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In this chapter we discuss what we have conceptualized as "the paradox of democracy", pointing to the conflict between the idea of the sovereign people on one side, and the idea that democracies need representatives and political leaders, on the other. The chapter gives an overview of democratic arrangements that encourage direct participation, including arrangements that feed into and support and arrangements that challenge the representative system. Furthermore, the chapter provides examples of arrangements that actively and intentionally link together representation and direct participation. Lastly, we discuss how the tension between participatory practices and representative democracy can be solved. In a brief and subsequent chapter, a Norwegian Mayor reflects on the conflict between representation and direct participation.

This thesis studies three major reforms in the public sector of Norway. The sectors studied are the police, higher education, and primary schools. The main motive for studying these reforms are of a theoretical nature, the reason to study them is to produce general knowledge about reforms. The study aims to answer two main questions. One is about the possibilities and limitations contained in using reforms to change organizations. The second is about how organizations can promote the ideals of representative democracy. In its efforts to attain answers to these questions the thesis blends empirically-oriented research with aspects of organization theory and political theory. The thesis is divided into four different parts. First, there is a descriptive presentation of the three reforms. Secondly, there is a discussion of various theories of reforms and organizations. The primary aim of this analysis is to illuminate and explain the empirical data, but this discussion should also provide its own answers to the main questions asked in the thesis. Thirdly, these theories are applied to analyze data from the three reforms. And finally, the study concludes with a summary of what general insights about the reforms we are left with after studying the Quality Reform, The Police Reform 2000, and the Knowledge Reform. The study shows that reforms have both policy and content aspects, and that it is important to distinguish between the two in order to analyse and understand them. The policy aspect is that reforms are a strategy for change - they are tools for implementing change in organizations. The content aspect is that reforms have a specific content - they have certain objectives that they want to realize. The study concludes that in order to understand this complex and fascinating phenomenon, we need to understand reforms both as instrumental tools, institutional adaptations and symbols.

During the pandemic model for swedish public management have been discussed. In the societal debate, demands have been made for increased centralization and for the state to take over municipal areas of responsibility. The pandemic's crisis management has revealed a lack of knowledge about municipalities among government authorities and that there are differences in conditions between municipalities for the implementation of the activities. In studies of five municipalities and one region during the period 2020–2021 the results show the local level's ability to handle pandemics, which is also confirmed by international studies. The crisis management of the region/municipalities has shown the strength of a decentralized structure, but also that important development issues must be handled locally for an effective management of future crises. The answer lie in strengthening local self-government and addressing the challenges that exist in the multi-level governance that has come to characterize the public sector. ; I samband med pandemin har den svenska förvaltningsmodellen diskuterats. Det har funnits ett ifrågasättande av kommunernas förmåga att hantera den kris som pandemin innebar. Samtidigt har pandemins krishantering avslöjat så väl brist på kunskap om kommunal verksamhet bland statliga myndigheter som att det föreligger skillnader i förutsättningar mellan kommuner för verksamhetens genomförande. I studier som genomförts av fem kommuner och en region under perioden 2020–2021 visar tvärtom resultatet på den lokala nivåns förmåga att hantera pandemin, vilket även bekräftas av internationella studier. Regionens och kommunernas krishantering har visat styrkan i en decentraliserad samhällsstruktur, men också att viktiga utvecklingsfrågor och blottlagda brister måste hanteras lokalt för en ändamålsenlig hantering av kommande kriser och för en gynnsam utveckling i vardagen. Svaret finns inte i en ökad centralisering, utan en förstärkning av det kommunala självstyret och att ta sig an de utmaningar som finns i ...

This article explores the diffusion of trust-based management (TBM) and how trust-based management affects trust between managers and employees, as well as organizational results. The idea of trust-based management stems from reforms in Copenhagen municipality in 2012 and has since spread to the public sector in Norway and Sweden. Trust-based management is perceived by many as an innovation and as different from traditional governance and control. There have recently been some studies of trust-based management in Denmark and Sweden, but so far there are few empirically based studies of trust-based management beyond case studies. This analysis uses survey data from 143 managers and employees in public sector organizations in Norway and the article is the first analysis of the diffusion of trust-based management and its impact on organizational performance in Norway. The results indicate that there has been little change in trust-based management in recent years, and municipalities seem to have more trust-based management than central government organizations. Multivariate analyses with PLS-SEM show that increased trust-based management is positively related to organizational performance directly as well as positively related to organizational performance via trust, as expected from theory. ; Denne artikkelen utforsker utbredelsen av tillitsbasert styring og ledelse (TBSL) og hvordan tillitsbasert styring og ledelse påvirker tillit mellom ledere og ansatte og organisasjoners resultater i offentlig sektor i Norge. Idéen om tillitsbasert styring og ledelse springer ut fra reformer i København kommune i 2012 og har siden spredd seg til den offentlige sektoren i Norge og Sverige. Tillitsbasert styring og ledelse blir av mange oppfattet som en innovasjon og forskjellig fra tradisjonell styring og kontroll. Det er nå kommet en del studier av tillitsbasert styring og ledelse i Danmark og Sverige, men det er så langt få empirisk baserte studier av tillitsbasert styring og ledelse utover case-studier. Analysen bruker spørreskjemadata fra 143 ledere og ansatte i offentlig virksomhet, og dette er den første analysen av utbredelsen av tillitsbasert styring og ledelse og dens virkninger i Norge. Resultatene viser at det har vært lite endring i tillitsbasert styring og ledelse de siste årene, og kommunene hadde mer tillitsbasert styring og ledelse enn statlige organisasjoner. Multivariate analyser med PLS-SEM viser at økt tillitsbasert styring og ledelse har en direkte positiv sammenheng med organisasjonsresultater så vel som en positiv indirekte sammenheng med organisasjonsresultater gjennom tillit, som forventet fra teorien.

The Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis has influenced the lives of people in rural areas since the beginning of Norwegian civilization. In the first known written sources about the species, during the Viking age, the goshawk symbolized heroism and bravery. Goshawks were historically connected to mysticism and superstition, as evidenced first in old runes and later in fairy tales and common adages. This paper reviews the scientific and ethical argumentation for the management strategy in that took place between 1845 and 1971, when the goshawk was considered a bounty species. At the start of this extermination period, a small number of influential scientists convinced the government to establish a bounty on goshawks that is dictated in hunting legislation from 1845, 1863 and 1899. From 1910 onward, the debate concerning the bounty policy became more diverse, broadening the discussion to include moralistic and conservational issues and finally leading to the protection of goshawks in 1971. Hunting legislation beginning the 1970s refined the utilitarian view of nature by including functional aspects of game species removing the distinction between "vermin" and "utility" animals in 1981. The goshawk has been listed on Norway's Red List of Threatened Species since 1984. This review illuminates how scientific, aesthetical and ethical arguments were all interwoven in the policy and management for the Northern Goshawk over a relatively short historic timeframe. ; Hønsehauken har influert folks liv siden tidlig sivilisasjon. I de første nedtegnede skrevne kildene om arten, i Vikingtiden fra 800-1050 e.kr., symboliserer hønsehauken heltemot og dyktighet. Det var mye mystikk og overtro knyttet til hønsehauken og bevis på dette kan finnes fra gamle runer og senere i eventyr og ordtak. Artikkelen beskriver den vitenskapelige og etiske argumentasjonen for å gi skuddpremie på arten i perioden 1845 til 1971. I starten på perioden var det bare et fåtall innflytelsesrike personer som påvirket myndighetene til å gi skuddpremie på den og utarbeide lovverk for dette i 1845, 1863 og 1899. Fra 1910 og fremover ble argumentasjonen for eller imot skuddpremie mer mangfoldig og til slutt resulterte det, til at arten ble fredet i 1971. Med viltloven i 1981 ble det fra offisielt politisk hold slutt på å skille mellom skade- og nyttedyr i naturen, og hønsehauken har vært listet på de nasjonale rødlista siden 1984. Hønsehauk er et godt eksempel på en art som har samvirket med mennesket i lang tid og som inkluderer sterke følelser fra både de som ser på den som en konkurrent og fra de som ser på den som en naturlig del av økosystemet. Selv om forvaltningen av hønsehauk i dag skal være kunnskapsbasert, er vår påstand at også andre verdier som symbolverdi og estetisk verdi påvirker forvaltningen av arten.