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Ilus. Tab. Bib. Sum. (En) ; Secondary forests developing on agricultural land after it is abandoned, or as the fallow period in systems of subsistence agriculture, are an increasingly important component of the forest resources of the tropics. They fix and store carbon and may contribute to the alleviation of global warming, they are refuges for biodiversity in agricultural landscapes, and they are low-cost sources of a tremendous variety of forest products. The final years of the 20th century represent an opportune time to bring together researchers concerned with biological, ecological, social/organizational, financial/economic and political aspects of secondary forests and their management, to share their experiences and opinions concerning secondary tropical forests and to contribute to the development of a forward-looking, cross-disciplinary research agenda. The conference had the following objectives: 1) to summarize the state of knowledge of tropical secondary forests from the standpoint of the ecological, social and political sciences. 2) to report the most recent results of research on secondary forests from all relevant disciplines.

This issue is a product of the WATERLAT-GOBACIT Network's Thematic Area (TA) 3, the Urban Water Cycle and Essential Public Services. TA3 brings together academics, students, professionals working in the public sector, workers' unions, practitioners from Non-Governmental Organizations, activists and members of civil society groups, and representatives of communities and users of public services, among others. The remit of this TA is broad, as the name suggests, but it has a strong focus on the political ecology of urban water, with emphasis on the politics of essential water services (both in urban and rural areas). Key issues addressed within this framework have been the neoliberalization of water services, social struggles against privatization and mercantilization of these services, the politics of public policy and management in the sector, water inequality and injustice, and the contradictions and conflicts surrounding the status of water and water services as a public good, as a common good, as a commodity, as a citizenship right, and more recently, as a human right. This issue complements previous work published as Volume 6 No 2 in June 2019 and addresses the significance of community participation in the management and monitoring of water sources, and in the organization of essential water services in rural and periurban communities. The work has been organized by Marcela Morales-Magaña, National School of Higher Studies, Unit Morelia, Michoacán, National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) Jaime Paneque-Gálvez, Research Centre on Environmental Geography, also at UNAM in Morelia, Michoacán, México, and Alejandro Torres-Abreu, Transdisciplinary Institute of Social Research-Action, University of Puerto Rico, campus Humacao, Puerto Rico. The collection features four articles focused on experiences from Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Puerto Rico, presenting research results, some originated in the authors' recent doctoral dissertations.

This issue is a product of the WATERLAT-GOBACIT Network's Thematic Area (TA) 3, the Urban Water Cycle and Essential Public Services. TA3 brings together academics, students, professionals working in the public sector, workers' unions, practitioners from Non-Governmental Organizations, activists and members of civil society groups, and representatives of communities and users of public services, among others. The remit of this TA is broad, as the name suggests, but it has a strong focus on the political ecology of urban water, with emphasis on the politics of essential water services (both in urban and rural areas). Key issues addressed within this framework have been the neoliberalization of water services, social struggles against privatization and mercantilization of these services, the politics of public policy and management in the sector, water inequality and injustice, and the contradictions and conflicts surrounding the status of water and water services as a public good, as a common good, as a commodity, as a citizenship right, and more recently, as a human right. This issue complements previous work published as Volume 6 No 2 in June 2019 and addresses the significance of community participation in the management and monitoring of water sources, and in the organization of essential water services in rural and periurban communities. The work has been organized by Marcela Morales-Magaña, National School of Higher Studies, Unit Morelia, Michoacán, National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) Jaime Paneque-Gálvez, Research Centre on Environmental Geography, also at UNAM in Morelia, Michoacán, México, and Alejandro Torres-Abreu, Transdisciplinary Institute of Social Research-Action, University of Puerto Rico, campus Humacao, Puerto Rico. The collection features four articles focused on experiences from Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Puerto Rico, presenting research results, some originated in the authors' recent doctoral dissertations.

Objective: To explore two types of government actions in order to encourage science-government ties that include the important role of universities.Methods: Research-action, supported by document review, surveys, interviews, expert opinion, and workshops. Based on international experience, two key factors that have affected decentralization and local development were identified. Accordingly, there is a need to stimulate the creation of local capacities. Mainresults: The actions developed by higher education in the last decade, and the government visits to territories since 2018 were discussed.Conclusions: The position achieved by higher education as a relevant actor in processes of production, diffusion, and use of knowledge demanded by local development is outstanding. Generally, higher education has become a key allied of governments in terms of strategic management of local development. Government visits are presented as promising actions that promote university ties with national and local actors, and foster innovating dynamics locally. ; Objetivo: Explorar dos acciones gubernamentales para fomentar el vínculo ciencia-gobierno, con la participación activa de las universidades. Métodos: Investigación-acción, respaldada por análisis de documentos, encuestas, entrevistas, consulta a expertos y talleres de trabajo. A partir del análisis de la experiencia internacional se identificaron los factores clave que han afectado los procesos de descentralización y desarrollo territorial. De ellos se deriva la necesidad de fomentar la creación de capacidades a nivel local. Principales resultados: Se discuten las acciones desarrolladas por la educación superior en la última década y las visitas gubernamentales a los territorios a partir del año 2018. Conclusiones: Se destaca que, en efecto, la educación superior se ha venido posicionando como un actor relevante en los procesos de producción, difusión y uso de los conocimientos que el desarrollo local demanda. De manera generalizada la educación superior se ha convertido en aliado clave de los gobiernos en la conducción estratégica del desarrollo local. Las visitas gubernamentales se presentan como acciones promisorias que fomentan los vínculos de las universidades con actores nacionales y territoriales y promueven dinámicas innovativas a escala local.

The relationship between science and economy is a trendy issue, both in the scientific field as in the entrepreneurial and political arena. The main purpose of this work is to show in a synthetic way the state of the art of this matter. To this aim, we put forward the analysis of science developed by economists, focusing in the controversies between the neoclassical and the evolutionary perspective. We also review the empirical evidence offered by different works and sum up the main arguments of the present debate about how science should be organized. Main conclusions show that science and economy are closely related and that their links are complex and dynamic, so that flexible approaches are required in the management and evaluation of the relationship. ; La relación entre ciencia y economía es un tema de gran actualidad, atrae la atención tanto en el mundo científico como en el empresarial y el político. El principal objetivo de este trabajo consiste en mostrar de forma sintética el estado del arte sobre esta cuestión. Para ello, se presenta el análisis de la ciencia realizado por los economistas, prestando especial atención a las controversias existentes entre la perspectiva neoclásica y evolucionista, se repasa la evidencia empírica existente a partir de trabajos de muy distinta naturaleza y se resumen las líneas principales del debate actual acerca el modelo de organización de la ciencia. Las principales conclusiones del estudio muestran que ciencia y economía se hallan íntimamente relacionadas y que sus vínculos son complejos y dinámicos, por lo que se requieren planteamientos flexibles en la gestión y evaluación de dicha relación.

Recibido: 10 de agosto de 2019Aprobado: 30 de agosto de 2019La gestión estratégica resulta ser actualmente una de las herramientas de desarrollo empresarial más efectivas para el manejo de empresas e instituciones tanto públicas como privadas. Esta investigación plantea precisamente el diseño de un modelo de gestión estratégica para el Gobierno Provincial del Azuay en su proyecto denominado "Pasaje Artesanal Azuayo" que permita mejorar sus ingresos que se han visto afectados por la falta de difusión, innovación de los productos, creación de valor agregado, entre otros. La investigación utilizó un enfoque mixto de diseño exploratorio secuencial (DEXPLOS), es decir cuantitativo y cualitativo, lo que permitió establecer la necesidad de realizar convenios con organizaciones públicas y privadas que permitan generar ingresos a los 50 artesanos que conforman el proyecto productivo. ; Strategic management is currently one of the most effective business development tools for the management of companies and institutions, both public and private. This research proposes precisely the design of a strategic management model for the Provincial Government of Azuay in its project called "Pasaje Artesanal Azuayo" that allows to improve its income that has been affected by the lack of diffusion, innovation of the products, creation of added value, among others. The research used a mixed approach to sequential exploratory design (DEXPLOS), that is to say quantitative and qualitative, which allowed establishing the need to make agreements with public and private organizations that allow the income of the more than 50 artisans that make up the project productive.

Recibido: 15 de enero del 2019Aprobado: 26 de febrero del 2019 La gestión universitaria venezolana está sumergida en procesos de cambios difíciles, vertiginosos y complejos producto de una nueva disposición social, económica, política y jurídica, los cuales demandan repensarla desde nuevos paradigmas, nuevas estrategias e interpretaciones. El propósito de la investigación fue generar un corpus teórico para plantear la vinculación de los valores en los diferentes órganos responsables de los procesos académicos y administrativos en las instituciones universitarias y dar respuesta a la necesidad de transformar/reformar. Epistemológicamente el estudio se fundamentó en el paradigma de la complejidad de Morín (2001), bajo un enfoque cualitativo. En el caminar metodológico se basó en el método del pensamiento complejo basado en sus principios, a través de las representaciones de la comprensión y explicación, apoyado en el análisis reflexivo y crítico. Como hilos conductores teóricos, se fundamentó en la Ética de los Valores de Scheler (2001) y de Cortina (2006), Guillen (2006) y Etkin (2006). ; Venezuelan university management is submerged in processes of difficult, vertiginous and complex changes resulting from a new social, economic, political and legal disposition, which demand to rethink it from new paradigms, new strategies and interpretations. The purpose of the research was to generate a theoretical corpus to propose the linking of values in the different bodies responsible for the academic and administrative processes in university institutions and to respond to the need to transform / reform. Epistemologically, the study was based on the complexity paradigm of Morín (2001), under a qualitative approach. In the methodological walk, he based himself on the method of complex thinking based on his principles, through the representations of understanding and explanation, supported by reflexive and critical analysis. As theoretical threads, it was based on the Ethics of the Values of Scheler (2001) and Cortina (2006), Guillen (2006) and Etkin (2006).

This article analyzes the epistemological fundamentals of power in classical-rationalistic management, describing them as approaches based on its main authors: Barnard, Simon, Drucker, Crozier and Mintzberg. It also highlights the rationality and the values that support this management, especially, taking into account that reflections about power related to organizational objectives have been little elaborated by the North American management theorists. The article presents a theoretical review of the philosophical doctrine whose principal scholar is Vilfredo Pareto. Analysis of instrumental rationality as an epistemological basis for strategic management shows how the interactions between the human and non-human are established through the presence of art and science, including in its later stage social cybernetics in terms of social oscillation and organizational balance/imbalance. In this way, managerial narrative assumes human rationality forms and builds systems of transversal knowledge in a technical instrumental logic. More than questioning the acute asymmetries of organizational power, management has been focused on guiding and training managers, enterprises and organizations by using technologies of domination, under emblems of functional authority supported by communicational devices, and more recently, in inter and trans-organizational networks. Therein lies its strength and legitimacy, more than the foundation of an explicit political frame. ; Este texto analiza los fundamentos epistemológicos del poder en el management clásico-racionalista, los describe con base en planteamientos de varios de sus principales exponentes-Barnard, Simon, Drucker, Crozier y Mintzberg- y, además, pone de relieve las racionalidades y los valores que sustentan este management, sobre todo, teniendo en cuenta que las reflexiones sobre el poder en relación con objetivos organizacionales han sido poco elaboradas por los teóricos del management, especialmente los norteamericanos. Para ello, se realiza la revisión de la corriente filosófica del vitalismo, cuyo pensador más influyente ha sido Vilfredo Pareto. El análisis sobre la racionalidad instrumental como base epistemológica del management estratégico permite mostrar cómo se establecen las interacciones entre lo humano y lo no humano y la presencia del arte, la técnica y la ciencia, incluyendo, en su etapa posterior, la cibernética social en términos de la oscilación equilibrio/ desequilibrio social y organizacional. De esta manera, se observa que el discurso managerial supone unas formas de racionalidad humana y por ello construye sistemas de saberes que son transversales en una lógica técnico-instrumental. Más que el cuestionarse por las agudas asimetrías del poder organizacional, el management se ha encaminado a orientar y capacitar a los gerentes, empresas y organizaciones en el uso de tecnologías de dominación, bajo emblemas de autoridad funcional con apoyo del aparato comunicacional y, en un período reciente, en redes inter y transorganizacionales. Allí reside su fuerza y legitimidad, más que en su fundamentación en un plano explícitamente político. ; Este texto analisa os fundamentos epistemológicos do poder no management clássico-racionalista, descreve-os com base nas abordagens de diversos de seus principais expoentes – Barnard, Simon, Drucker, Crozier e Mintzberg – e, ademais, destaca as racionalidades e os valores que sustentam esse management, levando em conta, sobretudo, que as reflexões sobre o poder em relação a objetivos organizacionais foram pouco elaboradas pelos teóricos do management, especialmente os norte-americanos. Para isso, realiza-se a revisão da corrente filosófica do vitalismo, cujo pensador mais influente foi Vilfredo Pareto. A análise da racionalidade instrumental como base epistemológica do management estratégico permite mostrar como se estabelecem as interações entre o humano e o não humano e a presença da arte, da técnica e da ciência, incluindo, em sua etapa posterior, a cibernética social em termos da oscilação equilíbrio/desequilíbrio social e organizacional. Dessa maneira, observa-se que o discurso gerencial supõe umas formas de racionalidade humana e, por isso, constrói sistemas de saberes que são transversais numa lógica técnico-instrumental. Mais do que questionar-se pelas agudas assimetrias do poder organizacional, o management se voltou a orientar e capacitar os gerentes, empresas e organizações no uso de tecnologias de dominação, sob emblemas de autoridade funcional com apoio do aparato comunicacional e, num período recente, em redes inter e transorganizacionais. Aí reside sua força e legitimidade, mais do que em sua fundamentação num plano explicitamente político.

This article analyzes the epistemological fundamentals of power in classical-rationalistic management, describing them as approaches based on its main authors: Barnard, Simon, Drucker, Crozier and Mintzberg. It also highlights the rationality and the values that support this management, especially, taking into account that reflections about power related to organizational objectives have been little elaborated by the North American management theorists. The article presents a theoretical review of the philosophical doctrine whose principal scholar is Vilfredo Pareto. Analysis of instrumental rationality as an epistemological basis for strategic management shows how the interactions between the human and non-human are established through the presence of art and science, including in its later stage social cybernetics in terms of social oscillation and organizational balance/imbalance. In this way, managerial narrative assumes human rationality forms and builds systems of transversal knowledge in a technical instrumental logic. More than questioning the acute asymmetries of organizational power, management has been focused on guiding and training managers, enterprises and organizations by using technologies of domination, under emblems of functional authority supported by communicational devices, and more recently, in inter and trans-organizational networks. Therein lies its strength and legitimacy, more than the foundation of an explicit political frame. ; Este texto analiza los fundamentos epistemológicos del poder en el management clásico-racionalista, los describe con base en planteamientos de varios de sus principales exponentes-Barnard, Simon, Drucker, Crozier y Mintzberg- y, además, pone de relieve las racionalidades y los valores que sustentan este management, sobre todo, teniendo en cuenta que las reflexiones sobre el poder en relación con objetivos organizacionales han sido poco elaboradas por los teóricos del management, especialmente los norteamericanos. Para ello, se realiza la revisión de la corriente filosófica del vitalismo, cuyo pensador más influyente ha sido Vilfredo Pareto. El análisis sobre la racionalidad instrumental como base epistemológica del management estratégico permite mostrar cómo se establecen las interacciones entre lo humano y lo no humano y la presencia del arte, la técnica y la ciencia, incluyendo, en su etapa posterior, la cibernética social en términos de la oscilación equilibrio/ desequilibrio social y organizacional. De esta manera, se observa que el discurso managerial supone unas formas de racionalidad humana y por ello construye sistemas de saberes que son transversales en una lógica técnico-instrumental. Más que el cuestionarse por las agudas asimetrías del poder organizacional, el management se ha encaminado a orientar y capacitar a los gerentes, empresas y organizaciones en el uso de tecnologías de dominación, bajo emblemas de autoridad funcional con apoyo del aparato comunicacional y, en un período reciente, en redes inter y transorganizacionales. Allí reside su fuerza y legitimidad, más que en su fundamentación en un plano explícitamente político. ; Este texto analisa os fundamentos epistemológicos do poder no management clássico-racionalista, descreve-os com base nas abordagens de diversos de seus principais expoentes – Barnard, Simon, Drucker, Crozier e Mintzberg – e, ademais, destaca as racionalidades e os valores que sustentam esse management, levando em conta, sobretudo, que as reflexões sobre o poder em relação a objetivos organizacionais foram pouco elaboradas pelos teóricos do management, especialmente os norte-americanos. Para isso, realiza-se a revisão da corrente filosófica do vitalismo, cujo pensador mais influente foi Vilfredo Pareto. A análise da racionalidade instrumental como base epistemológica do management estratégico permite mostrar como se estabelecem as interações entre o humano e o não humano e a presença da arte, da técnica e da ciência, incluindo, em sua etapa posterior, a cibernética social em termos da oscilação equilíbrio/desequilíbrio social e organizacional. Dessa maneira, observa-se que o discurso gerencial supõe umas formas de racionalidade humana e, por isso, constrói sistemas de saberes que são transversais numa lógica técnico-instrumental. Mais do que questionar-se pelas agudas assimetrias do poder organizacional, o management se voltou a orientar e capacitar os gerentes, empresas e organizações no uso de tecnologias de dominação, sob emblemas de autoridade funcional com apoio do aparato comunicacional e, num período recente, em redes inter e transorganizacionais. Aí reside sua força e legitimidade, mais do que em sua fundamentação num plano explicitamente político.

The police, as well as other government agencies is a rather conservative mechanism not prone to rapid changes of style, techniques and methods of work and management methods as well. Despite more than a four-year "experience" of police reform in Russia, the police, is still the subject of constant criticism both from policing practitioners and theorists. This article describes the "cooperative" management system. The goal of the proposed material to the reader is the opening for the Russian reader leadership practices of the German police. The authors suggest that familiarity with the data presented below will help the continued practice of reforming of the Russian police, as well as police forces of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Today, both in Europe and Russia the traditional authoritarian system management and administration of the force dominates the fact that due to authors does not meet modern requirements of a changing and globalizing society and in the Police Science there is almost complete lack of international studies and those present are very scattered and fragmentary. It seems that this material will be useful for the further work of managers in the Russian police and possibly other countries of the so-called the former Soviet Union.

Research of higher education in Honduras is focused on public institutions. The National Autonomous University of Honduras (UNAH), which is public and of upmost and longest presence, has 6 research institutions (which include economics, laws, earth science, microbiology, peace and democracy, and human rights), 86 researchers and 14 units of investigation. The National Pedagogical University Francisco Morazán (UPNFM) has an Institute of Educational Research and Evaluation. Other public institutions such as the National Agricultural University (UNA) and the National School of Forest Sciences (ESCANIFOR) have promoted agricultural and forest investigations respectively. Concerning private centers, the El Zamorano University has developed a vast investigative career in the agricultural field. The Latin American Ranking of Research Activity includes only 7 out of 20 institutions of higher education in Honduras.The following work presents the current state of the investigation of economic, administrative, and accounting sciences in higher education institutions in the country. Also, to detail the academic offer of such centers, the programs, projects, researchers, publications through books, manuals and documents, scientific articles on indexed magazines, research education in pensum of academic degrees, programs or research projects involved with the government or private companies. The methodology of this work includes a documented bibliographic revision of information related to higher education, specifically related to economic, administrative, and accounting sciences. A compilation and an informational revision of the alignments and investigation projects, publications, researchers study programs, faculty projects, schools and institutions of specific areas. ; La investigación de la educación superior en el país está concentrada en las instituciones públicas. La Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras (UNAH), pública, de mayor data y presencia nacional, cuenta con 6 institutos de investigación (económicas, jurídicas, ciencias de la tierra, microbiología, paz y democracia, derechos humanos), 86 investigadores y 14 unidades de investigación. La Universidad Pedagógica Nacional Francisco Morazán (UPNFM) cuenta con un Instituto de Investigación y Evaluación Educativa. Otras instituciones públicas como la Universidad Nacional de Agricultura (UNA) y la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Forestales (ESNACIFOR) han fomentado la investigación agrícola y forestal respectivamente. En los centros privados, la Universidad El Zamorano, ha desarrollado una vasta carrera investigativa en el campo agrícola. En el ranking iberoamericano de la actividad investigadora solo 7 de 20 Instituciones de Educación Superior hondureña aparecen.El objetivo de este trabajo es presentar el estado de la investigación de las ciencias económicas, administrativas y contables en las instituciones de educación superior del país. Detallar la oferta de centros, las líneas o programas, proyectos, investigadores, publicaciones a través de libros, manuales y documentos, artículos científicos en revistas indexadas, la enseñanza de la investigación en los pensum de los grados académicos, programas o proyectos de investigación vinculados con la empresa y gobierno. La metodología de este trabajo incluye una revisión bibliográfica documental de información de la educación superior, específicamente de la relativa a las ciencias económicas, administrativas y contables. Una recopilación y revisión de información de las líneas y proyectos de investigación, publicaciones, investigadores, programas de estudio, proyectos de vinculación en las facultades, escuelas e institutos del área específica.

Table of contents: -University of South Florida: I+D+E -To share knowledge from Engineering Disciplines and tools designed to help us solve Complex Trans/Multi/Inter- disciplinary engineering challenges -To share on-going efforts in I+D+E at the College of Engineering/Department of Electrical Engineering at USF -To Emphasize the Importance of Creating Vehicles of Interaction Between Academia, Industry, Funding Agencies and Government and the impact of the ISTEC network ; Ibero-American Science and Technology Education Consortium

This study has been developed as part of a research project at the Centre of Electronic Government (CEGEL), at the University of Information Systems, affiliated to the current research program branch of the Ministry of Justice in Cuba. In order to develop this proposal, a technology management program enabling legal knowledge contained in scanned documents under the computer project "Cuban Popular Tribunals" was identified as a science to study Documentary Legal Informatics. Based on searching relevant information for the organization (SPC) on documents previously digitized with the computer project, there was the need to use documentary languages and to relate them with the design of information systems for the digital treatment of judicial information. The technology supporting knowledge management was translated into a computing architecture that connected ontology to its design. Also, whilst the role of ontologies is highlighted and regarded as documentary language within the science of documentation, it is considered a tool within computer sciences. This will establish the foundations to analyze and describe information from digital legal documents and to represent the knowledge contained in them. ; ResumenEl presente trabajo fue realizado en respuesta a una línea de investigación de un proyecto del Centro de Gobierno Electrónico (CEGEL), en la Universidad de las Ciencias Informáticas, adscripto al programa ramal de investigación vigente en el Ministerio de Justicia en Cuba. Para la realización de la propuesta, una tecnología informática que permita gestionar el conocimiento jurídico contenido en los documentos que se digitalizan en el marco del proyecto informático "Tribunales Populares Cubanos", se identificó como ciencia a estudiar la Informática Jurídica Documental. A partir de las búsquedas de información relevantes para la organización (Tribunal Supremo Popular), sobre los documentos que digitaliza el proyecto informático, se observó la necesidad de usar los lenguajes documentales, y su vinculación al diseño de sistemas informáticos para el tratamiento digital de la información judicial. La tecnología de apoyo a la gestión del conocimiento, se concreta en una arquitectura informática que vincula las ontologías a su diseño. Además, se destaca el papel de las ontologías como lenguaje documental desde la ciencia de la documentación, y como herramienta desde la ciencia de la información. Con la finalidad de analizar y describir información desde los documentos jurídicos digitales, para representar el conocimiento presente en los mismos.AbstractThis study has been developed as part of a research project at the Centre of Electronic Government (CEGEL), at the University of Information Systems, affiliated to the current research program branch of the Ministry of Justice in Cuba. In order to develop this proposal, a technology management program enabling legal knowledge contained in scanned documents under the computer project "Cuban Popular Tribunals" was identified as a science to study Documentary Legal Informatics. Based on searching relevant information for the organization (SPC) on documents previously digitized with the computer project, there was the need to use documentary languages and to relate them with the design of information systems for the digital treatment of judicial information. The technology supporting knowledge management was translated into a computing architecture that connected ontology to its design. Also, whilst the role of ontologies is highlighted and regarded as documentary language within the science of documentation, it is considered a tool within computer sciences. This will establish the foundations to analyze and describe information from digital legal documents and to represent the knowledge contained in them.

Una versión anterior de este trabajo fue presentada en el congreso "México, 1808-1821", organizado en El Colegio de México, del 8 al 10 de noviembre de 2007 ; La independencia de Estados Unidos, como la de Hispanoamérica, dio inicio como una respuesta a la amenaza que la metrópoli representaba para los intereses de ellos, así como para el sentimiento de ser una parte integral e importante de su monarquía. Los británicos americanos se rebelaron contra una Corona que no fue capaz de atender sus reclamos y de proporcionarles la autonomía plena que deseaban. A diferencia de los británicos americanos, los hispanoamericanos no se rebelaron contra la madre patria. En lugar de ello, emprendieron acciones para defender el gobierno legítimo contra los franceses que habían invadido la Península ibérica e impuesto a José Bonaparte como rey de la Monarquía española. Los hispanoamericanos fundamentaron sus acciones en la teoría política hispánica, la cual sostenía que en ausencia del rey la soberanía recaía sobre el pueblo. La mayoría de ellos se unió a los peninsulares en la formación de un gobierno que tomó el control en nombre de Fernando VII. Dicho gobierno convocó a Cortes y promulgó la Constitución de 1812, una de las Cartas más avanzadas del siglo XIX. Tal documento fue implementado de manera más plena en Nueva España. Incluso tras la independencia, en 1821, México permaneció leal a la cultura política y jurídica hispánica. A decir verdad, la Carta Magna de la República Federal Mexicana, la Constitución de 1824, podría ser considerada como la culminación de la gran Revolución hispánica que estalló en 1808. Esto en contraste con la mayor parte de las naciones sudamericanas, que fueron dominadas por militaristas ; The independence of the United States, like that of Spanish America, began as a response to metropolitan threats to their interests and to their pretense of becoming an integral and important part of their respective monarchy. British Americas rebelled against the Crown which failed to address their grievances ...

The advances that are operated in science and technology at preset has been of accelerated changes, that lead to the analysis of the need of professionals{ training to face since the enterprise practice the challenges that contemporary innovation impose about knowledge, it is obliging education to assume different challenges. The professional training of professional correctly prepared, with the aim of contributing to the development of the country, it link it with economical politic and the a wider social politic ,thus, as with the systems of production and management, it pretends to give a new approach which is: to train to make capable of ,to specialize and update students and professionals to prepare a professional and leaders with critical thought and social intellectual and of social goods and service and consciousness ,that link him with the principle of belonging being this the responsibility with preparation and training ,at the service of the an aesthetic politics of the society. ; Los avances que han tenido la ciencia y la tecnología en la actualidad han sido de cambios acelerados, que nos conduce al análisis de la necesidad de la formación de los profesionales para enfrentar desde la práctica empresarial los desafíos que impone la innovación contemporánea del saber, está obligando a la educación asumir diferentes retos. La formación profesionales debidamente preparados, con el afán de contribuir al desarrollo del país, lo vincula con la política económica y la política social más amplia, así como con los sistemas de producción y de gestión, pretende darle un nuevo enfoque el cual es: Formar, capacitar, especializar y actualizar a estudiantes y profesionales; preparar a profesionales y líderes con pensamiento crítico y conciencia social, intelectual y de bienes y servicios, que lo vincula con el principio de pertinencia siendo este la responsabilidad con la preparación y la formación, al servicio de un proyecto ético-político de sociedad.