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The theoretical goal of this paper is the development of the connection between politics and law within the model of the complex system especially in the perspective of Niklas Luhmann, in a viewpoint linked with the economic analysis of law. The aim is to describe the differences that truly make the difference in the setting problem of policy or legal decisions more formalized by the subject with their values instead of in a system. Therefore, the vision of Joseph A. Schumpeter about the politics as a kind of market, a sub-kind market where votes are sold and bought it is very important and strategic as a bridge between the macro-systemic and the economic analysis of law becomes even more positive, artificial and global: the more is the scenario, the weaker is the function of the human subject in the decisional process, this also provides a report of the changes in the very idea of citizen in global scenarios, which is the Hypercitizenship.

This chapter evaluates the EU's cybersecurity policy from four perspectives – neofunctionalism, liberal intergovernmentalism, post-functionalism, and the imperial paradigm. A search for a theory-based framework is performed to ensure that the analysis in this chapter is completed within a set of boundaries, and does not stray into speculation about the EU's prospective strategic steps. Using this contribution's findings and elaborations, a proposal on the policy-associated model is made. Having observed the empirical data, while analytically reflecting on actuality, it can be argued that a 'Cyber Maastricht' is long overdue. ; peer-reviewed

The proposal on compensations in cases of non-compliance with contractual quality requirements for rail freight services14 has been re¬jects by the European Parliament. This system could increase costs for rail freight services and distort competition with road transport. As the legis¬lative report by Roberts Zile(UEN, LV) argues, "the compensation system would not improve standards in the industry, and existing international legislation is already imposing strict enough rules on rail, far more than equivalent regulations on road transport. Rather than imposing more regulations and fines, the emphasis should be or easier market access for new rail companies so as to increase competitiveness".

This article examines the role of the European Union in assurance to Energy Security for its citizens, types of energy, challenges that hinders the supply of energy. Tension between European states and effects on the European Union. Ways of developing infrastructure towards clean resources to reduce gas emissions and climate changes to achieve energy sustainability. Particular focusing on the challenges and treats in securing energy for the European union examine influence of actors such asorganization and countries on the energy market for the European union. Furthermore the research paper examines the future plans of the European Union towards energy security and alternative energy resources for decrease dependence on fossil fuel.

Population aging and longevity can pose challenges to the sustainability of fiscal budgets. This is of particular concern in Europe's rapidly aging welfare states offering generous social support programs for the elderly. Still, there are differences in the pace of ageing and the generosity of welfare states. We use public tax and benefit age schedules from the National Transfer Accounts project to estimate the impact of population aging on fiscal budgets of single countries and their implications for potential transfer flows in between European Union countries. We show the positive impact of changes in the economic life cycle by working longer and the impact of migration on the redistribution of transfers across Europe. We illustrate the crucial role that demography plays in deepening and reinforcing the fortunes of European finances.

Continental Europe is now only 20 minutes away by train from mainland Britain, and moving ever closer politically. Mutual recognition of medical qualifications within the European Union is well established: working in other parts of Europe is, in principle, straightforward. Working in different health care systems can offer new perspectives on British medical practice and the NHS. But the cultural differences are not always easy to overcome.

This article points out the first steps of the cartel settlement and Leniency Program in European Union and positive sides of the mentioned tool for the companies participating in the anticompetitive agreements. Cartel Settlement and Leniency Program played an enormous role for the market to be undistorted and free from any type of anticompetitive practices. It is also worth to mention that introducing of Settlement notice as well as Leniency Program played crucial role for Commission and as well for undertakings to find fastest way out from the anticompetitive practices to settle and protect free and undistorted competition on the market. Both tools are very beneficial and useful for competition and its further development. ; This article points out the first steps of the cartel settlement and Leniency Program in European Union and positive sides of the mentioned tool for the companies participating in the anticompetitive agreements. Cartel Settlement and Leniency Program played an enormous role for the market to be undistorted and free from any type of anticompetitive practices. It is also worth to mention that introducing of Settlement notice as well as Leniency Program played crucial role for Commission and as well for undertakings to find fastest way out from the anticompetitive practices to settle and protect free and undistorted competition on the market. Both tools are very beneficial and useful for competition and its further development.

The 1993 Union Treaty sets forth a process of deepening and widening of the European single market by creating institutions in which decisions are taken as dose as possible to the citizen" and by establishing the ECU as single currency before the end of the century. If it succeeds in inducing diverse nation-states into changing their economic regimes in the direction of price stability, the process may spread throughout the emerging European economy. Deepening implies cohesion, but, since the current divergence of national incomes per capita among union states matches the one observed among Swiss cantons, further convergence is likely to be gradual. As income redistribution among union states requires higher taxes, it impinges on national political processes and implies that appropriate medium-term convergence programs must be implemented, especially in the so-called cohesion states. Political stability and a social consensus about the regime change will in turn facilitate the fulfillment of the criteria for fiscal discipline set out in the Treaty. The regime change should have taken place during the first phase of economic and monetary union, which began on July 1, 1990, so that convergence may endure during the second phase, beginning January 1, 1994. But the medium term orientation of national budgetary consolidation is not credible until headline inflation is in single digits and the ability to stabilize a convertible currency has been tested in world financial markets. Membership in the European Monetary System does not suffice: discipline must be domestically generated, especially under the current wide fluctuation margins. In spite of several currency realignments in 1992 and in 1993, the reputation for financial stability acquired during the run-up to the single market was maintained in cohesion states. The regime changes in Ireland (1986), Spain (1989) and Portugal (1992) will become benchmarks even beyond the continent if the credibility of national policies is sustained until the third and final phase of economic and monetary union and incomes per capita continue to converge. ; N/A

This paper briefly outlines the historical evolution of the Western European Union, from its origins in the Brussels Treaty to WEU's recent linkage with the process of European integration. Particular attention is paid to the political and military development of WEU as this relates to the apparent goal of eventual Western European defense integration. It is argued that in spite of the clamour to establish a European Defense Identity under WEU, however, the Europeans do not have a practical short-term alterative to the present situation of military dependence upon the United States and NATO.

Równość płci stanowi kluczowy aspekt procesu integracji europejskiej. Szczegółowe przepisy regulujące kwestie płci zawarto w traktatach założycielskich, Karcie praw podstawowych i kilkunastu innych dyrektywach, ale zasada niedyskryminacji została dodatkowo wzmocniona decyzjami Trybunału Sprawiedliwooeci Unii Europejskiej, który wydał decyzje w ponad dwustu sprawach. Obecnie przepisy unijne dotyczące równości wychodzą daleko poza podstawowe kwestie płci, o czym mowa jest w niniejszym artykule. Koncentruje się on nie tylko na podstawowych przepisach UE dotyczących równości płci, ale także na kwestiach dotyczących poziomu ich realizacji i najważniejszych jej ograniczeniach. Rozważania te poszerzono o dyskusję na temat tych działań UE, które można również traktować jako element wdrżania prawodawstwa niedyskryminacyjnego. ; Gender equality is a vital aspect of the European integration process. Although specific legislation concerning gender issues was included in the establishing Treaties, in the Charter of fundamental rights and in a dozen other directives, non-discriminatory principle has also been strengthened by the jurisdiction of the Court of Justice of the European Union which formed a judgment in more than 200 cases. Nowadays, the EU equality legislation has moved far beyond basic gender issues, and this is also discussed in the article. It focuses not only on the fundamentals of EU legislation concerning gender equality but also on the level of its implementation and its most important limitations. Such considerations are broadened by a discussion on the EU actions which may be also treated as the implementation of non-discriminatory legislation.

During the Cold War the European Community lacking common military instruments was perceived as the example of a civilian power. However, in the early 1990s, under the framework of CFSP, the first concrete defence initiatives have been launched. By the end of the 1990s and after the agreement on the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) the first Rapid Reaction Forces were on the European military agenda. Such defence and military capabilities challenged the idea of the EU as a civil or civilian power. Thus, a main concern in the paper has been to assess the character and identity of the EU`s activities in the context of international relations. For this purpose, this study has explored the EU policy instruments such as the enlargement policy, external aid, environmental policy at the global level, multilateralism, and the EU armed forces. The study concludes that the enlargement policy accounts for an important EU strategy to shape the international environment through civilian means. Furthermore, the international aid policy of the EU states has primarily been based on the sense of duty to other countries as constructivists point out. The EU has also been vocal and has used environmental foreign policy as an instrument to demonstrate its global leadership role which is a clear indication of its commitment to global welfare. Thanks to its presence in the major multilateral interventions of the last decade, the EU has qualified itself as great supporter of multilateralism. Lastly, the EU military capabilities are not achieved by creating permanent European armed forces but are still based on the voluntary contributions of its member states. Therefore, the EU still can be portrayed as a global civilian power (GCP) or civilian power Europe (CPE).

International audience ; : National defence arrangements appear to be increasingly complex due to budgetary pressures, rising costs and changing threats. There is a risk of massive investment in defence at a time when threats are diminishing, when Europe remains completely dependent on the United States and in a context where a policy of effective neutrality could be imposed through structural disarmament. Threats to European interests may not find echoes and support from the US Government. There are clear advantages to joint procurement by member countries because of the high fixed costs of R&D and the learning curve effects associated with weapons. The main problems to be resolved concern the differing perceptions of national interest among states, highly heterogeneous military strategies and competing industrial interests. ; Les dispositions nationales de défense semblent de plus en plus complexes en raison des pressions budgétaires, de l'augmentation des coûts et de l'évolution des menaces. Il y a le risque d'un investissement massif dans la défense à un moment où les menaces diminuent, où l'Europe reste complètement dépendante des États-Unis et dans un contexte où une politique de neutralité effective pourrait être imposée par le désarmement structurel. Il est possible que des menaces qui pèsent sur les intérêts européens ne trouvent pas d'échos et d'appui de la part du gouvernement des États-Unis. Les achats communs des pays membres présentent des avantages évidents en raison des coûts fixes élevés de la R&D et des effets de la courbe d'apprentissage associés aux armes. Les principaux problèmes à résoudre concernent les divergences de perception de l'intérêt national des Etats, des stratégies militaires très hétérogènes et des intérêts industriels en compétition.

International audience ; : National defence arrangements appear to be increasingly complex due to budgetary pressures, rising costs and changing threats. There is a risk of massive investment in defence at a time when threats are diminishing, when Europe remains completely dependent on the United States and in a context where a policy of effective neutrality could be imposed through structural disarmament. Threats to European interests may not find echoes and support from the US Government. There are clear advantages to joint procurement by member countries because of the high fixed costs of R&D and the learning curve effects associated with weapons. The main problems to be resolved concern the differing perceptions of national interest among states, highly heterogeneous military strategies and competing industrial interests. ; Les dispositions nationales de défense semblent de plus en plus complexes en raison des pressions budgétaires, de l'augmentation des coûts et de l'évolution des menaces. Il y a le risque d'un investissement massif dans la défense à un moment où les menaces diminuent, où l'Europe reste complètement dépendante des États-Unis et dans un contexte où une politique de neutralité effective pourrait être imposée par le désarmement structurel. Il est possible que des menaces qui pèsent sur les intérêts européens ne trouvent pas d'échos et d'appui de la part du gouvernement des États-Unis. Les achats communs des pays membres présentent des avantages évidents en raison des coûts fixes élevés de la R&D et des effets de la courbe d'apprentissage associés aux armes. Les principaux problèmes à résoudre concernent les divergences de perception de l'intérêt national des Etats, des stratégies militaires très hétérogènes et des intérêts industriels en compétition.

International audience ; : National defence arrangements appear to be increasingly complex due to budgetary pressures, rising costs and changing threats. There is a risk of massive investment in defence at a time when threats are diminishing, when Europe remains completely dependent on the United States and in a context where a policy of effective neutrality could be imposed through structural disarmament. Threats to European interests may not find echoes and support from the US Government. There are clear advantages to joint procurement by member countries because of the high fixed costs of R&D and the learning curve effects associated with weapons. The main problems to be resolved concern the differing perceptions of national interest among states, highly heterogeneous military strategies and competing industrial interests. ; Les dispositions nationales de défense semblent de plus en plus complexes en raison des pressions budgétaires, de l'augmentation des coûts et de l'évolution des menaces. Il y a le risque d'un investissement massif dans la défense à un moment où les menaces diminuent, où l'Europe reste complètement dépendante des États-Unis et dans un contexte où une politique de neutralité effective pourrait être imposée par le désarmement structurel. Il est possible que des menaces qui pèsent sur les intérêts européens ne trouvent pas d'échos et d'appui de la part du gouvernement des États-Unis. Les achats communs des pays membres présentent des avantages évidents en raison des coûts fixes élevés de la R&D et des effets de la courbe d'apprentissage associés aux armes. Les principaux problèmes à résoudre concernent les divergences de perception de l'intérêt national des Etats, des stratégies militaires très hétérogènes et des intérêts industriels en compétition.

Forward The present work of Professor Anja Bothe is a very important aid to the study of European Union Law. Aimed at the general public, it serves differently several sectors or sub-publics. Those who are now beginning their study of this discipline will easily understand its internal organization and know how to articulate the various substantive, institutional, and procedural issues. They will be able to apprehend the juseuropean tree of knowledge, visualizing its trunk and its branches. This will facilitate the deepening of their studies and allow them to move further to more demanding levels. For those who never studied European Union Law systematically but, namely because of professional reasons, have access to many sources of information about the European Union, this book provides a quick and effective way of structuring the information they collect, knowing where and how they should arrange it conceptually and schematically. In this way, they will avoid forgetting, misunderstanding or ignoring basic and structural questions. For those who are already very familiar with European Union law, this work allows a recapitulation of the subject, allowing through the visualization of the most important aspects recall those secondary aspects that directly relate to them. For these and other reasons, this work can therefore be very useful in academic and professional contexts where it is useful or necessary to move from point A to point B by quickly convening knowledge of the central aspects of European Union Law. Jónatas E. M. Machado Professor of Law of the European Union Faculty of Law of the University of Coimbra and Autonomous University of Lisbon (UAL) ; A basic understanding of the structure and operation of the European Union is essential, not only for all branches of law, but also for management, public relations, marketing, communication, sociology and the economy. Moreover, citizens may find this book very relevant and useful in capturing the fundamental notions underlying the EU, which may cause great impacts on everybody´s daily life. The author, Anja Bothe, concluded her Ph.D. at the Law Faculty of Hamburg. She teaches several branches of law, some of them in English, at the School of Management Sciences, Health, IT & Engineering Atlântica of Barcarena, and at the University Autonoma of Lisbon, where she is also integrated in the Investigation Center of the Law Department called Ratio Legis.