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for several decades, the area of development has been striving to promote women's empowerment. It is tempting to contrast different visions of the concept according to its ideological and political foundations, from radical approaches focused on collective struggle and social change to neoliberal approaches based on individual empowerment and market integration. The analysis of the daily reality of the struggles calls on us to recognise the ambivalent, sometimes paradoxical and always complex, dimension of the pathways to emancipation. This analysis of daily struggles does not hide their material, although essential, but also calls on us to disguise the diversity and capillarity of the processes of access to power, as well as their emotional, emotional, emotional and physical dimension. Emotions and influences shape and express power: a better understanding of them is essential if we want to think about possible ways of reversing or reversing it. ; International audience ; for several decades, the area of development has been striving to promote women's empowerment. It is tempting to contrast different visions of the concept according to its ideological and political foundations, from radical approaches focused on collective struggle and social change to neoliberal approaches based on individual empowerment and market integration. The analysis of the daily reality of the struggles calls on us to recognise the ambivalent, sometimes paradoxical and always complex, dimension of the pathways to emancipation. This analysis of daily struggles does not hide their material, although essential, but also calls on us to disguise the diversity and capillarity of the processes of access to power, as well as their emotional, emotional, emotional and physical dimension. Emotions and influences shape and express power: a better understanding of them is essential if we want to think about possible ways of reversing or reversing it. ; Depuis plusieurs décennies, le champ du développement s'évertue à promouvoir l'empowerment des ...

Background: Having 90% of patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) and achieving an undetectable viral load (VL) is 1 of the 90: 90: 90 by 2020 targets. In this global analysis, we investigated the proportions of adult and paediatric patients with VL suppression in the first 3 years after ART initiation. Methods: Patients from the IeDEA cohorts who initiated ART between 2010 and 2014 were included. Proportions with VL suppression (<1000 copies/ mL) were estimated using (1) strict intention to treat (ITT)-loss to follow-up (LTFU) and dead patients counted as having detectable VL; and (2) modified ITT-LTFU and dead patients were excluded. Logistic regression was used to identify predictors of viral suppression at 1 year after ART initiation using modified ITT. Results: A total of 35,561 adults from 38 sites/16 countries and 2601 children from 18 sites/6 countries were included. When comparing strict with modified ITT methods, the proportion achieving VL suppression at 3 years from ART initiation changed from 45.1% to 90.2% in adults, and 60.6% to 80.4% in children. In adults, older age, higher CD4 count preART, and homosexual/bisexual HIV exposure were associated with VL suppression. In children, older age and higher CD4 percentage pre-ART showed significant associations with VL suppression. Conclusions: Large increases in the proportion of VL suppression in adults were observed when we excluded those who were LTFU or had died. The increases were less pronounced in children. Greater emphasis should be made to minimize LTFU and maximize patient retention in HIV-infected patients of all age groups. ; U.S. National Institutes of Health's National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases ; Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development ; National Cancer Institute ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA ; Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, USA ; Health Resources and Services Administration, USA ; Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Canada ; Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care ; Government of Alberta, Canada ; Intramural Research Program of the National Cancer Institute ; Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing ; UNSW, Kirby Inst, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia ; Johns Hopkins Bloomberg Sch Publ Hlth, Dept Epidemiol, Baltimore, MD USA ; Fdn Huesped, Buenos Aires, DF, Argentina ; Univ Chile, Sch Med, Santiago, Chile ; Fdn Arriaran, Santiago, Chile ; Univ Cape Town, Sch Publ Hlth & Family Med, Cape Town, South Africa ; Childrens Hosp 2, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam ; Univ Cape Town, Dept Paediat & Child Hlth, Cape Town, South Africa ; Univ Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada ; YRGCARE Med Ctr, Madras, Tamil Nadu, India ; Univ Fed Sao Paulo, Pediat Infect Dis Div, Escola Paulista Med, Sao Paulo, Brazil ; Johns Hopkins Univ, Dept Med, Div Infect Dis, Baltimore, MD USA ; Univ Stellenbosch, Dept Med, Div Infect Dis, Cape Town, South Africa ; Tygerberg Hosp, Cape Town, South Africa ; Univ Bern, Inst Social & Prevent Med, Bern, Switzerland ; Univ Fed Sao Paulo, Pediat Infect Dis Div, Escola Paulista Med, Sao Paulo, Brazil ; NCI: U01AI035004 ; NCI: U01AI035039 ; NCI: U01AI035040 ; NCI: U01AI035041 ; NCI: U01AI035042 ; NCI: U01AI037613 ; NCI: U01AI037984 ; NCI: U01AI038855 ; NCI: U01AI038858 ; NCI: U01AI042590 ; NCI: U01AI068634 ; NCI: U01AI068636 ; NCI: U01AI069432 ; NCI: U01AI069434 ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA: CDC-200-2006-18797 ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA: CDC-200-2015-63931 ; Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, USA: 90047713 ; Health Resources and Services Administration, USA: 90051652 ; Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Canada: CBR-86906 ; Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Canada: CBR-94036 ; Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Canada: HCP-97105 ; Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Canada: TGF-96118 ; NCI: P30AI027757 ; NCI: P30AI027763 ; NCI: P30AI027767 ; NCI: P30AI036219 ; NCI: P30AI050410 ; NCI: P30AI094189 ; NCI: P30AI110527 ; NCI: P30MH62246 ; NCI: R01AA016893 ; NCI: R01CA165937 ; NCI: R01DA004334 ; NCI: R01DA011602 ; NCI: R01DA012568 ; NCI: R24AI067039 ; NCI: U01AA013566 ; NCI: U01AA020790 ; NCI: U01AI1031834 ; NCI: U01AI034989 ; NCI: U01AI034993 ; NCI: U01AI034994 ; NCI: M01RR000052 ; NCI: U54MD007587 ; NCI: UL1RR024131 ; NCI: UL1TR000004 ; NCI: UL1TR000083 ; NCI: UL1TR000454 ; NCI: UM1AI035043 ; NCI: Z01CP010214 ; NCI: Z01CP010176 ; NCI: U01AI069907 ; NCI: U01AI069923 ; NCI: U01AI069924 ; NCI: U01AI069918 ; NCI: F31DA037788 ; NCI: G12MD007583 ; NCI: K01A1093197 ; NCI: K23EY013707 ; NCI: K24DA000432 ; NCI: K24AI065298 ; NCI: KL2TR000421 ; NCI: N02CP055504 ; NCI: U01AI103390 ; NCI: U01AI103397 ; NCI: U01AI103401 ; NCI: U01AI103408 ; NCI: U01DA036935 ; NCI: U01HD032632 ; NCI: U10EY008057 ; NCI: U10EY008052 ; NCI: U10EY008067 ; NCI: U24AA020794 ; Web of Science

Testing pregnant women for HIV in order to prevent transmission from infected women to infants is increasingly advocated as a routine part of antenatal care, and the HIV test is viewed on par with other antenatal tests. Requirements for informed consent to the test have been relaxed to promote testing and treatment to reduce the risk of transmission from infected women to infants and for their own health. Women have the right to refuse the test, and this right is viewed as adequate to protect them from potential stigma and discrimination associated with a positive result. However unlike other antenatal tests, testing positive for HIV puts women at significant risk of stigma and discrimination, especially if they are tested and diagnosed before their male partners as is often the case. Furthermore, there is a large gap between the numbers of women diagnosed with HIV within the programme to prevent parent-to-child transmission (PPTCT) and access to effective antiretroviral treatment to reduce risk of transmission to infants and for their own health. Acknowledging these risks, UNAIDS/WHO (2007), and the Indian government (NACO 2007) recommend promoting the autonomy of women in decision-making about the test, and testing women only after obtaining their informed and voluntary consent to the test. In this thesis, I draw upon the capabilities approach to examine the extent to which policies by UN agencies and by the Government of India, and the practice of obtaining informed in antenatal care facilities in Tamil Nadu, India, promote women's ability to make an informed and voluntary decision about the test. Data for the thesis were drawn from research conducted between 2006 and 2010. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used. Qualitative methods included content analysis of policy recommendations for informed consent to an antenatal HIV test, and of guidelines to prevent parent-to-child transmission; and an ethnographic study among stakeholders in India between August 2007 and July 2008. A total of 28 focus group discussions, 56 in-depth interviews, four case studies, and 70 semi-structured observations were conducted among women accessing antenatal care at selected health facilities, husbands, community members, and heads of non-government organizations, healthcare providers, and state and national level policy makers the quantitative method used to collect data was a questionnaire survey among 380 women who accessed antenatal care at selected healthcare facilities between May 2007 and January 2008. Results showed that global and Indian policy recommendations for an antenatal test to prevent parent-to-child transmission targetted women to the virtual exclusion of male partners, and severely restricted women's capabilities related to autonomous decision-making about the test. Furthermore, the PPTCT programme focused almost entirely on testing and treatment and ignored components related to primary prevention for women, and prevention of unintended pregnancies among infected women. A large proportion of pregnant women who tested positive, both globally and in India, did not receive antiretroviral prophylaxis to reduce the risk of transmission to the infant or antiretroviral treatment for their own heath. In India, infected women who did receive prophylactic treatment received the sub-optimal Nevirapine regimen that was less than 50% in the absence of exclusive breast feeding. The limitations in policy were exacerbated in practice. Although test acceptance among women was 100% test, this was not accompanied by their informed consent of women in the overwhelmingly vast majority of cases. In general, both policy makers and healthcare providers dismissed women's ability to make an informed and voluntary decision about the test, and questioned the feasibility of obtaining an informed consent in Indian settings. In contrast, women demonstrated their ability to make informed and pragmatic choices by identifying alternate approaches to the test that would help to protect infants from the risk of transmission, while also protecting infected women from potential stigma an discrimination, such as couple counselling and testing, and confidentiality of a positive test result. Furthermore, healthcare providers uniformly constructed the test as a compulsory requirement of antenatal care, withheld pre-test information about potential stigma and discrimination and about the right of the woman to refuse the test, and implicitly threatened to withhold access to ongoing antenatal care if women did not complete the test. They justified these actions as necessary to protect infants from the risk of acquiring the infection from infected mothers during pregnancy, delivery and breastfeeding, as well as to protect themselves from the risk of accidental exposure while providing care. In contrast, they did not discuss how women could protect themselves from HIV, even though all women respondents who tested positive reported acquiring HIV from infected husbands. Based on these findings, I suggest that promoting women's autonomy in antenatal testing, and in the broader context of HIV prevention and care in resource constrained settings such as India, is necessary both to protect their rights and to help them cope with their vulnerabilities to HIV and its consequences

AMÉRICA LATINAElecciones legislativas en Argentina.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Empate/virtual/Kirchner/Narvaez/proximas/elecciones/legislativas/elpepuint/20090614elpepuint_5/Teshttp://diario.elmercurio.com/2009/06/15/internacional/internacional/noticias/471AFB5B-C3F4-4A8C-8AA5-71EA02209E00.htm?id={471AFB5B-C3F4-4A8C-8AA5-71EA02209E00}México: crece secuestro de inmigrantesPara más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/america_latina/2009/06/090616_mexico_lp.shtmlCierre empresas cubanas por crisis.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1139455Continúa la violencia en el norte de México.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31357913/ns/world_news-americas/ http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31363604/ns/world_news-washington_post/Venezuela: investigan muerte de opositor.Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/america_latina/2009/06/090614_2238_venezuela_colecta_incidente_rb.shtmlMillonarios aportes de Hugo Chávez a Nicaragua.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2009/06/15/internacional/_portada/noticias/9CA56441-84DB-4251-AC58-4E5286A03725.htm?id={9CA56441-84DB-4251-AC58-4E5286A03725}Perú: marcha atrás con ley de la Amazonía.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-peru16-2009jun16,0,5722448.storyhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/america_latina/2009/06/090615_0129_peru_derogacion_rb.shtmlESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁ Obama: "El costo de nuestra sistema de salud está amenazando nuestra economía": reforma de la salud en los Estados Unidos.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1139626http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/16/health/policy/16obama.html?hphttp://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6515025.eceObama anuncia reforma financiera.Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/economia/2009/06/090616_reforma_financiera_usa_mj.shtmlBiden con "enormes dudas" sobre la victoria de Ahmadinejad.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2009/06/15/internacional/internacional/noticias/15D9111A-8436-489E-B847-DFDE1722E280.htm?id={15D9111A-8436-489E-B847-DFDE1722E280}Nueva postura de Clinton respecto a Haití.Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2009-06/16/content_8288817.htmSeúl y Washington analizan la amenaza norcoreana.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2009/06/15/internacional/internacional/noticias/91FABAEF-DD6C-47EE-89AB-AA8A039A0D64.htm?id={91FABAEF-DD6C-47EE-89AB-AA8A039A0D64} EUROPA Reconstruyendo el puzzle del accidente de Air France.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/puzle/Airbus/empieza/encajar/elpepuint/20090614elpepiint_7/TesFrancia prometió indemnizar a los familiares de las víctimas del Airbus.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1139606Crisis política en Gran Bretaña. Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/reportajes/tragedia/Brown/elpepuint/20090614elpdmgrep_6/TesEscocia reporta el primer muerto por gripe porcina fuera de las Américas.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/06/15/swine.flu.scotland.death/index.htmlBerlusconi aceptará detenidos de GuantánamoPara más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31365191/ns/politics-white_house/http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1139634ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE Controversia por los resultados de las elecciones presidenciales en Irán: protestas, muertes, censura, detenciones,incendios y destrozos.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/06/15/iran.elections.protests/index.htmlhttp://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31375293/ns/world_news-mideastn_africa/http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2009/06/15/iran-un-manifestant-tue-pendant-la-manifestation-pro-moussavi_1207207_3218.html#ens_id=1190750http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/centenar/opositores/detenidos/Iran/elpepuint/20090614elpepuint_2/Teshttp://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/internacional/2009/06/090616_iran_voces_rec.shtmlhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2009-06/16/content_8289433.htmLa utilización de los medios por el oficialismo iraní.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1139453Atentado en Pakistán.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/muertos/heridos/atentado/mercado/Pakistan/elpepuint/20090614elpepuint_3/TesSecuestros y asesinatos a extranjeros en Yemen.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/06/15/yemen.hostages/index.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1139609http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31375293/ns/world_news-mideastn_africa/http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2009/06/15/yemen-sept-des-neuf-otages-etrangers-retrouves-morts_1206923_3210.html#ens_id=1203784El partido del rey gana las municipales en Marruecos.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/partido/rey/gana/municipales/Marruecos/elpepuint/20090613elpepuint_10/Tes¿Nuevos pasos hacia un posible paz en Medio Oriente?Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1139620http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31365107/ns/world_news-mideastn_africa/http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/orienteproximo/benjamin-netanyahu-dice-por-primera-vez-que-aceptaria-un-estado-palestino-pero-con-condiciones_5438787-1La OTAN envía 8.000 soldados a los comicios de Afganistán.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/OTAN/envia/8000/soldados/comicios/Afganistan/elpepuint/20090613elpepiint_3/TesCorea del Norte continua amenazando con una guerra nuclear.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31352692/ns/world_news-asiapacific/Las dos periodistas estadounidenses en Corea del Norte fueron condenadas. Para más información: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2009-06/16/content_8290701.htmAtaques a estudiantes hindúes en Australia amenazan los lazos bilaterales.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/06/15/india.australia.student.attacks/index.htmlLos tigres tamiles continúan reivindicando el separatismo desde el exilio.Para más información:http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6515025.eceRusia se reúne con cinco Estados asiáticos.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31374506/ns/world_news-europe/ÁFRICA Gaddafi: "La mujer en el mundo islámico es como un mueble".Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Gaddafi/mujer/mundo/islamico/mueble/elpepuint/20090613elpepiint_5/Teshttp://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31326538/ns/world_news-europe/Corte Penal Internacional juzgará a ex vicepresidente congolés.Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/internacional/2009/06/090615_0002_congo_bemba_cpi_irm.shtml OTRAS NOTICIASComienza la Cumbre Mundial por el Empleo.Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/economia/2009/06/090615_1613_cumbre_oit_pea.shtml"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13837392

Despite the substantial transformative impact wars have on people's lives, the social and institutional consequences of war remain the least understood. This dissertation adds to a sparse, but growing body of literature on the micro-level consequences of war and advances our understanding of its societal legacy by analyzing how war influences individual attitudes in post-war societies. It contributes to the study of peace and conflict by drawing attention to the micro level and exploring how both interstate and internal wars may shape individual attitudes relevant for building long-lasting peace. Further, it expands the general literature on political science on the determinants of social and political attitudes and behavior by exploring the hitherto largely ignored impact of war on such attitudes. The impact of war on individual attitudes is analyzed empirically in three chapters. Chapter 2 (co-authored with Markus Freitag) scrutinizes the impact of individual and contextual war exposure on social trust in post-war Kosovo. Drawing from the psychological literature on war-related distress and posttraumatic growth, this study is motivated by the question whether the consequences of war for social attitudes always are negative, or whether war also can contribute to growth in social trust. Combining both individual and municipal data on war exposure in a multilevel framework, it further explores which of these types of war exposure have the strongest impact on individual attitudes. The findings of this chapter indicate that individual war experience has had a consistent, negative impact on social trust more than 10 years after the end of the war. The effect of municipal war exposure is not robust and is sensitive to the exclusion of specific municipalities. The second study in Chapter 3 takes a step back and examines the long-term impact of war exposure by studying the role that experiences during World War II have on people's level of satisfaction with life in a comparative study of 34 countries. Motivated by the findings from related academic disciplines on the intergenerational transmission of the consequences of trauma exposure, this chapter not only scrutinizes the effect of war on directly affected individuals but also analyzes how family members' experiences with war affect the well-being of members of the subsequent generations. The empirical findings are twofold. First, injury to oneself or injury or death of parents or grandparents has a lasting negative influence on individuals' level of life satisfaction more than sixty years after the end of the war. This effect is remarkably robust and suggests that war experiences or their consequences become transmitted to subsequent generations. Second, the effect of war experiences is stronger for older respondents. Individuals reporting experiences from World War II are thereby less likely to experience the general upward trend in life satisfaction with age. Trying to understand the possible mechanisms through which the transmission of war experiences takes place, the study finds that war exposure is significantly related to lower self-reported health and a lower paternal level of education among relevant age cohorts. Finally, Chapter 4 (co-authored with Carolin Rapp) analyzes in detail how war affects political tolerance of the Sinhalese and Tamil populations toward each in post-war Sri Lanka. Using unique, all-island survey data collected after the 26-year-long civil war the chapter devotes special attention to the mechanism that may drive the relationship between war and individual attitudes. With structural equation modeling techniques, the chapter closely studies the role played by intergroup forgiveness and ethnic prejudice in the relationship between war experience and granting civil liberties. The analyses reveal that the likelihood to grant civil liberties in both ethnic groups depends on the civil liberty in question. Whereas a majority from both ethnic groups are willing to grant the right to vote, hold a speech, and to hold a government position, the right to demonstrate is highly contested and is only granted to the other group by very low shares of both ethnic groups. Further, the empirical findings show that the direct impact of war experience is less powerful than expected and, again, depends on the right in question. Instead, not being willing to forgive the other group, driven by war experience and ethnic prejudice, is a more consistent predictor of intolerance. These studies together imply that wars may have lasting, negative societal consequences. The effect may stretch across generations and have important implications for post-war peacebuilding and recovery policies. The finding that the impact of war on individual attitudes is not necessarily a direct result of war exposure but is driven by psychological responses to such events, in this case, the willingness to forgive, suggests that there are ways in which societies can promote positive social attitudes by focusing on the mechanisms at work. Further research on the mechanisms at work is needed to develop the most efficient policies for peaceful intergroup relations and thereby lasting peace.

Die quantitativ-vergleichende Konfliktforschung hat in der zurückliegenden Dekade bedeutende Fortschritte gemacht. Zum einen hat die technische Innovation zu einer enormen Ausweitung und Vertiefung des Wissens über politische Konflikte geführt. Zum anderen wurden von Seiten der mit der quantitativen Datenerfassung beschäftigten Forschungseinrichtungen große konzeptionelle Anstrengungen unternommen, dieser empirischen Informationsfülle gerecht zu werden und eine realistische Erfassung des zeitgenössischen Konfliktgeschehens zu ermöglichen. (...) Der Beitrag vergleicht vor diesem Hintergrund den Stand der Grundlagenforschung führender Konfliktdatenbanken miteinander und geht dabei insbesondere auf den neuen, zum Untersuchungsjahr 2011 reformierten Ansatz der Heidelberger Konfliktforschung ein. (ZeFKo/Pll)