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Tree cover is a key variable for ecosystem functioning, and is widely used to study tropical ecosystems. But its determinants and their relative importance are still a matter of debate, especially because most regional and global analyses have not considered the influence of agricultural practices. More information is urgently needed regarding how human practices influence vegetation structure. Here we focused in Central Africa, a region still subjected to traditional agricultural practices with a clear vegetation gradient. Using remote sensing data and global databases, we calibrated a Random Forest model to correlatively link tree cover with climatic, edaphic, fire and agricultural practices data. We showed that annual rainfall and accumulated water deficit were the main drivers of the distribution of tree cover and vegetation classes (defined by the modes of tree cover density), but agricultural practices, especially pastoralism, were also important in determining tree cover. We simulated future tree cover with our model using different scenarios of climate and land-use (agriculture and population) changes. Our simulations suggest that tree cover may respond differently regarding the type of scenarios, but land-use change was an important driver of vegetation change even able to counterbalance the effect of climate change in Central Africa.

Forest degradation in the tropics is often associated with roads built for selective logging. The protection of intact forest landscapes (IFL) that are not accessible by roads is high on the biodiversity conservation agenda and a challenge for logging concessions certified by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). A frequently advocated conservation objective is to maximize the retention of roadless space, a concept that is based on distance to the nearest road from any point. We developed a novel use of the empty-space function – a general statistical tool based on stochastic geometry and random sets theory – to calculate roadless space in a part of the Congo Basin where road networks have been expanding rapidly. We compared the temporal development of roadless space in certified and uncertified logging concessions inside and outside areas declared IFL in 2000. Inside IFLs, road-network expansion led to a decrease in roadless space by more than half from 1999 to 2007. After 2007, loss leveled out in most areas to close to 0 due to an equilibrium between newly built roads and abandoned roads that became revegetated. However, concessions in IFL certified by FSC since around 2007 continuously lost roadless space and reached a level comparable to all other concessions. Only national parks remained mostly roadless. We recommend that forest-management policies make the preservation of large connected forest areas a top priority by effectively monitoring – and limiting – the occupation of space by roads that are permanently accessible.

To understand the functioning of montane forests, this study was conducted in the highlands of the Kahuzi-Biega National Park in the Democratic Republicof the Congo. The relationship between thealtitude andthe floristic stability of woody layers and regeneration capability of canopy species after many yearsofdisturbance was studied. Ten 1-ha plots were established from 1935m to 2760m a.s.l. In each plot we inventoried the trees ≥10cm of diameter at breast height (DBH), separating a canopy layer (10% of the tallest trees) and an understorey layer (all the other trees). In each plot, we nested a 0.1 ha subplot to inventory the saplings between 1 and 10 cm DBH. We found that the Jaccard index of dissimilarity between the understorey layer and the canopy layer decreases with the altitude. The proportion of species which arewell represented in the three layers increases with the altitude.The number of pioneer species decreases with the altitude while that of non-pioneer and shade tolerant species increases. These findings suggest that altitude influences the stability of highland forests, higheraltitudebeing more stable than lower ones in the case of this study.

The comparison between overstorey and understorey (woody layers) composition had been investigated in many studies without taking into account the altitude. Therefore, the impact of altitude on the variation of the floristic composition of the understorey vs overstorey remains poorly understood. We postulate here that the rate of overstorey species present in the understorey tends to increase with the altitude. The objective is to assess the dynamic trends of a forest in a case of altitude variation. To investigate the variation of the floristic composition of the understorey and the overstorey of montane forests, we inventoried the highland forests (1800 to 3315m asl) of the Kahuzi-Biega National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Trees greater than 10 cm of diameter at breast height (dbh) were numbered and identified in 10 x 1ha plots (overstorey), in each of which we nested a 0.1ha (understorey, woody plant with dbh<10cm). We measured the altitude for each plot. Fisher alpha and rarefaction r were calculated. For each couple of plot, we calculated the percent of overstorey species which are present in the understorey to see if the overstorey species are well represented in the understorey. In the two layers alpha and r decrease when the altitude increases. The overstorey species are well represented in the understorey varying from 47.37% to 76.92% and tend to increase with the altitude (coefficient of correlation = 0.34, p=0.34). At least, 23.08% of the overstorey species are absent in the understorey. Differently from the rate of overstorey species present in the understorey, some of the most abundant species in the overstorey are present but rare in the understorey albeit the most common species in the understorey are those which will likely incorporate later on the overstorey. This means that these species don't meet suitable conditions to regenerate or seldom regenerate beneath themselves. We found a likely future change in the floristic composition of the overstorey in these forests. As already found in other studies, woody plant diversity decreases with increasing altitude. We found also that floristic elements of the understory that will likely integrate the canopy are often different from that of the current overstorey. This suggests future changes in the floristic composition of these montane forests if there are no major disturbance in the forest or if the mortality rate will not be greater among the abundant understorey species. (Texte intégral)

La définition du terme " forêt ", et des notions indissociables que sont " déforestation " et " dégradation des forêts ", est un préalable incontournable des stratégies visant à éliminer la déforestation importée des chaînes de valeur des commodités tropicales. Cette définition doit être intégrée dans un cadre juridico-légal et politique bien défini, être consensuelle, pragmatique et adaptable à la diversité des contextes écologiques des pays producteurs de commodités susceptibles d'amplifier la déforestation (Eba'a Atyi, 2021). Cette tâche pourrait mettre en exergue des points de vue conflictuels entre les consommateurs préoccupés par l'environnement et les pays producteurs ayant des objectifs de développement.

Caractériser la dynamique d'une forêt est essentiel pour la gestion forestière. Les houppiers des arbres forment un élément clé de cette dynamique ; mais, en forêt tropicale, les mesurer n'est pas simple. Cette étude teste l'utilisation d'images aériennes à haute résolution pour estimer la croissance diamétrique des arbres, en intégrant des mesures fines des houppiers détectés. Des ortho-images de 10 cm/pixel de résolution ont été obtenues à l'aide d'un drone à aile fixe sur une parcelle de 9 ha, installée dans la forêt de Yoko en République démocratique du Congo. Les inventaires menés sur les arbres de DHP ≥ 10 cm en 2008 et en 2016 ont permis d'avoir accès à différentes caractéristiques dendrométriques individuelles, dont le diamètre des arbres et leur tempérament, et de calculer des accroissements diamétriques. Des modèles linéaires mixtes ont été calibrés pour prédire l'accroissement de 163 arbres identifiés à la fois sur le terrain et sur les ortho-images en utilisant les variables quantifiées uniquement sur le terrain et/ou à partir de variables mesurées sur les ortho-images. Les images aériennes ont permis de détecter 23,4 % des arbres de DHP ≥ 10 cm inventoriés au sol, et représentant 75,1 % de la biomasse aérienne du peuplement. La probabilité de détection des arbres a varié en fonction de leur DHP : de 0,09 pour les arbres de DHP < 30 cm à 0,97 pour les arbres de DHP ≥ 60 cm. Les variables quantifiées par télédétection ajoutées aux variables de terrain ont permis d'améliorer significativement la prédiction de l'accroissement diamétrique. Les meilleurs modèles d'estimation des accroissements diamétriques contiennent notamment un terme caractérisant la dimension du houppier des arbres qui n'a pu être mesuré que par télédétection. Parmi les variables déterminées par télédétection, la superficie convexe du houppier est apparue la plus performante dans les modèles, et s'avère ainsi être la mesure la plus intéressante pour décrire la compétition entre les houppiers. Ces résultats ouvrent des perspectives pour construire de nouveaux outils d'acquisition de données au service de l'aménagement forestier. ; Characterising forest dynamics of a forest is essential to its management. Tree crowns are a key factor in these dynamics, but measuring them in tropical forests is not an easy matter. This study tested the use of highresolution aerial imagery to estimate the tree diameter growth by incorporating detailed measurements of the detected tree crowns. Ortho-images at a resolution of 10 cm/pixel were captured by a fixed-wing drone over a 9 ha plot in the Yoko forest in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Inventories conducted on trees ≥ 10 cm diameter at breast height (DBH) in 2008 and 2016 provided access to a variety of tree dendrometric characteristics, including DBH and species temperament, and allowed the calculation of diameter increments. Mixed linear models were calibrated to predict diameter increment of 163 trees identified both on the ground and on the ortho-images, using variables quantified on the ground only and/or from variables measured from the orthoimages. From the aerial images, we were able to detect 23.4% of the trees with DBH ≥ 10 cm listed in the ground inventories, representing 75.1% of the stand's aerial biomass. The probability of detecting the trees varied with their DBH, from 0.09 for trees with DBH < 30 cm to 0.97 for trees with DBH ≥ 60 cm. Predictions of diametric growth improved significantly when the variables quantified by remote sensing were added to the ground variables. The best models for estimating diameter increment include, in particular, a term characterising the size of tree crowns, which can only be measured by remote sensing. Of the variables determined by remote sensing, convex crown area was the most successfull in the models and therefore appears to be the most accurate variable to describe competition between tree crowns. These results open up possibilities to build new tools of data acquisition to support forest planning. ; Peer reviewed

Background: A large proportion of the tropical rain forests of central Africa undergo periodic selective logging for timber harvesting. The REDD+ mechanism could promote less intensive logging if revenue from the additional carbon stored in the forest compensates financially for the reduced timber yield. Results: Carbon stocks, and timber yields, and their associated values, were predicted at the scale of a forest concession in Gabon over a project scenario of 40 yr with reduced logging intensity. Considering that the timber contribution margin (i.e. the selling price of timber minus its production costs) varies between 10 and US$40 m?3, the minimum price of carbon that enables carbon revenues to compensate forgone timber benefits ranges between US$4.4 and US$25.9/tCO2 depending on the management scenario implemented. Conclusions: Where multiple suppliers of emission reductions compete in a REDD+ carbon market, tropical timber companies are likely to change their management practices only if very favourable conditions are met, namely if the timber contribution margin remains.

Mapping the vegetation Carbon stocks is crucial to understand the global climate change. The Carbon stock maps have direct implications in economy and environmental policy. This is especially true in tropical forests where most of the uncertainties on carbon fluxes and stocks are concentrated. Substantial efforts have been done recently to map forest carbon in tropical areas, especially by using remote sensing-based approaches. However, there is no way to bypass a calibration step where biomass is locally measured through forest inventories. The great importance of this learning step and its possible issues has been documented, highlighting the importance of terrestrial datasets. In our work, we have gathered a very large dataset of forest inventories covering the Congo Basin. It consists of 73 000 0.5ha plots of commercial inventories covering 4 million hectares in Cameroon, Republic of Congo, Gabon, Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. These terrestrial data are of great value to understand and model the spatial distribution of various forest properties, among which the Carbon stock. They can also make a great tool to control and improve the performance of the remote sensing methods. In our study, we rely on these plots to test the validity of previously published pantropical Carbon maps. After gathering the data with extra care due to the heterogeneous inventory methods, we used bioclimatic models, topography, and remote sensing observation to extrapolate the forest carbon estimates at the Congo basin scale. (Texte intégral)

Background: Currently, about 400 million hectares of tropical moist forests worldwide are designated production forests, about a quarter of which are managed by rural communities and indigenous peoples. There has been a gradual impoverishment of forest resources inside selectively logged forests in which the volume of timber extracted over the first cutting cycle was mostly from large, old trees that matured over a century or more and grew in the absence of strong anthropological pressures. In forests now being logged for a second and third time, that volume has not been reconstituted due in part to the lack of implementation of post-logging silvicultural treatments. This depletion of timber stocks renders the degraded forests prone to conversion to other land uses. Although it is essential to preserve undisturbed primary forests through the creation of protected areas, these areas alone will not be able to ensure the conservation of all species on a pan-tropical scale, for social, economic and political reasons. The conservation of tropical forests of tomorrow will mostly take place within human-modified (logged, domesticated) forests. In this context, silvicultural interventions are considered by many tropical foresters and forest ecologists as tools capable of effectively conserving tropical forest biodiversity and ecosystem services while stimulating forest production. This systematic review aims to assess past and current evidence of the impact of silviculture on tropical forests and to identify silvicultural practices appropriate for the current conditions in the forests and forestry sectors of the Congo Basin, Amazonia and Southeast Asia. Methods: This systematic review will undertake an extensive search of literature to assess the relative effectiveness of different silvicultural interventions on timber production and the conservation value of forests, and to determine whether there is a relationship between sustainability of timber harvesting and the maintenance/conservation of other ecosystem services and biodiversity in production forests. Data will be extracted for meta-analysis of at least sub-sets of the review questions. Findings are expected to help inform policy and develop evidence-based practice guidelines on silvicultural practices in tropical forests. ; Peer reviewed

Background Currently, about 400 million hectares of tropical moist forests worldwide are designated production forests, about a quarter of which are managed by rural communities and indigenous peoples. There has been a gradual impoverishment of forest resources inside selectively logged forests in which the volume of timber extracted over the first cutting cycle was mostly from large, old trees that matured over a century or more and grew in the absence of strong anthropological pressures. In forests now being logged for a second and third time, that volume has not been reconstituted due in part to the lack of implementation of post-logging silvicultural treatments. This depletion of timber stocks renders the degraded forests prone to conversion to other land uses. Although it is essential to preserve undisturbed primary forests through the creation of protected areas, these areas alone will not be able to ensure the conservation of all species on a pan-tropical scale, for social, economic and political reasons. The conservation of tropical forests of tomorrow will mostly take place within human-modified (logged, domesticated) forests. In this context, silvicultural interventions are considered by many tropical foresters and forest ecologists as tools capable of effectively conserving tropical forest biodiversity and ecosystem services while stimulating forest production. This systematic review aims to assess past and current evidence of the impact of silviculture on tropical forests and to identify silvicultural practices appropriate for the current conditions in the forests and forestry sectors of the Congo Basin, Amazonia and Southeast Asia. Methods This systematic review will undertake an extensive search of literature to assess the relative effectiveness of different silvicultural interventions on timber production and the conservation value of forests, and to determine whether there is a relationship between sustainability of timber harvesting and the maintenance/conservation of other ecosystem services and biodiversity in production forests. Data will be extracted for meta-analysis of at least sub-sets of the review questions. Findings are expected to help inform policy and develop evidence-based practice guidelines on silvicultural practices in tropical forests.

International audience ; Africa is forecasted to experience large and rapid climate change1 and population growth2 during the twenty-first century, which threatens the world's second largest rainforest. Protecting and sustainably managing these African forests requires an increased understanding of their compositional heterogeneity, the environmental drivers of forest composition and their vulnerability to ongoing changes. Here, using a very large dataset of 6 million trees in more than 180,000 field plots, we jointly model the distribution in abundance of the most dominant tree taxa in central Africa, and produce continuous maps of the floristic and functional composition of central African forests. Our results show that the uncertainty in taxon-specific distributions averages out at the community level, and reveal highly deterministic assemblages. We uncover contrasting floristic and functional compositions across climates, soil types and anthropogenic gradients, with functional convergence among types of forest that are floristically dissimilar. Combining these spatial predictions with scenarios of climatic and anthropogenic global change suggests a high vulnerability of the northern and southern forest margins, the Atlantic forests and most forests in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where both climate and anthropogenic threats are expected to increase sharply by 2085. These results constitute key quantitative benchmarks for scientists and policymakers to shape transnational conservation and management strategies that aim to provide a sustainable future for central African forests.

International audience ; Africa is forecasted to experience large and rapid climate change1 and population growth2 during the twenty-first century, which threatens the world's second largest rainforest. Protecting and sustainably managing these African forests requires an increased understanding of their compositional heterogeneity, the environmental drivers of forest composition and their vulnerability to ongoing changes. Here, using a very large dataset of 6 million trees in more than 180,000 field plots, we jointly model the distribution in abundance of the most dominant tree taxa in central Africa, and produce continuous maps of the floristic and functional composition of central African forests. Our results show that the uncertainty in taxon-specific distributions averages out at the community level, and reveal highly deterministic assemblages. We uncover contrasting floristic and functional compositions across climates, soil types and anthropogenic gradients, with functional convergence among types of forest that are floristically dissimilar. Combining these spatial predictions with scenarios of climatic and anthropogenic global change suggests a high vulnerability of the northern and southern forest margins, the Atlantic forests and most forests in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where both climate and anthropogenic threats are expected to increase sharply by 2085. These results constitute key quantitative benchmarks for scientists and policymakers to shape transnational conservation and management strategies that aim to provide a sustainable future for central African forests.

International audience ; Africa is forecasted to experience large and rapid climate change1 and population growth2 during the twenty-first century, which threatens the world's second largest rainforest. Protecting and sustainably managing these African forests requires an increased understanding of their compositional heterogeneity, the environmental drivers of forest composition and their vulnerability to ongoing changes. Here, using a very large dataset of 6 million trees in more than 180,000 field plots, we jointly model the distribution in abundance of the most dominant tree taxa in central Africa, and produce continuous maps of the floristic and functional composition of central African forests. Our results show that the uncertainty in taxon-specific distributions averages out at the community level, and reveal highly deterministic assemblages. We uncover contrasting floristic and functional compositions across climates, soil types and anthropogenic gradients, with functional convergence among types of forest that are floristically dissimilar. Combining these spatial predictions with scenarios of climatic and anthropogenic global change suggests a high vulnerability of the northern and southern forest margins, the Atlantic forests and most forests in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where both climate and anthropogenic threats are expected to increase sharply by 2085. These results constitute key quantitative benchmarks for scientists and policymakers to shape transnational conservation and management strategies that aim to provide a sustainable future for central African forests.

International audience ; Africa is forecasted to experience large and rapid climate change1 and population growth2 during the twenty-first century, which threatens the world's second largest rainforest. Protecting and sustainably managing these African forests requires an increased understanding of their compositional heterogeneity, the environmental drivers of forest composition and their vulnerability to ongoing changes. Here, using a very large dataset of 6 million trees in more than 180,000 field plots, we jointly model the distribution in abundance of the most dominant tree taxa in central Africa, and produce continuous maps of the floristic and functional composition of central African forests. Our results show that the uncertainty in taxon-specific distributions averages out at the community level, and reveal highly deterministic assemblages. We uncover contrasting floristic and functional compositions across climates, soil types and anthropogenic gradients, with functional convergence among types of forest that are floristically dissimilar. Combining these spatial predictions with scenarios of climatic and anthropogenic global change suggests a high vulnerability of the northern and southern forest margins, the Atlantic forests and most forests in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where both climate and anthropogenic threats are expected to increase sharply by 2085. These results constitute key quantitative benchmarks for scientists and policymakers to shape transnational conservation and management strategies that aim to provide a sustainable future for central African forests.