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Dr. Lawrence L. Doggett writes to Dr. James H. McCurdy in this type written two-page letter dated October 16, 1917. Doggett informs McCurdy of the trouncing of Springfield's team against Georgetown, 26-0 and Dartmouth, 14-0. Asks whether or not it would be feasible to have a branch school in Europe mentioned in a previous letter. He also asks if he could get in contact with J M.C. Sturgis. ; James Huff McCurdy, M.D. (1866-1940) graduated in 1890 from the YMCA Training School, now known as Springfield College. In 1895, Dr. James H. McCurdy returned to the school as an instructor. He contributed to the field of physical education in many ways, including his studies on the relationship between heart rate, blood pressure, and motor tasks in adolescent boys. In 1924, he published one of the first texts for Exercise Physiology. In 1918, James H. McCurdy realized the need "for an extensive programme of sports and recreation in the immediate postwar period that would bridge the gap and ease the transition between military service and civilian life." The result was the Inter-Allied Games, the biggest international sports event that had ever been held at that time. Attended by 25,000 people, the Games were a huge success. Dr. McCurdy was the Director of the Division of Athletes, Hygiene and Health for the American YMCA among American troops in France.

Die Landschaft der verlassenen Ortschaften ist ein Reichtum mit vielen Perspektiven, die meisten davon sind noch auszukundschaften. In ihr leben zusammen das Tun der Menschen und die Heftigkeit der Natur in ewigem Konflikt , in einer Art von Krieg, mit Siegen und Niederlagen. Einerseits bringen sie die Umgestaltung der Natur durch den Menschen mit sich (Abtragung, Abholzen, Urbarmachen) auf der anderen Seite die Zerstoerung von Ortschaften durch tellurische Phaenomene (Erdbeben, Ueberschwemmungen, Vulkanausbruche). Dem aesthetischen Reiz, den diese Landschaft auf internationale Maler und Kuenstler, ebenso wie auf napoletanische Krippenbauer ausuebt, steht keine gleichartige Aufmerksamkeit ihrer anderen Werte gegenueber (technisch-wissenschaftliche, historische, naturwissenschaftliche, erzieherische) die sie jedoch auf ein Niveau das "Kulturerben" erhebt, und die als solches Erhaltung, Renovierung, und Aufwertung verdient. ; The landscape of the abandoned centers contitutes a patrimony of many different values, in large part yet to be discovered, in which human activity and the virulence of nature coexist in never ending conflict; in a sort of war characterized by a continual series of victories and defeats which leave on the field of battle on the one hand the havoc carried out by man on nature in his continual quest to subject her (land levelling, deforestation, reclamation, etc.) and on the other hand by the destruction and devastation carried out by natural events (earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, etc). The aesthetic attraction of the abandoned landscapes which has influenced international masters of landscape painting and arstist-painters of Neapolitan crêches has not given way to a comparable interest in other areas which the context expresses (technical-scientific, historical, environmental and educational) and which elevate them to the dignity of a "cultural asset", making it thus worthy of preservation, restoration and appreciation. ; El paisaje de los pueblos abandonados constituye un patrimonio de valores múltiples, que aún queda por explorar, en el que conviven acción antropica y virulencia de la naturaleza en conflicto perenne; una especie de guerra en la que se alternan victorias y derrotas y que deja en el suelo las destrucciones provocadas por el hombre en la constante tentativa de someter la naturaleza a su dominio (excavaciones, desbosques, saneamientos, etc.) y por otro lado las devastaciones y las ruinas causadas por los trastornos telúricos (terremotos, inundaciones, erupciones volcánicas, etc.) La fascinación estetica ejercida por el paisaje de los pueblos abandonados sobre los maestros de pintura paisajista y sobre los artistas-artesanos de los belenes napolitanos no ha sido acompañada por una atención paralela a otros valores intrínsecos a ese contexto (técnico-científicos, históricos, medioambientales y educativos) que lo califican "bien cultural" digno de conservación, restauración y valorización. ; Le paysage des centres abandonnés représente un patrimoine aux multiples facettes en grande partie inéxplorées, où action anthropique et virulence de la nature coexistent en perpetuel conflit; en cette sorte de guerre les victoires se cuccèdent aux défaites, abandonnant sur le champ d'une part une nature massacrée par l'homme dans son éternelle tentative de domination (déblaiments, déforestations, assainissements etc.), et de l'autre des installations dévastées et ravagées par les bouleversements telluriques (tremblements de terre, alluvions, éruptions volcaniques etc.). Si le paysage des centres abandonnés a exercé un charme esthétique sur les grands maîtres du védutisme international et sur les artistes artisans des crèches napolitaines, il n'a pas reçu même attention en ce qui concerne ses autres acceptions exprimées par le contexte (tecnique – scientifique – historique – environnemental et éducatif) qui l'élèvent au rang de "bien culturel" et en tant que tel le rendent digne de conservation, restauration et valorisation. ; Il paesaggio dei centri abbandonati costituisce un patrimonio dalla molteplici valenze, in larga parte ancora da esplorare, nel quale convivono azione antropica e virulenza della natura, in perenne conflitto; una sorta di guerra che registra il continuo alternarsi di vittorie e sconfitte e che lascia sul campo da un lato gli scempi esercitati dall'uomo sulla natura nel perenne tentativo di assoggettarla alla sua sudditanza (sbancamenti, disboscamenti, bonifiche ecc.) dall'altro le devastazioni e le rovine insediative provocate dagli sconvolgimenti tellurici (terremoti, alluvioni, eruzioni vulcaniche ecc.). Al fascino estetico esercitato dal paesaggio dei centri abbandonati sui maestri del vedutismo internazionale e sugli artisti – artigiani dei presepi napoletani non ha corrisposto una parallela attenzione alle altre valenze che il contesto esprime ( tecnico - scientifiche, storiche, ambientali, ed educative) e che lo elevano alla dignità di "bene culturale", rendendolo, in quanto tale, meritevole di conservazione, restauro e valorizzazione.

Özetİkinci Dünya Savaşı'nın bitişiyle beraber dünya, savaş öncesi ve savaş dönemine ait ekonomik problemlerin bir daha yaşanmaması adına bir dizi sistemik değişiklik yaşamaya başladı. Büyük Buhran ve Bretton Woods'un çöküş süreci, farklı zamansal dönemlere ait benzer ekonomik sıkıntıları işaret ediyordu: istikrarsız bir makro ekonomik yapı ve bunun küresel ölçekteki yansımaları. Bu sıkıntıların üstesinden gelebilmek adına, daha önce görülmemiş bir yeniden yapılanma sürecine başlandı. Temeline sermayenin (para, üretim kapasitesi formları ve mal anlamında) liberalizasyonunun yerleştirildiği ve küresel düzeyde entegrasyon ve birbirine bağımlılık sürecinin öngörüldüğü sistemde, kurumsallık perspektifi altında uluslararası bir yönetim mekanizması kuruldu. Bu mekanizmanın başat aktörleri ise Bretton Woods kurumları olarak anılacak olan IMF, Dünya Bankası ve Dünya Ticaret Örgütü idi. Bretton Woods sisteminin öngördüğü küresel resim, temelde bu üç başat kurum tarafından kurulacak, kontrol edilecek ve işlevselliğe dönük olarak, gerektiğinde düzenlenecekti. İşte bu anlamda, sermaye akışının büyük oranda kendisine bağlı olduğu Dünya Bankası, süreç içinde farklılaşan dünya ekonomik konjonktürünün gerekliliklerine paralel olarak, kendi işlevselliği çerçevesinde bu temel misyonun garantörlüğüne soyundu. Bu bağlamda, savaş sonrası Avrupa'nın yeniden kurulumu için fon tedariği ile başlayan serüveni, 1950'lerin sonu ile birlikte yerini, kalkınma odaklı bir kurum olma sıfatına bıraktı. Özellikle bünyesindeki Uluslararası Kalkınma Kurumu aracılığıyla, kendisine kalkınmakta olan ülkelere dönük bir faaliyet alanı çizdi. 1980'lerle beraber yapısal uyum programları aracılığıyla ülkelerin politikalarında önemli ve hakim bir unsur olarak dünya ekonomi yönetim mekanizmasının odağında yer aldı ve almaya devam ediyor. Bu tezde, Dünya Bankası'nın uygulamalarının sonuçları ve ülkeler üzerindeki etkisini araştırmaktan ziyade, "merkezileşmiş çoktaraflılık" ilkesi çerçevesinde şekillenen uluslararası ekonomi yönetiminin, entelektüel ve teorik işleyiş mekanizmasını ve temel sacayaklarının bu çerçevedeki işlevselliğini tartıştık. Konu, entegrasyon, birbirine bağımlılık ve bunların gerçekleştiği ve kontrol edildiği zemin olma anlamında, uluslararası yönetim konseptleri bağlamında ele alındı. Bu şemanın en üstüne de kurumsallık çerçevesi yerleştirilerek, Dünya Bankası'nın zaman içinde farklılaşan rolünün bu anlamda değerlendirilmesi, bütüncül bir küresel resim sunmak üzere analiz edilmesi ve bu temel nokta bağlamında okunması doğrultusunda bir perspektif çizildi.AbstractWith the end of Second World War, the world began to face a series of systemic changes aiming at not to meet the problems of the pre-war and interwar periods again. Both the Great Depression and collapse of the Bretton Woods period signed similar economic troubles: an unstable macroeconomic structure and its results on the global scale. Aiming at overcoming the problems, a redesign process was to be begun. On the basis of the liberalization of capital (by means of capital, commodities, and production capacity forms), an international governance mechanism relied on the integration and interdependence processes was formed within the frame of institutionalization. The dominant actors of such a mechanism were the Bretton Woods institutions (the IMF, the World Bank and the WTO). The global picture envisioned by the Bretton Woods System was to be formed, controlled and smoothed out in terms of functionality of those institutions. In this respect, the World Bank, mainly expected to undertake the management of capital flow process throughout the global economy, was acting as the guarantor of this core mission in parallel with the requirements of the evolving world economic structure. Beginning with the reconstruction of European countries, its role evolved towards a more development-based strategy with 1950s. Through International Development Association (IDA), developing countries became the central focus of the Bank. And with 1980s, by Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs), the Bank has been at the core of the global economy by means of involvement in the countries' policy-making processes. Throughout the thesis, the results of the implications of the Bank in various countries and thus, empirical evaluations have been ignored. Instead, the intellectual and theoretical background of the world economic structure's new design which is based on the principle of "centralized multilateralism" was focused; in attribution to the role of the World Bank. Three important concepts were set on the core of the topic: integration, interdependence and international governance; and one, to the top of the frame: institutionalism. The debate has been discussed around such an intellectual basis and theoretical implications of these concepts, to get an overall picture of the post-war global economy.

2015 Spring. ; Includes illustrations (some color). ; Includes bibliographical references (pages 78-85). ; Historically, fossil fuel consumers in most developing hydrocarbon-rich countries have enjoyed retail prices at a discount from international benchmarks. Governments of these countries consider the subsidy transfer to be a means for sharing the wealth from their resource endowment. These subsidies create negative economic, environmental, and social distortions, which can only increase over time with a fast growing, young, and rich population. The pressure to phase out these subsidies has been mounting over the last years. At the same time, policy makers in resource-rich developing countries are keen to obtain the greatest benefits for their economies from the extraction of their exhaustible resources. To this end, they are deploying local content policies with the aim of increasing the economic linkages from extracting their resources. Against this background, this dissertation's three essays evaluate (1) the global impact of rationalizing transport fuel prices, (2) how resource-rich countries can achieve the objectives behind fuel subsidies more efficiently through direct cash transfers, and (3) the economic tradeoffs from deploying local content policies and the presence of an optimal path. We begin by reviewing the literature and building the case for rationalizing transport fuel prices to reflect their direct costs (production), indirect costs (road maintenance) and negative externalities (climate change, local pollutants, traffic accidents and congestion). To do so, we increase the scope of the economic literature by presenting an algorithm to evaluate the rationalized prices in different countries. Then, we apply this algorithm to quantify the rationalized prices across 123 countries in a partial equilibrium setting. Finally, we present the first comprehensive measure of the impact of rationalizing fuel prices on the global demand for gasoline and diesel, environmental emissions, government revenues, and consumers' welfare. By rationalizing transport fuel prices we estimate that the demand for gasoline could be reduced by 7.8 percent and that of diesel by 5.9 percent. This would lead to not only reduction in the associated negative externalities, but also to the generation of more than USD400 billion in revenues for governments. However, the partial equilibrium analysis in essay one ignores the general equilibrium effects that will be mainly driven by how the government spends the subsidy. In essay 2, we build the case for phasing out these subsidies and accompanying that by a welfare compensating cash transfer. In order to evaluate the impact of that on consumer's welfare, we develop a numerical model for Saudi Arabia in a general equilibrium setting to discuss a phase out of transport fuel subsidies that is. Results show that the Saudi government can increase its consumers' welfare up to five percentage points. In case the cash transfer is adjusted to keep consumers' utility at the pre-reform level, the required compensating transfer would leave the government with three percentage points of additional revenues. Finally, we highlight policy implications of phasing out the transport fuel subsidies. Finally, in essay 3 we turn our focus to the application of local content policies in the oil and gas sector. There is limited literature that investigates economic linkages from the extractive industries, assesses intertemporal tradeoffs, and guides the design of efficient and sustainable policies. Our contribution in this essay is three-fold. First, we present the first comprehensive analysis of economic linkages from the oil and gas sector across 48 countries. Then, we analyze the economic distortions from applying local content policies using a Hotelling type optimal control model with an international oil company maximizing its profits subject to a local content requirement. Finally, we investigate the presence of a socially optimal local content level when the social planner maximizing the net benefits from the extraction of resources. The social planner is presented with social objectives and a learning curve that are not internalized by the international oil companies. Findings reveal that in presence of (1) social benefits from using domestic input or (2) learning curve effects, there exists an optimal local content path that increases with cumulative production.

Раздел "Международные отношения" ; Данная статья рассматривает российскую историографию внешней политики США после окончания «холодной войны». Автор анализирует взгляды российских исследователей на проблемы глобальной политики США в современном мире. Прежде всего, в статье обращается внимание на то, что в российских политико-академических кругах существуют различные точки зрения по целому ряду весьма актуальных для всего мирового сообщества вопросов. Так, в российской историографии идут дискуссии по поводу современной мировой системы. Часть ученых считает, что на смену биполярности пришла многополярность. Другие говорят о существовании однополярности. Третьи не видят ни того, ни другого и говорят о существовании некоего третьего варианта современной международной системы. По-разному ученым видится и ее динамика: от многополярности к однополярности и наоборот. Исходя из своего видения современной международной системы, исследователи по-разному оценивают роль и место в ней Соединенных Штатов Америки. Существуют различия по поводу того, являются ли США сверхдержавой или нет. Хотя подавляющая часть российских ученых отвечают на этот вопрос утвердительно. При этом многие подчеркивают, что Америка постепенно утрачивает свое могущество, что в перспективе может привести ее к утрате доминирования в мире. Анализируя внешнеполитическую стратегию США, большинство российских авторов критически относится к действиям Вашингтона в современном мире. В подавляющей части исследований утверждается, что США хотят установить свое господство в мире. Многие исследователи говорят даже об имперском характере внешней политики США. Оценивая американские внешнеполитические концепции и доктрины, а также практические действия Соединенных Штатов, многие эксперты приходят к мысли о том, что в начале XXI в. США ведут себя не как лидер, а скорее как гегемон. По их мнению, такое поведение США на международной арене не добавляет им популярности. Поэтому многие авторы ратуют за изменения внешнеполитического поведения Америки и предлагают различные варианты. От того, каким путем последуют Соединенные Штаты, во многом зависит дальнейшее развитие мирового сообщества. = The article considers Russian historiography on the US foreign policy after the end of the Cold War. The author gives an analysis of opinions of Russian researchers on the current US global policy. The article draws attention to the fact that there exist various points of view in Russian political and academic groups on a number of topical global problems. For example, Russian historiography sees many discussions about today's global system. Some of the scientists believe that the multipolar world is replacing the bipolar world. Others insist on its unipolarity. Still others do not support either conception and speculate about the existence of some third type of the modern international system. The dymanics of its development is also perceived to be different: either from the multipolar to the unipolar one or vice versa. Depending on their vision of the current international system, the researchers disagree in their evaluation of the role of the USA in global processes. Various opinions also relate to the statement whether the USA are a superstate or not, though the absolute majority of Russian scientists give a positive answer to this question. At the same time, many of them emphasize that the USA are gradually losing their power which might lead to the loss of their global domination. Most of the Russian authors have a critical attitude to the Washington foreign policy. The majority of studies focus on the US aiming to secure their supremacy in the world. Many of the re-searchers even speculate on the imperial nature of the US foreign policy. While assessing American foreign policy concepts and doctrines as well as real steps of the USA, many of the experts come to a conclusion that the USA act not as leader but rather as a predominant force. They believe that such policy of the USA in the international scene makes this country unpopular in different regions of the world. Therefore, many authors stand for changes in the foreign policy of the USA and intro-duce various scenarios since further development of the global community would depend much on the USA's choice of their direction.

El texto aborda, en primer lugar, la política exterior española desde el ámbito doméstico, dando relevancia a varias cuestiones: el tema, ya clásico, del consenso en nuestra política exterior (si bien aquí hablaremos de la normalización del disenso); el interés del actual Gobierno por la legitimización democrática de la política exterior; la voluntad de Zapatero y su Gobierno de crearse una identidad internacional propia, y claramente diferenciada de la opción Aznar, y, por último, una referencia al eterno problema del servicio exterior en nuestro país, para acabar constatando que, en estos momentos, la acción exterior sufre un problema de descoordinación política. En segundo lugar, el texto analiza la ejecución de la política exterior española a lo largo de 2005, en un contexto europeo e internacional que se muestra adverso. Así, la crisis de la Unión va a dejar el europeísmo del Gobierno en dique seco, mientras que la "relación fría" con Estados Unidos va a hacer de decisiones del Gobierno español en América Latina (Venezuela) motivos de tensión internacional. La política española a lo largo del año ha sido, como se verá, una mezcla de innovación (instrumentos financieros para la cooperación al desarrollo), reparación (de las relaciones afectadas por la etapa Aznar, por ejemplo con Marruecos) y pragmatismo, en aras de la defensa de intereses económicos (caso de China). Todo ello, sin repetir el error de los primeros meses del Gobierno Zapatero, que animado por un espíritu de solucionar problemas (solving problems approach), anunció objetivos ambiciosos (resolver el conflicto del Sáhara Occidental) o, incluso, dio consejos inoportunos (famosas declaraciones de Zapatero en Túnez). En otras palabras, el año 2005 aporta una buena dosis de prudencia y realismo. El texto incidirá, en mayor o menor medida, en los aspectos destacados de la agenda tanto regional (Europa, América Latina, Mediterráneo y referencias a China y África Subsahariana) como temática (cooperación al desarrollo, inmigración, mantenimiento de la paz, lucha contra el terrorismo). ; This text deals with, in the first place, Spanish foreign policy from the domestic setting, giving importance to several questions: the now classic issue of consensus in our foreign policy (although here we will talk about the normalisation of dissent); the interest of the current Government in the democratic legitimisation of foreign policy; the will of Zapatero and his Government to create its own international identity, one which is clearly differentiated from the Aznar option, and, finally, a reference to the eternal problem of foreign service in our country, to end by noting that, at this time, the country's foreign action is suffering from a problem of lack of policy co-ordination. In the second place, the text analyses the execution of Spanish foreign policy throughout 2005, in a European and international context that has manifested itself to be adverse. Thus, the crisis of the Union left the Government's Europeanism in the dry dock, while its "cold relationship" with the United States would turn decisions by the Spanish Government in Latin America (Venezuela) into reasons for international tension. Spanish policy throughout the year has been, as will be seen, a mixture of innovation (financial instruments for cooperation for development), repairs (of the relationships affected by the Aznar period, for example those with Morocco) and pragmatism, in the interests of defending economic interests (the case of China). All of this, without repeating the error of the first months of the Zapatero Government, which, driven by a problem-solving approach, announced ambitious objectives (resolving the conflict of Western Sahara) an even gave inopportune advice (Zapatero's famous declarations in Tunis). In other words, the year 2005 brings a good dose of prudence and realism. The text will stress, to a greater or lesser degree, the noteworthy aspects of both the regional agenda (Europe, Latin America, the Mediterranean and references to China and sub-Saharan Africa) and the issues agenda (cooperation for development, immigration, peace-keeping, the fight against terrorism).

Some regions like Island of Madeira show high levels of firm birth rate. But the entrepreneurial experience is quite different from the European reality given the high level of micro-business owing o subsistence reasons, as a response to the reduced opportunity costs, the lack of profitable employment options and the high levels of unemployment. As a consequence the high level of entrepreneurship is only partially related to high tech innovative firms, qualified employment growth and economic diversification. The majority of the new firms are linked with traditional sectors (restaurants, boutiques, personal services and civil construction. Firm creation is also a result of the EU integration and cohesion policies. On the other hand infra-structure development policies explain the increasing importance of the public administration in terms of employment and consequently the low levels of unemployment. Traditionally, in the islands, the government intervention in terms of employment, economic planning is considered excessive. The island economies have been able to benefit from large streams of international solidarity in terms of high external aid per capita especially due to their strategic relevance. But the global economic and political change associated with the globalisation put increasing pressure on the island forcing them to reformulate their economic, social and political options. International donors and institutions like World Bank stresses issues such as economic diversification, economic and social modernisation and macroeconomic policies focused o supply side effects and the development of economic growth determining factors. Due to the reduced levels of international aid, islands are obliged to diminish levels of government intervention connected to public employment and direct production activities and to enhance private initiatives and entrepreneurship. In what concerns the outermost regions the EU enlargement demands increasing levels of competitivity, financial autonomy, economic diversification and entrepreneurial attitude. Given the lack of studies in this geographical area, the on-going economic, social and cultural modernisation induced by the integration in The EU sphere and the widespread perception about the changing times, we intend in this study to give some answers to the following questions: .how is the entrepreneurial attitude affected by the historical record of high levels of government intervention and public employment? .what kind of impacts results from the perceived "island penalty", in terms of propensity towards entrepreneurship? .What is the main obstacle to the entrepreneurial event? .Should one wish to create a firm, what is the probability of the stated preference is in the high tech sectors? What kind of support will be required and welcomed from the public institutions? Studies and academic studies in islands have some advantages. The agglomeration of institutions, populations, firms and social networks in a reduced geographical space enable us to capture in some detail a vast group of variables, relationships and cause effects linked to a specific subject. Islands societies have a large and cohesive social capital, and share a homogenous set of values and cultural attitudes, which facilitates experiences of collective action. To conduct an empirical test in order to find out the most influential variables in the entrepreneurship attitude we use logit equations. The sample is made up of local university students, theoretically the most apt in developing innovative firms. We investigate also the differences between economics and managements and humanities students in terms of entrepreneurship propensity. An important matter in isolated, peripheral and underdeveloped regions is the diffusion of innovations. Consequently, student's sources of information and knowledge regarding the overall tendencies of profitable, innovative and fashionable entrepreneurial experiences must be identified. Therefore, this paper describes the changing and uncertain economic and political environment faced by islands societies. A contextualisation of the relationship between entrepreneurship, economic growth and insular penalty is stretched and lastly, we provide an empirical study related to the entrepreneurial attitude in an insular region: The Island of Madeira.

Diese Dissertation analysiert die iranische Wirtschaft unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Außenhandel. Zuerst wird einen neuer Überblick auf die ökonomische Geschichte Irans verschaffen und die historischen Einflüsse auf die heutige Wirtschaftssituation untersucht. Hier wird die zivilisatorische und politisch-ökonomische Entwicklung des Landes von der Antike bis zur Neuzeit analysiert. Anhand dieser Analyse hat der Verfasser vier Phasen der Wirtschaftsmodernisationen im Iran in den letzten 200 Jahren festgestellt und ihre Einflüsse auf den Außenhandel mit Hilfe der Diagramme dargestellt. Der Schwerpunkt der Promotion liegt in der statistischen Analyse der wichtigsten Wirtschaftsindikatoren Irans und Ihre Folgen im Bereich des Außenhandels nach 1979. Während dieser Untersuchungen werden unterschiedliche Vergleiche zwischen den Wirtschaftslagen Irans vor und nach der Machtübernahme der Mullahs präsentiert. In diesem Teil der Untersuchung werden die zentralen ökonomischen Indikatoren für die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung Irans ausgearbeitet und analysiert. Dieser Arbeitsschnitt der Untersuchung öffnet den Weg zu der Fragestellung, inwieweit der Übergang des Wirtschaftssystems des Irans zu wirtschaftlichen Erfolgen des Landes geführt hat, hier speziell, inwieweit die Ölförderungspolitik als "Entwicklungsmotor" weitergeführt wurde. Von zentraler Bedeutung dieses Teils der Arbeit ist ferner die Herausbildung von Brüchen in der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung nach dem politischen Wechsel sowie die Analyse der Positionierung des Landes im internationalen Handel und der damit verbundenen Zahlungsbilanzsituation. In der international vergleichenden Analyse der zentralen Wirtschaftsindikatoren zeigt sich eine relativ schwache Stellung im Kanon der ausgewählten Länder, besonders aber auch im Vergleich mit sog. Schwellenländern. Dies betrifft vor allem die Exportsituation(Ausnahme Ölexporte), die Währungsreserven, das Pro-Kopf-Einkommen sowie weitere sozioökonomische Indikatoren(z.B. Analphabetismus, Gesundheitsversorgung, Forschungs- und Entwicklungspersonaldichte) Auf der Basis präsentierter Analysen wurden für die Weiterentwicklungen des Außenhandels und einigen wichtigen Wirtschaftsindikatoren Irans die kurzfristigen Prognosen mit Hilfe der statistischen Methoden gemacht. Hier hat der Verfasser ein Kurzfrist-Projektionsmodell in Form von drei alternativen Szenarien für die zukünftigen Verläufe des Außenhandels und des Wachstums entwickelt. Diese Prognosen basieren auf folgende Szenarien: Szenario 1: Liberalisierung der Volkswirtschaft bei Beibehaltung des Mullah-Systems, Szenario 2: Liberalisierung bei einer friedlichen Ablösung des Mullah-Systems, Szenario 3: Umbruch und Entwicklung unter innenpolitischen Spannungen. Die Projektion der alternativen Entwicklungen stützt sich auf lineare univariate Trendmodelle und wird ergänzt durch qualitative Expertenannahmen. Zum Schluss werden einige Möglichkeiten und Handlungsalternativen für die Verbesserung der ökonomischen Situation im Iran vorgestellt und sozialpolitische und ökonomische Situationen untersucht. Gleichzeitig werden die kurzfristigen Investitionsmöglichkeiten für die ausländischen Investoren unter der Berücksichtigung der Szenarien und Anhand der Wirtschaftsprogramme der iranischen Regierung präsentiert. ; This dissertation studies the Iranian economy with a special focus on foreign trade. First of all, the history of Iranian economy and its effects on the present day economy is studied. The civilization, political and economic changes in the Country since the antiquity until present are being assessed and evaluated in this part. Based on this study, the writer identifies four stages of economic modernization in Iran during the past 200 years and has displayed the effects of these modernizations on the foreign trade with the help of diagrams. The main focus of the dissertation is on the most important economic indexes of Iran and their effects on foreign trade after 1979. Numerous comparisons between the Iranian economy before the Mullahs and the Iranian economy after coming to power of the Mullahs are provided. In this part, the most central economic indexes for the improvement of the Iranian economy are analyzed. This part of the analysis opens way to the question that to what degree the economic changes after the shift in power led to progress, especially to what degree the policy of oil extraction in Iran has been continued as the "motor of development". The critical importance of this part as it goes on is to study the role of the shift in power in the formation of the gap in economic growth. The trade balance and the evaluation of the status of the Country in the global commerce are highly important. The international comparative study of the main economic indexes reflects the relatively weak position of Iran compared with similar developing countries. This weakness is mostly seen in the exports (saved oil exports), financial reserves, income per capita and the socio-economic indexes (such as the literacy rate, health and hygiene, research and specialist manpower). Based on the evaluations carried out, short-term forecasts for foreign trade and a number of the most important economic indexes are shown in statistical methods. The writer presents the forecasts in the form of three scenarios for short-term development of the Country. These three scenarios include: 1- Economic liberalism with the Mullahs still in power 2- Liberalism, with the Mullahs out of power peacefully 3- Tension and domestic political disturbances In these forecasts, the statistical methods are used in combination with quality assumptions. At the end, some of the possibilities and substitutive measures for the improvement of economic conditions in Iran are provided and the socio-political and economic conditions are studied. At the same time, the Writer comments on the possibility of short-term investments for foreign investors in view of the three said scenarios and based on the economic plans of the Iranian government.

RAPPORT ENTRE LA PROTECTION DE L'ENVIRONNEMENT MONDIALET LES TRANSFERTS DE TECHNOLOGIELe rapport entre la protection de l'environnement mondial et les transferts de technologie est mis en evidence en relation avec le "Droit de la Nature" et le Droit International de l'Environnement.En étudiant les notions de l'environnement mondial, du droit de l'environnement et du transfert de technologie et les relations entre eux, on aboutit à la notion du Droit de l'Environnement et au "Droit de la Nature". Le rapport entre la protection de l'environnement mondial et les transferts de technologie est étudié dans le cadre du "Droit de la Nature" et est analysé au niveau universel du point de vue du Droit International de l'Environnement (La Charte Mondiale de la Nature -1982, La Déclaration de Stockholm et Plan de l'Action-1972, La Déclaration de Rio et Agenda 21 de 1992, Le Protocol de Kyoto 1997) et au niveau régional selon des droits de l'environnement de la Communauté Européenne et OECD. Après avoir donnée la définition du transfert de technologie, les secteurs polluants de l'environnement, la pollution causée par ces secteurs, leurs conséquences, les nouvelles technologies protégeant l'environnement et leurs effets favorables sur l'environnement sont présentés. Pendant la réalisation des transferts de technologies au niveau mondial, les relations entre La Nature et l'Homme (la Technologie et l'Homme, les transferts de technologie; dans quels mesures sont-ils respectes les critères du Droit de la Nature et le Droit International de l'Environnement; leurs pouvoirs d'applications; les obstacles; les raisons et les consequences de ces obstacles; les conditions) sont étudiés, en se rapportant au "Droit de la Nature", du point de vue synchronique et diachronique, dans la dimension du temps. Dans ce cadre, la politique de l'environnement de la Turquie est prise au niveau du 3 ème plan (1974-1978), 4 ème plan (1979-1983), 5 ème plan (1985-1989), 6 ème plan (1990-1994), 7 ème plan (1996-2000) et elle est complété par une étude de cas exemplaire.On se réfère à la Déclaration (Draft) aux Principes de la Protection de l'Environnemnt (1994) pour montrer l'obligation du respect pendant les transferts de technologie et leurs applications en ce qui concerne la protection de la Nature, la protection de l'environnement mondial, au niveau synchronique et de diachronique pour la continuation de l'existence de l'Homme. DÜNYA ÇEVRE KORUMASI VE TEKNOLOJİ TRANSFERLERİ ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİDünya çevre koruması ve teknoloji transferleri arasındaki ilişki "Doğa'nın Hukuk'u" ve Uluslararası Çevre Hukuk'u aracılığıyla ortaya konmuştur.Dünya çevresi, çevre hukuku ve teknoloji transferi nosyonları, aralarındaki ilişkiler incelenerek, Uluslararası Çevre Hukuk'u ve "Doğa'nın Hukuk'u" kavramlarına ulaşılmıştır. Dünya çevre koruması ve teknolji transferleri arasındaki ilişki, "Doğa'nın Hukuk'u" çerçevesinde incelenmiş ve evrensel boyutta, Uluslararası Çevre Hukuk açısından ( Doğa Dünya Şartı-1982, Stockholm Deklarasyonu ve Aksiyon Planı-1972, Rio Deklarasyonu ve Agenda 21-1992, Kyoto Protokolü-1997) ve bölgesel bağlamda da Avrupa Topluluğu ve OECD'nin çevre hukukları mevzuatı açısından ele alınarak incelenmiştir. Aynı ilişki "Doğa'nın Hukuk'u" açısından da irdelenmiştir.Teknoloji transferinin tanımı yapıldıktan sonra çevreyi kirleten sektörler, bu sektörlerin oluşturdukları çevre kirliliği, sonuçları, çevreyi koruyan yeni teknolojiler ve çevrenin korunması açısından bıraktıkları olumlu etkiler sunulmuştur. Teknoloji transferlerinin uluslararası boyutlardaki gerçekleşme sürecinde, Doğa'nın Hukuk'u esasına dayanarak, Doğa ve Insan (İnsan ve teknoloji, teknoloji transferleri, bu teknolojilerin uygulanışı sırasında Doğa'nın Hukuk'u ve Uluslararası Hukuk kriterlerinin ne denli gözetildiği, bunların yaptırım güçleri, karşılaşılan engeller ve nedenleri, şartlar ve özellikler bu değişkenler) arasındaki karşılıklı dinamik ilişkiler zaman boyutu içerisinde, senkronik ve diyakronik açıdan, incelenmişlerdir. Bu çerçevede Türkiye'deki teknoloji transferleri politikası 3. plan (1974-1978), 4. plan (1979-1983), 5. plan (1985-1989), 6. plan (1990-1994), 7. plan (1996-2000) açısından incelenmiş ve bir örnek çalışmayla tamamlanmıştır.Teknoloji transferleri ve onların uygulanışı süresince, senkronik ve diyakronik bağlamda Doğa'nın, devamı açısından bir zorunluluk olduğunu belirtmek için, Çevre ve dünya çevre korumasının vazgeçilmezliğinin, İnsan'ın kendi öz varlığının İnsan Hakları Prensipleri Örnek (Draft) Deklarasyonu'na (1994) atıfta bulunulmuştur.

European Tropical Forest Research Newsletter No.15 November 1995 Code Number:NL95035 Size of Files: Text: 105K No associated graphics files European Tropical Forest Research Network (ETFRN) Coordination Unitc/o ATSAF e.V.Ellerstr. 50D-53119 Bonn, Germany Tel: +49-228-98 46-16 Fax: +49-228-98 46-99 Editor: Horst Freiberg Editorial Coordination and Design: Monika ReuleEditorial Assistant: Wilma Kahmer (from Sushil Saigal and Navin Kapor, India) JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT: The role of research networks Joint Forest Management (JFM) is a new approach to forest management that is being tried in India and several other countries. In JFM, forest department of the Government and local communities jointly manage the state forest lands. In turn, both share the responsibilities and benefits. TREE CITY - Urban Forestry & Arboricultural Program TREE CITY is an initiative of the GWB (Society for Forest Conservation and Manage ment)in Ebersbach/Germany, the Institute for Arboriculture in Hamburg/Germany and the International Institute for the Urban Environment in Delft/The Netherlands. A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE NEWLY ESTABLISHED ASIA PACIFIC ASSOCIATION OF FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS (APAFRI) The Asia-Pacific Region is one of the fastest growing regions in the world and the role of forestry sector in conributing to the economic, social and environmental well being of the Region is being redefined. APFT - A Comprehensive Social Scientific Designed Programme Aligned with the Future of Tropical Rainforest Peoples The Myth of the Virgin Forest 1. Research How APFT is different Capacity Building Africa-Caribbean-Pacific Beneficiaries Actors 2. Improving CEC project viability 3. Awareness 4. Database RESEARCH COOPERATIONS IVITA seeks Cooperation for TRopical Integrated systems Research in Peru Research Cooperations in the field of Ecology and Biological Resources in Vietnam The Tanzanian Forestry Research Institute (TAFORI) is looking for Research Partners in Various Fields of Forestry Research ECTF is looking for Industrial Companies interested in Community Forestry Development and Carbon Sequestration in Southern Mexico Fire Ecology Research and Possibilities to Collaborate with the fire Ecology Unit in Ghana NEWS Vavilov-Frankel Fellowships 1996 Intergovernmental Seminar on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management The 6th Meeting of the General Assembly (GA) of ETFRN took place in Vienna/Austria on 29th and 30th September 1995. The discussion of the next ETFRN 3-year-phase; the definition of objectives and expected outputs; ETFRN`s role as regional sectoral network inrespect to other regional re search networks and international / inter- governmental researchorganizations as well as the further development of ETFRN`s information managementconcept on INTERNET were the main items of the agenda. ETFRN's INTERNET-Homepage Open-Question-Service (OQS) + Bill-Board "European Tropical Forest Research Projects" DECALRATION OF THE IUFRO XX WORLD CONGRESS From 6-12 August 1995 the XXth IUFRO World Congress was held in Tampere, Finland under the topic: Caring for the Forest: Research in a Changing World. Over 2000 participants from about 100 different countries attended this "biggest event in IUFRO shistory". It is a long IUFRO tradition to prepare a Declaration at the end of each Congress with the aim to present IUFRO's position, to serve as a tool for research and policy and to be guidance for the further work of IUFRO. ADDRESSING NATURAL RESOURCES THROUGH COMMUNITY FORESTRY - A Global E-mail Conference from January - March 1996 INFER: A new Computer-based Method of Estimating the Environmental Relationships of Forest Trees and Other Plants PUBLICATIONS Parks, People and Professionals: Putting 'Participation' into Protected Area Management Salvaging Nature: Indigenous Peoples, Protected Areas and Biodiversity Conservation Designing a System of Nomenclature for European Forst Mapping Macroeconomic Aspects of Forestry Sector Planning Tropical Forests: Management and Ecology A Land-Ecological Study of Soils, Vegetation and Plant Diversity in Colombian Amazonia The Role of the Private Sector in Forestry Research VACANCY ANNOUNCEMENTS Research Possibilities at the Forest Research Insititute of Malaysia IPGRI: Scientist, In Situ Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversity The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is looking for a Scientist specialized in In Situ Conservation of Agri cultural Biodiversity. ETFRN NATIONAL NODES

A politological analysis is presented in this book of the more than seventy year long period of US — Panama relations. Particular interest is devoted to the diplomatic and international law aspects, since in the author's opinion they are of paramount, fundamental significance. The main stream of these considerations is preceded (section 1) by a description of the circumstances governing the founding od Panama as an independent state. The author sees this as the resultant of a number of causes, both internal and also external, and hence not merely as a product of US policies. In section 2 is presented the initial state of bilateral relations, in particular the circumstances accompanying the signing of the Hay — Bunau-Varilla agreement, analysis of its clauses and also the legal and practical consequences of this agreement as the plane of the links between' Panama and the United States. Panama — US relations in the years from 1904—1964 are shown (section 3), analysing selected problems in a dynamic conception. Dealt with here are such problems as: guaranteeing independence and the policy of intervention, titular and eminents sovereignty military and economic questions and also matters concerning the conflict of 1964. It is the author's view that the situations analysed determine the principal lines of division and differences in the interests of the two sides, and also make it possible to discern — in a negative sense — future and desired foundations of these bilateral relations. Also comprehended in the field of interest is the question of the interpretation of the 1903 convention^ the evolution of Panama's attitude towards its principal terms and also certain legal modifications. The last two sections deal with the story of the negotiations lastingover many years and also the analysis of the currently binding agreements on the Panama Canal. Attention is drawn to the internal and international determinants governing the attitudes of the two sides. The author evaluates the new foundation of US — Panama relations in finding answers to the question: to what degree have the three groups of already historical controversies between the two sides been eliminated. These involve: 1) the legal and factual position of the Canal Zone; 2) the legal situation of the canal; 3) the rights held by USA extending over the whole Panamese relations results from the overcoming of a certain barrier, impossilbe to surmount in the earlier period, which determined the limiting (referring both to intentions and also to pacts negotiated) to modification of the Hay — Bunau-Varilla agreements without making any changes in its basic terms. In this sense the actual treaties are an incomparable qualitative state (chiefly due to annulling the clause on the permanence and titular sovereignty of Panama over the Canal Zone) that is achieveable due to the determination of the Torrijos government and also of the Carter administration. The present situation is of a clearly temporary character (up to 2000 AD). Although many anachronistic regulations have been annulled and in many cases conditions for cooperation have been created, intractable problems for the future are discernible. These result from the different interpretations by the two sides of the function of the Panama Canal. Panama aims to extract maximum direct and indirect advantages from the canal. As a small country its policy is to achieve demilitarisation and neutrality understood as the elimination of foreign bases and the obtaining of international guarantees safeguarding against external intervention. For the USA the economic question, although important (the advantages are rather indirect), does not play such a dominant role. Moreover, the canal itself has a strategic significance, the more so in view Of the lack of stability in Central America. From the aspect of Panamese rights further doubts are raised by the plans for building a canal at sea level. Among the varied problems to be confronted in the coming decade, these major items are most likely to govern US — Panama relations: the economic viability, of exploiting the canal, the method of implementing its strategic function and matters relating to the plans for building a new canal.

Im Fortschreiten der Lebensgeschichte der heutigen Pkw-Antriebe Otto- und Diesel-Motor wurden an diese beiden Aggregate ständig erweiterte Anforderungen gestellt. Lange Zeit bestimmten die aus technischen und wirtschaftlichen Gesichtspunkten resultierenden Forderungen Tempo und Grad der technologischen Weiterentwicklung, bis - in automobilgeschichtlich jüngster Zeit - erstmals gesetzliche Auflagen zur Begrenzung der aus Pkw und Pkw-Motoren emittierten Schadstoffe zum neuen und zusätzlichen Entwicklungskriterium wurden. Diese Forderungen haben den weiteren Werdegang der Pkw-Antriebe entscheidend beeinflußt. Sie haben darüber hinaus massiv in die Produktionsabläufe der betroffenen Industrie eingegriffen und deutliche Spuren im nationalen und internationalen Wirtschaftsgeschehen hinterlassen. Da sich diese Entwicklung über einen Zeitraum von rund zwei Jahrzehnten in einer bisweilen außergewöhnlichen Hektik und nach weltweit uneinheitlichen Verfahren vollzog, die selbst von den direkt betroffenen Akteuren auf Seiten des Staates und der Automobilindustrie heute kaum noch zu überblicken sind, war es die Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit, den Problemkreis der Schadstoff-Emissionskontrolle an Pkw unter gesetzlichen Auflagen in Inhalt und Konsequenzen einmal geschlossen darzustellen. Die Arbeit untersucht daher zunächst anhand einer in ihren wesentlichen Meilensteinen erarbeiteten Entwicklungsgeschichte der Emissionskontrollgesetzgebungen ausgewählter Exportländer Ursprung, Ziele und Grenzen dieser behördlichen Auflagen und stellt den gezeigten Abläufen die historische Entwicklung der relevanten Emissionskontrolltechnologien gegenüber. Hierbei werden die mit Entwicklung, Zulassung, Produktion und Betrieb dieser Technologien verbundenen Probleme diskutiert sowie künftige Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten abgeschätzt. Das aufgezeigte Bild der Interaktion von Gesetzgeber und Industrie wird abgerundet durch Betrachtung des historischen Lernprozesses und der bei weiteren Gesetzesfortschreibungen sowie technischen Neuerungen zu berücksichtigenden Erkenntnisse. Die Diskussion der industrieseitigen Bemühungen bestätigt die These, daß "die Technik, wenn man ihre gesamte Problematik erfassen will, nicht losgelöst von wirtschaftlichen Bezügen betrachtet werden kann" {1}. Bei der Behandlung der staatlichen Aktivitäten wird ebenfalls deutlich, daß sämtliche Bemühungen, mit einer Gesetzgebung den technischen Vorgang der Emission von Schadstoffen aus Automobilen zu reglementieren, im Grunde volkswirtschaftliche Problemstellungen repräsentieren. In Erkenntnis dieser am Beispiel der Emissionskontrolle an Automobilen erarbeiteten Zusammenhänge zwischen technischen und wirtschaftlichen Aspekten schließt die Arbeit mit ernsten Bedenken hinsichtlich der Möglichkeit, die für die heute betroffene Bevölkerung und besonders für künftige Generationen anzustrebende Umweltqualität unter den existierenden und den in kommenden Jahren zu erwartenden wirtschaftlichen Zwängen sicherstellen zu können. ; The evolution of today's gasoline and diesel engines as passenger car power plants has been significantly affected by increasing more stringent governmental regulations. In the past, the degree of engineering progress was determined in large part by economic and technical factors. Recently, however, legislative demands have, for the first time, begun to significantly affect the development of these engines. These demands have substantially influenced the further evolution of both passenger car power sources and have heavily impacted on the automobile industry's production processess and have become an important part of the national and international economic scene. The increase of government regulation of the automobile industry over the last two decades often took place in a rather hectic manner and far from international harmonization. As a result, even though the industry is a worldwide industry, it is difficult for any involved party or government to clearly identify the development of today's regulatory framework. Accordingly, the objective of this work was to discuss in a comprehensive manner the evolution of the complex area of legislatively mandated emission controls on passenger cars. Therefore, first the history of the emission control legislation of selected export countries is compiled through the use of major development milestones discussing their sources, targets and limitations. These findings are then compared with the evolution of emission control technologies, which took place simultaneously with the enactment of the various legislative proposals. The latter is done by examining the problems connected with design and development, certification, production and practical use of these technologies and by estimating their future potentials. The composite picture of the interaction between government and industry is finally completed by a discussion of the historical learning process as well as the findings to be considered in future legislative activities and technical developments. The discussion of the automobile industry's emission control efforts verifies the theory that "technology - if its comprehensive problematic nature shall be covered - cannot be considered separately from its economic relations" {1}. Further, during the discussion of governmental regulatory activities, it becomes obvious that all efforts to legislatively regulate the technical process of motor vehicle pollutant emissions basically are economical problems. Realizing the interrelationship between technical and economical aspects - which has been demonstrated on the example of emission control on automobiles - this work concludes with serious concern about the possibility of providing the necessary degree of environmental quality for today's population and future generations under economical impacts, which already exist or can be expected in the forthcoming years.

An overview is provided of the legal framework in Europe for the use of experimental animals set by European Union (EU) Directive 86/609/EEC and of the activities of EU member states to implement this directive for regulatory testing in animals. The use of animal data in the safety assessment of chemicals by services of the EU Commission and by EU member states is described. Specific examples are given for the current use of animal tests in Europe for the safety evaluation of industrial chemicals, pesticides and biocides, cosmetics, endocrine disrupters, and existing chemicals. Recent progress in implementing the 3Rs concept of Russell and Burch into regulatory guidelines of the EU are described, with particular reference to acute systemic and local toxicity testing. Progress in implementing the 3Rs concept in the EU is compared with the situation outside Europe, particularly with the incentive initiated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, to reduce regulatory testing in animals. The harmonization of toxicity test guidelines initiated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1982 has been the most successful measure to reduce pain and distress of laboratory animals in regulatory testing. From the animal welfare perspective, the international harmonization of test guidelines and the mutual acceptance of data are, therefore, the way forward for all areas of chemicals testing

A letter from Laurence L. Doggett to Persis B. McCurdy, the wife of Dr. James H. McCurdy. The letter is dated August 15, 1917. In the letter Doggett tells Mrs. McCurdy that her husband has safely made it to France and he tells her about what has been going on at Springfield College. ; James Huff McCurdy, M.D. (1866-1940) graduated in 1890 from the YMCA Training School, now known as Springfield College. In 1895, Dr. James H. McCurdy returned to the school as an instructor. He contributed to the field of physical education in many ways, including his studies on the relationship between heart rate, blood pressure, and motor tasks in adolescent boys. In 1924, he published one of the first texts for Exercise Physiology. In 1918, James H. McCurdy realized the need "for an extensive programme of sports and recreation in the immediate postwar period that would bridge the gap and ease the transition between military service and civilian life." The result was the Inter-Allied Games, the biggest international sports event that had ever been held at that time. Attended by 25,000 people, the Games were a huge success. Dr. McCurdy was the Director of the Division of Athletes, Hygiene and Health for the American YMCA among American troops in France.

International audience ; Since the sixteenth century, Taiwan served as a refuge island for Chinese minorities persecuted on the mainland. Its settlement was effected by two migratory waves: one from 1661 and extending to 1945, the other after the proclamation of the People's Republic of China by Mao Zedong in 1949. The strong increase of the population, sometimes giving rise to the distinction between "native Taiwanese" and "mainlanders" made Taiwan one of the world's most densely populated countries and stimulated strong urbanization. The priority given to education, in the years 1950-1960, favored its remarkable economic growth. After a particularly rapid demographic transition, Taiwan entered the post-transition period in the mid-1980s, with fertility below the generational replacement level. Hence the inevitable aging of the population. ; Depuis le XVIe siècle, l'île de Taiwan a servi de refuge à des minorités chinoises persécutées sur le continent. Son peuplement s'est opéré par deux vagues migratoires : l'une, à partir de 1661 et s'étalant jusqu'en 1945, l'autre après la proclamation de la république populaire de Chine par Mao Zedong, en 1949. Le fort accroissement de la population, donnant parfois lieu à la distinction entre « Taiwanais de souche » et « continentaux » fit de Taiwan l'un des pays du monde le plus densément peuplés et stimula une forte urbanisation. La priorité donnée à l'éducation, dans les années 1950-1960, favorisa son remarquable essor économique. Après une transition démographique particulièrement rapide, Taiwan entre au milieu des années 1980 dans la période post-transitionnelle, avec une fécondité inférieure au seuil de remplacement des générations. D'où l'inévitable vieillissement de la population.