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The measures of the semantic relatedness of concepts can be categorised into two types: knowledge‑based methods and corpus‑based methods. Knowledge‑based techniques make use of man‑created dictionaries, thesauruses and other artefacts as a source of knowledge. Corpus‑based techniques assess the semantic similarity of two concepts making use of large corpora of text documents. Some researchers claim that knowledge‑based measures outperform corpus‑based ones, but it is much more important to observe that the latter ones are heavily corpus dependent. In this article, we propose to modify the best WordNet‑based method of assessing semantic relatedness, i.e. the Leacock‑Chodorow measure. This measure has proven to be the best in several studies and has a very simple formula. We asses our proposal on the basis of two popular benchmark sets of pairs of concepts, i.e. the Ruben‑Goodenough set of 65 pairs of concepts and the Fickelstein set of 353 pairs of terms. The results prove that our proposal outperforms the traditional Leacock‑Chodorow measure.

The lexical and semantic peculiarities of military vocabulary are analyzed. The article deals with the increasing process of semantic modifications of the military vocabulary that expands its functional area. ; В статье анализируются лексико-семантические особенности лексики, обозначающей фортификационные сооружения. Рассматривается процесс расширения семантических модификаций военной лексики, который приводит к увеличению области её функционирования. ; У статті аналізуються лексико-семантичні особливості лексики на позначення фортифікаційних споруд. Ідеться про розгалуження семантичних модифікацій військової лексики, що спричиняє розширення сфери її функціонування.

The article reviews the problems of eye bottom fundus analysis and semantic segmentation algorithms used to distinguish eye vessels, optical disk. Various diseases, such as glaucoma, hypertension, diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration, etc., can be diagnosed by changes and anomalies of vesssels and optical disk. For semantic segmentation convolutional neural networks, especially U-Net architecture, are well suited. Recently a number of U-Net modifications have been developed that deliver excellent performance results.

Settings and participants: analogous semantic extensions in conceptually remote domainsThis article concerns a phenomenon, claimed to be semantic in nature, which can be observed in expressions from conceptually distant categories. The phenomenon in question consists in the modification of lexical categories in which the form of the words is retained, but their meanings undergo essential, yet analogous, shifts. The two domains selected for the purpose of this study are so-called meteorological expressions (e.g., it's raining, snow fell etc.) and the names of political states (France, Mexico, Vietnam etc.). These domains are mutually independent and constitute unrelated areas of knowledge. What is intriguing, however, is the similarity of the semantic shifts, also known as conversion or zero-derivation, which occur in these categories. The term "semantic extension" has been chosen as a convenient shorthand for the phenomenon in question. The article argues that due to altered profiles imposed on essentially the same base, the semantic extension under investigation results in shifts between the profiles of a "setting", a "participant" and a "process". In a comparative perspective between the two domains in question, zero-derived settings and participants alternate on a regular basis. The analysis applied here adopts tools exploited in cognitive grammar (e.g., profile, base). If semantic extensions towards settings and participants can be confirmed in such distant domains, further research can be undertaken in other domains. If related semantic effects are found in more domains, the semantic categories of a setting and a participant should be included in descriptive grammars. Scenerie i uczestnicy: analogiczne rozszerzenia semantyczne w pojęciowo odległych domenachArtykuł dotyczy zjawiska o charakterze semantycznym, pojawiającego się w wyrażeniach z pojęciowo odległych kategorii. Omawiane efekty stanowią modyfikacje kategorii leksykalnych, w których forma pozostaje zachowana, ale ich znaczenia ulegają istotnym, ale też analogicznym zmianom. Dwie domeny wybrane do celów tego badania to tak zwane wyrażenia meteorologiczne (np. pada deszcz, spadł śnieg itp.) oraz nazwy państw (Francja, Meksyk, Wietnam itd.). Domeny te są od siebie niezależne i stanowią niepowiązane ze sobą obszary wiedzy. Intrygujące jest jednak podobieństwo semantycznych zmian, zwanych również konwersją lub derywacją zerową, widoczne w tych wyrażeniach. Termin 'rozszerzenie semantyczne' będzie używany jako dogodny skrót dla omawianego zjawiska. Artykuł dowodzi, że ze względu na zmienne profile nakładane na zasadniczo tę samą bazę, badane rozszerzenie semantyczne powoduje przesunięcia między profilami 'scenerii', 'uczestnika' i 'procesu'. W perspektywie porównawczej między dwiema domenami, scenerie i uczestnicy regularnie się zmieniają. Zastosowana analiza używa narzędzi wykorzystywanych w gramatyce kognitywnej (np. profil, baza). Jeśli semantyczne rozszerzenia w kierunku scenerii i uczestników zostaną potwierdzone w tak odległych domenach, można podjąć dalsze badania w innych domenach. Jeśli powiązane efekty semantyczne występują w większej liczbie domen, kategorie semantyczne scenerii i uczestnika powinny zostać uwzględnione w gramatykach opisowych.

The aim of the presented article is to show semantic changes in Old Polish person-related nouns. Describing selected entries from a diachronic perspective – by comparing semantic notations from the Old Polish Dictionary edited by S. Urbańczyk with definitions from later dictionaries – has allowed me to identify semantic modifications occurring over the centuries (e.g. metaphors, de-metaphorisation, expansion of meaning, pejorative meaning) and to make a number of remarks on the subject.

The notions "the right side", "on the right", "the Right" and "the left side", "on the left", "the Left", as well as the variations associated with them in the thinking spaces of all cultures initially indicate links to the functioning of the body and hands, establishing an aspect of their orientation and system of values. In one instance these systems may demonstrate absolute features, in another – relative; however, their common trend is assumed semantic stability. The paper outlines the formation of a new historical reality and presents modifications in the meanings of the ancient notions, which are required in its staging.

Phrases whose problems are in this paper are excerpted from the works of Martin Mikulić, a Herzegovinian Franciscan writer. Mikulić left behind a great literary wealth worth scientific observation - especially in the field of phraseology. Namely, the paper deals with the semantic aspect of phrases created through different tropes. The phrases created through metaphor, ie. metaphorical formulas where, for example, the loss of a head is equal to the loss of life. Other examples have been created according to the same principle, where body parts appear as components of phrases and other various components can be found. In addition to phrases created through metaphor, metonymy, synagogue, the material also confirms phrases created through periphrasis, hyperbole, euphemism, irony, antithesis and comparison. In addition, attention in this paper was focused on the definition, form and structure of phrases. Thus, the material confirms phrases with one full word, phrases with two or more independent words with or without auxiliary words, as well as phrases of a sentence. In the scientific literature, many authors share the opinion that the structure of phrases is usually solid, which is not shown by the examples from the corpus where a certain type of change in the structure of phrases was made. Apart from variant forms in which there is no change in meaning but in expression, so it is one or more alternative forms of phrases - other modifications are reflected in the fact that the order of components in the phrase is not solid and stable, that it is possible to replace one component the second as well as in changes of syntactic nature (prepositional-case connection), then the addition of certain components as well as the reduction of components, etc. The corpus confirms phrases whose phraseological components have lost their denotative meaning as well as examples where some of the phraseological components retain their denotative meaning.

The purpose of this study is to examine phraseology in the songs by the British singer and songwriter Adele. The phraseological expressions were analysed from the point of view of their structure, semantics, functions, and frequency. The results of the research revealed a high frequency of idioms in Adele's songs, a wide range of idioms' functions, including less common ones, such as ironic and ludic, the presence of all structural classes of idioms and the dominance of verbal expressions at the structural level. The study of the modification of idioms in Adele's songs revealed two types of phraseological modification — reduction and lexical substitution.

The article deals with the functioning of Spanish interjections on the material of corpora data. The interjections are prototypical means of expressing the category of emotiveness. This category denotes the emotional state or attitude of the speaker to the reality. The categorical interaction of emotivity and causativity — a category that has the meaning of "incitement to action or change of state" — is described. In the emotive area of modification the causator acts upon the object of causation in order to change their emotional state. An analysis is made of the interaction of emotive causatives, interpreted as verbs with the semes of causation and emotiveness, with Spanish interjections in the framework of a situation of emotional modification causation. Interjections and emotive causatives can have mutual influence on the semantic potential.

This article reviews the problems of eye bottom fundus analysis and semantic segmentation algorithms used to distinguish the eye vessels and the optical disk. Various diseases, such as glaucoma, hypertension, diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration, etc., can be diagnosed through changes and anomalies of the vesssels and optical disk. Convolutional neural networks, especially the U-Net architecture, are well-suited for semantic segmentation. A number of U-Net modifications have been recently developed that deliver excellent performance results.

Using samples from local newspapers, letters and public speeches, this article argues that English assimilates to and reflects the Botswana culture through borrowing and semantic modification. It discusses those terminologies and expressions that depict the cultural values of Batswana in the usage of English in Botswana. Two types of borrowed items are discussed: those depicting old traditional practices that cannot be translated into English ( kgosi and mophato) and those reflecting recent socio-political experiences in Botswana including the HIV/AIDS threat ( tebelopele and omang). The people's culture is also expressed by items such as brigade and the lands that have been semantically modified.

We set out to develop a method and research technique that could unite both modelling and case-based observations in order to analyse collective decision-making processes. Following Abbott's (2001) recommendation regarding social processes, we have defined collective decision-making as an uninterrupted and non-directional process that is structured in sequences or lineages of events. To structure these processes, we re-modelled the basic components of Kauffman's (1993) NK-model. We converted N to 'problem and solution definitions' (PSDs) and K to 'connectedness' between actors (c_score). An important modification is that we consider NK to be a dependent configuration; i.e., K entails both content and process. Fitness is defined as the probability of an actor achieving (elements of) its PSD as a result of its adaptive moves in relation to the adaptive moves of others. The model is put to the test in four different studies: (1) 20 years of decision-making in planning, building and servicing HSL-Zuid high-speed railways in the Netherlands; (2) the strategic search process of villages and cantons in the Gotthard region of Switzerland; (3) the redevelopment of a football stadium and the surrounding area in south Rotterdam, the Netherlands; and (4) the rise and fall of the Airport RailLink in Bangkok, Thailand. From these studies, we derived six archetypes in collection decision-making, subdivided into actor archetypes and interaction archetypes. For the actor archetypes, behavioural consistency is not just a trait for the actor but also affects the space of possibilities and/or behaviours of other actors. The interactions of individual actors combine to produce self-propagating dynamics that drive the further evolution of the collective decision-making process. The fitness field model enables researchers to investigate the various dimensions of the collective decision-making process – ranging from individual strategies and actions to variation, selection and retention of contents, from interactions to fitness gains and losses, and back again.

Abstract. Introduction.The article deals with lexico-semantic and stylistic aspects of the agrarian language specialty, specifies the peculiarities of the use of stylistic means in agrarian texts in German. Purpose is to determine lexico-semantic features of the german-language terminosystem of agrarian sphere. Results. It has been found that the enrichment of the industry's lexical system, in particular terminological units, occurs in two ways. It has been determined that the agro-industrial complex is characterized by a large number of terms that define land-related concepts. They denote the most common concepts of agroeconomic science, which came into existence long before its full development. Such terms are modifications of the original meaning of ordinary common words. In the language of agriculture and the economy of the agro-industrial complex, an important place is occupied by terms, which are the second time in the term system, acquiring updates due to changes in economic, social or political situation. It should be noted that in the new terminological environment they are used together with the clarifying word - adjective land or noun land, so they have already acquired the status of terminological phrases, which are usually used in the mature form. Many common words have become agro-economic terms, combined with the dependent component. However, some of them are recorded in German dictionaries, while others are not. It has been found that the semantics of terminological units also require in-depth research. On the basis of the commonality of the content of a semantically organized system of linguistic units, the semantic fields of terms of this branch in language are formed. The structure of the field outlines the understanding of language as a system of subsystems characterized by interaction and interpenetration. The subsystems of the field are semantic groups - paradigmatically linked units, united by a community of meanings, regardless of belonging to different parts of the language. Various lexical-semantic groups are considered, examples are given. At the present stage of development of agrarian terminology, it has been found that transformational changes in terms of the content of the names under study are often related to the emergence in the semantic structure of a number of terms of individual lexical-semantic groups that refer them to other thematic groups. It is established that the structure of terms of agrarian industry and, in particular, sub-branches of agricultural engineering is represented by two groups: monolex and multilex terms. The terms of mechanical engineering and their division into those between the constituent parts of which are meaningful, copulatory and signifier-copulative relations are considered. It is established that the terms in both languages have a large percentage of borrowings, and each term can be considered by its belonging to lexical-semantic groups, thematic groups, source of origin, primary or secondary nomination, mono- or multilexity, etc. A number of main features of the discourse of the scientific and technical literature of agrarian subjects are determined.It is also determined that the plant term system is marked by a large number of terms-abbreviations or truncated words-terms. Some of the abbreviations (full or partial) are translated into Ukrainian, either directly or through calculations. Acronyms are no less commonly used, the abbreviations formed from the initial letters that are part of a multicomponent name. Acronyms, along with acronyms, are quite common in reducing-contamination formed by the compilation of two bases, which are translated by descriptive method and calculation. It is established that acronyms resulting from the truncation or omission of a part of a word are translated by the method of calculating and explication. It has been found that these short names are used both in writing and in oral language. And most of the shortened German-speaking composites are translated by calculus - by replacing the components with their lexical correspondences, and their full name is translated by explication - explaining the meaning of the word. Conclusion. It is determined that in the agrarian discourse of the German language, such abbreviations are used which have no corresponding in the Ukrainian language, so they are always translated in the full form of the word. It is determined that the discourse of the scientific and technical literature of agrarian subjects has a number of defining features that characterize its thematic orientation and determine the functional features. Among them: truthfulness, scientific creativity, anthropocentrism, seclusion, clear normality, as well as high terminology. There is a large percentage of borrowing terms in both languages. Each term can be considered by its affiliation to LSG, TG, source of origin, primary or secondary nomination, mono- or multilexity, etc. For this reason, unification, selection of scientific term, use of dialect material with consideration of all needs and requirements of terminology are the main tasks of terminology. ; Анотація. У статті розглянуто лексико-семантичні особливості німецькомовної терміносистеми рослинництва та стилістичні аспекти фахової мови аграрної сфери, визначено особливості використання стилістичних засобів в аграрних текстах німецькою мовою. Виявлено, що збагачення лексичної системи галузі, зокрема термінологічними одиницями, відбувається двома шляхами. Розглянуто різні лексико-семантичні групи, наведено приклади. Виявлено, що на сучасному етапі розвитку аграрної термінології трансформаційні зміни в плані змісту досліджуваних найменувань нерідко бувають пов'язані з виникненням в семантичній структурі ряду термінів окремих лексико-семантичних груп, що відносять їх до інших тематичних груп. Встановлено, що структура термінів аграрної галузі і, зокрема, підгалузі сільськогосподарського машинобудування представлена двома групами: монолексемними і багатолексемними термінами. Розглянуто терміни машинобудування і їх поділ на такі, між складовими частинами яких існують означальні, копулятивні і означально-копулятивні зв'язки. Встановлено, що серед термінів в обох мовах наявний великий відсоток запозичень, а кожен термін можна розглядати з боку його приналежності до лексико-семантичних груп, тематичних груп, джерела виникнення, первинної чи вторинної номінації, моно- чи багатолексемності тощо. Визначено ряд головних особливостей дискурсу науково-технічної літератури аграрної тематики.