 "The Economist": "The global economic summit: After the fall. World leaders are meeting in Washington, DC, to fix finance. They have their work cut out": http://www.economist.com/finance/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12610564&source=features_box_main "After the fall: On November 15th world leaders are due to sit around a table in Washington, DC, to fix finance. They have their work cut out": http://www.economist.com/finance/displayStory.cfm?source=hptextfeature&story_id=12597176"BBC":"Summit shows times have changed": http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7731889.stm"G20 summit: In quotes : Global leaders at the G20 financial summit in Washington have pledged to work together to restore world economic growth, and to carry out reforms of the economic system.": http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7731735.stm "China Daily": "G20 summit adopts action plan to implement principles of reform: Washington summit targets at crisis": http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-11/16/content_7208365.htm "El Mercurio" de Chile: "Líderes mundiales acuerdan mayores medidas fiscales y reformar el sistema financiero": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/11/16/internacional/_portada/noticias/9F784923-2CE0-437E-B629-3DA069CC6711.htm?id={9F784923-2CE0-437E-B629-3DA069CC6711} AMERICA LATINA"El País" de Madrid informa: " Nicaragua rechaza la mediación internacional": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Nicaragua/rechaza/mediacion/internacional/elpepuint/20081116elpepiint_4/Tes"The Economist" analiza: "Nicaragua: How to steal an election. Daniel Ortega sets an ugly precedent": http://www.economist.com/world/americas/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12607338"La Nación" publica: "Nicaragua: la oposición desafía al oficialismo con una nueva marcha. Se manifestarán en reclamo por los resultados de las últimas elecciones": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1071330"CNN" plantea: "Chinese president visits Cuba to strengthen ties": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/11/18/hu.cuba.ap/index.htmlA horas de elecciones en Venezuela: "La Nación" informa: "Opositores venezolanos afirman que son vigilados: El gobierno graba conversaciones y viola la vida privada, sostienen": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1070612"El Universal" de México publica: "Los nervios de Hugo Chávez: El presidente venezolano anda de malas. Las encuestas vaticinan que su partido sufrirá golpes en las elecciones del 23 de noviembre": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/59638.html"El Mercurio" de Chile plantea: "Hugo Chávez amenaza con cerrar medios de prensa: Mandatario prepara medidas para las municipales del 23 de noviembre.": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/11/16/internacional/internacional/noticias/2BBAC319-5E8F-4C75-942E-8A7FC8670098.htm?id={2BBAC319-5E8F-4C75-942E-8A7FC8670098}"Le Monde" anuncia: "Dans l'Etat vénézuélien de Barinas, fief des Chavez, les élections locales sont une affaire de famille": http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2008/11/18/dans-l-etat-venezuelien-de-barinas-fief-des-chavez-les-elections-locales-sont-une-affaire-de-famille_1119994_3222.html#ens_id=1120093"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Se toman la justicia en sus manos y linchan a supuestos ladrones. Once presuntos delincuentes fueron golpeados y quemados por una turba. Dos de ellos murieron.": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/11/18/internacional/internacional/noticias/C0644F52-B588-4564-B90C-41CBEDD128B1.htm?id={C0644F52-B588-4564-B90C-41CBEDD128B1}"MSNBC" anuncia: "Alleged Pinochet victim turns up alive in Chile: Discovery fuels outrage in nation mourning 1,196 other political prisoners": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27789538/"El Mercurio" de Chile plantea: "Diputados rebeldes fracturan el kirchnerismo : "Hoy no hay libertad de opinión en el peronismo", sostuvo anoche Felipe Solá, el parlamentario que anunció la división.": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/11/18/internacional/_portada/noticias/8A1B80A2-22D2-4A10-A9D6-31A9D9C23EA8.htm?id={8A1B80A2-22D2-4A10-A9D6-31A9D9C23EA8} ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADA"El Universal" de México publica: "Insulta Al-Qaeda a Barack Obama: En un mensaje difundido en internet, el segundo dirigente más importante de la organización terrorista, Ayman al-Zawahri afirmó que Obama es 'justo lo contrario de los honorables negros estadounidenses', como el activista Malcolm X, asesinado en 1965": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/556491.html"El País" de Madrid informa: " Obama se despide de Chicago: El presidente electo de EE UU agradece el apoyo prestado por la gente de Illinois en su adiós al Senado": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Obama/despide/Chicago/elpepuint/20081116elpepuint_11/Tes"CNN" publica: "Bill Clinton could pose Cabinet problem":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/17/clinton.cabinet/index.html"BBC" anuncia: "Obama promete gobierno bipartidista : El presidente electo de Estados Unidos, Barack Obama, prometió a su ex rival republicano, John McCain, trabajar juntos en una "nueva era de reformas" para restablecer la confianza de los ciudadanos en el gobierno.": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7734000/7734679.stm"The Economist" analiza:"Launching Hillary at the world: The surprising idea that Hillary Clinton could become Barack Obama's secretary of state": http://www.economist.com/world/unitedstates/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12627393&source=features_box_main"Change.gov: The transition to a new administration is already well under way": http://www.economist.com/world/unitedstates/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12607222"La Nación" plantea: "Obama y McCain unen fuerzas: Ayer se reunieron para coordinar acciones que permitan resolver los problemas de EE.UU.":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1071204 "El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Obama recibe a McCain en un gesto que muestra su interés por el trabajo bipartidista": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/11/18/internacional/_portada/noticias/B0C58433-C5F2-4D5C-AB4C-B4832D06443C.htm?id={B0C58433-C5F2-4D5C-AB4C-B4832D06443C}En su columna para "La Nación" Andrés Oppenheimer analiza: "El nuevo equipo para la región": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1071205"El País" de Madrid informa: "El fuego destruye 600 casas móviles en su avance hacia Los Ángeles: El alcalde de la ciudad no descarta cortar el suministro eléctrico por motivos de seguridad": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/fuego/destruye/600/casas/moviles/avance/Angeles/elpepuint/20081116elpepuint_1/Tes"La Nación" publica: "Hay 10.000 evacuados: Se extiende el incendio que afecta Los Angeles": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1070638 EUROPA"El Tiempo" de Colombia anuncia: "Cumbre bilateral extraordinaria sobre lucha antiterrorista celebrarán Zapatero y Sarkozy":http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/home/cumbre-bilateral-extraordinaria-sobre-lucha-antiterrorista-celebraran-zapatero-y-sarkozy_4670349-1"El País" de Madrid informa: "El congreso socialista francés fracasa y finaliza sin líder: El alcalde de París, Bertrand Delanöe, se ha retirado de la contienda para presidir la formación": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/congreso/socialista/frances/fracasa/finaliza/lider/elpepuint/20081116elpepuint_10/Tes"BBC" analiza: "Atrapan al "jefe" militar de ETAEl presunto jefe militar de la organización separatista vasca Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) fue arrestado en la madrugada del lunes en el sur de Francia, informó la ministra del Interior francesa.": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7732000/7732693.stm"La Nación" publica: "Giro en España: Garzón renunció a investigar la represión franquista: El magistrado español lo hizo para evitar que se lo declare incompetente por el máximo tribunal":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1071313"El País" de Madrid plantea: "Reino Unido estudia enviar otros 2.000 soldados a Afganistán: Altos cargos militares expresan dudas sobre el aumento del despliegue": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Reino/Unido/estudia/enviar/otros/2000/soldados/Afganistan/elpepuint/20081115elpepiint_8/Tes"Le Monde" anuncia: "La CIJ instruira la plainte pour génocide de la Croatie contre la Serbie":http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2008/11/18/la-cij-instruira-la-plainte-pour-genocide-de-la-croatie-contre-la-serbie_1120200_3214.html#ens_id=1120203"CNN" informa: "Croatia, Serbia genocide case to proceed": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/11/18/croatia.serbia.icj/index.htmlAsia – Pacífico /Medio OrieNTE"New York Times" informa: "Maritime Hijackings Decrease in Asia": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/asia/19asiaships.html?ref=world"CNN" publica: "Markets mixed following falls across Asia": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/11/18/world.markets.down/index.html"China Daily" anuncia: "Powerful Indonesia quake kills 4": http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-11/18/content_7214022.htm"China Daily" plantea: "Japan's economy unlikely to achieve growth in 2009: official": http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-11/18/content_7215971.htm"La Nación" analiza: "Japón, otro gigante económico afectado por la recesión: La segunda economía del mundo se sumó a Estados Unidos y Europa; el FMI reclama fondos": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1071225"Miami Herald" publica: "Schoolgirls' bus bombed in Iraq; 2nd blast hits rescuers: Two deadly explosions during Baghdad's rush hour -- the first wrecking a bus carrying girls -- marked a surge in violence in Iraq.":http://www.miamiherald.com/news/world/story/765709.html"MSNBC" informa: "Beijing to Tibet: Any independence bid will fail: Comments come as Tibetan leaders meet to re-evaluate their strategy": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27789054/"Miami Herald" publica: "Bush's Mideast peace efforts ending, with few gains: The attempt to broker an accord between Israel and the Palestinians now falls to the incoming Obama administration.": http://www.miamiherald.com/news/world/story/764370.html"New York Times" anuncia: "Iran's Parliament Confirms Interior Minister": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/middleeast/19iran.html?ref=world"CNN" plantea: "NATO forces fire on militants in Pakistan": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/11/18/pakistan.nato/index.html"MSNBC" publica: "Gaza militants killed in retaliatory airstrike": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27754100/"El País" de Madrid anuncia: "El Consejo de Ministros iraquí aprueba el pacto de seguridad con EE UU: El acuerdo estipula la retirada de las tropas estadounidenses del país árabe para finales de 2011": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Consejo/Ministros/iraqui/aprueba/pacto/seguridad/EE/UU/elpepuint/20081116elpepuint_8/Tes"New York Times" informa: "Iraqi Leader Defends Security Agreement":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/middleeast/19iraq.html?_r=1&ref=world&oref=slogin AFRICA"El País" de Madrid informa: "El líder rebelde Nkunda acepta abrir un proceso de paz en Congo: Tras la reunión con el enviado especial de la ONU, los disidentes están de acuerdo en cesar las hostilidades y negociar con el Gobierno": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/lider/rebelde/Nkunda/acepta/abrir/proceso/paz/Congo/elpepuint/20081116elpepuint_9/Tes"New York Times" plantea: "CongoViolenceReachesEndangeredMountain Gorillas": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/18/world/africa/18congo.html?ref=world"CNN" anuncia: "Congo: Rebel leader orders troops out of town": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/11/18/congo.ceasefire.rebels/index.html"Miami Herald" publica: "UN expects to police new Congo buffer zones": http://www.miamiherald.com/news/world/AP/story/776032.html"BBC" informa: "Congo: Líder rebelde apoya proceso de paz. El enviado de la ONU a la República Democrática del Congo, el ex presidente de Nigeria, Olusegun Obasanjo, dijo que el líder de las fuerzas rebeldes, Laurent Nkunda, reafirmó su disposición a mantener el cese el fuego siempre y cuando lo respeten también las tropas del gobierno.":http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7731000/7731974.stm"El País" de Madrid anuncia: "Al menos 59 muertos en accidente de tráfico al sur de Burkina Faso: Un autobús que transportaba a 75 personas y un camión se incendiaron tras colisionar en las inmediaciones de Boromo": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/59/muertos/accidente/trafico/sur/Burkina/Faso/elpepuint/20081115elpepuint_9/Tes "The Economist" analiza: "Rwanda and Europe: Judicial politics of a genocide. The arrest of a senior Rwandan official causes a storm": http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12609912 ECONOMÍA"New York Times" informa: "Emerging Countries Called Key to Global Recovery": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/business/worldbusiness/19yuan.html?ref=business "BBC" analiza: "¿Crisis alimentaria en ciernes?: El precio de los alimentos se ha encarecido 45% en los últimos nueve meses y en diciembre pasado se registró el alza de precios mensual más alta en casi 20 años, de acuerdo a las estadísticas de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación, la FAO": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/business/newsid_7340000/7340988.stm"The Economist" publica su informe semanal: "Business this week": http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12609735 OTRAS NOTICIAS"La Nación" informa: "Un barrio de Berlín alienta un inédito baby boom en Alemania: Allí viven familias jóvenes que tienen un promedio de 2,1 hijos contra 1,5 en Europa": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1070597"CNN" publica: "Pirates grab more ships, captured tanker docked": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/11/18/kenya.tanker.pirates/index.html"BBC" plantea: "Piratas con 2 millones de barriles de crudo": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7735000/7735001.stm

La corrupción en la contratación pública ha sido un fenómeno que aunque no es para nada nuevo, actualmente es materia de interés a nivel nacional e internacional debido al avance que ha tenido en cada uno de los campos de acción a nivel de la Administración Pública. Tal es su avance, que las formas delictuales a través de las cuales se manifiesta dejan con asombro hasta a los países más desarrollados en materia normativa y contractual. Además, se observa que la necesidad del servidor público de enriquecerse con el patrimonio estatal lo lleva a incurrir en conductas que son lesivas y contraproducentes tanto para la Administración Pública como para la sociedad; puesto que como resultado del detrimento patrimonial del Estado, menores serán los recursos para la inversión social, empresarial, salud y demás áreas que permitan el desarrollo del país y como consecuencia no habrá un desarrollo económico adecuado que permita erradicar la pobreza generada y el avance constante de lugares geográficos poco desarrollados, atentando contra la legitimidad del Estado. Como veremos más adelante en el desarrollo de este trabajo, la corrupción en la contratación estatal específicamente en la licitación pública es más común de lo que se cree, por ello veremos las diversas tipologías de corrupción en esta modalidad de contratación, ya que en la mayoría de los casos estas conductas son realizadas con pleno conocimiento de la ley. De ahí, que Transparencia Internacional tenga el siguiente concepto sobre la corrupción: La corrupción es una manifestación de las debilidades institucionales, bajo estándares morales, incentivos sesgados y falta de aplicación de la ley. El comportamiento corrupto deriva beneficios ilícitos a una persona o grupo pequeño al ignorar reglas que han sido diseñadas para garantizar la imparcialidad y eficiencia. Produce resultados injustos, ineficientes y antieconómicos. Las recompensas ilícitas para un grupo pequeño que rompe las reglas se producen a expensas de la comunidad en general. Existen otros perdedores individuales, como aquellos que son obligados a pagar sobornos, los que se les niega el derecho a beneficios por no poder pagarlos y los que pierden licitaciones para suministrar bienes o servicios debido a sobornos pagados por otros. La corrupción en la contratación estatal arrasa completamente con los principios plasmados en la Ley 80 de 1993, texto base para el desarrollo total del tema en las entidades públicas. Principios como la transparencia, la selección objetiva, la igualdad, economía, planeación, etc. son los cimientos en los cuales toda entidad se debe apoyar para que un proceso contractual sea exitoso, y así evitar que en medio del camino se presenten situaciones extraordinarias que deriven en una terminación anormal del proceso o la adjudicación de un contrato a un proponente equivocado. Cabe destacar que el fenómeno no es simplemente en la contratación a nivel Colombia sino también es a nivel internacional, se observa la preocupación de Organizaciones Internacionales como la OEA, la OMC, la OCDE, Transparencia Internacional, etc., que han realizado estudios que propenden buscar cómo la corrupción en la contratación sigue abriéndose camino y por qué aumenta de forma alarmante. Es preciso resaltar la labor del Gobierno Nacional en cuanto al tema, puesto que en los últimos años se ha creado la Secretaría de Transparencia de la Presidencia de la República y en el año 2011 fue expedida la Ley 1474 denominada Estatuto Anticorrupción, en la cual se establecen medidas penales, disciplinarias y administrativas. Estas medidas de alguna manera brindan cierto parte de tranquilidad a la ciudadanía, quien ya tiene una idea preconcebida de no participar en procesos de contratación por creer que los pliegos de condiciones están hechos y ajustados para entregar a personas específicas, sin tener en cuenta los demás proponentes. Así mismo, la expedición de múltiples normas en materia de Contratación Pública, sigue en auge. Ello se evidencia con la expedición de la Ley 1150 de 2007, que modifico la Ley 80 de 1993, posteriormente fue promulgada la Ley 1474 de 2011 como se indicó anteriormente y el Decreto Ley 019 de 2012, algunos decretos reglamentarios (2474 de 2008, 2025 de 2009, 3576 de 2009, 4266 de 2010, 734 de 2012), este último derogado por el decreto 1510 de 2013 y este a su vez por el 1082 de 2015. En algunas de estas modificaciones, el legislador ha querido introducir medidas para combatir la corrupción, ya que ésta se ha venido convirtiendo en un obstáculo para la adecuada inversión de los recursos públicos, a través de la incorporación de modalidades de contratación como la subasta inversa, la aplicación de algunos criterios para la selección y evaluación de propuestas, la aplicación de reglas de subsanabilidad, la aplicación de principios en la selección de contratistas, etc., disposiciones que deben generar un cambio positivo en los servidores que tienen a cargo la inmensa responsabilidad de brindar mejores condiciones de vida a los gobernados. La aplicación de la ética por parte de los servidores públicos que tienen a cargo la actividad permanente en la contratación estatal se ha venido reduciendo de manera que afecta los intereses de la comunidad, cada vez es más visible esta conducta y cada vez el Estado busca medidas para combatir este flagelo, sin lograr resultados positivos. Es por ello, que lo que se busca con este trabajo es profundizar un poco más en la normatividad expedida en materia de contratación pública y ver qué tan favorable ha sido la creación de las mismas en pro de la lucha contra la corrupción sin perder de vista claro está el esfuerzo que ha hecho el legislador para estar a la vanguardia tanto nacional como internacional, teniendo como soporte la agencia Colombia Compra Eficiente quien ha surgido con el fin de dar un enfoque más organizado y eficiente a la contratación, permitiendo unificar documentos, guías y manuales que anteriormente no se acostumbraba a utilizar, pero que ha sido una herramienta útil para el desarrollo de la actividad en las entidades estatales. De allí que para finalizar, daremos un vistazo a la reforma que presenta Colombia Compra Eficiente y así orientarnos hacía donde va dicha reforma y cuáles son los cambios más enfáticos que generaran un vuelco completo al procedimiento actual establecido en el Decreto 1082 de 2015 y demás normas concordantes. Pero algo que en necesario tener presente es que si los servidores públicos no cambian la mentalidad que busca solo generar beneficios en pro de sus intereses particulares, muy difícilmente habrá disminución de la corrupción así la producción normativa traiga consigo múltiples avances en materia contractual. ; Corruption in public procurement has been a phenomenon that, although not new at all, is currently a matter of national and international interest due to the progress it has made in each of the fields of action at the level of the Public Administration. Such is their progress, that the criminal forms through which it manifests leave with astonishment even the most developed countries in normative and contractual. In addition, it is observed that the need of the public servant to be enriched with the state patrimony leads him to engage in conduct that is harmful and counterproductive both for the Public Administration and for society; Since as a result of the patrimonial detriment of the State, the resources for social investment, business, health and other areas that allow the development of the country will be less and as a consequence there will not be adequate economic development that will eradicate the poverty generated and the constant advance Of geographically undeveloped places, undermining the legitimacy of the State. As we will see later in the development of this work, corruption in state procurement specifically in public bidding is more common than is believed, so we will see the various typologies of corruption in this modality of contracting, since in most Of cases these behaviors are carried out with full knowledge of the law. Hence, Transparency International has the following concept on corruption: "Corruption is a manifestation of institutional weaknesses, under moral standards, biased incentives, and lack of law enforcement. Corrupt behavior derives illicit benefits to a person or small group by ignoring rules that have been designed to ensure impartiality and efficiency. It produces unfair, inefficient and uneconomical results. The illicit rewards for a small group that breaks the rules occur at the expense of the community at large. There are other individual losers, such as those who are forced to pay bribes, who are denied the right to benefits for not being able to pay them and those who lose tenders to supply goods or services due to bribes paid by others" Corruption in state contracting completely destroys the principles embodied in Law 80 of 1993, basic text for the total development of the subject in public entities. Principles such as transparency, objective selection, equality, economics, planning, etc. Are the foundation on which every entity should be supported in order for a contractual process to be successful, and thus avoid that in the middle of the road extraordinary situations arise that lead to an abnormal termination of the process or the award of a contract to a wrong bidder. It should be noted that the phenomenon is not only in Colombia, but also at the international level. Concerns have been expressed by international organizations such as the OAS, WTO, OECD, Transparency International, etc., which have carried out studies Look for how corruption in hiring continues to make its way and why it increases alarmingly. It is important to emphasize the work of the National Government on the subject, since in recent years the Secretariat of Transparency of the Presidency of the Republic has been created and Law 1474 was issued in 2011, called the AntiCorruption Statute, in which Criminal, disciplinary and administrative measures. These measures somehow provide some peace of mind to the citizens, who already have a preconceived idea of not participating in recruitment processes because they believe that the specifications are made and adjusted to deliver to specific people, regardless of others Proposers. Also, the issuance of multiple rules in the field of Public Procurement, continues to boom. This is evidenced by the issuance of Law 1150 of 2007, which amended Law 80 of 1993, subsequently was enacted Law 1474 of 2011 as indicated above and Decree Law 019 of 2012, some regulatory decrees (2474 of 2008, 2025 2009, 3576 of 2009, 4266 of 2010, 734 of 2012), the latter repealed by decree 1510 of 2013 and this in turn by 1082 of 2015. In some of these amendments, the legislator has wanted to introduce measures to combat corruption, since it has become an obstacle to the adequate investment of public resources, through the incorporation of contracting modalities such as reverse auction, The application of certain criteria for the selection and evaluation of proposals, the application of rules of rectification, the application of principles in the selection of contractors, etc., dispositions that must generate a positive change in the servers that have in charge the immense responsibility To provide better living conditions to the governed. The application of ethics by the public servants who are in charge of the permanent activity in state contracting has been reducing in a way that affects the interests of the community, this behavior is increasingly visible and increasingly the State seeks measures To combat this scourge, without achieving positive results. That is why, what is sought with this work is to go deeper into the regulations issued in the area of public procurement and see how favorable has been the creation of the same for the fight against corruption without losing sight of It is clear the effort that has made the legislator to be at the forefront both nationally and internationally, having as support the agency Colombia Compra Eficiente who has arisen in order to give a more organized and efficient approach to hiring, allowing to unify documents, guides And manuals that were not previously used to use, but which has been a useful tool for the development of the activity in the state entities. Hence, to conclude, we will take a look at the reform that Colombia Compra Eficiente presents and thus guide us to where this reform is going and what are the most emphatic changes that will generate a complete overturn to the current procedure established in Decree 1082 of 2015 and other norms Concordant. But something that needs to be kept in mind is that if public servants do not change the mentality that only seeks to generate profits in favor of their particular interests, there will be hardly any reduction of corruption, so that normative production will bring with it many advances in contractual matters.

The geopolitical repercussions from the war in Ukraine continue to reverberate across Eurasia.With global attention preoccupied by Moscow's invasion of Ukraine, Azerbaijan has been depriving the estimated 120,000 ethnic Armenian population in the disputed enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh access to humanitarian aid in a blockade that has lasted over eight months and has recently intensified. Much to Armenia's consternation, the 2,000 Russian peacekeeping forces stationed in the enclave since the most recent round of fighting in 2020 have appeared ineffective in the face of increasing Azerbaijani pressure against the besieged Armenian population.As a result, Armenia is openly seeking to diversify its security relationship away from Russia, its longstanding ally, including conducting joint military drills with the United States in Armenia that began Monday and is set to end on September 20.Yerevan, Armenia's capital, has increasingly expressed a sense of betrayal at Moscow's inability, or unwillingness, to lend support to its treaty ally since last September when Azerbaijani armed forces attacked Armenia's internationally recognized territory and where they still occupy 10 square kilometers, according to Armenian officials.The Backdrop of Current TensionsThe two former Soviet Republics fought the First Nagorno-Karabakh War during the early 1990s after the indigenous Armenian majority in the autonomous oblast proclaimed their independence from the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. Following the disintegration of the Soviet Union, a full-scale war broke out between the two newly independent countries, eventually leaving tens of thousands casualties dead and hundreds of thousands displaced between 1992 and 1994. The war ended with a victory by Armenia.A Russian-brokered ceasefire resulted in Armenian control of Nagorno-Karabakh and adjacent regions of Azerbaijan proper. The United Nations and international community, however, continued to recognize Nagorno-Karabakh as part of Azerbaijan.After over 25 years of unsuccessful negotiations under the auspices of the OSCE Minsk Group co-chaired by the U.S., France, and Russia, Azerbaijan's President Ilham Aliyev, bolstered by the "brotherly" military support from NATO member Turkey and years of stockpiling Israel-supplied weapons, launched an all-out assault to recapture the disputed territory in September 2020. The 44-day war saw Azerbaijan secure a military victory with further territorial gains guaranteed under a Moscow-brokered ceasefire, leaving a rump self-governing Nagorno-Karabakh Republic alongside a Russian peacekeeping contingent as stipulated by the November 2020 ceasefire agreement. That agreement also guaranteed that a link between the Nagorno-Karabakh enclave and Armenia, the Lachin Corridor, would be sustained and controlled by the Russian peacekeeping contingent. The status of Nagorno-Karabakh and its inhabitants remained unresolved. Last December, however, Baku effectively blockaded the Lachin Corridor and, five months later, it established a checkpoint on the road, formalizing the blockade. While the European Union, Russia, the U.S., and even the International Court of Justice have increasingly called for lifting the blockade, Azerbaijan remains defiant. The Azerbaijan foreign ministry insists that claims of a blockade are "completely baseless" and has accused Armenians of transporting arms into the territory, a claim Yerevan denies. Nevertheless, even the International Committee of the Red Cross struggles to continue its vital deliveries into the territory, resulting in what several United Nations Special Rapporteurs describe as a "dire humanitarian crisis." There were hopes the dispute over Nagorno-Karabakh, which has been at the heart of the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan, would be resolved by negotiations facilitated by a complementary EU and U.S. approach (although a separate track by Moscow also persists). However, the ongoing blockade has dimmed hopes for a viable negotiated settlement. Current TensionsThe war in Ukraine has drained the Kremlin's military resources and room for maneuver, especially in a region like the South Caucasus where Russia vies with Turkey for regional hegemony. Moscow's increased reliance on Ankara over the last 18 months to balance against the West diplomatically has resulted in its inability to fulfill its own obligations in the ceasefire agreement following the 2020 war. Given this new reality, Armenia has started to hedge against Moscow by actively searching for new military partners and security guarantors. The publicity surrounding Eagle Partner 2023, the Armenian-hosted joint military exercise with the U.S., clearly worries the Kremlin, which has said it would "deeply analyze" the latest events. However, these exercises are "narrowly focused on peacekeeping operations" and do not represent a "breakthrough in U.S.-Armenia defense cooperation," according to Benyamin Poghosyan, senior fellow at APRI, a Yerevan-based think tank. Nevertheless, the exercises follow Armenia's refusal in January to host Russian-led Collective Security Treaty Organization exercises on its territory, citing the organization's unwillingness to support Yerevan during last September's escalation by Azerbaijan. Armenian Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan, has recently made a distinctly public effort to distance itself from Russian actions in Ukraine and even from Moscow itself. In just the last weeks Yerevan has moved to ratify the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court and recalled its ambassador to the CSTO. Pashinyan said depending solely on Russia for security was a "strategic mistake." Pashinyan's spouse, Anna Hakobyan, traveled to Kyiv last week and delivered the first package of Armenian humanitarian aid to Ukraine. However, the fact remains that only Russia has sent peacekeepers to Nagorno-Karabakh, and that these peacekeepers are all that stands between the local Armenian population and Azerbaijani conquest, almost certainly leading to massacre and expulsion. As Poghosyan sees it, the driving cause behind a potential new attack is "Azerbaijan's desire to establish control over Nagorno Karabakh without providing any status or special rights to Armenians." This aligns with the view of Shujat Ahmadzada, a Baku-based researcher on foreign and security policies of the South Caucasus countries, who believes Azerbaijan is pursuing a "3D policy" with regard to Nagorno-Karabakh. The three D's stand for "De-internationalization, De-territorialization, and De-institutionalization." Such a process is intended to transform the status of the ethnic Armenians living there into a "purely 'internal matter' of Azerbaijan'' while "incorporating the self-governing institutions into the Azerbaijani political system in such a way that there is no single territorially defined unit for the ethnic Armenian community." While the deployment of over 80 U.S. troops on Armenian soil will hopefully guarantee against imminently anticipated Azerbaijani attacks on Nagorno-Karabakh or Armenia itself, Washington's move in a region Moscow has long viewed as a vital interest does not come without risk. Moscow views Washington's increased involvement as the Biden administration taking advantage of Russia's war in Ukraine in order to weaken or challenge its influence in the South Caucasus region, where Russia has a history of over 200 years of regional military domination. The latest American proposal for unblocking the Lachin Corridor plans to simultaneously open an alternative route to Nagorno-Karabakh through the Azerbaijani town of Aghdam. However, Armenians have regarded this proposal as a clear threat. Tigran Grigoryan, a Karabakh-born analyst and head of the Regional Center for Democracy and Security, a Yerevan-based think tank, assessed that, even if both the Lachin Corridor and the Aghdam route were to be opened, the potential remained for Baku to again close the corridor and create a "new status quo on the ground." Recent reports show that the first delivery of aid by the Russian Red Cross has entered Nagorno-Karabakh from Azerbaijan. However, the acute crisis in food, energy, and humanitarian supplies continues as the Lachin Corridor remains shut and Azerbaijan continues its buildup along the border regions.The Biden administration would do better to use its leverage over Azerbaijan to ensure an end to the Lachin Corridor blockade while simultaneously working to achieve a solution to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict that would both recognize Azerbaijani sovereignty and provide enforceable guarantees for the future rights and security of the Armenian population there. For such an approach to work would likely require coordination with Russia. While such a scenario might be hard to imagine, Washington and Moscow have worked together in the past over Nagorno-Karabakh, even when relations were severely strained elsewhere. Such coordination is particularly compelling given the tens of thousands in the enclave who currently face famine. Rather than taking steps that Moscow views as threatening to its military presence in the South Caucasus (a process which led to disastrous consequences for neighboring Georgia 15 years ago), Washington, and the region itself, would be better off if American involvement instead demonstrated its commitment to ensuring human rights.

The dissertation at hand focuses on the enforcement of accounting standards in Germany. The legal basis of the external enforcement of accounting standards in Germany was created by the "Bilanzkontrollgesetz" (Financial Reporting Enforcement Act) at the end of 2004. An enforcement mechanism was installed to enforce accounting standard compliance by regular reviews of disclosed financial statements. The system was established as implementation of EU guidelines. Since 2005, International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) shall be applied for consolidated financial statement of firms listed on a regulated market segment within the European Union (EU) (Regulation EC No. 1606/2002). Simultaneously to the harmonization of accounting standards, the EU fostered the standardization of enforcement systems to ensure compliance with international accounting standards. Par. 16 of the so-called "IAS Regulation" mandates the "Committee of European Securities Regulators" (CESR) to "develop a common approach to enforcement". Germany's unique two-tiered system operates since July 2005; it involves the "Deutsche Pruefstelle fuer Rechnungslegung" (Financial Reporting Enforcement Panel), a newly established private organization primarily assigned to conduct the reviews. As the second tier, the "Bundesanstalt fuer Finanzdienstleistungsaufsicht" (Federal Financial Supervisory Authority) has the sovereign authority to order the publication of errors ("error announcements") and if necessary, to force the cooperation of firms in the review process. The dissertation is structured as follows. A general introduction focuses on the theoretical background and the reasoning for the need of external enforcement mechanisms. The common approach to enforcement in the European Union is described. Building on this, the thesis consists of three individual essays that analyze three specific questions in the context of the enforcement of financial reporting standards in Germany. The first paper focuses on the systematical evaluation of the information contained in 100 selected error announcements (from a total population of 151 evaluable announcements). The study finds that error announcements on average contain 3.64 single errors and 77% affect the reported profit. Relatively small as well as big, highly levered and rather unprofitable firms are overrepresented in the sample of misstatement firms. In a second step, the essay investigates the development of censured firms over time; the pre- and post-misstatement development of the firms in terms of balance sheet data, financial ratios and (real) earnings management are tracked. The analysis detects increasing leverage ratios and a decline in profitability over time. In the year of misstatement firms report large total and discretionary accruals, indicating earnings management. Compared to matched control firms, significant differences in profitability, market valuation, earnings management and real activities manipulations are observable. A major contribution of this first study is the examination of trends in financial data and (real) earnings management over a number of years surrounding misstatements as well as the elaboration of the distinction to non-misstating firms. The results show the meaning of the enforcement of IFRS for the quality of financial reporting to standard setters, policy makers, and investors in Germany. The second paper examines the interrelation of enforcement releases, firm characteristics and earnings quality. Prior literature documents the correlation between underperformance in financial ratios and the probability of erroneous disclosure of financial statements; this study provides evidence for differences in characteristics between firms with enforcement releases and control firms as well as a broad sample of German publicly traded firms (4,730 firm-year observations). Furthermore, research affirms the connection of financial ratios to earnings quality metrics. The accuracy of financial information is considered to be correlated with its quality and therefore the differences in earnings quality between various sub-samples is examined. Overall, the results document the underperformance in important financial ratios as well as indicate an inferior earnings quality of firms subject to enforcement releases vis-a-vis the control groups. These results hold with regard to both different earnings quality specifications and different periods observed. This study appends the earnings quality discussion and contributes to develop a comprehensive picture of accounting quality for the unique institutional settings of Germany. The paper shows that a conjoint two-tier public and private enforcement system is effective and might be an adequate model for other countries. Implications for the regulation of corporate governance, the enforcement panel and the auditor are identified. The third essay additionally considers the role of the auditor. The firms subject to error announcements are used to evaluate the consequences of increasing earnings management over time on enforcement releases and their recognition in audit fees. Prior literature provides evidence on a phenomenon called "balance sheet bloat" that is due to income increasing earnings management and later influences the disclosure of misstated financial statements. The evidence of earnings management recognition in audit fees and findings on the content of future information in audit fees leads to the hypothesis that auditors recognize increasing audit risk in fees before the enforcement process starts. The study extends related earnings management and audit fee literature by modeling the development of earnings management within the misstatement firms and systematically link it to auditor reactions. Significant predictive power of different commonly used accrual measures for enforcement releases in the period prior and up to the misstatement period are found by the study. In the same period of time an increase in audit fees, e.g. the recognition of increased audit risk, can be observed. A possible audit fee effect after the misstatement period is investigated, but no significant relation is obtained. The dissertation closes with a summary of the main findings, a conclusion to the connection of the three essays as well as subsumption of findings in the accounting literature. ; Die vorliegende Dissertation befasst sich mit der Prüfung der Rechnungslegung von deutschen Unternehmen (Enforcement). Die gesetzliche Grundlage des Enforcement-Verfahrens wurde durch das Bilanzkontrollgesetz von 2004 geschaffen; es soll die Einhaltung der Rechnungslegungsstandards (insbesondere der International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)) durch regelmäßige Durchsicht und Prüfung der offengelegten Rechnungslegung durchsetzen. Das System wurde als Umsetzung einer EU-Verordnung eingeführt: Seit 2005 müssen kapitalmarktorientierte Unternehmen mit Sitz in der EU die IFRS bei der Erstellung ihrer Konzernabschlüsse anwenden. (Verordnung EG Nr. 1606/2002). Zeitgleich zur Harmonisierung der anzuwendenden Rechnungslegungsstandards strengte die EU eine Standardisierung der Durchsetzung (Enforcement) dieser Normen an, um deren Einhaltung zu garantieren. Absatz 16 der oben genannten "IAS-Verordnung" beauftragt die europäische Wertpapierregulierungsbehörde (CESR) "ein gemeinsames Konzept für die Durchsetzung zu entwickeln". Das einzigartig ausgestaltete deutsche Enforcement-System ist seit Juli 2005 in Kraft gesetzt. Die neue gegründete, privatrechtlich organisierte Deutsche Prüfstelle für Rechnungslegung (DPR) prüft in erster Instanz die Rechnungslegung der Unternehmen. Auf einer zweiten Stufe ist die, mit hoheitlichen Mitteln ausgestattete, Bundesanstalt für Finanzdienstleistungsaufsicht (BaFin) beteiligt. Sie kann die Kooperation der Unternehmen verfügen und die Veröffentlichung von aufgedeckten Verstößen verbindlich anordnen. Die vorliegende Dissertation ist wie folgt strukturiert: Eine allgemeine Einführung zeigt theoretischen Hintergründe auf und legt die Begründung für die Notwendigkeit einer strikten Durchsetzung von Rechnungslegungsstandards dar. Des Weiteren werden die gesetzlichen Grundlagen des Enforcements aus einer europäischen Perspektive aufgezeigt. Hierauf aufbauend werden in drei Studien spezielle Fragestellungen im Kontext des deutschen Enforcement-Verfahrens analysiert. Die erste Studie konzentriert sich zunächst auf die systematische Auswertung der Information, die in den 100 veröffentlichten Fehlermitteilungen aus dem Enforcement-Verfahren (151 Fehlermitteilungen wurden zur Evaluierung herangezogen) enthalten ist. Diese Mitteilungen beinhalten im Durchschnitt 3,64 einzelne Fehler; sowohl relativ kleine als auch sehr große, hoch verschuldete und relativ unprofitable Unternehmen sind in dieser Stichprobe überrepräsentiert. In einem zweiten Schritt wird die zeitliche Entwicklung dieser Unternehmen näher betrachtet. Bilanzielle Daten und Kennzahlen sowie das Ausmaß an realer und buchmäßiger Bilanzpolitik werden von den Jahren vor einer Fehlerveröffentlichung, bis in die Zeit nach der Veröffentlichung ausgewertet. Diese Analyse zeigt ein ansteigendes Maß an Verschuldung und eine Abnahme der Profitabilität der Unternehmen. Im Jahr der fehlerhaften Rechnungslegung zeigt sich ein hohes Maß an totalen sowie diskretionären Periodenabgrenzungen, ein Hinweis auf ausgeprägte Bilanzpolitik. Verglichen mit Kontrollunternehmen werden signifikante Unterschiede bezüglich der Profitabilität, der Bewertung am Kapitalmarkt und der Bilanzpolitik deutlich. Die Studie leistet eine Beitrag zur vorhanden Literatur, da sie erstmals die bilanziellen Daten und das Ausmaß an Bilanzpolitik der zur Veröffentlichung von Fehlern gezwungenen Unternehmen im Zeitablauf betrachtet und systematisch auswertet. Auch werden Unterschiede zu nicht fehlerhaft berichtenden Unternehmen aufgezeigt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen die hohe Bedeutung der konsequenten Durchsetzung der Rechnungslegungsnormen für die Qualität der Finanzberichte. Die Erkenntnisse sind von Interesse für die internationalen Regulierungsbehörden, die national Politik und für Investoren am Kapitalmarkt. Die zweite Studie untersucht das Zusammenspiel des Enforcements, bzw. der Fehlerveröffentlichungen, mit finanziellen Kennzahlen und der Ergebnisqualität (Earnings Quality) der Unternehmen. Die wissenschaftliche Literatur liefert empirische Ergebnisse, dass die Offenlegung von fehlerhafter Rechnungslegung stark mit schlechten Finanzkennzahlen korreliert ist. Dieses zweite Papier liefert dazu Erkenntnisse im deutschen Kontext: Die Kennzahlen der von der DPR beanstandeten Unternehmen werden mit denen von Kontrollfirmen sowie allen am geregelten Markt gehandelten Unternehmen (4.730 Firmenjahre) verglichen und Unterschiede herausgearbeitet. Des Weiteren zeigen vorausgegangene Studien den Zusammenhang zwischen Finanzkennzahlen und der Ergebnisqualität. Folglich wird in dieser Studie der Zusammenhang zwischen Richtigkeit der veröffentlichten Informationen und den akademischen Maßgrößen zu deren Qualität betrachtet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen sowohl das schlechtere Abschneiden der "DPR-Unternehmen" im Sinne der finanziellen Kennzahlen, als auch eine schlechtere Ergebnisqualität der Rechnungslegung im Verglich zu Kontrollunternehmen. Diese Erkenntnisse sind stabil gegenüber Variationen der Messgrößen der Ergebnisqualität sowie gegenüber Veränderungen des Beobachtungszeitraums. Die Resultate tragen zur Diskussion um die Ergebnisqualität bei und ergänzen die wissenschaftliche Forschung hin zu einem umfassenden Bild der Qualität der Rechnungslegung in Deutschland. Die Studie zeigt, dass sich das deutsche Enforcement-Modell, mit privatrechtlich gestalteter DPR und staatlich organisierter BaFin, auch für eine Übertragung auf andere Länder eignen könnte. Die dritte Studie befasst sich mit der Effektivität des deutschen Enforcement-Systems, dem Einfluss von Bilanzpolitik und dessen Antizipation in den Prüfungskosten der Wirtschaftsprüfer. Die Untersuchung analysiert den zeitlichen Aspekt von Bilanzpolitik auf Fehlerveröffentlichungen in späteren Perioden. Es besteht die Möglichkeit die Verschlechterung der wirtschaftlichen Situation eines Unternehmens durch Bilanzpolitik zu verdecken. Ohne Verbesserung der wirtschaftlichen Lage des Unternehmens führt dieses Verhalten zu einem Bilanzpolitikausmaß außerhalb des gesetzlichen Rahmens und folglich zu einer hohen Wahrscheinlichkeit der Fehlerentdeckung bei DPR Untersuchungen. Die Entwicklung der Bilanzpolitik eines solchen Unternehmens müsste im zweiten Schritt mit der Risikokomponente in den Prüfungskosten des Wirtschaftsprüfers in Verbindung stehen. Der risikoorientierte Prüfungsansatz und die Antizipation von Bilanzpolitik in den Prüfungskosten sollte demnach vor Fehlerbekanntmachung zu einem Anstieg der Prüfungskosten führen. Zusätzlich ist nach offizieller Fehlerveröffentlichung und somit durch eine objektiv beobachtbare Schwäche im Rechnungslegungssystem oder einem hohen Ausmaß an Bilanzpolitik ein Risikoaufschlag zu vermuten. Im letzten Kapitel werden die wichtigsten Aussagen und Erkenntnisse der Dissertation zusammengefasst sowie in abschließenden Bemerkungen der Zusammenhang der Ergebnisse erläutert.

Brussels Ii Conference On 'supporting The Future Of Syria And The Region': Co-chairs Declaration ; Council of the EU PRESS EN PRESS RELEASE 219/18 25/04/2018 Brussels II Conference on 'Supporting the future of Syria and the region': co-chairs declaration 1. The Second Brussels Conference on "Supporting the Future of Syria and the Region" took place on 24-25 April 2018. It was hosted by the European Union and co-chaired by the United Nations. 2. One year after Brussels I, and following the previous three pledging conferences in Kuwait as well as the London Conference in 2016, the Conference renewed and strengthened the political, humanitarian and financial commitment of the international community to support the Syrian people, the neighbouring countries, and the communities most affected by the conflict. Brussels II brought together 86 delegations including 57 States, 10 representatives of regional organisations and International Financial Institutions (IFIs) as well as 19 UN agencies. More than 250 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) were also associated throughout the preparations and the two days of the Conference. 3. The former co-chairs of Brussels I: Germany, Kuwait, Norway, Qatar and the United Kingdom (UK) brought substantial input to the preparations and the proceedings of the Conference. Jordan and Lebanon were closely associated, in a spirit of partnership and in full acknowledgement of their tremendous efforts since the beginning of the Syrian conflict. Turkey also provided important contributions, both as the country hosting the largest number of Syrian refugees and as a key regional actor. 4. Civil society and NGOs were very closely and substantially associated to Brussels II and its preparations, including through extensive consultations with NGOs implementing humanitarian and resilience programmes in the region. The first day of the Conference was devoted to a high-level dialogue with representatives from 164 NGOs, including 15 from Syria and 72 from the three main refugee-hosting countries. 5. In addition, Syrian Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) from across Syria and neighbouring countries discussed their role in the future of Syria in a closed-door side event undertaken by the EU and the Office for the Special Envoy for Syria. The CSOs' views were further presented during the ministerial plenary on 25 April. The international community, and the EU in particular, will continue to work with Syrian civil society as essential stakeholders towards reaching a peaceful solution to the conflict and in its legitimate aspirations to contribute to the country's future. 6. Syria's artistic community was also given prominence through a string of cultural events, including a Syrian art space, "Tourab", that ran for ten days in central Brussels around the dates of the Conference. These events were meant as a tribute to the remarkable individual efforts of the Syrians since the start of the conflict. 7. The Conference reaffirmed that only an inclusive, comprehensive and genuine political solution in accordance with UNSCR 2254 and the Geneva Communiqué, that meets the legitimate aspirations of the Syrian people for dignity and freedom will ensure a sustainable end to the Syrian conflict, prevent regional escalation and a return of ISIL/Da'esh, and guarantee a peaceful and prosperous future for Syria and the region. It reiterated the international community's commitment to Syria's sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity, and safety and security for all citizens. Participants stressed the importance of women's engagement in the political process, including through their adequate representation within the delegations of parties to the conflict. 8. The humanitarian and resilience needs of people inside Syria and in the region remain enormous. Current UN appeals are severely underfunded. In 2018, the UN-coordinated appeal for Syria requests to cover assistance and protection needs inside Syria amounts to US$ 3.51 billion. In addition, through the Regional Refugee and Resilience Plan (3RP), an appeal of US$ 5.6 billion, inclusive of US$ 1.2 billion already committed, is required to support refugee and host community humanitarian and resilience related assistance in Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq and Egypt. 9. The Conference acknowledged the continuing generosity of neighbouring host countries and their communities in providing refuge to millions of displaced people. Participants pledged, for both Syria and the region, $ 4.4 billion (€ 3.5 billion) for 2018, as well as multi-year pledges of $ 3.4 billion (€ 2.7 billion) for 2019-2020. In addition, some international financial institutions and donors announced around $ 21.2 billion (€17.2 billion) in loans, of which elements are on concessional terms. The Conference noted that pledges made at Brussels I in 2017 had been largely fulfilled, and in some cases exceeded. Co-chairs and main donors agreed to widen the resource base and ensure greater predictability, coherence and effectiveness of the aid. The attached fundraising annex sets out the pledges made at this Conference. Political 10. The Conference expressed its strong support for the work of the UN Special Envoy for Syria in his mandate to facilitate the political process, with a view to a lasting political settlement based on the Geneva Communiqué and the full implementation of relevant UNSC Resolutions, including UNSCR 2254 (2015). It welcomed the twelve "Living Intra-Syrian essential principles" developed as commonalities in the Geneva process, offering a perspective of a vision of a future Syria that can be shared by all. It also welcomed the parameters on the constitutional and electoral baskets and the importance of a safe, calm and neutral environment, as outlined by the UN Special Envoy for Syria in his Security Council Briefing on 19 December 2017. Participants gave their full support to the Special Envoy's efforts to facilitate, in consultation with all concerned, the implementation of the Sochi Final Statement (as circulated to the Security Council on 14 February 2018) for the establishment of a Constitutional Committee for Syria in Geneva, under UN auspices and in accordance with UNSCR 2254 (2015). 11. The Conference reiterated the importance of preventing and combating terrorism in Syria in accordance with relevant United Nations Security Council resolutions. They took note of considerable progress in military operations to combat ISIL/Da'esh since the last Brussels Conference, while underscoring the continuing need to combat terrorism in accordance with international law. Efforts to combat terrorism do not supersede other obligations under international law 12. The co-chairs expressed their strong condemnation of the use of chemical weapons by any party to the conflict and under any circumstances. Their use is abhorrent and a clear violation of international law. It is very important that any alleged use be followed by an impartial, independent and effective investigation. Ensuring accountability for the use of chemical weapons is our responsibility, not least to the victims of such attacks. Co-chairs called upon all participants to use their influence to prevent any further use of chemical weapons. Humanitarian 13. Violence and human suffering have increased in Syria, with military escalation by parties to the conflict further increasing to an alarming extent in 2018. The civilian population has continued to endure the bulk of the suffering caused by the conflict, including severe, constant and blatant violations of International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and human rights law, in particular: deliberate and indiscriminate attacks on civilians and civilian infrastructure, reported and ongoing use of chemical weapons, forced displacement, arbitrary detention, enforced disappearances, and torture, including sexual exploitation and abuse and gender-based violence. More than 12 million people have now been displaced, including more than 5.6 million refugees hosted in neighbouring countries and 6.6 million displaced inside Syria. Nearly 13.1 million people, almost half of whom are children, urgently need humanitarian assistance and protection inside the country. 14. The co-chairs, together with all participants, reiterated their appreciation for Kuwait's and Sweden's efforts in drafting UNSC Resolution 2401 (2018) and called for its immediate and full implementation, as well as all other relevant resolutions on Syria. They urged all parties to the conflict to strictly adhere to their obligations under IHL. Attacks against civilians, humanitarian workers as well as any civilian infrastructure, particularly health facilities and schools, violate the most basic human rights, may amount to war crimes under international law, and must stop without delay. They also requested that humanitarian mine action programming be accelerated as a matter of urgency. 15. The Conference reconfirmed the importance of delivering needs-based humanitarian assistance to all civilians, in line with humanitarian principles of humanity, neutrality, impartiality and independence. Participants stressed the critical link between protection and access. They called for unconditional, unimpeded and sustained humanitarian access through the most direct routes, including to the 2.3 million people still living in besieged and hard-to-reach areas across Syria through all aid modalities: cross-line, cross-border and regular programme, in line with UNSC Resolution 2393 (2017). 16. Particular concerns were noted over the escalation of fighting and dramatic humanitarian situation still faced by civilians in many parts of Syria. The Conference stressed the need to ensure that any evacuation of civilians must be safe, informed, temporary, voluntary in nature and a solution of last resort including the destination of their choice, the right to return and the choice to stay, as per IHL. All efforts should be made to ensure the unconditional medical evacuation of those in need of urgent medical treatment. Denials of medical supplies and of access to healthcare are violations of international law and should be stopped at once. The systematic removal of life-saving medical items from humanitarian convoys is unacceptable and needs to be addressed once and for all. 17. Participants agreed that present conditions are not conducive for voluntary repatriation in safety and dignity. Significant risks remain for civilians across the country as the situation remains characterised by continued fighting and displacement, with 2.6 million people displaced in 2017 alone. Conditions for returns, as defined by the UNHCR and according to international refugee law standards, are not yet fulfilled. Any organised return should be voluntary and in safety and dignity. Regional/development 18. The international community acknowledged and commended the huge efforts made by the neighbouring countries and their citizens, in particular Jordan, Lebanon and Turkey, as well as Iraq and Egypt, in hosting millions of refugees from Syria. Participants recognised the deepening vulnerability of Syrian refugees, Palestinian refugees from Syria and host communities, which should be addressed through sustained humanitarian and resilience support. 19. Participants committed to remaining fully engaged, in a spirit of partnership, in supporting neighbouring countries to address the challenges they face. Substantial progress has been made by governments, donors and the UN in implementing the commitments undertaken in London in 2016 and in Brussels in 2017, including through the EU Compacts with Jordan and Lebanon. However, more should be done to ensure the continued and effective protection of refugees against risks of forced evictions and returns and improvement of their legal residency status. 20. While the countries of the region continue to face enormous humanitarian challenges, the Conference agreed that increased focus is required to support reform and longer-term development in a sustainable manner. It remains critical to support health and education, economic development, job creation and integration into labour markets, for both host communities and refugees, especially vulnerable groups such as women and youth. The Conference underlined the essential need to reach all children and young people, who will one day have a key role in the recovery and rebuilding of the region, with quality education and skills training. It expressed support for targeted resilience programming and an increase in allocations to women and girls. Extremely vulnerable refugees and host communities will continue to require support through cash assistance and enhanced social protection mechanisms. Resettlement was recognised as an essential protection tool for refugees with heightened protection risks and its importance was highlighted, together with other legal pathways, in offering safe and dignified access to safety beyond the immediate region. 21. The Conference welcomed the Lebanese Government's Vision for Stabilisation, Growth and Employment including the Capital Investment Programme together with its commitment to establish a timetable for reforms that were presented in Paris on 6 April 2018, whose implementation and follow-up with the support of the international community is critical. The Conference also welcomed the Rome II ministerial meeting in support of Lebanon's armed and internal security forces that was held on 15 March 2018. 22. The Conference equally welcomed the fiscal and structural reforms that are being implemented by the Jordanian Government in a difficult economic environment, with a view to ensuring fiscal sustainability and improving the investment climate in line with the "Jordan 2025" vision document and with the Economic Growth Plan for 2018-22. The Conference also welcomed the UK's intention to host an international Conference with Jordan in London later this year to showcase Jordan's economic reform plans, its aspiration to build/enable a thriving private sector, and mobilise support from international investors and donors. 23. The Conference commended the Turkish Government for its generous and large-scale efforts in hosting millions of Syrian refugees and integrating them into national services, including health, education, employment and other municipal and social services. Joint frameworks have been established with the international community under programmes such as the EU Facility for Refugees in Turkey and the UN Regional Refugee and Resilience Plan 2017-2018. Addressing the protracted refugee situation will require continued co-operation along those lines. 24. Participants committed to supporting further investments to foster inclusive economic growth and social development in Lebanon and Jordan, including through concessional financing, blending of grants with loans and the use of the EU External Investment Plan in cooperation with the support of European Financial Institutions and the private sector. They commended the efforts made by host countries to open access to education, water and sanitation and health services and encouraged further progress. Investment in infrastructure and in human capital is necessary to improve the quality of services and will continue to be supported. Participants also noted the importance of vocational training for refugees and host communities, closely aligned with private sector labour needs. Protection measures, in particular the provision of legal residency, should be reinforced. 25. Inside Syria, support to inclusive and accountable service delivery and to livelihood opportunities for the affected populations, particularly women and youth, should continue while ensuring that it does not condone, or indirectly entrench, social and demographic engineering as a result of forced displacement and intentional creation of obstacles to return. Work will address needs related to safe and equal access to civil documentation, housing and property rights to ensure that the rights of Syrians are protected and that those displaced are provided the basic conditions to be able to return to their homes in a dignified, safe and voluntary way when conditions allow. It is also important to support Syrian civil society, social cohesion/dialogue and seek to promote accountability and transitional justice. Funding decisions shall be conflict-sensitive and shall in no way benefit or assist parties who have allegedly committed war crimes or crimes against humanity. The UN reiterated that its Parameters and Principles for UN assistance in Syria will guide UN assistance beyond emergency life-saving aid in Syria. Future steps 26. The EU and the UN committed to tracking the commitments made during the Conference and reporting regularly on their delivery, including through reviews at key international events during the year. 27. Donor countries present at the Conference reiterated that reconstruction and international support for its implementation will only be possible once a credible political solution, consistent with UNSCR 2254 and the Geneva Communiqué, is firmly underway. A successful reconstruction process also requires minimal conditions for stability and inclusiveness, a democratic and inclusive government, an agreed development strategy, reliable and legitimate interlocutors as well as guarantees in terms of funding accountability. None of these conditions are fulfilled in Syria. In the meantime, participants agreed to regularly review post-agreement plans, including those produced by the UN-led post-agreement planning process initiated by the 2016 London Conference on Syria. 28. Participants also called upon all parties to release all persons who are arbitrarily detained, in line with UNSC Resolutions 2254 (2015) and 2268 (2016). Access to all detention facilities should be granted to independent monitors and information provided on cases of forced disappearances. Ongoing work on the release of detainees and abductees by all parties is valuable and can help build confidence between them. Participants expressed support to the UN proposal for a Standing Secretariat under UN auspices, recently proposed to support the working group formed by the Astana guarantors. 29. Finally, participants recalled that transitional justice and accountability are required for sustainable peace and an inherent part in any meaningful process of reconciliation. War crimes and violations of international humanitarian law and human rights abuses need to be investigated. Any entities and individuals guilty of such violations, including the use of chemical weapons, must be held accountable. The co-chairs commended the role of the Commission of Inquiry and welcomed progress in the work of the International Independent and Impartial Mechanism (IIIM) and called for continuous efforts to ensure the necessary means for its functioning. They called for the situation in Syria to be referred to the ICC. Annex - Fundraising - Supporting the future of Syria and the region Annex - Situation inside Syria Annex - Jordan partnership paper Annex - Lebanon partnership paper Annex - Turkey partnership paper Press office - General Secretariat of the Council Rue de la Loi 175 - B-1048 BRUSSELS - Tel.: +32 (0)2 281 6319 press.office@consilium.europa.eu - www.consilium.europa.eu/press

Chemicals are an essential part of our daily lives. They are used to produce consumer goods, to protect or restore our health and to boost food production, to name but a few examples — and they are also involved in a growing range of environmental technologies. Europe's chemical and associated industries have developed rapidly in recent decades, making a significant contribution to Europe's economy and to the global trade in chemicals. Whilst synthetic chemicals clearly bring important benefits to society, some of them are hazardous, raising concerns for human health and the environment depending on their pattern of use and the potential for exposure. Certain types of naturally occurring chemicals, such as metals, can also be hazardous. Emissions of hazardous substances to the environment can occur at every stage of their life cycle, from production, processing, manufacturing and use in downstream production sectors or by the general public to their eventual disposal. Emissions arise from a wide range of land-based and marine sources, including agriculture and aquaculture, industry, oil exploration and mining, transport, shipping and waste disposal, as well as our own homes. In addition, concern regarding chemical contamination arising from the exploitation of shale gas has grown recently. Hazardous substances in water affect aquatic life… Hazardous substances are emitted to water bodies both directly and indirectly through a range of diffuse and point source pathways. The presence of hazardous substances in fresh and marine waters and associated biota and sediment is documented by various information sources, including national monitoring programmes, monitoring initiatives undertaken by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), reporting under the Water Framework Directive (WFD), international marine conventions (e.g. HELCOM and OSPAR) and European research studies. These substances comprise a wide range of industrial and household chemicals, metals, pesticides and pharmaceuticals. Hazardous substances can have detrimental effects on aquatic biota at molecular, cellular, tissue, organ and ecosystem level. Substances with endocrine‑disrupting properties, for example, have been shown to impair reproduction in fish and shellfish in Europe, raising concerns for fertility and population survival. The impact of organochlorines upon sea birds and marine mammals is also well documented, as is the toxicity of metals and pesticides to freshwater biota. From a socio‑economic point of view, such impacts diminish the services provided by aquatic ecosystems, and consequently the revenue that can be derived from them. …and can pose risks to human health Human exposure to man-made chemicals has been implicated in a range of chronic diseases, including cancer as well as reproductive and developmental impairment. Exposure to toxic chemicals can occur via inhalation, ingestion and direct contact with skin, although the understanding of the relative risk posed by each of these exposure routes remains incomplete. However, exposure can be linked to the presence of hazardous substances in water, through the ingestion of contaminated drinking water and the consumption of contaminated freshwater fish and seafood. The exceedance of regulatory levels in seafood is documented for several hazardous substances in the seas around Europe. In addition, whilst human exposure to mercury in the Arctic, in part through the consumption of marine food, has declined, concentrations in the blood of more than 75 % of women sampled in Greenland exceed US guideline levels. Alongside concerns about exposure to individual substances, awareness is growing with regard to the importance of mixtures of several chemicals, as found in the more polluted water bodies of Europe. Laboratory studies have shown that the combined effects of chemicals upon aquatic life can be additive — resulting in observable detrimental effects for combinations of chemicals even if these are present, individually, at levels below which any adverse effects can be detected. Such concerns also extend to potential effects arising from human exposure to a mixture of chemicals via various pathways, including water. Biological effects‑directed measurements have proved to be effective in addressing the problems of complex chemical mixtures in European water bodies. In addition to the potential for adverse impacts upon human and ecosystem health, the presence of hazardous substances in drinking water supplies requires their removal. Alternatively, where the level of treatment involved is so high as to be uneconomic, a supply can be decommissioned. In both cases, significant costs are incurred. A key measure for reducing the level of purification required for Europe's drinking water is the establishment of safeguard or protection zones around the source. The creation of such zones, recognised in the WFD legislation, must be associated with regulatory powers to control polluting activities. Legislation designed to protect Europe's waters… The implementation of more established legislation related to chemicals has produced positive outcomes. Abatement measures established under the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive, for example, have contributed to a decline in metal emissions to water and air, whilst legislation relating to the production, use and disposal of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) has resulted in declines in concentrations found in marine biota. A similar outcome has resulted from the banning of tributyltin (TBT) in anti‑fouling paints due to its endocrine-disrupting impacts on marine invertebrates, although high levels in marine sediments can still be observed in certain locations. Europe has also introduced a range of relatively recent legislation to address the use of chemicals and their emissions to the environment, including water. The Regulation on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), designed to improve the protection of human health and the environment from the risks posed by chemicals, has a key role to play in this respect. REACH attributes greater responsibility to industry with regard to managing these risks and providing safety information on substances used. The Regulation also calls for the progressive substitution of the most dangerous chemicals once suitable alternatives have been identified. The chemical quality of Europe's surface waters is primarily addressed by the recently adopted Environmental Quality Standards Directive (EQSD). This WFD 'daughter' directive defines concentration limits for pollutants of EU-wide relevance known as priority substances (PSs). The limits are defined both in terms of annual average and maximum allowable concentrations, with the former protecting against long-term chronic pollution problems and the latter against short‑term acute pollution. Some of these pollutants have been designated as priority hazardous substances (PHSs) due to their toxicity, their persistence in the environment and their bioaccumulation in plant and animal tissues. The EQSD requires cessation or phase-out of discharges, emissions and losses of PHSs. For any substance identified as being of concern at local, river basin or national level, but not as a PS or PHS at EU level, standards have to be set at national level. Compliance with this requirement is critical. …is facing new challenges Some recent information with respect to the chemical status of Europe's surface water bodies is available within the WFD river basin management plans (RBMPs) which indicate, in general terms, that a variety of hazardous substances pose a threat to good chemical status in Europe. These include certain substances, for example mercury, TBT and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which can be described as persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic and which occur widely in the environment. Although regulation has led to documented reductions in the emissions of such substances to air and water (indeed, the presence of many is a legacy of past use), their persistence and ubiquity, particularly in sediment and biota, mean that they continue to pose a risk to aquatic environments even at sites far from human activity. The presence of these substances can cause widespread failure to achieve good chemical status under the WFD despite, in some cases, the absence of any significant risk from other types of substances. Some hazardous substances are hydrophobic and tend to accumulate in sediment and biota, with the result that their concentrations in these matrices are likely to be higher and, therefore, more detectable and measurable than in water. If measurements are made in the water column, the risk to the aquatic environment may be underestimated, and if different matrices are used in different locations and across different Member States, the results may not be directly comparable. A harmonisation at EU level is, therefore, desirable. For some pollutants, awareness and a currently incomplete understanding of potential effects have developed only recently. These emerging pollutants include substances that have existed for some time, such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products, but also relatively new substances, such as nanomaterials. Their inclusion in routine monitoring programmes has so far been limited, making it difficult to robustly assess the risks to the environment and human health, and thus to justify regulation and better monitoring. Targeted monitoring of selected emerging pollutants across the EU would be desirable to ensure timely awareness of potentially problematic substances that might need to be regulated. This monitoring should be supported by European research studies. The question of hazardous substances in Europe's fresh and marine waters is a complex issue, and climate change will add a further layer of complexity. In the absence of appropriately strong measures, this phenomenon is likely to adversely affect chemical water quality over the coming decades. In regions where more intense rainfall is expected, the frequency and severity of polluted urban storm flows is predicted to increase, whilst the flushing to water of agricultural pollutants, including pesticides and veterinary medicines, may be exacerbated. Hotter, drier summers and increasingly severe and frequent droughts will deplete river flows, reducing contaminant dilution capacity and leading to elevated concentrations of hazardous substances. Rising water temperatures and other stressors associated with climate change may interact with hazardous substances to impact the immune system health of aquatic organisms. Ocean acidification, driven by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), may change the speciation of metals in seawater and, therefore, their interaction with marine organisms. In addition, coastal erosion — likely to be intensified by climate change — may lead to the exposure of historical landfill sites along the coastlines of Europe, releasing hazardous substances to coastal waters. Effective measures exist… A range of measures can be implemented to reduce the emission of hazardous substances to water. It encompasses product substitution, restrictions on marketing and use, requirements to demonstrate the implementation of clean production processes and best available techniques in applications for industrial permits, fiscal instruments, the setting of emissions and environmental quality standards, and action to raise public awareness. Whilst controls 'at source' are desirable, it is very likely that other measures to attenuate the emission of hazardous substances to water will remain essential. Such measures include advanced wastewater treatment, urban stormwater controls and specific agri-environmental practices such as riparian buffer strips. Reducing emissions of hazardous substances has been shown to yield economic and societal benefits. …but they rely on sound information It is not practical or affordable to sample and analyse at sufficient spatial and temporal resolution for hundreds of individual chemicals within fresh and marine waters, including aquatic biota and sediments. However, the focus upon a few pre‑selected priority substances bears a strong risk of missing other problematic substances. In addition, such an approach disregards the effects of chemical mixtures. To address these issues, recent European research studies have led to the development and testing of new assessment and modelling tools that help to link chemical contamination with observed deterioration of ecological quality. Such tools include approaches to evaluate existing chemical and biological monitoring data, together with site-specific experimental techniques to establish cause-effect relationships. Further development of biological effects tools integrated with analytical chemistry is desirable and could contribute, in due course, to the identification of substances associated with risks, in the wider context of the update of the WFD Article 5 'pressures and impacts' analysis. European research funds can play an important role in the further development of these tools. For many hazardous substances, information on industrial emissions to water must be reported under the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (E-PRTR). To date, however, reporting under E-PRTR is incomplete as to the spatial extent and temporal resolution of data describing emissions to water — markedly so, for some substances. It is important not only to overcome this limitation in the reporting, but also to improve the quantitative understanding of the sources, emissions and pathways of all hazardous substances significantly. Advances in this area will facilitate the identification of appropriate measures to address chemical pollution of aquatic environments. Chemicals should be produced and used more sustainably Despite the comprehensive suite of legislation now implemented throughout Europe, the ubiquitous use of chemicals in society and their continuous release represent a major challenge in terms of the protection of aquatic ecosystems and human health. Efforts to promote a more sustainable consumption and production of chemicals are needed. They are likely to require a mix of policy responses, including regulation, economic incentives and information-based instruments. Implementing a more sustainable approach to the consumption and production of chemicals would not only benefit Europe's environment but also reduce the detrimental effects arising in other parts of the world as a result of the growing proportion of goods imported to Europe. To help achieve a more sustainable production of chemicals, wider implementation of 'green chemistry' is required. This approach involves developing new processes and technologies that maintain the quality of a product but reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances. The adoption of sustainable, green chemistry techniques has been shown to generate financial benefits and hence provide competitive advantage. Currently, however, there is no comprehensive EU legislation on sustainable chemistry in place.