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The article analyzes the fundamental concepts and pedagogical views of the British teacher, philosopher, representative of empiricism and liberalism John Locke, known in the world as one of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment and theorist of liberalism. The practical rationalism of the Anglo-Saxon culture is studied, as well as the influence and significance that the great thinker had on the education and training system in English schools. The article analyzes the philosophical-psychological theory of the "clean board" (Latin Tabula rasa), which consists in denying the existence of "innate" ideas and concepts in the human mind, showing that the human psyche is born from birth like a clean board or a blank sheet, where there are no inscriptions. The goal of education is to bring up a true gentleman, a nobleman by birth, a business man who knows how to manage his business intelligently and favorably, has good physical training and is distinguished by his "grace" behavior in society.

This work aims to explore the ways the English philosopher John Locke shapes the terminology for describing the system of morality in philosophy. Terminology for presenting the principles, laws, and foundations of morality is chosen with respect to tradition of religious texts of the previous two centuries. Moreover, he does not use the concept of innate ideas, but tries to describe simple and complex ideas based on sensations, perceptions, and other psychological notions. However, we observe significant shifts in conceptual dominants that occur in Locke's text. The term 'conceptual dominant' being used in cognitive linguistics studying discourse is applied to Essay Concerning Human Understanding. The article examines in detail the concept of conceptual dominance in relation to Locke's philosophy and terminology of morality. This concept allows us to consider the emergence of a new point of view on human knowledge about the world, which is associated with its comprehension under the impact of socio-cultural factors that can bring to the fore certain conceptual characteristics in the semantics of language units in the process of communication. In Locke's discourse, a number of metaphors are highlighted that also help to understand how a scientist describes the processes of perception and understanding, among them LINE, PLANE, CONTAINER are highlighted, which help to describe the terminology of morality. We can observe that the scientist pays special attention to the perception of the world and the objects located in it, which become the SOURCES of knowledge ("fountains of knowledge"), as well as the heart, soul, understanding of a person. In his description, he relies on images known to his contemporaries.

The article provides the reconstruction of the English terminological
system of morality and its language features in one of the most famous papers of
John Locke An Essay Сoncerning Human Understanding (1689). We study this
philosophical paper within the framework of cognitive and discursive paradigm of
linguistic knowledge and aim to investigate the ideas about human nature and the
principles behind the work of human mind. Laws and principles were formulated
by the scholar on the basis of nature determination in human thinking and ideas
appearance in individual psychological system. The article investigates in detail
conceptual dominants of the moral philosophy and terminology in Locke's paper
and, besides that, key metaphors in Locke's discourse used for the description of
human thinking including tabula rasa, empty cabinet, fountains of knowledge,
knowledge is light. On the one hand, these conceptual metaphors are deeply rooted
in the historical and philosophical context, and on the other, they were understandable to his contemporaries, as he used recognizable words and images. Locke not
only changes the actual linguistic representation of some of the traditional philosophical metaphors, but shifts the emphasis, leading to novel interpretations and
complicating the system of ideas as a whole. To understand main components of the
philosopher's framework we took into account earlier papers of various scholars as
the material for comparison. These components include the process by which new
types of knowledge are formed and pathways by which the already existing types
are recategorized under the impact of sociocultural factors. It was shown that the
system of morality is grounded on the 17th-century views on how the human mind
works and embodies the language representation of terminological sphere of morality.

This article is devoted to analysis of polemological representations of John Skylitzes. In the «Synopsis historiarum» the military ideal was presented realistically, in contrast to the images of military leaders in historical compositions of Leo the Deacon and Michael Psellos. A special attention is given to the images of Katakalon Kekaumenos and Bulgarian military commanders. ; Статья посвящена анализу полемологических представлений Иоанна Скилицы. В «Синопсисе историй» воинский идеал представлен реалистично, в отличие от образов военачальников в сочинениях Льва Диакона и Михаила Пселла. Особое внимание Скилица уделил образам Катакалона Кекавмена и болгарских военных командиров.

The article introduces an alternative opinion on Brexit voiced by John Major, who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom when it joined the European Union. In his public speeches, John Major touched upon such issues as national sovereignty, British identity, migration, economy, political and diplomatic influence, state unity, etc. John Major believes that Brexit will eventually do more harm than good and that the pro-Brexit rhetoric is a manifestation of populism. He does not consider the European Union as a threat to the British identity. The research was based on I. S. Semenenko's idea of the panEuropean identity as a resource for the development of the European Union. Even though Brexit and Covid-19 weakened the European identity, the further development of identity policy is likely to strengthen the sense of belonging. Thus, John Major's reasonable rhetoric can be considered from the opposite standpoint. ; Представлено альтернативное мнению сторонников Брекзита видение последствий выхода Великобритании из ЕС. Для этого были проанализированы выступления бывшего премьер-министра Соединенного Королевства Дж. Мейджора, при котором государство вступило в ЕС. Основные аспекты, затронутые политиком: национальный суверенитет, идентичность британцев, миграция, экономика, политическое и дипломатическое влияние страны в мире, государственное единство. Сделан вывод, что негативные последствия Брекзита, с точки зрения Дж. Мейджора, доминируют над потенциальными возможностями, а часть риторики сторонников выхода – проявление популизма. В частности, участие Великобритании в ЕС не являлось угрозой национальной идентичности британцев, считает политик. Указанный аспект был рассмотрен автором статьи в контексте представления об общеевропейском самосознании как о ресурсе для развития ЕС, разработанном И. С. Семененко. Брекзит, как Ковид-19 и ряд других недавних вызовов, стал одной из причин ослабления европейской самоидентификации. Однако переосмысление и дальнейшее развитие политики идентичности со стороны объединения способно усилить чувство сопричастности к нему граждан стран-участниц союза и стать реальной угрозой для национального самосознания. Рассуждения Дж. Мейджора представляются обоснованными, но могут быть рассмотрены с позиции противоположных изложенным политиком последствий выхода Великобритании из ЕС.

John Apokaukos (ca. 1155–1233), the metropolitan of Naupaktos, was a church and political figure of the early thirteenth century and an outstanding Byzantine writer. So far the collection of Apokaukos' letters has been studied mainly as a historical source. This paper has made a philological analysis of his epistles with the question raised how the author's self is portrayed. This research has shown that Apokaukos' letters formed an individual image of the author extending beyond epistolary clichés. This image is not without internal contradictions: on the one hand, Apokaukos portrays himself as a decrepit old man, enduring punishment for his sins, and on the other, he appears proud of his achievements and erudition, ready to stand up for his rights or defend the interests of his eparchy. Moreover, when the author speaks of his weakness and insignificance, he is not always serious, for the self-abasement sometimes turns into a caricature: for example, the author emphasizes his gluttony using grotesque comparisons. The author's image is not static: Apokaukos often portrays himself as a doubter, hesitating over two opinions and changing his position under the influence of circumstances. This paper has analysed the author's image in Apokaukos' letters in the context of Byzantine epistolography in the Komnenian renaissance. Some common tendencies have been determined in the epistles of John Apokaukos, Michael Psellos, John Tzetzes, and Theodore Prodromos. ; Митрополит Навпактский Иоанн Апокавк (ок.1155–1233) – церковный и политический деятель начала XIII в., выдающийся византийский писатель. Эпистолярное собрание Апокавка, включающее 156 писем, до сих пор исследовалось в основном как исторический источник. В настоящей статье проводится филологический анализ писем – ставится вопрос о том, как в них изображается авторское «я». Исследование показывает, что в письмах Апокавка складывается индивидуальный образ автора, выступающий за рамки эпистолярных клише. Этот образ не лишен внутренних противоречий: с одной стороны, Апокавк изображает себя ветхим, больным и страдающим за свои грехи, а с другой – предстает гордым своими достижениями, ученостью, готовым вступиться за свои права или защищать интересы митрополии. При этом, когда автор говорит о своей слабости и ничтожности, он не всегда серьезен – самоуничижение порой превращается в карикатуру: например, автор подчеркивает свое чревоугодие, прибегая к гротескным сравнениям. Образ автора не статичен: Апокавк зачастую изображает себя сомневающимся, колеблющимся между двумя мнениями, меняющим свою позицию под влиянием обстоятельств. Образ автора в письмах Апокавка рассматривается в контексте византийской эпистолографии Комниновского ренессанса. Отмечается ряд общих тенденций в письмах Иоанна Апокавка, Михаила Пселла, Иоанна Цеца и Феодора Продрома.

Предпринята попытка анализа философско-методологической концепции Джона Уоткинса и оценка перспектив ее прикладного использования в современной исторической науке. Выстроенные параллели позволяют убедиться в актуальности философско-методологических конструкций полувековой давности. Обращение к концепции методологического индивидуализма Джона Уоткинса и использование ее прикладного аспекта может стать благодатным дискуссионным полем в современном историописании. ; Complex political, ideological, social and cultural processes ofthe 20th century have resulted in the change of the philosophicaland methodological paradigm of the social and humanitarianknowledge. An important stage of these changes is creationof «modern history» in the world historical science and itsfollowing branches «modern social history», «modern culturalhistory», microhistory, «modern biographical history». Newopportunities have opened for the lines of research focused onthe human being and categories of culture. Such researchesrequire careful selection of the methodological approach.Therefore, recourse to the origins of the modern methodologicalapproaches is becoming actual, in particular to the concept of theEnglish philosopher and science methodologist John Watkinswho founded the concept of the methodological individualism.The article makes an attempt to analyze the philosophicaland methodological concept of J. Watkins and to estimate theprospects of its application in the modern historical science.According to Watkins' theory, each methodological approachwithin the framework of social and humanitarian sciencecomprises two key groundings: individualism and holism. J.Watkins introduces the notion of «ideal type» that enables himto move the controversy between individualism and holismfrom practice to methodology. The key moment in the historystudies is the criticism of the methodological holism which isimputed of epistemiological limitations, apriority, and ideology.The concept of Watkins' methodological individualism is basedon the principles of induction and societal individualism. Usingthe induction method creates new prospects in the studies of ahistorical source and opportunity to interpret events and createhistorical integrity from the new perspective. Within the conceptof the methodological individualism, the studies of history areconsidered as a bidirectional process of connecting internalaction mechanism of a human to external influences. Themethodological research of J. Watkins is centered on a humanbeing considered as an acting element of historical events. It isimportant for Watkins to address the issues of studying historicalevents functioning beyond the borders of non-personified historybut having an influence thereon. This is consonant with themethodological researches and investigations of microhistoryand macro tendencies of the global history. Addressing theproblem of the historian's personality, their worldviewsand their role in the history studies, J. Watkins notices thatregardless their methodological preferences historians remainwithin the bounds of their own view of historical situation, theirconvictions and illusions. Watkins' methodological conceptis a good object of reflections in the frame of modern writinghistory. Using his concept of an individualistic ideal type enableshistorians to avoid the traps of subjectivism and their ownmental preferences when studying and writing history. ; Зроблена спроба аналізу філософсько-методологічноїконцепції Джона Уоткінса і оцінка перспектив їїпрактичного використання в сучасній історичнійнауці. Вибудовані паралелі переконливо показують вактуальності філософсько-методологічний конструкційрозроблених п'ятдесятирічної давності. Звернення доконцепції методологічної індивідуалізму Джона Уоткінсаі її використання на практиці може стати благодатнийдискусійним полем в сучасному історіє писанні.

Abstract: The article analyzes preconditions, characteristics, processes and outcomes of revolutions through the lens of political elite theory with the aim to study the revolutionary elites formation and development. The article states that the necessary preconditions of revolutions include a severe political crisis, the elite fragmentation and disunity and the predominance of labor force capable of launching an egalitarian revolution in preindustrial societies and an egalitarian revolution in industrial ones. The theory of revolutionary elite formation is illustrated using two revolutionary scenarios. The first scenario changes elite configuration, but leads neither to a complete transformation of elites and their behavioral models nor to the formation of revolutionary elite (England, France, Mexico). The second revolutionary scenario transforms the political elite nature and forms a new revolutionary elite (Russia, Germany, Italy). Findings suggest that revolutionary elite formation results from a combination of multiple sovereignty and an elaborate and guiding ideology. ; Аннотация: В статье рассматриваются предпосылки, черты, процессы и итоги революций в контексте политических элит и исследуется возникновение и развитие правящих элит, сформированных революцией, — революционных элит. Автор утверждает, что обязательными условиями революций являются сильный политический кризис, фрагментация элиты и преобладание рабочей силы, способной осуществить эгалитаристскую революцию в доиндустриальных обществах и антиэгалитаристскую революцию — в индустриальных. Примеры двух революционных сценариев иллюстрируют теорию возникновения революционных элит. Первый сценарий меняет конфигурацию элит, но не приводит к полной трансформации элит, их моделей поведения и возникновению революционной элиты (Англия, Франция, Мексика). Во втором сценарии революция меняет природу политической элиты и формирует новые революционные элиты (Россия, Германия, Италия). По мнению автора, революционные элиты появляются в условиях выраженного множественного суверенитета и наличия убедительной и разработанной идеологии.