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Models of center and periphery based on theories of dependence, dominance, and imperialism have shown themselves fruitful for understanding the dynamics of underdevelopment and regional inequalities on the global level. Our analysis attempts to demonstrate the applica bility of similar approaches to the study of intranational regional problems as well. A partial test of Johan Galtung's center-periphery model, as presented in his 'Structural Theory of Imperialism', by means of data relating to Norwegian regional inequalities supports the empirical tenability of this perspective. A critical examination of the effects of regional development policies leads us to the conclusion that a purely relational center-periphery model is insufficient as a conceptual tool for understanding the historical dynamics of center-periphery dominance. The relational properties of center-periphery systems should be viewed not only as independent variables. These properties should be understood also as dependent variables generated from and formed by internal conditions in center and periphery societies. This perspective is further elaborated by proposing a typology of center-periphery systems according to the mode of production dominating the social units constituting the system.

Models of center-periphery relations based on theories of dependence, dominance, & imperialism, such as that proposed by J. Galtung (see SA 20:4/72F6273) have been useful for analysis of international relations. A test is made of the applicability of the Galtung model to intranational inequalities of development. Data are taken from national social statistics on the nineteen counties of Norway. The Galtung model is supported by this empirical evidence. Critical examination of the effects of regional development policies leads to the conclusion that a purely relational center-periphery model is not sufficient for understanding the historical dynamics of center-periphery dominance. The relational properties of center-periphery systems should be seen not only as independent variables, but as dependent variables generated by internal conditions in center & periphery societies. A typology of center-periphery systems is outlined, based on the mode of production dominating the social units making up the system. 2 Figures, 9 Tables. Modified HA.

During the last decade, it has become evident that planet earth will be warming. Hence, there is an increasing focus on how to adapt to a changing climate. The adaptation literature underlines the importance played by local government in planning and implementing adaptation policies. This article is addressing learning–knowledge–action processes within and between local (municipal) and central (national and regional) government levels, thereby filling a gap in the literature. The analysis is using empirical data from Norway; a country commonly considered as having a well-developed multi-level governance system, with a strong bottom-up component, thereby apparently meeting a core condition for developing and implementing transformational changes. The study finds that single and double-loop learning are dominating, fostering incremental changes, but combined incremental changes related to technically handling surface water are approaching transitional change. As a first step, the study suggests it is necessary to formulate policies that explicitly combe incremental changes in order to achieve transitional and transformational change. Moreover, policies for fostering oppositional knowledge networks as part of vertical–horizontal governance may be necessary for pushing the system in the direction of transition and transformation. ; The empirical basis for the article is a project funded by the Norwegian Environment Agency [Miljödirektoratet], project number M-711/2017. ; publishedVersion

A common claim is that emerging and future climate change is rendering traditional conceptions of uncertainty and risk obsolete. This is because a changing climate makes it quite a challenge to calculate uncertainties, establishing the measurable uncertainty as the basis for quantifying risk. Approaches that are capable of accommodating and possibly countering the wickedness caused by increasing uncertainty are necessary, the argument holds. Following up on previous studies of learning–knowledge and adapting to a changing climate, this article provides an analysis of how differences in the understanding of uncertainty and risk inform and determine governmental adaptation policies and actions of the local and Central government in Norway, also discussing governance implications. The study finds that the understanding of uncertainty and risk generally is poor at the local level, but better at the state level, especially among highly educated staff with a background in, for example, Natural sciences and engineering. On the other hand, a traditional understanding of uncertainty and risk is dominating: seeking to establish measurable uncertainty as a basis for quantifying risk. The article discusses combining different approaches of uncertainty and risk, thereby introducing a broader basis for governance, also implying multi-level network governance. On the one hand, this may help the local–central government in handling wicked problems of adapting to a changing climate but on other hand, it also possibly nurture struggles between different knowledge bases and stakeholder interest, thereby fuelling the wickedness of adaptation policies. ; acceptedVersion

The paper studies processes of adaptation to a changing climate in the water supply and wastewater sector in five Norwegian municipalities. Our case illustrates that the combination of characteristics of climate adaptation as a policy issue, institutional characteristics related to the vertical organization of the water sector in Norway, and characteristics of the professional network between local and national levels of governance seem to have been conducive to problem awareness and proactive approaches to problem solving. Our findings contradict the general picture drawn in the literature concluding that adaptation efforts are mainly reactive and internally related to the sector. We identify important mechanisms related to the production of policy solutions in governance networks mediating knowledge between different institutional levels. By these observations, the paper should contribute to the debate about the working of governance networks, and in particular to the knowledge about factors that are conducive to effective network governance.