People in northern Ghana face an increasing number of challenges such as social change, political neglect, globalization and a lack of income generating alternatives. On top of this difficult situation they have to adapt to an increasing number of extreme climatic events that threaten the income from rainfed agriculture, their most important livelihood strategy. Hundreds of small multi-purpose reservoirs were built during the past 60 years to help the rural population deal with the difficult environmental conditions by enhancing flexibility and diversifying income sources. Fisheries in these reservoirs were assumed to be a rather incidental benefit. Growing uncertainty and difficulty in organizing a livelihood make it necessary to consider all of the possible uses of small reservoirs, including the use of small reservoirs for fisheries. This study aims to contribute to the resilience of the rural poor in the Upper East Region of Ghana to environmental disturbances through improved understanding of the potentials of fisheries in small reservoirs. Resilience is thereby understood as the potential to create opportunities for doing new things, for innovation and development, even, or especially, during times of disturbance or crisis. Results are based on empirical findings from three case studies. The first of three analytical steps focused on how fishing in small reservoirs and selling the catch influences the opportunities for doing new things, for innovation and for development. The second step analyzed the ecological potentials of the small reservoirs to provide aquatic resources. The third dimension of the analysis used the concepts provided by social network analysis to check the social potentialities for innovation and development necessary to realize the ecological potential of the reservoirs for improved human well-being. Results show that for most of those involved in fisheries, the income from these activities is among the three most important livelihood strategies and the income from fishing is lifting about 15% of the economically active male population in the study communities out of absolute poverty. Furthermore, the income from fishing and selling fish can be used to invest in other livelihood strategies, such as farming and gardening. The analysis of the fishermen's local ecological knowledge shows that the small reservoirs have a natural fish production. Considering that there are a vast number of reservoirs not yet used for fishing, this means that many communities have a source of income and protein at their feet. With some training and access to gear, the resilience of many thousands of families could be increased, simply by using the naturally occurring aquatic resources in the reservoirs. Technical solutions to enhance fish production further are available at low cost. Unfortunately, the data base did not, however, allow an exact prediction of the reservoirs' potential fish production. This is exactly the starting point for an adaptive co-management approach, which is designed for the work under high uncertainty. Yet the approach has a number of pre-requisites that need to be fulfilled in order to manage reservoirs for increased production. Results of the social network analysis show, however, that the implementation of a new management approach would be challenged by a lack of political will and funding. The analysis further reveals clashing traditional, governmental, and participatory management strategies, as well as generational conflicts, bad leadership and distrust. These problems are fortified by strong competition for water amongst the various water users, and low capacity of the communities to organize water use and maintenance of the infrastructure. Three development scenarios at the end of this study show that if no steps are taken to improve the situation, the scope of fisheries as a livelihood strategy to increase resilience remains limited. Yet if cooperation between science, politics and local stakeholders can be established to overcome problems of management, fisheries in small reservoirs have a great potential to strengthen the resilience of the local population. ; Management sozial-ökologischer Systeme für mehr Resilienz: Fischerei in den kleinen Reservoiren Nordghanas Die ländliche Bevölkerung in Nordghana muss sich einer Vielzahl von Herausforderungen, wie sozialen Veränderungen, politischer Vernachlässigung, Globalisierung, sowie einem Mangel an alternativen Einkommensquellen, stellen, um ihren täglichen Lebensunterhalt zu sichern. Zusätzlich zu diesen Problemen kommt eine steigende Anzahl klimatischer Extreme, wie Dürren und Überschwemmungen, die ihre Haupteinkommensquelle, den Regenfeldbau, bedrohen. In den letzten 60 Jahren wurden hunderte kleine, vielfältig nutzbare Reservoire gebaut, um für die wachsende Bevölkerung Einkommensalternativen zu schaffen, vor allem im Bewässerungsfeldbau und durch größere Viehherden mittels zusätzlicher Tränkmöglichkeiten. Die Nutzung der Reservoire für die Fischereiwirtschaft hingegen rückte bisher kaum ins Blickfeld. Ständig zunehmende Unsicherheiten und Probleme bei der Sicherung des Lebensunterhaltes machen es jedoch notwendig, alle möglichen Nutzungen der Reservoire zu erwägen, einschließlich der Fischerei. Durch ein besseres Verständnis der Potentiale der Fischerei in kleinen Reservoiren, möchte die vorliegende Studie zur Stärkung der Resilienz der lokalen Bevölkerung gegenüber den immer extremer werdenden Umweltbedingungen beitragen. Angelehnt an Folke (2006) wird Resilienz als Potential verstanden sich, trotz umweltbedingter Störungen und Krisen, neue Möglichkeiten zu erschließen sowie als Potential für Innovation und Entwicklung. Die Ergebnisse basieren auf empirischen Erkenntnissen aus drei Fallstudien an Reservoiren in der Upper East Region, Ghana, welche in unterschiedlicher Intensität fischereilich genutzt werden. Der erste von drei Untersuchungsschritten ist auf die Art und Weise fokussiert, wie sich das Fischen und der Handel mit Fisch auf die Potentiale neue Möglichkeiten zu erschließen auf Innovation und Entwicklung auswirkt. Der zweite Schritt analysiert das ökologische Potential der kleinen Reservoire hinsichtlich der Bereitstellung aquatischer Ressourcen. Mittels Konzepten der sozialen Netzwerkanalyse werden im dritten Untersuchungsschritt die sozialen Potentiale analysiert, die notwendig sind, um durch Innovationen bzw. verbessertes Management die ökologischen Potentiale der Reservoire zu realisieren. Die Analyse des lokalen, ökologischen Wissens der Fischer zeigt, dass sich nach dem Bau der kleinen Reservoire eine natürliche Fischpopulation etabliert. Dennoch gibt es in Nordghana hunderte Reservoire, die fischereilich nicht genutzt werden, da den Menschen weder Know-how noch Fischereiausrüstung zur Verfügung stehen. Die drei Fallstudien zeigen aber, dass Fischerei sich, wenn Zugang zu Know-how und Fischereiausrüstung besteht, zu einer wichtigen Einkommensquelle entwickelt kann, die immerhin 15% der männlichen, ökonomisch aktiven Bevölkerung aus der absoluten Armut hilft. Darüber hinaus hat sich Fisch zu einer wichtigen Ergänzung im Speiseplan entwickelt. Zudem kann das Einkommen aus der Fischerei und aus dem Verkauf von Fisch in alternative Lebenssicherungsstrategien investiert bzw. extreme Hungerzeiten können abgefedert werden. Kostengünstige, technische Lösungen zur Optimierung der natürlichen Fischpopulationen stehen ebenfalls zur Verfügung und könnten die Erträge steigern. Konkrete Vorraussagen zu potentiellen Steigerungsmöglichkeiten sind indes schwierig, da extrem variable Umweltbedingungen einer sehr schwachen Datenbasis bezüglich Fischproduktion in kleinen Reservoiren gegenüberstehen. Ein anpassungsfähiger Managementansatz, wie zum Beispiel vorgeschlagen von Berkes et al. 2001, berücksichtigt solche unsicheren Umstände, und empfiehlt auf unterschiedlichen Arten von Wissen aufzubauen und aus Fehlern und Erfolgen zu lernen. Eine erfolgreiche Umsetzung des Management-Konzeptes benötigt aber bestimmte Voraussetzungen, wie etwa good leadership, Vertrauen oder auch eine gemeinsame Vorstellung vom Ziel des Managements. Die Ergebnisse der sozialen Netzwerkanalyse sowie die Auswertung historischer Daten deuten auf mangelnden politischen Willen sowie fehlenden Finanzierung als Hindernisse auf dem Weg zu einem verbesserten Fischereimanagement hin. Desweiteren zeigt die Analyse, dass sich traditionelles und staatliches Ressourcenmanagement nicht einfach mit neueren, demokratischen Managementansätzen vereinbaren lässt. Schlechte Führung der Fischereigemeinden sowie Konflikte zwischen jungen und alten Fischern resultieren in massivem Misstrauen, welches eine koordinierte fischereiliche Bewirtschaftung der Reservoire unmöglich macht. Auch die Dorfgemeinschaften sind mit der Organisation der verschiedenen Wassernutzungen und der Instandhaltung der Infrastruktur überfordert, und durch die Knappheit des Wassers entsteht eine starke Konkurrenz unter den verschiedenen Wassernutzern, welche die ohnehin schwierige Situation verschärft. Drei deskriptive Entwicklungsszenarien am Ende der Studie zeigen, dass mit Zugang zu Know-how und Fischereiausrüstung die wirtschaftliche Nutzung der natürlichen Fischpopulation in den Reservoiren gesteigert und somit die Resilienz der lokalen Bevölkerung erhöht werden könnte. Die Möglichkeiten der Fischerei als eine Strategie zur Lebenssicherung bleiben allerdings beschränkt, sofern die problematische Situation im Fischereimanagement nicht verbessert wird. Eine gleichberechtigte Kooperation von Wissenschaft, Politik und lokalen Nutzern könnte helfen, die Managementverdrossenheit zu überwinden. Die Fischerei in kleinen Reservoiren könnte dann ihr Potenzial zur Stärkung der Resilienz der ländlichen Bevölkerung gegenüber den eingangs erwähnten Problemen entfalten.
The building sector has a major role to play in the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. Indeed, residential and non-residential buildings account for 40% total energy consumption in the European union. In addition, given that 80% of building energy demand come from heating, thermal insulation is a domain with great potential for energy savings.The estimation of the thermal performance of a building usually relies on theoretical calculations. When in situ measurements are performed, the results often show some discrepancies with predictions: this is the so-called "performance gap". Thus, it is important to distinguish the contribution of each element of the building envelope to the overall energy losses. In particular, "thermal bridges" (insulation irregularities) generate locally additional heat losses. They may also alter the thermal comfort of inhabitants as well as lead to mould growth issues.This thesis proposes several methods for the in situ estimation of heat losses in a building wall or in a thermal bridge. The methodology consists in applying an artificial thermal load to the wall and to analyze its transient response. This "active" approach is usually faster and less sensitive to weather conditions than standard steady-state methods. In practice, the indoor air is heated, and both the temperature and heat flux are measured on the wall surface. An inverse method then estimates the thermal resistance of the wall by fitting a model (direct model) to these transient measurements. The well-posedness of the inverse problem is assessed thanks to several mathematical tools. Some model reduction steps are required for the parameters of the direct model to be estimable with the desired uncertainty.In the case of a homogeneous wall, temperatures and heat fluxes are measured with contact sensors at one specific location. For a non-homogeneous wall or a thermal bridge, these local contact measurements are extrapolated to the rest of the wall thanks to infrared thermography and the quantification of the total heat transfer coefficient. For this purpose, several methods were developed to measure this coefficient in situ. Thanks to this extrapolation procedure, the inverse method can estimate the thermal resistance (or thermal transmittance) of an equivalent homogeneous wall having the same behavior as the real wall.The methods developed were validated on four experimental campaigns. Measurements were carried out in laboratory, in a climate chamber, and in situ. Different types of wall (heavyweight internally insulated wall, lightweight insulated wall) were tested. Several types of material-related thermal bridges were also investigated (mainly high-conductive materials in insulation systems). The results were compared to reference values obtained from steady-state measurements. Indeed, several methods for the characterization of thermal bridges in steady-state were compared: some are inspired from the literature, others are original. ; Le secteur du bâtiment a un rôle majeur à jouer dans la réduction des émissions de gazes à effet de serre. En effet, les bâtiments (résidentiels et non-résidentiels) représentent 40% de la consommation d'énergie totale en Europe. De plus, étant donné que 80% des besoins énergétiques des bâtiments proviennent du chauffage, l'isolation thermique représente un grand potentiel d'économies d'énergie. L'estimation des performances thermiques d'un bâtiment repose la plupart du temps sur des calculs théoriques. Quand des mesures de terrain son réalisées, les résultats montrent souvent des écarts par rapport aux prédictions. Ainsi, il est important de pouvoir distinguer les contributions de chaque élément de l'enveloppe du bâtiment aux déperditions totales. En particulier, les « ponts thermiques » (irrégularités et défauts dans l'isolation), génèrent localement des pertes supplémentaires. De plus, ils peuvent altérer le confort des habitants et engendrer de problèmes de développement de moisissures. Cette thèse propose plusieurs méthodes permettant de mesurer sur le terrain les déperditions thermiques à travers une paroi de bâtiment ou un pont thermique. La méthode consiste à chauffer artificiellement le mur et à analyser sa réponse transitoire à cette sollicitation. Cette approche, dite « active », est en général plus rapide et moins sensible aux conditions météorologiques que les méthodes en régime stationnaire habituelles. En pratique, l'air intérieur est chauffé, et la température et le flux thermique sont tous les deux mesurés à la surface du mur. Une méthode inverse estime ensuite la résistance thermique de la paroi en calant un modèle sur ces mesures (modèle direct). Le caractère bien-posé du problème inverse est évalué grâce à divers outils mathématiques. Des étapes de réduction de modèle sont nécessaires pour que les paramètres inconnus du modèle direct utilisé puissent être estimés avec une incertitude correcte.Dans le cas d'une paroi courante homogène, les températures et les flux sont mesurés à un endroit spécifique, supposé représentatif de l'ensemble du mur. Pour une paroi non-homogène ou un pont thermique, ces mesures locales par contact sont extrapolées au reste du mur grâce des mesures infrarouges et à la quantification du coefficient d'échange total en surface. A ces fins, plusieurs méthodes ont été développées pour mesurer ce coefficient sur le terrain. Grâce à cette procédure d'extrapolation, les méthodes inverses peuvent estimer la résistance (ou la transmittance) thermique d'un mur homogène équivalent ayant le même comportement que le mur réel.Les méthodes développées ont été validées sur quatre campagnes expérimentales. Des mesures ont été réalisées en laboratoire, en chambre climatique, puis en conditions réelles. Différents types de parois (mur porteur isolé par l'intérieur, paroi légère) ont été testés. Plusieurs types de ponts thermiques intégrés ont également été étudiés. Les résultats ont été comparés à des valeurs de référence obtenues grâce à des mesures en régime stationnaire. En effet, plusieurs méthodes pour la caractérisation des ponts thermiques en régime permanent ont été comparées : certaines proviennent de la littérature, d'autres ont été développées pendant cette thèse.
This paper analyzes tourism development in Great Britain. It is noted that the competitive advantage of the country in the market of tourist services is its physical, geographical as well as economic and geographical position. The country has a strong natural, recreational, historical and cultural potential, a modern hospitality industry and a vast transport network. Cultural, business, educational, event, sport, nostalgic and rural tourism are the main types of tourism in Great Britain. A tourism brand is designed in the country. The National Visit Britain Tourism Development Agency deals with its promotion internationally. It is estimated that according to global tourist arrivals figures Great Britain ranks 6th among the countries of the European tourist region. The dynamics of tourist arrivals to the country for the period of 2006-2018 is analyzed. It is determined that there has been a gradual increase in the quantity of foreign tourism since 2012, except for the year of 2018. In general, outbound tourism outweighs the inbound one in the country. It is established that the main consumers of the British tourist product are tourists from the US and Western Europe. Most often the country is visited by working people aged 25-34. Weekend tours are predominant in terms of the purpose of travelling to Great Britain. London is the most popular tourist centre of the country. Half the number of tourists coming to Great Britain visits it. Lothian, Greater Manchester, West Midland and Kent are also popular tourist centres. It is stated that new political conditions are being created in the country caused by the initiation of its withdrawal from the EU. This will bring about both new challenges and new opportunities for the tourism sphere. A SWOT analysis of the UK tourism industry was carried out. The problems and prospects of tourism development in the territory of the country have been identified taking into account its current social and economic and geopolitical situation. The priority tasks are to promote Great Britain as a tourism destination, to increase tourism productivity and revenue, to create new jobs and to increase the income level of people employed in the tourism sector. ; Статья посвящена анализу развития туризма в Великобритании. Отмечено, что конкурентным преимуществом страны на рынке туристических услуг является её физико-географическое и экономико-географическое положение. Великобритания обладает мощным природно-рекреационным и историко-культурным потенциалом, а также имеет современную индустрию гостеприимства и разветвленную транспортную сеть. Основными видами туризма в Великобритании являются культурно-познавательный, деловой, образовательный, событийный, спортивный, ностальгический, сельский. Страна имеет туристический бренд. Его продвижением на международной туристической арене занимается национальное агентство по развитию туризма «Visit Britain». Выявлено, что по количеству туристов, въезжающих в страну, Великобритания занимает шестое место среди стран Европейского туристического региона. Проанализирована динамика потока иностранных туристов, посетивших страну за период 2006-2018 гг. Определено, что с 2012 года наблюдается постепенное увеличение числа иностранных туристов, исключением является только 2018 год. В целом выездной туризм в стране преобладает над въездным. Установлено, что основными потребителями британского туристического продукта являются туристы из США и стран Западной Европы. Чаще всего страну посещают туристы в возрасте 25-34 года. По целям поездок в Великобританию преобладают туры выходного дня. Самым популярным туристическим центром страны остаётся Лондон. Столицу посещают более половины туристов, въезжающих в страну. Также популярными туристическими центрами являются Лотиан, Большой Манчестер, Западный Мидленд и графство Кент. Отмечено, что в стране формируются новые политические условия, вызванные инициированием выхода Великобритании из Европейского Союза. Это приведет как к вызовам, так и даст новые возможности для туристической отрасли страны. Выполнен SWOT-анализ туристической сферы Великобритании. Выявлены проблемы и перспективы развития туризма в стране с учётом её нынешнего социально-экономического и геополитического положения. Приоритетными задачами являются продвижение Великобритании как туристического направления, повышение производительности и рост доходов от туризма, создание новых рабочих мест и увеличение уровня доходов лиц, занятых в туристическом секторе. ; Стаття присвячена аналізу розвитку туризму у Великій Британії. Зазначено, що конкурентною перевагою країни на ринку туристичних послуг є її фізико-географічне та економіко-географічне положення. Країна володіє потужним природно-рекреаційним та історико-культурним потенціалом, має сучасну індустрію гостинності, розгалужену транспортну мережу. До головних видів туризму у Великій Британії належать культурно-пізнавальний, діловий, освітній, подієвий, спортивний, ностальгічний та сільський. В країні розроблений туристичний бренд. Його просуванням на міжнародній туристичній арені займається національне агентство з розвитку туризму «Visit Britain». Визначено, що за показниками туристичних прибуттів Велика Британія посідає шосте місце серед країн Європейського туристичного регіону. Проаналізовано динаміку прибуттів туристів до країни за період 2006-2018 рр. Встановлено, що з 2012 р. спостерігається поступове збільшення кількості іноземних туристів, виключенням є 2018 р. У цілому виїзний туризм в країні переважає над в'їзним. Встановлено, що основними споживачами британського туристичного продукту є туристи з США та країн Західної Європи. Найчастіше країну відвідують працездатні особи у віці 25-34 років. За метою поїздки до Великої Британії переважають тури вихідного дня. Найпопулярнішим туристичним центром країни залишається Лондон, його відвідують більш ніж половина туристів, які прибувають до Великої Британії. Популярними туристичними центрами є також Лотіан, Великий Манчестер, Західний Мідленд та Кент. Зазначено, що в країні формуються нові політичні умови, викликані ініціюванням її виходу з Європейського Союзу. Це матиме як виклики, так і нові можливості для туристичної галузі. Виконано SWOT-аналіз туристичної сфери Великої Британії. Встановлені проблеми і перспективи розвитку туризму в країні з урахуванням сучасного її соціально-економічного та геополітичного становища. Пріоритетними завданнями є просування Великої Британії як туристичного напрямку, підвищення продуктивності та зростання доходів від туризму, створення нових робочих місць та збільшення рівня доходів осіб, зайнятих у туристичному секторі.
Tese de Doutoramento em Engenharia Electrotécnica e de Computadores, na especialidade de Telecomunicações, apresentada ao Departamento de Engenharia Eletrotécnica e de Computadores da Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra ; The electromagnetic properties of naturally occurring materials do not always provide enough flexibility to obtain a desired electromagnetic response. The development of metamaterials has surpassed this limitation and opened the door to independently control and access new and exotic electromagnetic properties and functionalities, not directly available in Nature, relying on subwavelength artificial "atoms". The idea of expanding the properties-spectrum of natural materials crafting artificial matter versions was put forward by V. G. Veselago in 1967, and since then the research field of "metamaterials" has dramatically evolved. New materials have emerged from this research field exhibiting extraordinary optical properties, such as negative refraction and optical magnetism. They are being exploited for a broad range of applications, spanning telecommunications, sensing and biomedicine, photovoltaics and solar cells, amongst others, over different frequency domains. Among the variety of media belonging to the class of metamaterials, a subclass has attracted significant attention due to its unique potentials in the manipulation of electromagnetic fields: "wire metamaterials". In their simplest version, such materials are formed by optically dense arrays of aligned metal rods embedded into a dielectric host matrix. Through a combination of analytical modeling and numerical simulation, the main objective of this thesis is to investigate novel wave phenomena in wire metamaterial based platforms, as well as their prospective applications. The thesis focuses on four different problems/effects: (i) the subwavelength imaging and near-field transport by a multi-wire endoscope; it is shown that a wire medium endoscope can be quite robust to the effect of bending and allow for the near field transport with a deeply subwavelength resolution provided the total length of the bent wires satisfies the Fabry-Pérot condition. (ii) It describes a novel counterintuitive phenomenon of an anomalous light tunneling by two interlaced wire meshes; this effect is due to the destructive interference of the scattering by the two interlaced 3D wire meshes, which leads to a Fano-type resonance. (iii) It unveils a transparency effect with a topological origin; a mixture of two topologically distinct material phases, for example a metamaterial formed by metallic wire grid embedded in a magnetized plasma, may be "transparent" to electromagnetic waves in a spectral range wherein the individual material phases are strongly reflecting. (iv) It reports a mechanism to have exotic optical manipulations and lateral (recoil) forces on small particles placed nearby a reciprocal translation invariant substrate. The problems analyzed here can have applications in medical imaging, angular filtering and sensing, and in optical sorting and particle delivery. ; As propriedades eletromagnéticas dos materiais existentes na natureza nem sempre oferecem a flexibilidade suficiente para se obter uma resposta electromagnética desejada. O desenvolvimento dos metamateriais superou essa limitação e abriu a porta a novas e por vezes exóticas propriedades electromagnéticas, não diretamente disponíveis na Natureza. A ideia de expandir o espectro das propriedades de materiais naturais criando versões artificiais foi proposta por V. G. Veselago em 1967, e desde então o campo de investigação dos "metamateriais" evoluiu drasticamente. Novos materiais emergiram deste campo de pesquisa exibindo propriedades ópticas extraordinárias, como refracção negativa e magnetismo óptico. Estes materiais têm sido explorados para uma vasta gama de aplicações, abrangendo, entre outras, telecomunicações, sensores e biomedicina, células solares e fotovoltaicas, em diferentes domínios de frequência. Entre a variedade de estruturas pertencentes à classe dos metamateriais, uma subclasse tem atraído atenção significativa devido ao seu potencial único na manipulação de campos electromagnéticos: os metamateriais de fios metálicos (wire metamaterials). Na sua versão mais simples, tais materiais são formados por um agregado opticamente denso de fios metálicos alinhados embedidos num material dieléctrico. Através de uma combinação de modelagem analítica e simulação numérica, o objetivo principal desta tese é investigar novos fenómenos ondulatórios em plataformas baseadas em wire metamaterials, bem como suas potenciais aplicações. A tese tem como foco quatro problemas/efeitos diferentes: (i) "imaging" sub-λ (λ representa o comprimento de onda) e o transporte de campo próximo por um endoscópio formado por um agregado de fios metálicos; é mostrado que um endoscópio formado por um "wire medium" pode ser bastante robusto a flexões e permite o transporte de campo próximo com uma resolução profundamente sub-comprimento de onda, desde que o comprimento total dos fios dobrados satisfaça a condição de Fabry-Pérot. (ii) Descreve um novo fenómeno contra-intuitivo de tunelamento anómalo da luz por duas redes de fios metálicos entrelaçadas; este efeito é devido à interferência destrutiva da difusão da luz pelas duas redes de fios 3D entrelaçadas, que conduz a uma ressonância do tipo Fano. (iii) Revela um efeito de transparência com uma origem topológica; uma mistura de duas fases topologicamente distintas, por exemplo, um metamaterial formado por um grelhas metálicas embedidas num plasma magnetizado, pode ser "transparente" à propagação de ondas electromagnéticas numa gama espectral onde as fases individuais do material são fortemente reflectoras. (iv) Relata um mecanismo para ter manipulações ópticas exóticas e forças laterais em pequenas partículas colocadas na proximidade de um substrato recíproco invariante para translações. Os problemas analisados na tese têm potenciais aplicações em imagiologia médica, em sensores, e na separação/entrega óptica de partículas. ; Erasmus Mundus programme of the European Union - Al-Idrisi II
Po zakończeniu zimnej wojny wydawało się, że świat na trwałe wchodzi w okres stabilizacji, pokoju i współpracy. Szybko jednak okazało się, że świat narastającej globalizacji ma różne oblicza, także negatywne, co rzutuje na każdą sferę życia, także na bezpieczeństwo. Spadło co prawda zagrożenie wojną nuklearną, ale pojawiły się nowe zagrożenia oraz nasiliły te, które przedtem były przesłonięte rywalizacją Wschód - Zachód. Chodzi głównie o konflikty etniczno-religijne, kulturowe i cywilizacyjne, w tym rozlewające się konflikty wewnętrzne w państwach słabych i upadłych, proliferacja broni masowego rażenia, niebezpieczne ambicje państw dyktatorskich i autorytarnych. Ogromny wpływ na bezpieczeństwo międzynarodowe miały zamachy 11 września 2001. Zmieniły one percepcję zagrożeń dla bezpieczeństwa, a ogłoszona przez prezydenta Busha wojna z terroryzmem doprowadziła USA i prawie cały Zachód do zaangażowania w dwie wojny: w Iraku i Afganistanie. Sytuacja w Afganistanie i odpowiedzialność NATO za bezpieczeństwo tego kraju nadal budzi ogromne zaniepokojenie przywódców państw zachodnich, rzutuje na stan bezpieczeństwa międzynarodowego. Dotyczy to szczególnie regionu Bliskiego i Środkowego Wschodu, gdzie coraz większą rolę odgrywa rywalizacja między Indiami, Pakistanem i Iranem. Rosnący niepokój budzą ambicje nuklearne Iranu, a także otwarte wyzwania, jakie kraj ten rzuca społeczności międzynarodowej, podobnie jak w innej części świata polityka Korei Północnej. Coraz większe ambicje w polityce międzynarodowej mają Chiny i dążąca do odzyskania mocarstwowej pozycji Rosja. Jednocześnie wbrew programom i zapowiedziom proces osiągania przez Unię Europejską pozycji gracza globalnego nie materializuje się. Postępuje proces odwrotny: komplikuje się sytuacja finansowa w strefie euro, a kryzys ten oddziałuje na całą Unię. Postrzegana jako oaza gospodarczej stabilizacji UE stała się w ostatnich latach źródłem dodatkowych perturbacji w gospodarce światowej. Zachodzące w niej procesy, takie jak gwałtowne wzrosty cen surowców, rozchwianie rynków finansowych, pogłębiające się dysproporcje między bogatymi i biednymi, rosnące obszary głodu, daleko idąca deregulacja i kryzysogenne praktyki inżynierii finansowej, problem światowego zadłużenia, stają się czynnikiem globalnej destabilizacji i zagrożeń także dla bezpieczeństwa. ; Twenty years after the end of the Cold War the world still undergoes the process of deep changes. The collapse of communism and disintegration of the Soviet Union put an end to a bipolar system and the new era begun in international politics. Many state controlled economies, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, became democratic and market oriented countries. Through over one decade the United States was recognized as a unique superpower. Rapidly spreading globalization has made countries strictly interdependent, especially in economy, but also mutual dependence in the field of security has substantially increased. It happened so because of new threats for security, like international terrorism, WMD proliferation, growing number of ethnic-cultural conflicts. There is no threat in the world of global nuclear war or big state to state aggression on a large scale, but new threats, especially terrorism and cyber-attacks , are becoming very probable. In the contemporary world, with all economic freedom, especially international production factors movement, there are good as well as weak points which make international economy and the economy of different countries very vulnerable to crises, as we could see in 2008-2009 period. It is so because of uncontrolled activity of so called non-state actors, as for instance international financial corporations. Also European integration, especially in the Euro-zone, because of the world financial crisis impact, rising public debt and imperfect euro-mechanisms, is in trouble. Under such conditions, economic security is becoming so crucial that together with many other aspects of security [terrorism, cyber-attacks, impact of climate changes] it forms a new picture of the world security - a new paradigm. The article addresses the major international and regional security problems, the position of the USA in more and more multi-polar system, rising ambitions and roles of China and Russia. The approach of the author to the presented problems is interdisciplinary. ; После окончания холодной войны казалось, что мир на долго входит в период стабилизации и сотрудничества. Однако вскоре оказалось, что мир растущей глобализации имеет разные стороны, в том числе также отрицательные, что отражается в каждой сфере жизни, в том числе и на безопасности. Хотя и уменьшилась угроза ядерной войны, однако появились новые угрозы и усилились те, которые раньше, в связи с противостоянием Восток - Запад, находились на втором плане. Прежде всего здесь идёт речь о этническо-религиозных, культурных и цивилизационных конфликтах, в том числе и разрастающихся внутренних конфликтах в слаборазвитых государствах, распространении оружия массового уничтожения, опасных амбициях диктаторских и авторитарных государств. Огромное влияние на международную безопасность оказали события 11 сентября 2001 г. Эти террористические акты изменили восприятие угроз безопасности, а провозглашенная президентом Бушем война с терроризмом вынудила США и почти весь Запад к ведению двух войн: в Ираке и Афганистане. Ситуация в Афганистане и ответственность НАТО за безопасность этой страны, по-прежнему вызывает огромное беспокойство лидеров западных государств, отражается на состоянии международной безопасности. Прежде всего это касается района Ближнего и Среднего Востока, в котором большую роль играет также соперничество между Индией, Пакистаном и Ираном. Растущее беспокойство вызывают ядерные планы Ирана, а также открытый вызов, который эта страна бросает международному сообществу. Такую же политику в другой части света проводит Северная Корея. Большие амбиции в международной политике имеет также Китай и стремящаяся восстановить позиции сверхдержавы Россия. На ряду с этим, вопреки принятым программам и заявлениям политиков, процесс становления Европейского Союза в роли мирового игрока остается только проектом. Более того, в связи с усложняющейся экономической ситуацией в еврозоне, в Евросоюзе сегодня имеют место противоположные процессы. ЕС, который рассматривался как экономической оазис хозяйственной стабилизации, в последние годы стал источником дополнительных проблем в мировой экономике. Происходящие в мировой экономике процессы, напр. быстрый рост цен на сырье, нестабильность финансовых рынков, углубляющиеся диспропорции между богатыми и бедными, проблемы голода, далеко идущая дерегуляция и кризисные практики финансовой инженерии, проблема мировой задолженности, становятся фактором мировой дестабилизации и несут угрозы безопасности.
Sarajevo's contested position at the intersection of geopolitical 'tectonic plates' – situated between Rome and Byzantium, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires, the Western and Eastern Bloc, de-colonization and re-colonization – resulted in both fertile periods of exchange and moments of devastating conflicts. This inbetweenness has contributed to the (dis)continuous cityscape, characterized by a diversity of spatial productions and radical urban transformations. Therefore, Sarajevo represents an urban laboratory for social and spatial transformation processes. The ETHZ/UTT 'Urban Toolbox' provided a cross-scalar methodological approach for examining the physical typology, program, and actors of Sarajevo's urbanism, spanning from spatial and stakeholder analyses synthesized through critical mapping to the identification of strategic scenarios and the use of digital media. This dissertation zooms both in and out on three time periods between 1945 and 2014, defined by three distinct revolutionary moments. The central theme of this project is the examination of the transformative processes with the focus on the district of Marijin Dvor in New Sarajevo. Previously a peripheral zone, it became a central operational laboratory of the new Sarajevo to test the effects of major geopolitical shifts on the 'heart' and 'brain' of the city. While investigating multiple spatial crystallization points, one building epitomized the correlation between geopolitical power and space – the Museum of the Revolution – a living symbol of the three periods of construction, destruction and fragmentation. The proclamation of Tito's communist revolution in 1945 and the establishment of a socialist Yugoslav federation, created pressing spatial demands for the new urban proletariat. The industrialization and rural-urban migration gave birth to the city's first strategic urbanistic model, enabled by proclaiming the collectivization of land as a common good. The City Planning Institute developed the first General Urban Plan (GUP-Generalni Urbanistički Plan) in 1961. This large-scale urban planning instrument was enabled by the Yugoslav decentralized model of self-management that also included the 'Mjesne Zajednice' (MZs), the local communities. These new societal postulates were decisive for the construction of the flagship project for Sarajevo and its nucleus, Marijin Dvor, as a cultural, educational and industrial hub of BiH, one of Yugoslavia's most ethnically diverse and rural regions. Architects and urbanists were tasked with planning, designing and building a New Sarajevo as a socialist utopia. Buildings, such as the Museum of the Revolution, were constructed as monuments to celebrate both the victory of the partisans over Nazi Germany and the new state design ideology: functionalist modernism. The construction of Marijin Dvor was catalyzed by the Winter Olympic Games, hosted by Sarajevo in 1984 as a result of Yugoslavia's non-aligned foreign policy and the city's status as 'terra neutral`. Later in 1992, as socialist Yugoslavia began to crumble after the geopolitical vacuum of post-1989 Europe, Marijin Dvor became the site of the fruitless peace protests. The city was put under military siege and New Sarajevo was divided along a frontline. Under wartime conditions, the urban utopia was de-urbanized. The collapse of urban infrastructure and the destruction of the human habitat, characterized in Bogdan Bogdanović's description of urbicide, reached its peak in Sarajevo. During this period, Marijin Dvor went through a radical transformation: public spaces became graveyards or urban-agricultural zones for survival. The Museum of the Revolution found itself at the frontline and was bombed as the symbol of a common Yugoslav past. Nevertheless, in acts of popular resistance, destroyed buildings became temporary art spaces. Derelict parks turned into agricultural zones. This attracted a wave of global solidarity as intellectuals visited Sarajevo, including the architect Lebbeus Woods, and formed a vital part of the antiwar movement, analyzing the destruction and proposing both small adaptations and radical post-war reconstruction visions. However, these visions did not adhere to the post-socialist and post-war realities of the newly ethnically divided Sarajevo resulting from the 1995 Dayton Peace Agreement. Common properties had been converted into state ones, which were then auctioned off in a massive privatization wave. These policies fell in line with the country's market liberalization. Within these new realities, MZs maintained the same level of legal status, but under the extreme pressure by neoliberal urban development. New economic and urban mechanisms led to aggressive development driven by investments from across the geopolitical spectrum, which disregarded already destroyed public space in favor of monocultures of generic commercial architecture. Marijin Dvor became a high-density node of real estate speculations and a symbol of socio-economic segregation and spatial fragmentation. The refugia of public space were found in administrative grey-zones of the post-war constitutional changes. Politically contaminated and left out of the legal system and with a new name and no program as a consequence, the Historical Museum, once the Museum of the Revolution, became a host to civic engagements, inviting citizens to figure as curators. This new system and its accompanying urban model revealed ruptures in 2014, symbolized through violent mass protests of the so-called 'Bosnian Spring'. Impoverished and unemployed, Sarajevans turned their anger and desperation against the city's governmental buildings. The dissertation includes 'Reactivate Sarajevo', an activist experiment of spatial agency that connects theory and practice by engaging in-situ. Influenced by both the pioneers of reflective practice, Donald Schön and Kurt Lewin, and the ETHZ/UTT concept of the activist architect, 'Reactivate Sarajevo' exposes the dissertation's work-in-progress to the public. This discourse was initiated through the organization of expert symposia, stakeholder workshops and open discussions with the general public. The production of discourse, curation of performances and reflection of these actions mutually nurtured the theoretical chapters. These acts spawned critical mapping and alternative design concepts, presented through an interactive digital platform, as well as a strategy of inversion to represent Sarajevo and Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2016 at the International Architecture Biennale in Venice for the first time in the country's history. The exhibition showcased not only critical research, but also alternative design concepts amplifying civic action as a basis for the integrated and inclusive development of Marijin Dvor. The insights were then transferred back to Sarajevo back via the 'Balkan route' and the exhibition was installed in the Historical Museum. The Experiment contributed to the creation of a network of formal and informal partnerships locally and laid the groundwork for a future urban design and planning project concerning the future planning of Marijin Dvor and Sarajevo. This approach of action research resonated throughout the Balkans and other regions through workshops, lectures and consultancies and formed the basis for the extrapolation and application of the insights to other cities.
Annotation. The article analyzes the interaction of the main railway and sea transport in modern conditions. A review of new studies and publications in this direction showed that their disadvantage is the lack of a systematic approach and focus on solving only certain organizational issues of interaction. The researches of scientists of the Dnipro University of Railway Transport named after academician V. Lazaryan, characterized by a comprehensive coverage of all problematic issues, are highlighted. Cases of servicing ports by non-public railway stations, in which additional costs of stevedoring companies arise in the absence of a mechanism for their compensation, are highlighted.To obtain an answer to the main research question - the nature of the shortage of receiving-departure and marshalling tracks at railway stations of port railway junctions and the associated delays of wagons waiting for delivery to the port for cargo operations, the work of the Odessa railway junction and the Odessa-Port station serving State Enterprise "Odessa Sea Trade Port".The paper analyzes the technical equipment of the railway infrastructure of the stations of the Odessa junction and formulates a conclusion about the sufficiency of the track development of spans, stations and the throughput of sorting devices. Based on the analysis of the plan for the formation of trains at the junction stations, the organization of work with dispatch routes and container trains, elements of a negative impact on the organization of the work of the port and the Odessa-Port station were identified. These include systemic violations of the train formation plan at the Odessa-Port station, as well as peak loads on the railway infrastructure of the station and cargo devices when servicing railway routes upon arrival and during the formation of dispatch routes and container trains. Inaccuracies in the unified technological process of operation of State Enterprise "OSTP" and the Odessa-Port station were noted when determining shunting locomotives serving the station and the port, which lead to an underestimated number of locomotives and, as a result, additional delays of the rolling stock.The main reason for the disruption of the normal operation of the infrastructure of the railway stations of the Odessa railway junction was established – a systematic violation of the current plan for the formation of trains.As a recommendation for the creation of an operator of the railway infrastructure of the Odessa-Port station and the access road of the State Enterprise "OSTP", the need to improve the draft law of Ukraine "About Railway Transport" was considered in order to create a legislative framework for companies of operators of railway infrastructure similar to European ones. ; Аннотация. В статье выполнен анализ взаимодействия магистрального железнодорожного и морского транспорта в современных условиях. Обзор новых исследований и публикаций этого направления показал, что их недостатком является отсутствие системного подхода и направленность на решение только определённых организационных вопросов взаимодействия. Выделены исследования учёных Днепровского университета железнодорожного транспорта имени академика В. Лазаряна, характеризующиеся комплексным охватом всех проблемных вопросов. Выделены случаи обслуживания портов железнодорожными станциями необщего пользования, при которых возникают дополнительные расходы стивидорных компаний при отсутствии механизма их компенсации.Для получения ответа на основной вопрос исследования – природу дефицита приёма-отправочных и сортировочных путей на железнодорожных станциях припортовых железнодорожных узлов и связанные с этим задержки вагонов в ожидании подачи в порт под грузовые операции, была проанализирована работа Одесского железнодорожного узла и станции Одесса-Порт, обслуживающего государственное предприятие «Одесский морской торговый порт».В работе выполнен анализ технического оснащения железнодорожной инфраструктуры станций Одесского узла и сформулирован вывод о достаточности путевого развития перегонов, станций и пропускной способности сортировочных устройств. На основании анализа плана формирования поездов станций узла, организации работы с отправительскими маршрутами и контейнерными поездами, выявлены элементы отрицательного воздействия на организацию работы порта и станции Одесса-Порт. К ним относятся системные нарушения плана формирования поездов на станции Одесса-Порт, а также пиковые нагрузки на железнодорожную инфраструктуру станции и грузовые устройства при обслуживании железнодорожных маршрутов по прибытию и при формировании отправительских маршрутов и контейнерных поездов. Отмечены неточности в едином технологическом процессе работы ГП «ОМТП» и станции Одесса-Порт при определении маневровых локомотивов, обслуживающих станцию и порт, которые приводят к заниженному количеству локомотивов и, как следствие, дополнительным задержкам подвижного состава.Установлена основная причина нарушений нормальной работы инфраструктуры железнодорожных станций Одесского железнодорожного узла – систематическое нарушение действующего плана формирования поездов.В качестве рекомендации по созданию оператора железнодорожной инфраструктуры станции Одесса-Порт и подъездного пути ГП «ОМТП» рассмотрена необходимость совершенствования проекта закона Украины «О железнодорожном транспорте» с целью создания законодательной базы для компаний операторов железнодорожной инфраструктуры аналогичной европейским. ; Анотація. В статті виконано аналіз взаємодії магістрального залізничного та морського транспорту в сучасних умовах. Огляд нових досліджень та публікацій цього напрямку показав, що їх недоліком є відсутність системного підходу та спрямованість на вирішення тільки певних організаційних питань взаємодії. Виділено дослідження науковців Дніпровського університету залізничного транспорту імені академіка В. Лазаряна, що характеризуються комплексним охопленням усіх проблемних питань. Виділено випадки обслуговування портів залізничними станціями незагального користування, при яких виникають додаткові витрати стивідорних компаній при відсутності механізму їх компенсації.Для отримання відповіді на основне питання дослідження – природу дефіциту приймально-відправних та сортувальних колій на залізничних станціях припортових залізничних вузлів і пов'язані з цим затримки вагонів в очікуванні подачі в порт під вантажні операції було проаналізовано роботу Одеського залізничного вузла та станції Одеса-Порт, що обслуговує Державне підприємство «Одеський морський торговельний порт».В роботі виконано аналіз технічного оснащення залізничної інфраструктури станцій Одеського вузла та сформульовано висновок про достатність колійного розвитку перегонів, станцій та пропускної спроможності сортувальних пристроїв. На підставі аналізу плану формування поїздів станцій вузла, організації роботи з відправницькими маршрутами та контейнерними поїздами виявлено елементи негативного впливу на організацію роботи порту та станції Одеса-Порт. До них відносяться системні порушення плану формування поїздів на станції Одеса-Порт, а також пікові навантаження на залізничну інфраструктуру станції та вантажні пристрої при обслуговуванні залізничних маршрутів по прибуттю та при формуванні відправницьких маршрутів і контейнерних поїздів. Відзначено неточності в Єдиному технологічному процесі роботи ДП «ОМТП» та станції Одеса-Порт при визначенні маневрових локомотивів, що обслуговують станцію та порт, які призводять до заниженої кількості локомотивів і, як наслідок додаткових затримок рухомого складу.Встановлено основну причину порушень нормальної роботи інфраструктури залізничних станцій Одеського залізничного вузла – систематичне порушення діючого плану формування поїздів.У якості рекомендації по створенню оператора залізничної інфраструктури станції Одеса-Порт та під'їзної колії ДП «ОМТП» розглянуто необхідність удосконалення Проекту Закону України «Про залізничний транспорт» з метою створення законодавчої бази для компаній операторів залізничної інфраструктури аналогічних до європейських.
Annotation. The article analyzes the interaction of the main railway and sea transport in modern conditions. A review of new studies and publications in this direction showed that their disadvantage is the lack of a systematic approach and focus on solving only certain organizational issues of interaction. The researches of scientists of the Dnipro University of Railway Transport named after academician V. Lazaryan, characterized by a comprehensive coverage of all problematic issues, are highlighted. Cases of servicing ports by non-public railway stations, in which additional costs of stevedoring companies arise in the absence of a mechanism for their compensation, are highlighted.To obtain an answer to the main research question - the nature of the shortage of receiving-departure and marshalling tracks at railway stations of port railway junctions and the associated delays of wagons waiting for delivery to the port for cargo operations, the work of the Odessa railway junction and the Odessa-Port station serving State Enterprise "Odessa Sea Trade Port".The paper analyzes the technical equipment of the railway infrastructure of the stations of the Odessa junction and formulates a conclusion about the sufficiency of the track development of spans, stations and the throughput of sorting devices. Based on the analysis of the plan for the formation of trains at the junction stations, the organization of work with dispatch routes and container trains, elements of a negative impact on the organization of the work of the port and the Odessa-Port station were identified. These include systemic violations of the train formation plan at the Odessa-Port station, as well as peak loads on the railway infrastructure of the station and cargo devices when servicing railway routes upon arrival and during the formation of dispatch routes and container trains. Inaccuracies in the unified technological process of operation of State Enterprise "OSTP" and the Odessa-Port station were noted when determining shunting locomotives serving the station and the port, which lead to an underestimated number of locomotives and, as a result, additional delays of the rolling stock.The main reason for the disruption of the normal operation of the infrastructure of the railway stations of the Odessa railway junction was established – a systematic violation of the current plan for the formation of trains.As a recommendation for the creation of an operator of the railway infrastructure of the Odessa-Port station and the access road of the State Enterprise "OSTP", the need to improve the draft law of Ukraine "About Railway Transport" was considered in order to create a legislative framework for companies of operators of railway infrastructure similar to European ones. ; Аннотация. В статье выполнен анализ взаимодействия магистрального железнодорожного и морского транспорта в современных условиях. Обзор новых исследований и публикаций этого направления показал, что их недостатком является отсутствие системного подхода и направленность на решение только определённых организационных вопросов взаимодействия. Выделены исследования учёных Днепровского университета железнодорожного транспорта имени академика В. Лазаряна, характеризующиеся комплексным охватом всех проблемных вопросов. Выделены случаи обслуживания портов железнодорожными станциями необщего пользования, при которых возникают дополнительные расходы стивидорных компаний при отсутствии механизма их компенсации.Для получения ответа на основной вопрос исследования – природу дефицита приёма-отправочных и сортировочных путей на железнодорожных станциях припортовых железнодорожных узлов и связанные с этим задержки вагонов в ожидании подачи в порт под грузовые операции, была проанализирована работа Одесского железнодорожного узла и станции Одесса-Порт, обслуживающего государственное предприятие «Одесский морской торговый порт».В работе выполнен анализ технического оснащения железнодорожной инфраструктуры станций Одесского узла и сформулирован вывод о достаточности путевого развития перегонов, станций и пропускной способности сортировочных устройств. На основании анализа плана формирования поездов станций узла, организации работы с отправительскими маршрутами и контейнерными поездами, выявлены элементы отрицательного воздействия на организацию работы порта и станции Одесса-Порт. К ним относятся системные нарушения плана формирования поездов на станции Одесса-Порт, а также пиковые нагрузки на железнодорожную инфраструктуру станции и грузовые устройства при обслуживании железнодорожных маршрутов по прибытию и при формировании отправительских маршрутов и контейнерных поездов. Отмечены неточности в едином технологическом процессе работы ГП «ОМТП» и станции Одесса-Порт при определении маневровых локомотивов, обслуживающих станцию и порт, которые приводят к заниженному количеству локомотивов и, как следствие, дополнительным задержкам подвижного состава.Установлена основная причина нарушений нормальной работы инфраструктуры железнодорожных станций Одесского железнодорожного узла – систематическое нарушение действующего плана формирования поездов.В качестве рекомендации по созданию оператора железнодорожной инфраструктуры станции Одесса-Порт и подъездного пути ГП «ОМТП» рассмотрена необходимость совершенствования проекта закона Украины «О железнодорожном транспорте» с целью создания законодательной базы для компаний операторов железнодорожной инфраструктуры аналогичной европейским. ; Анотація. В статті виконано аналіз взаємодії магістрального залізничного та морського транспорту в сучасних умовах. Огляд нових досліджень та публікацій цього напрямку показав, що їх недоліком є відсутність системного підходу та спрямованість на вирішення тільки певних організаційних питань взаємодії. Виділено дослідження науковців Дніпровського університету залізничного транспорту імені академіка В. Лазаряна, що характеризуються комплексним охопленням усіх проблемних питань. Виділено випадки обслуговування портів залізничними станціями незагального користування, при яких виникають додаткові витрати стивідорних компаній при відсутності механізму їх компенсації.Для отримання відповіді на основне питання дослідження – природу дефіциту приймально-відправних та сортувальних колій на залізничних станціях припортових залізничних вузлів і пов'язані з цим затримки вагонів в очікуванні подачі в порт під вантажні операції було проаналізовано роботу Одеського залізничного вузла та станції Одеса-Порт, що обслуговує Державне підприємство «Одеський морський торговельний порт».В роботі виконано аналіз технічного оснащення залізничної інфраструктури станцій Одеського вузла та сформульовано висновок про достатність колійного розвитку перегонів, станцій та пропускної спроможності сортувальних пристроїв. На підставі аналізу плану формування поїздів станцій вузла, організації роботи з відправницькими маршрутами та контейнерними поїздами виявлено елементи негативного впливу на організацію роботи порту та станції Одеса-Порт. До них відносяться системні порушення плану формування поїздів на станції Одеса-Порт, а також пікові навантаження на залізничну інфраструктуру станції та вантажні пристрої при обслуговуванні залізничних маршрутів по прибуттю та при формуванні відправницьких маршрутів і контейнерних поїздів. Відзначено неточності в Єдиному технологічному процесі роботи ДП «ОМТП» та станції Одеса-Порт при визначенні маневрових локомотивів, що обслуговують станцію та порт, які призводять до заниженої кількості локомотивів і, як наслідок додаткових затримок рухомого складу.Встановлено основну причину порушень нормальної роботи інфраструктури залізничних станцій Одеського залізничного вузла – систематичне порушення діючого плану формування поїздів.У якості рекомендації по створенню оператора залізничної інфраструктури станції Одеса-Порт та під'їзної колії ДП «ОМТП» розглянуто необхідність удосконалення Проекту Закону України «Про залізничний транспорт» з метою створення законодавчої бази для компаній операторів залізничної інфраструктури аналогічних до європейських.
Verden over er de globale klimaforandringer på den politiske dagsorden, og der er et stigende behov for strategier, som kan mindske udledningen af drivhusgasser. En kilde til udledningen af drivhusgasser er deponeret affald, hvor nedbrydningen af organisk kulstof danner metan. Emissionen af deponigas er meget dynamisk med en stor rumlig og tidslig variation. Der er derfor behov for udvikling af innovative teknologier til både måling og håndtering af deponigas, som kan hjælpe i den nødvendige konceptuelle forståelse af, hvad der styrer gastransporten og udledningsprocesserne. En metanbalance kan opstilles på baggrund af den dannede metans forskellige migrations veje, som inkluderer opsamling med henblik på energiudnyttelse eller afbrænding, horisontalt udslip til naboejendomme, metanoxidation i dæklaget samt emission til atmosfæren. En god konceptuel ramme for udarbejdelsen af en håndteringsstrategi for et deponi er en metan massebalance. Størstedelen af nærværende Ph.d. projekt blev udført i forbindelse med et nedlukket dansk deponi (Hedeland deponi, Roskilde). Mange års intensive undersøgelser har været gennemført på Hedeland deponi, for bedre at forstå under hvilke forhold den dannede deponigas spredes og emitteres til atmosfæren. En håndteringsstrategi, der tager højde for både sikkerheden for naboerne og de negative effekter på klimaet, er nødvendig. En metan massebalance for deponiet kan give et overblik og vise betydningen af de enkelte migrations veje i forhold til hinanden. Som en del af dette Ph.d. projekt er der opstillet en metan massebalance for Hedeland deponi baseret på de store mængder data, der er indsamlet i forbindelse med de mange års undersøgelser, og som dækker årene 2013-2015. Metandannelsen blev modelleret ved brug af en multifase-model baseret på førsteordens nedbrydningshastigheder (Afvalzorg) og den gennemsnitlige metandannelse blev fundet til 67 ±8.6 kg h-1. Metanindvindingen, emissionen og den horisontale migration viste sig at udgøre 38% af den modellerede dannede metan, og de bidrog med en lige stor andel hver (hhv. 9 ±2,9, 8 ±4,1 and 9 ±2,4 kg h-1). Metanoxidation i dæklaget blev identificeret som den spredningsvej, der kunne lukke metanbalancen, og den udgjorde 62% af den dannede metan. Der var adskillige indikationer, som støttede en høj oxidationsrate i dæklaget på Hedeland deponi herunder en lav total emissionsrate bestemt ved brug af sporgasmetoden og få emissions-hotspots med forhøjede koncentrationer af metan på overfladen (fundet ved en overflade screening med en flammeioniserings detektor). Identifikation af emissions-hotspots med lossepladsgas er grundlaget for etableringen af emissionsbegrænsende teknologier så som biocovers. En drone udstyret med at termokamera blev testet på to danske deponier (Hedeland deponi og Audebo deponi) som et muligt screeningsværktøj, der vil kunne imødegå den store rumlige og tidslige variation i lossepladsgas emissionen. Sammenhængen mellem udledningen af lossepladsgas (metan og kuldioxid), overfladetemperaturen målt med termokameraet og jordtemperaturen i 5 og 10 cm dybde blev undersøgt i et testområde på hver er de to deponier. På Hedeland deponi blev der ikke fundet nogen sammenhæng mellem emission af deponigas og overfladetemperaturene. Desuden var de fundne overfladefluxe meget begrænsede, hvor gennemsnitsfluxen for de fire målekampagner var begrænset til 1,3 ±16 g CH4 m-2 d-1. En gennemsnitlig metanflux på 371 ±1337 g CH4 m-2 d-1 blev fundet for Audebo deponi for de fem gennemførte målekampagner. Derudover blev der fundet højere temperaturer både på overfladen og i 5 og 10 cm dybde i de samme områder, hvor de højeste overfladefluxe af deponigas var målt, hvilket indikerer, at termokameraet vil kunne være i stand til at identificere emissioner af deponigas under de rette forhold. En minimumsflux på 150 g CH4 m-2 d-1 fra et område på mindst 1 m2 blev fundet som den nedre grænse for hvornår et termokamera er i stand til at identificere et emissions-hotspot med deponigas på et typisk dansk deponi. En fortynding af deponigas med luft vil ofte resulterer i et metanindhold i den fortyndede deponigas som er for lavt til at gassen kan udnyttes. Dog vil der ofte stadig være behov for at minimere de negative effekter på miljøet og for menneskers sikkerhed. Kilderne til fortyndet deponigas kan være afværgesystemer imod den horisontale spredning af deponigas, emissioner fra perkolat- og overvågningsbrønde eller ved at luft trænger ned i dæklaget på deponiet. En kosteffektiv begrænsningsteknologi for fortyndet deponigas kan være mikrobiel oxidation i et biofilter med aktiv tilførsel af gas. Denne teknologi blev testet i et kompostbaseret åbent pilotskala filter på Hedeland deponi konstrueret i en 30 m3 container. Filteret blev tilført deponigas fortyndet med luft til en metankoncentration på mellem 5 og 10 vol.%. Filteret blev testet i fem flowkampagner med den samme metankoncentration i indløbet i alle fem kampagner, men med en stigene metantilførsel, der resulterede i en tilførsel på mellem 106 og 794 g CH4 m-2 d-1. Den højeste fundene metanoxidationsrate var 460 g CH4 m-2 d-1 med en oxidationseffektivitet på 58%. Den højeste samlede oxidationseffektivitet, der blev fundet var 87%, og en højere effektivitet blev aldrig opnået på grund af væsentlig præferentiel transport langs siderne mellem komposten og containervæggen til trods for de installerede blokader designet til at begrænse det selektive flow. Dog viste gasprofiler i komposten en metanoxidation på næsten 100%. Test med en sporgas understøttede disse resultater og viste en metanoxidation på 86% 10 cm under filteroverfladen ved flowkampagne 5, hvor der gennemsnitligt blev tilført 701 ±47 g CH4 m-2 d-1 til filteret. På Hedeland deponi er der installeret tre afværgesystemer for at afskære den horisontale spredning af lossepladsgas til beboelsesejendommene på nabogrundene. I 2017 blev der målt et gennemsnitlig metanindhold i den oppumpede gas fra alle tre anlæg på 0,53 ±0,55 vol.% og med et indhold af ilt på over 10 vol.% i de fleste tilfælde. Håndteringen af den oppumpede afværgegas i det testede pilotskala biofilter vil resultere i en metan tilførsel på 717 g CH4 m-2 d-1. På grund af den høje pumperate på 80 m3 h-1 vil gassens opholdstid i filteret dog kun være på 3 minutter, hvilket forventes at være mindre end den nødvendige opholdstid. Ti filtre med det samme volumen som det testede filter er nødvendigt for at øge opholdstiden til 30 min. Et foreslået alternativ kunne være et 111 m2 biofilter indbygget i deponiets slutafdækning, som vil resultere i den samme mængde metan tilført pr. arealenhed som til de ti containere. Et biofilter indbygget i dæklaget kan også være en løsning på problemerne med det selektive flow ved containerløsningen. ; Climate change is on the political agenda worldwide, and abatement strategies for greenhouse gas emissions are a necessity. One source of greenhouse gas emissions is landfills, as the degradation of organic carbon in landfilled waste generates methane. Landfill gas emission patterns show high spatial and temporal variability, but the development of innovative technologies for both monitoring and mitigation will help in the much-needed conceptual understanding of governing gas transport and emission processes. A methane mass balance can be established based on the individual migration pathways for the generated methane, including methane recovery for energy utilisation or flaring, lateral migration to neighbouring plots, methane oxidation by microorganisms in the cover and emissions seeping into the atmosphere. A methane mass balance forms a good conceptual framework for setting up a mitigation strategy for a landfill. The main part of this PhD project was conducted in relation to a closed Danish landfill (Hedeland landfill, Roskilde, Denmark). Many years of intensive investigations have been conducted at Hedeland landfill to understand better the migration and emission patterns of methane generated at the site. A mitigation strategy has to be established, which takes into consideration both the safety of local residents and the negative impact on global warming from landfill gas migration and emission. A methane mass balance for the landfill could provide a valuable overview and show the individual importance of each migration pathway. As part of this PhD project, a methane mass balance was established for Hedeland landfill based on data from many years of investigation, covering the years 2013-2015. Methane generation was modelled based on a multi-phase, first-order degradation kinetics (Afvalzorg) model, with average methane generation determined at 67±8.6 kg h-1. Methane recovery, emission and lateral migration were found to cover 38% of the modelled methane generation, each accounting for an equal share (9 ±2.9, 8 ±4.1 and 9 ±2.4 kg h-1, respectively). Methane oxidation in the cover was identified as the migration pathway capable of closing the mass balance and accounting for the remaining 62% of the generated methane. Several indications supported a high oxidation rate in the landfill cover at Hedeland, including a low total emission rate, which was determined using the tracer gas dispersion method and a few emission hotspots with elevated methane concentrations at the surface (identified by screening the whole landfill surface, using a flame ionisation detector). Identification of landfill gas emission hotspots is the basis for establishing emission abatement technologies such as biocovers. To overcome the high spatial and temporal variability of landfill gas emissions, a screening tool based on an unmanned aerial system mounted with a thermal infrared (TIR) camera was tested at two Danish landfills (Hedeland and Audebo landfills). The correlation between landfill gas emissions (methane and carbon dioxide), surface temperatures obtained with the TIR camera and soil temperatures at 5- and 10-cm depths was investigated in an established test area at each of the two sites. At Hedeland landfill, no correlation was found between gas emissions and surface temperatures. In addition, identified methane surface fluxes were very limited, with an average for the four measuring campaigns of only 1.3 ±16 g CH4 m-2 d-1. An average methane flux of 371 ±1337 g CH4 m-2 d-1 was found at Audebo landfill for five measuring campaigns. Furthermore, elevated temperatures at both the surface and at 5- and 10-cm depths were found in the same area as where the highest landfill gas surface fluxes were measured, thus indicating that in the right conditions the TIR camera could be used for delineating landfill gas emissions. A minimum flux of 150 g CH4 m-2 d-1 from an area of at least 1 m2 was established as the limit for the TIR camera being able to delineate a landfill gas emission hotspot at a typical Danish landfill. When landfill gas is mixed with air it dilutes, often with a methane content too low for utilisation. However, mitigation is still needed to minimise the negative impacts on the environment, and to ensure human health and safety. Sources to dilute landfill gas could be remediation systems for lateral migration, emissions from leachate and monitoring wells or from air penetrating the cover of the landfill. A cost-efficient mitigation technology for dilute landfill gas could be microbial oxidation in an actively loaded biofilter. This technology was tested in an open-bed pilot-scale compost filter at Hedeland landfill, constructed in a 30 m3 container. The filter was loaded with landfill gas diluted with ambient air to a methane concentration of between 5 and 10 vol.%. The filter was tested in five flow campaigns with the same methane inlet concentration and an increasing methane load between 106 and 794 g CH4 m-2 d-1. The highest observed methane oxidation rate was 460 g CH4 m-2 d-1 with an oxidation efficiency of 58%. Overall, oxidation efficiencies of more than 87% were never achieved, due to substantial preferential flows at the transition point between the compost and container wall despite an attempt to design the container with blockers against preferential flows. However, pore gas profiles showed methane oxidation of 100% in the compost material. These results were supported by tracer gas tests showing an average methane oxidation of almost 86% at 10 cm below the surface of the filter in flow campaign 5, where the load had an average of 701 ±47 g CH4 m-2 d-1. At Hedeland landfill, three remediation systems have been installed to cut off laterally migrating landfill gas from reaching residential houses on neighbouring plots. In 2017, an average methane content of 0.53 ±0.55 vol.% in off-gas from these remediation systems was observed, accompanied by an oxygen content in most cases above 10 vol.%. Treatment of the remediation off-gas in the constructed pilot-scale biofilter would result in a methane load of 717 g CH4 m-2 d-1. Nevertheless, the gas retention time would only be 3 min, due to the high pump flow rate of 80 m3 h-1, which is thought to be below a critical gas retention time. To increase the retention time to 30 min, ten containers similar to the tested filter would be needed. A suggested alternative could be a 111 m2 biofilter embedded in the landfill cover, which would result in the same load as the ten containers. An embedded biofilter is also expected to be able to overcome the challenges of preferential flows experienced in the tested container solution.
Article in U.S. News and World Report based on excerpts from Hays' book A Southern Moderate Speaks ; Inside Story of Little Rock ."My proposal was to introduce legislation in Congress that would encourage a suspension of judicial procedures while a reexamination and a resurvey of the Court's decision was made" have occasionally resulted from the willingness of some politicians to exploit sentiment against the "big-city fellows." It is a good horse to ride if one is indifferent to what happens to the city people. When I returned to Little Rock on November 20, I spoke at a meeting of the State Chamber of Commerce and presented a plan to gain for the city and the entire South the "breather" so many of us thought necessary. My proposal was to introduce legislation in the next session of Congress that would encourage a suspension of judicial procedures while a complete study-a re-examination and a resurvey - of the Supreme Court's decision was made. That this approach met a recognized need became evident when it received a favorable response from many of the several hundred leaders from every part of Arkansas attending the meeting. Governor's Plan: Gain More Time One should keep in mind that the Governor had steadfastly held to the idea that time was the key to the solution - that delays in integration orders were essential. He continued to maintain that, in Arkansas, no State functionary should be compelled to support federal orders until the constitutionality of the interposition and other statutes approved by the people in 1956 was determined. Test cases should also be tried, the Governor believed, to determine the validity of certain 1957 acts of the legislature. Once this conflict in laws had been resolved, federal policy could be clarified in a manner that should be more acceptable to the South. Because I believed that a spirit of conciliation had to be restored before a final solution could be found, I deplored the visits of outsiders to Little Rock to stir up trouble. Those who exhorted the people to encourage threats of violence were concerned only with their own selfish ends. One illustration of this policy was the statement of Roy Harris of Georgia at the Little Rock Capital Citizens Council meeting held on Jan. 14, 1958. He told a cheering crowd, "Little Rock has Ike over a barrel. If the people of Little Rock stand pat and he is forced to keep troops here from now on, he soon will be the laughingstock of the nation and the world." In February, the businessmen's group repeated its recommendation to the school board to petition the courts for a stay of compliance. Now that a new board of directors was governing the city in a dedicated and forthright manner, it was believed to be a suitable time to make public the position of the businessmen, which had been only privately maintained heretofore. The community leaders were all committed to law and order, but they believed the city deserved and could make a case for further exploration of steps necessary to comply with court orders. The time was ripe for further judicial action, since the appointment of a new federal judge for Arkansas was imminent and, in any case, it seemed likely that Judge Davies would no longer be responsible for hearing the appeal. In light of the New Orleans Court of Appeals decision delaying integration in Dallas, the school board was urged "to develop its case fully so it could properly appeal should the decision be adverse in the lower court." The school board now decided to follow the advice of the businessmen's group and ask for a postponement of integration until: (1) the concept of "all deliberate speed" could be defined clearly, and (2) effective legal procedures for integrating the schools could be developed in a manner that would not impair the quality of the educational program. Said the petition: "The district, in its respect for the law of the land, is left standing alone, the victim of extraordinary opposition on the part of the State government and apathy on the part of the Federal Government." In a surprisingly strong but well-warranted tone of indignation, the board outlined the record of interference that its plans had met and the frustrations it had felt, pleading for judicial understanding of its problems. It was in this context that I introduced, on March 6, my bill calling for the establishment of a joint committee of the Congress to study the results of the Supreme Court decisions on school desegregation. In the statement I issued, I pointed out: "There is great need to re-examine the situation in the South in the light of the difficulties growing out of edicts requiring sudden change in age-old customs of the people. . . . The committee would be called upon to suggest to all school districts various alternative ways of complying with the order to desegregate that would do the least violence to local custom and attitudes. The Jeffersonian principle of considering local variations in conditions should be embraced in the national policy and this is one way to bring that about. . I hope that this proposal will help assure the South that haste and force will not prevail, but rather that patience and tolerant understanding of the problems in all sections will be achieved. It is only in this way that we can stimulate throughout the region the moral fervor and racial good will that have been characteristic of the South." Thus the forces of moderation in Little Rock were rallying to encourage the people of the city to stick to their traditional devotion to the law while at the same time calling on the national community to have patience and forbearance. That this was not an easy road to travel was quickly revealed by the immediate reaction to the introduction of my bill. While many Southern newspapers gave me a fair hearing and some even praised me for championing the Southern cause, others denounced me as betraying my heritage by becoming an avowed integrationist. At the same time, Clarence Mitchell of the NAACP, whom I had previously held to be pretty levelheaded in his championing of equal rights for Negroes, accused me of "trying to turn back the clock of integration." At the tenth annual conference of the National Civil Liberties Clearing House, he said that my action was "a repudiation of everything the Christian Church stands for" and that I was unworthy of leading a church group. The intensity of the feelings expressed by both extremes proved once again that the path of moderation was not "the easy way out." I was grieved at the bitter attacks but even more determined to stick to a course that I believed provided the only hope for lasting racial peace. On March 21, Sherman Adams asked me to come to the White House to confer again regarding the Central High School situation. In the earlier calls I had made on Sherman during the first Eisenhower Administration, I had often given 134 U.S. NEWS & WORLD REPORT, March 23, 1959
Current toxicological situation in Ukraine is characterized by a sharp deterioration of chemical hazards. Today, significant areas of the state are in a direct chemical threat, which requires the immediate creation of an efficient reserve of antidote therapy in accordance with the current needs of the Armed Forces of Ukraine and medical institutions of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine. Almost all regions of Ukraine are at risk of disasters, due to the presence of chemical industrial facilities and powerful network of major road junctions through which highly toxic chemicals goods are transported. Large territory of Ukraine (Donetsk, Luhansk, Odesa, Kherson, Mykolaiv region) today is a zone of chemical hazard due to the high probability of terrorist acts and mass poisoning by industrial and household poisons. The existing regional distribution of sources of danger must be considered to effectively respond the chemical threats. In Ukraine, there are 20 thousands objects of high hazard; in Donetsk region, there are 6,500 ones, 279 of them are included in the state register of increased danger. Among these objects, there are 174 enterprises that store hazardous chemicals (11.7 % of the national number), 18 of them are at the first degree of risk (23 % of the national number). The biggest threat are "Stirol" and Horlivka factories that already have 325,000 tons of hazardous waste; it should be noted that according to preliminary estimates, 724 objects are recognized as being inadequately protected. In Luhansk region, there are 1,128 objects of chemical danger, 159 of them are in an increased risk. There are about 1,000 km of gas pipelines, 500 km of oil pipelines, and 13.2 km of ammoniac pipelines. Also, in the region there are 14 gas-condensate field and 2 underground gas storage facilities: Verhunske and Chornopopivske. The most dangerous objects in the region are: Alchevsk Iron and Steel Works, Alchevsk Coke Chemical Plant, Sievierodonetsk PA "Azot", enterprise "Lisichansk Soda", Luhansk Power Station in Shchastia, Lisichansk Oil Refinery Plant, LLC "Rubizhne Barvnyk." In Luhansk cartridge plant and Rubizhne chemical plant "Zoria", there are hundreds of thousands of tons of explosives, in form of finished products and raw materials, which is a significant risk. Narcotic analgesics; compounds of heavy metals, household poisons, nerve agents and hazardous chemical poisons with irritating, suffocating and blistering actions are of greatest danger to the population. A special group of substances, many of which are toxic to humans, are pesticides that are intended to control pests of agriculture, weeds. Disposal of the hazardous chemicals occurs throughout Ukraine (Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk, Vinnytsia, Rivne, Kyiv, Cherkasy, Sumy, Dnipro, Zaporizhzhia, Kharkiv). It should be noted that as of 01.01.2016, some antidotes used in acute poisoning in other countries and recommended by international programs are still not registered in Ukraine. Antidotes and other substances used in poisonings forms the list in section 4. It should be noted that antidote list contains only 12 names of chemicals and drugs, whose effectiveness has been clearly proven to meet the requirements of evidence-based medicine in cases of acute chemical poisoning. The recommended lists of essential medicines are the basis for the determining national inventories of essential medicines in many countries. However, studying the Ukrainian National List of Essential Medicines revealed that short list of 12 antidotes was reduced to 6 items for unknown reasons. Today, only a few items are used from the proposed in 2013 the WHO list of essential medicines that can be used as antidotes. It is important to note that some important positions from the list (section 4) were removed, including some specific antidotes from extremely toxic substances, which include: metal compounds (arsenic, mercury, cadmium, lead, thallium, zinc, nickel, iron); substances containing cyanide (prussic acid and its salts, nitriles, organic isocyanates); halogens (chlorine, bromine) and many other toxic substances. The need of antidotes for the above compounds included in the group of the most pressing emergency dangerous position is dictated by the peculiarities of modern chemical threats. Acetylcysteine, methylene blue, sodium thiosulfate, sodium nitrite, dimercaprol are antidotes that are widely used in the prehospital phase in a wide range of acute poisonings after extraordinary chemical incidents and in peacetime to provide emergency care for acute poisonings, household and industrial poisonings. These products are "universal antidotes", especially when it's impossible to identify toxicants quickly. It should also be noted that these positions were developed in Ukraine during the Soviet era and produced in the required quantities at pharmaceutical enterprises of Ukraine. Summarizing the above, it should be noted that today, the legal framework that regulates nomenclature, standards and the establishment and use of reserve funds of antidote therapy is significantly outdated and needs revision. Unfortunately, the authorities and government agencies which regulate these issues show low levels of awareness of the effects of existing chemical threats. There is no reserved antidote therapy in health care networks and in special units that provide assistance in emergency situations associated with the effect of chemical factors. ; Современная токсикологическая ситуация в Украине характеризуется резким повышением уровня химической опасности. Существующий формат военных действий антитеррористичного направления объединил задания медицинской службы Вооруженных сил Украины и гражданских лечебных учереждений в обеспечении защиты личного состава вооруженных формирований и гражданского населения от террористических угроз. В этом аспекте важным компонентом в системе химической безопасности государства должно быть наличие научно обоснованной номенклатуры и экономически рассчитанного объема централизованного резерва средств антидотной терапии, необходимого для ликвидации последствий чрезвычайных ситуаций и техногенных катастроф химической природы. Вместе с тем практикующие в Украине врачи постоянно высказывают обеспокоенность по поводу трудностей в получении антидотов. Рассмотрены нормативно-правовые вопросы обеспечения антидотами и другими веществами, которые используются при отравлениях в Украине. Обсуждаются нерешенные вопросы обеспечения средствами антидотной терапии специализированных токсикологических центров и отделений экстренной медицинской помощи, которые оказывают медицинскую помощь при острых отравлениях в различных регионах Украины. Авторами делается акцент на необходимости неотложного формирования национального перечня средств антидотной терапии в соответствии с современными потребностями Вооруженных сил Украины и лечебных учреждений системы Министерства здравоохранения Украины. Предлагаются пути решения задач в отношении обеспечения средствами антидотной терапии с учетом международных рекомендаций по вопросам разработки национального перечня антидотов. ; Сучасна токсикологічна ситуація в Україні характеризується різким підвищенням рівня хімічної небезпеки. Існуючий формат військових дій антитерористичного спрямування значною мірою об'єднав завдання медичної служби Збройних сил України та цивільних лікувальних закладів у забезпеченні захисту особового складу військових формувань та цивільного населення від терористичних загроз. У цьому аспекті важливим компонентом системи хімічної безпеки держави має бути наявність науково обґрунтованої номенклатури та економічно обрахованого обсягу централізованого резерву засобів антидотної терапії, передбаченого для ліквідації наслідків надзвичайних ситуацій та техногенних катастроф хімічної природи. Разом із тим практичні лікарі в Україні постійно висловлюють занепокоєність із приводу труднощів в отриманні антидотів. Розглянуті питання нормативно-правового забезпечення антидотами та іншими речовинами, що застосовуються при отруєннях в Україні. Обговорюються невирішені питання забезпечення засобами антидотної терапії спеціалізованих токсикологічних відділень та відділень екстреної медичної допомоги, що надають медичну допомогу при гострих отруєннях у різних регіонах України. Авторами робиться акцент на необхідності невідкладного формування національного переліку засобів антидотної терапії відповідно до сучасних потреб Збройних сил України та лікувальних установ системи Міністерства охорони здоров'я України. Пропонуються шляхи вирішення задач щодо забезпечення засобами антидотної терапії з урахуванням міжнародних рекомендацій із питань розробки національного переліку антидотів.
Author's introductionAlthough criminologists have long dominated the field of school violence research, there has been a growing body of research by cultural sociologists in this area as well. In many ways, a cultural approach to understanding school violence has taken school violence beyond the realm of just criminal and physical acts of violence. These scholars have begun to examine verbal, emotional, sexual, and racial expressions violence, as well as violence that is perpetuated by institutions, what Bourdieu has called symbolic violence. Courses that take this perspective explore how cultural concepts, or what Swidler calls a 'cultural toolkit', can be used as a lens for analyzing the experiences and practices of school violence. This can include, for example, an examination of how the dominant American ideology of meritocracy and competition can foster fights between middle school students, or how a feminine identity might push girls to be relationally aggressive towards each other rather than physically aggressive. In this regard, cultural sociology broadens our understanding of what constitutes school violence to uncover a wide spectrum of behaviors, attitudes and beliefs that may indeed lead to more overt expressions of violence. In doing so, a cultural approach can also help educators rethink discipline policies that have been created to resolve this social problem.Author recommendsSwidler, Ann 1986. 'Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.'American Sociological Review51: 273–86.Swidler's concept of a cultural toolkit provides a strong foundation for any cultural sociology course. Swidler defines a cultural toolkit as the symbols, stories, rituals, beliefs, ideologies and practices of daily life through which people use to shape their behavior. This paper presents a broad understanding of culture, which Swidler argues is not a unified system, but rather a set of complex and changing concepts from which we select different pieces from in order to construct different strategies of actions. When considering cultural approaches to school violence, it is useful to consider this broad definition of culture.Henry, Stuart 2000. 'What is School Violence? An Integrated Definition.'Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science567: 16–30.Henry provides a definition of school violence that transcends physical violence and interpersonal violence between students to include psychological, emotional, ethical and moral violence that occurs not only between students, but also includes harm committed by teachers and organizations against students. This latter form of harm can include tracking, school security, sexual harassment, or essentially anything that hinders the creativity, learning and academic success of a student. Henry argues that school violence must include symbolic violence, which he defines as the use of authority, power, and coercion to dominate an individual or group of people.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Ferguson builds on Bourdieu's concept of symbolic violence and Foucault's theory of disciplinary power to examine an intervention program for 'at‐risk' students, which was comprised of mainly 5th and 6th grade African‐American males. Her ethnography provides a great example of the benefit of using a cultural approach to studying violence, discipline and punishment in schools. For example, Ferguson argues that fighting among boys should be seen as a symbolic expression of masculinity and a space for boys to do emotional work, as well as a site for the production of power and a form of resistance to authority. Her work also explores how teachers and administrators can enact a form of symbolic violence onto students. She observed how the cultural behaviors of African‐American boys, for example, their use of Black English, was often translated by the teachers as 'problem behavior' and resulted in their label of 'Troublemaker'. Such labels often condemned the boys to the bottom rung of the social order and negatively impacted their academic success.Spina, Stephanie Urso, ed. 2000. Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.This edited collection examines school violence as a complicated and multi‐faceted phenomenon, exploring how political, economic, ideological and discursive practices contribute to school violence. This interdisciplinary book includes chapters from Donna Gaines, Henry Giroux, Peter McLaren, Stanley Aronowitz, and Paulo Freire and Donald Macedo. The authors expand the definition of violence by arguing that youth violence, adult violence and societal violence are all intricately connected, and therefore prevention of school violence would requires educators to move beyond reform that only takes place in the school system. Instead, violence prevention needs to implore a broader strategy for change that includes schools, families, communities, and beyond.Brown, Lyn Mikel 2003. Girlfighting: Betrayal and Rejection among Girls. New York, NY: New York University Press.Mikel Brown conducted qualitative interviews with more than 400 girls from first grade through high school who were from different economic, racial and geographic backgrounds. She begins the book by analyzing the cultural messages that girls receive in the media; messages and images that she argues provide girls with a context for fighting among their peers. She draws on Paulo Freire's notion of horizontal violence to look at how girls' meanness to other girls is a result of their struggle to make sense of gender‐saturated images of beauty and heterosexuality that often reinforce their subordinate status in the world. Girlfighting then becomes an avenue to power for young girls in a culture that is rife with sexism. Unlike many other recent books on relational aggression among girls, Mikel Brown interrogates the complicated intersections of race, ethnicity, and class as it relates to girlfighting.Casella, Ronnie 2001. 'Being Down': Challenging Violence in Urban Schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Casella's ethnography of Brandon High School, a small city school in a diverse neighborhood in upstate New York, takes a cultural‐ecological approach to school violence, capturing systemic, interpersonal and hidden forms of violence. He provides a thoughtful critique of intervention strategies that have been created to deal with school violence, such as peer mediation programs, the use of police officers in the hallways, and D.A.R.E. programs, because these programs only address individual acts of violence and do not account for the realities of urban environments, prejudice, economic injustice and poverty that underlie and contribute to school violence.Merten, Don E. 1994. 'The Cultural Context of Aggression: The Transition to Junior High School.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly25(1): 29–43.Don Merten has published several articles that provide a useful framework for examining aggressive behavior from a cultural standpoint. The data from this article come from a larger ethnographic project of predominantly middle class students in a suburban area who recently transitioned from elementary to junior high school. Merten argues that middle class culture promotes and celebrates individualism, success and hierarchy, which in turn creates a culture that promotes aggressive behavior among students, because students learn that meanness can be an easy avenue for gaining power and status in the hierarchy of cliques in schools.Morris, Edward 2005. '"Tuck in that Shirt!" Race, Class, Gender and Discipline in an Urban School.'Sociological Perspectives48(1): 25–48.Morris draws on Bourdieu's classic reproduction theory to look at the relationship between cultural capital and bodily discipline as it relates specifically to clothing styles and manners. This article is based on an ethnographic study of an urban middle school in Texas that recently enlisted a 'Standard Mode of Dress' uniform policy. The regulation of dress became a constant source of conflict between the students and staff at the school, but had the most punitive effect on poor and racially ethnic minority students, whose cultural styles tended to be negatively stereotyped by the teachers. These students were more likely to punished for violating the policy, even though all social class and racial groups, to some degree, violated the policy. This harsher punishment engendered resistance and alienation among the minority students, which Morris argues had the potential of pushing these students away from school, further reproducing the very inequalities that the school was trying to change.Online materials http://nces.ed.gov/programs/crimeindicators/crimeindicators2008/ The National Center for Education Statistics puts out an annual report on indicators of School Crime and Safety. The indicators in this report are based on information drawn from a variety of data sources, including national surveys of students, teachers, and principals. The report covers not just overt forms of school violence, such as bringing a weapon to school, fighting, and teacher injuries, but also covers bullying, victimization, student perceptions of school safety, and availability and use of drugs and alcohol. http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/index.htm The Youth Risk Behavioral Surveillance System is a school‐based survey conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The survey is conducted every 2 years and provides a representative sample of 9th through 12th graders in public and private schools in the United States. The YRBSS asks a wide variety of questions, but most relevant to school violence include self‐reported responses about behaviors that might lead to unintentional injuries and violence, such as carrying a weapon to school, being threatened by a weapon or being in a fight on school grounds. These data serve a useful comparison between student self‐reporting of violent behavior and school reporting of incidents of school violence. http://www.sshs.samhsa.gov/default.aspx The Safe Schools/Healthy Students website is a federal initiative by the U.S. Departments of Education, Justice, and Health and Human Services. It provides many useful resources, including links federal reports on school safety, a list of related websites, and video podcast discussions of school violence that can be used in the classroom. http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2001/uslgbt/toc.htm 'Hatred in the Hallways: Violence and Discrimination against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Students in U.S. Schools' is a report conducted by the Human Rights Watch. Data consists of interviews with 140 students, ages 12–21, and 130 parents, teachers, administrators and counselors across seven states, in every region of the U.S. The findings discuss a broad spectrum of violent behavior, including verbal harassment, homophobia, and physical violence. It can be useful for classroom discussion because each finding section of the report includes a 'case study' of one of the participants with direct quotes from their interview. http://www.aauw.org/research/hostile.cfm 'Hostile Hallways: Bullying, Teasing and Sexual Harassment in School' is a national report conducted by American Association of University Women on 8th to 11th grade students. The study found that 8 in 10 students experienced some form of harassment during their time in school. Both the executive summary and entire report are available to download on the website.Sample syllabusCourse outline and selected reading assignmentsSection 1: Introduction to cultural sociologyDefining CultureSwidler, Ann 1986. 'Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.'American Sociological Review 51: 273–86.Jepperson, Ronald and Ann Swidler 1994. 'What Properties of Culture Should We Measure?'Poetics 22: 359–71.Cultural Capital and Symbolic ViolenceBourdieu, Pierre and Jean‐Claude Passeron 1977. Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. London: Sage.Lareau, Annette, and Elliott B. Weininger 2003. 'Cultural Capital in Educational Research: A Critical Assessment.'Theory and Society 32: 567–606.Reproduction TheoryMacLeod, Jay 1987. Ain't No Makin' It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low Income Neighborhood. Oxford: Westview Press. Read Chapter 2, 'Social Reproduction in Theoretical Perspective.' Pp. 11–24 and Chapter 8, 'Reproduction Theory Reconsidered,' pp. 135–54.Cultural PedagogyGiroux, Henry 2000. 'Representations of Violence, Popular Culture and Demonization of Youth.' Pp. 93–105 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. Edited by Stephanie Urso Spina. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 2: Broadening the definition of school violenceHenry, Stuart 2000. 'What is School Violence? An Integrated Definition.' Annals of the American Academy of Political and social Science 567: 16–30.Watkinson, Ailsa 1997. 'Administrative Complicity and Systemic Violence in Education.' Pp. 3–24 in Systemic Violence in Education: Promise Broken. Edited by Juanita Ross Epp and Ailsa M. Watkinson. Albany, NY: State University of NY Press.Urso Spina, Stephanie 2000. 'Violence in Schools: Expanding the Dialogue.' Pp. 1–40 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and LittlefieldCasella, Ronnie 2001. 'What is Violent about School Violence? The Nature of Violence in a City School.' Pp. 15–46 in Preventing Violence in Schools: A Challenge to American Democracy. Edited by Joan Burstyn. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Elliott, Delbert S., Beatrix Hamburg, and Kirk R. Williams 1998. 'Violence in American Schools: An Overview.' Pp. 3–30 in Violence in American Schools. Edited by Delbert S. Elliott, Beatrix A. Hamburg, and Kirk R. Williams. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Newman, Katherine 2004. Rampage: The Social Roots of School Shootings. NY: Basic Books. Read Part I, Chapters 1–3, pp. 3–76.Section 3: Ideology and aggressionMerten, Don 1994. 'The Cultural Context of Aggression: The Transition to Junior High School.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly, v. 25 (1): 29–43.Willis, Paul 1977. Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs. Farnborough, England: Saxon House.Newman, Katherine 2004. Rampage: The Social Roots of School Shootings. NY: Basic Books. Read Part II, Chapters 4–7, pp. 77–178.MacLeod, Jay 1987. Ain't No Makin' It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low Income Neighborhood. Oxford: Westview Press. Read Chapter 6, 'School: Preparing for Competition,' pp. 83–111.Devine, John 1997. Maximum Security: The Culture of Violence in Inner‐City Schools. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Read Chapter 1, 'Schools or 'Schools'? Competing Discourses on Violence,' pp. 19–46.Section 4: Cultural scripts – masculinityKimmel, Michael S. and Matthew Mahler 2003. 'Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence.'The American Behavioral Scientist 46(10): 1439–58.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 4, 'Naughty by Nature,' pp. 77–99 and Chapter 6, 'Getting into Trouble,' pp. 163–96.Bender, Geoff 2001. 'Resisting Dominance? The Study of a Marginalized Masculinity and its Construction within High School Walls.' Pp. 61–78 in Preventing Violence in Schools: A Challenge to American Democracy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Klein, Jessi and Lynn S. Chancer 2000. 'Masculinity Matters: The Omission of Gender from High‐Profile School Violence Cases.' Pp. 129–62 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 5: Cultural scripts – femininityEder, Donna 1985. 'The Cycle of Popularity: Interpersonal Relations among Female Adolescents.'Sociology of Education 58(3): 154–65.Merten, Don 1997. 'The Meaning of Meanness: Popularity, Competition, and Conflict Among Junior High School Girls.'Sociology of Education 70(3): 175–91.Merten, Don 2005. 'Transitions and 'Trouble': Rites of Passage for Suburban Girls.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly 36(2): 132–48.Artz, Sibylle 2004. 'Violence in the Schoolyard: School Girls' Use of Violence.' Pp. 167–90 in Girls' Violence: Myths and Realities, edited by Christine Alder and Anne Worrall. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Morris, Edward W. 2007. ''Ladies' or 'Loudies'? Perceptions and Experiences of Black Girls in Classrooms.'Youth & Society 38: 490–515.Mikel Brown, Lyn 2003. Girlfighting: Betrayal and Rejection among Girls. NY: New York University Press.Section 6: Culture resources and school violence – languageLanguage and Symbolic ViolenceFerguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 7, 'Unreasonable Circumstances,' pp. 197–226.Youth Talk about ViolenceDiket, Read M. and Linda G. Mucha 2002. 'Talking about Violent Images.'Art Education March: 11–7.Morrill, Calvin, Christine Yalds, Madelaine Adelman, Michael Musheno, and Cindy Bejarano 2000. 'Telling Tales in School: Youth Culture and Conflict Narratives.'Law & Society Review 34(3): 521–65.Burman, Michele 2004. 'Turbulent Talk: Girls Making Sense of Violence.' Pp. 81–103 in Girls' Violence: Myths and Realities. Edited by Christine Alder and Anne Worrall. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Obidah, Jennifer 2000. 'On Living (and Dying) with Violence: Entering Young Voices in the Discourse.' Pp. 49–66 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 7: Culture resources and school violence – clothingClothing and School Safety DebatesHolloman, Lillian and Velma LaPoint, Sylvan I. Alleyne, Ruth J. Palmer, and Kathy Sanders‐Phillips 1996. 'Dress‐Related Behavioral Problems and Violence in Public School Settings: Prevention, Intervention, and Policy—A Holistic Approach.'The Journal of Negro Education 65(3): 267–281.Stanley, M. Sue 1996. 'School Uniforms and Safety.'Education and Urban Society 28(4): 424–35.Gereluk, Dianne 2008. 'Limiting Free Speech in the United States.' Pp. 41–64 in Symbolic Clothing in Schools: What Should Be Worn and Why. New York, NY: Continuum.Brunsma, David L., ed. 2006. Uniforms in Public Schools: A Decade of Research and Debate. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.Clothing, School Policies and Symbolic ViolenceHorvat, Erin McNamara 1999. '"Hey, Those Shoes are Out of Uniform": African American Girls in an Elite High School and the Importance of Habitus.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly 30(3): 317–42.Morris, Edward 2005. '"Tuck in that Shirt!" Race, Class, Gender and Discipline in an Urban School.'Sociological Perspectives 48(1): 25–48.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 3, 'School Rules,' pp. 49–73.FilmsTough guise: violence, media, and the crisis in masculinity (2002)This Media Education Foundation film explores the relationship between popular culture and the construction of violent masculinity. Of particular relevance to this class, the film examines how the construction of masculinity relates to school shootings. The film is directed by Sut Jhally and narrated by Jackson Katz. This film could be used in the section Cultural Scripts – Masculinity.Wrestling with manhood: boys, bullying and battering (2004)This Media Education Foundation film, written and directed by Sut Jhally, examines the relationship between professional wrestling and the construction of masculinity. The film looks at how wrestling contributes to homophobia, violence against women and bullying in school. This film could be used in the section Cultural Scripts – Masculinity.School violence: answers from the inside (2000)This film originally aired on PBS''In the Mix,' a television series created by and for teens. The film examines stereotyping and conflict in schools through the eyes and voices of teenagers attending a diverse suburban high school. This film could be used in the section Cultural Resources – Language.The killer at Thurston high (2000)This PBS Frontline film focuses on Kip Kinkel, who in 1998, at the age of 15, shot his mother and father, and then opened fire at his school in Springfield, Oregon, killing two and injuring 25. He is currently serving 111 years in prison. The film provides an understanding of the tragedy through multiple viewpoints, including interviews with Kip's sister, teachers and psychiatrists. This film could be used in the section Broadening the Definition of School Violence.Mean girls (2004)Written by Tina Fey and based on Rosalind Wiseman's book, Queen Bees and Wannabes: Helping Your Daughter Survive Cliques, Gossip, Boyfriends, and Other Realities of Adolescence, this fictional account of 'mean girls' is a film that most college students will be familiar with. Clips from the film can be used in the section Cultural Scripts—Femininity to begin a discussion about relational aggression between girls in schools. It can also be used to examine the role that racism and classism play in our public perception of violent behavior, particularly since 'mean girls' in this film tend to be constructed as white and upper class, whereas in contrast, 'violent girls' in film have historically been constructed as poor, young women of color.Project ideas1. Social Policy and Intervention. This assignment is intended to get students critically thinking about how educators approach school violence. Have students pick either a national intervention program, such as D.A.R.E., or a local school policy created to deal with school violence. Begin by analyzing how school violence is defined and what type of intervention/prevention is being proposed. Require students to use a cultural approach to understand and critique the policy. In writing the paper, students should consider the following questions. How would a cultural sociologist define violence? What types of violence are missing from this policy? How would this policy be different if it took into account a cultural approach? The book, 'Being Down': Challenging Violence in Urban Schools (2001) by Ronnie Casella provides a good background resource for completing this assignment.2. Observation Project: Clothing and School Safety. Students will begin by gaining permission to observe at a local middle school or high school. Begin by analyzing the school policy towards clothing. Some schools might have an official uniform policy, whereas others might have policies regarding certain types of clothing (i.e. gang clothing, clothing with profanity, etc.) Next, spend several days observing students in non‐classroom settings, like the hallways, cafeteria, bus or playground. Take detailed fieldnotes. Pay particular attention to the clothing that students wear, any discussion made about clothing by either students or teachers, the relationship between clothing and identity, how clothes are used as a site of resistance, and how clothes might cause conflict between students, or between students and teachers. (You may also want to informally interview students about their perception of the school's policy on clothing, how they negotiate rules about clothing, and how they see clothing policies as contributing to conflict and violence, as well as school safety.) As a class, develop a coding scheme for the fieldnotes. Each student will then individually write an analysis paper on the relationship between clothing, conflict, discipline policies, and school violence.3. Mean Girls: Examining Relational Aggression in Schools. There has been much public attention in recent years to 'mean girls.' As a class, view the film Mean Girls during the course section, Cultural Scripts – Femininity. As a class, develop an interview guide with about six open‐ended questions (i.e. What were your experiences with 'mean girls' in high school? How did you or a close friend deal with being the victim of relational aggression? To what extent did you ever participate in being a 'mean girl'? How did teachers at your school respond to relational aggression between girls?) Next, have students interview six female students using the class interview guide. Students can work individually or in groups to write a paper that compares and contrasts the social construction of mean girls in the film with the actual perceptions of mean girls from their research participants. The analysis should be grounded in the social science research that students are reading on relational aggression.
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To wear a mask in a store, bus, classroom, or other public space is now to be in a small, and dwindling minority, as much as this might vary from place to place. Aside from a few holdouts, doctors offices, the place where I get my haircut, and so on, there are no mandates requiring masks anymore. That it is a minority, and a choice, is not the way that it often appears, at least to those who do not wear masks.One thing that I have heard, and others who still wear masks hear from time to time, is the assertion, "You do not have to wear those anymore" by some bystander. Sometimes this is truly meant to be helpful, as if someone thinks we have not received the news. Underlying this correction is the unstated claim that the only reason anyone would ever wear a mask is if they were made to do so. It can only be compliance and not cooperation. What is more interesting, as the tweet above indicates, is that there is a strange tendency to interpret mask wearing as not just compliance but conformity. People wearing masks are see as sheepishly obeying rules that do not exist, and conforming to a community that is non-existent. There may, in some contexts, and situations, be some social pressure to wear a mask, but given the overall numbers that pressure would seem so small as to be meaningless. What else explains the couples where one person, usually a woman, wears a mask while the other, usually a man, does not? Many people have interpreted this reaction, and the hostility to mask wearing as the acting out of a guilty conscience. People do not want to be reminded of the pandemic in the first place, and on top of this, to be reminded that they could be doing more, or something, to stop its spread. Almost inadvertently "mask wearers" have become a kind of "Guilty Remnant" from The Leftovers. The Leftovers is show more people should be talking about, especially now. It takes place after 2% of the worlds global population disappears suddenly one day. The show deals with the ramifications of this traumatic event. The Guilty Remnant as they call themselves are a cult of sorts, dedicated to not letting society return to business as usual. They wear white, stalk survivors of the disappeared, and smoke copious amounts of cigarettes as if to underscore the transient and random nature of death. If we could all go at any moment why not light up? Masking could be interpreted as a refusal to let the world move on. However, there are two important differences between our world and the show. In the world of The Leftovers, no one has really moved on, everyone is struggling to make sense of an inexplicable event. In our world we have been trying to move on since before the pandemic even started. Second, in the world of The Leftovers the event was traumatic, instant, but it is over. The US still records four hundred deaths a day.. A scene from The Leftovers Masking could also be understood as an uncomfortable reminder of not just the ongoing pandemic but our overall dependency on others. One of the traumatic effects of the pandemic, at least on life in the USA, was the sudden recognition that none of us are "kingdoms within a kingdom," that our lives are dependent upon countless others, truckers, warehouse workers, cooks, dishwashers, etc. that for the most part remain out of sight and out of mind. The mask is a symbol of our species being, that we share the same world and live together even as we try to tell ourselves we live in isolation and separation. Which is not to say that the virus affects us all equally, the entire history of our response to the virus, from the uneven access to vaccines, to the spotty protections offered by such things as working from home, which protected a small number at the expense of many more. I would like to offer a third interpretation. In order to do so we must historicize the pandemic, and our response to it a little bit, at the very beginning, in year one before the vaccines were even developed, there were many calls to return to normal at any cost, that the cure should not become worse than the disease. There was an almost ghoulish demand to sacrifice lives at the alter of the economy. That is not what we are dealing with now. What is striking about the contemporary restoration of normal is that it is less ideological, less a political project, than the insistence of persistent force of necessity. No one says that we are sacrificing lives to restore the economy anymore, ghouls are at least honest, but with a shrug we just proclaim that nothing else can be done. Mandates are dropped because of the resistance it elicits from customers, the same with vaccination requirements, everything is left to a choice. We become kingdoms within a kingdom even in the face of pandemic that would remind us otherwise.Previously, on this blog (and elsewhere) I argue that capitalism can be understood as an institutionalization of Spinoza's formula of "seeing the better and doing the worse." We often know what the right thing to do is, but we are confronted by the necessity of doing otherwise because it will help us keep our job, make it possible to buy what we need. The pandemic is particular instantiation of this, as academic administrators drop vaccine mandates out of the fear that enrollments will decline, stores drop mask mandates because it will threaten business, and so on. Some of the people in these situations know that they are doing the worse. Of course seeing the better and doing the worse is difficult, it creates a constant schism. It is better to just do the worse and claim nothing better is possible. You see the better and do the worse long enough, you lose sight of the better.
It is pertinent to initiate this writing from the conceptualization and foundation of a work plan, of which the historical method, allowed the reflection analysis and conceptualization of development, in the creation and development of universities in the world. Starting with the concept of ideology, which represents the set of main ideas of the authors, which in the case mentioned, refers to the University as a collective entity, of social and geopolitical academic dynamics. From this instance, the University cannot study it without putting these processes in consensus, which boost their work and relevance in the territory in which their socio-academic, administrative and management processes are gestated with the geopolitical and power dynamics of the country.In the university it is not possible to historiograph its beginnings and developments without determining its academic, administrative and management processes as an institution of political power. The studium generates, as the university institution understood, was an organization that was governed by the principle of building knowledge and capturing knowledge that came from different cardinal points, ensuring the construction of knowledge from the determination of a way to configure a group of intellectuals who had the power of knowledge as a source of their social control. These powers produced tensions in the medieval European space, because by maintaining links with the reigning powers, the university was subsumed by its structure, in an entity that controlled the knowledge reproduction scenarios.Thus, the knowledge that was generated from the university was regulated by the papacy, an element that reveals the political character that the university has had since its conception. They willingly and rightly thought the papal and secular powers in the head of the emperor, that creating universities were a wedge and timbre of glory, prestige, power and half conducive to the formation of officials who once served monarchies and other forms of government . The numerical and geographical boom of university expansion is accentuated in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, (precisely in the fourteenth century due to disagreements by a group of professors at the University of Oxford, Cambridge is created). Subsequently, those of Padua, Naples, Toulouse, Prague, Vienna, Heilderberg and Cologne are created, which will be the only universities in the country. The first Scottish universities are born in this century. By the middle of the 15th century, universities had covered the countries of Latin culture. Generating not only by geographical location but the promotion of a policy of power and knowledge, which affect Latin America. ; Así, los conocimientos que se engendraban desde la universidad eran regulados por el papado, elemento que revela el carácter político que ha tenido la universidad desde su misma concepción. De buen grado pensaron y con razón los poderes papal y seglar en cabeza del emperador, que crear universidades eran cuño y timbre de gloria, prestigio, poder y medio conducente para la formación de funcionarios que en su momento sirvieran a monarquías y otras formas de gobierno. El auge numérico y geográfico de la expansión universitaria, se acentúa en los siglos XIV y XV, (precisamente en el siglo XIV por desavenencias de un grupo de profesores de la Universidad de Oxford, se crea la de Cambridge). Posteriormente se crean las de Padua, Nápoles, Toulouse, Praga, Viena, Heilderberg y Colonia, que serán las únicas universidades del país. En esta centuria nacen las primeras universidades escocesas. Hacia mediados del siglo XV, las universidades habían cubierto los países de cultura latina. Generándose no solo por ubicación geográfica sino el fomento de una política de poder y de saber, que inciden en Latinoamérica. ; É pertinente iniciar esta redação a partir da conceituação e fundamentação de um plano de trabalho, cujo método histórico permitiu a análise da reflexão e a conceituação do desenvolvimento, na criação e desenvolvimento de universidades no mundo. A partir do conceito de ideologia, que representa o conjunto de idéias principais dos autores, que no caso mencionado, refere-se à Universidade como entidade coletiva, de dinâmica acadêmica social e geopolítica. A partir desta instância, a Universidade não pode estudá-lo sem colocar em consenso esses processos, o que potencializa seu trabalho e sua relevância no território em que seus processos sócio-acadêmicos, administrativos e gerenciais são geridos com a dinâmica geopolítica e de poder do país.Na universidade, não é possível historiografar seus inícios e desenvolvimentos sem determinar seus processos acadêmicos, administrativos e gerenciais como uma instituição do poder político. O estúdio gera, como a instituição universitária entendeu, uma organização que era governada pelo princípio de construção de conhecimento e captura de conhecimento proveniente de diferentes pontos cardeais, garantindo a construção do conhecimento a partir da determinação de uma maneira de configurar um grupo de intelectuais que tinham o poder do conhecimento como fonte de seu controle social. Esses poderes produziram tensões no espaço europeu medieval, porque, ao manter vínculos com os poderes reinantes, a universidade foi subsumida por sua estrutura, em uma entidade que controlava os cenários de reprodução do conhecimento.Assim, o conhecimento gerado pela universidade foi regulamentado pelo papado, elemento que revela o caráter político que a universidade possui desde a sua concepção. De boa vontade e com razão, eles pensavam os poderes papais e seculares na cabeça do imperador, que a criação de universidades era uma cunha e um timbre de glória, prestígio, poder e meio propícios à formação de funcionários que outrora serviram monarquias e outras formas de governo . O boom numérico e geográfico da expansão da universidade é acentuado nos séculos XIV e XV, (justamente no século XIV devido a divergências de um grupo de professores da Universidade de Oxford, Cambridge). Posteriormente, são criadas as de Pádua, Nápoles, Toulouse, Praga, Viena, Heilderberg e Colônia, que serão as únicas universidades do país. As primeiras universidades escocesas nascem neste século. Em meados do século XV, as universidades cobriram os países da cultura latina. Gerando não apenas a localização geográfica, mas a promoção de uma política de poder e conhecimento que afeta a América Latina.
