Myanmar is going through a critical transformation in its development path - from isolation and fragmentation to openness and integration; and from pervasive state control, exclusion, and individual disengagement, to inclusion, participation, and empowerment. This dual shift is happening against a backdrop of broader political reforms that started in 2011 when a new administration took office. The country's transition after the planned elections in 2015 will be a major test of the progress on political reforms. There remain risks of political instability, policy discontinuity, and stalled reforms due to vested interests.
It is increasingly recognized that young people are central to issues of crime and violence in South Africa. While research, policy and programming have historically focused on children and adults, there is a growing emphasis on youth as both victims and perpetrators of violence. This report presents the findings of a country assessment commissioned by the World Bank to support its incorporating human rights into youth violence programming and policy dialogues in Mexico and South Africa project. This aims to encourage policy dialogue on youth and violence with the South African government and other stakeholders. The report: (i) examines the current situation of youth violence in South Africa; (ii) summarizes the policy response by the government and the prevailing legal and institutional framework; (iii) identifies innovative programming by civil society organisations; and (iv) identifies entry points for deeper policy dialogue and improved interventions to address youth violence.
This country program evaluation (CPE) assesses the outcomes of the World Bank Group (WBG) program in Timor-Leste during the review period (2000 to 2010). The WBG's strategy during this period was to support the government of the nascent country in three broad areas: (a) poverty alleviation and the provision of basic social services, including health and education; (b) development of state institutions, including creating good governance and building the capacity of state institutions; and (c) promoting sustainable nonpetroleum growth, especially through the development of agriculture and the private sector. The CPE rates the overall outcome of its support to the country over the review period as moderately unsatisfactory. The Bank Group strategy was broadly congruent with the country's own aspirations, but its relevance and effectiveness waned through the evaluation period. To boost the WBG's role as an effective partner in Timor Leste's development, independent evaluation group (IEG) recommends that the WBG: (i) set its key objective as one of supporting vigorous and sustainable non-oil growth, creating jobs and improving infrastructure; (ii) in consultation with development partners, sharply prioritize its program, being realistic about time frames; (iii) increase its focus on effective human resource development for institution building and improved governance; (iv) follow more closely its own guidance on dealing with fragile states; (v) ensure more active management of its assistance program, strengthening its capacity to deliver timely high-quality policy and technical advice; (vi) be realistic with regard to the situation on the ground and what is needed to attain development objectives; (vii) make International Finance Corporation's (IFC's) interventions of sufficient scale to address the objectives of its program; and (viii) bolster monitoring and evaluation (M and E) by focusing on a few key results and improving statistical capacity to obtain reliable data of sufficient frequency.
After a century of political centralization in Colombia, the first public election of city mayors in 19861 began a decentralization trend, which was later reinforced by a constitutional reform in 1991. Subnational governments (departments and municipalities) were made responsible for the planning and management of social and economic development in their jurisdictions. Administrative and political reforms were accompanied by fiscal decentralization, including the transfer of central government revenues. Since 1991 the growth of fiscal transfers has accelerated. Departments and municipalities are now responsible for public health, education, water supply, and sanitation expenditures through earmarked transfers. Out of the total amount of central government expenditures (21.8 percent of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) in 2008) almost one-quarter represent regional transfers (5 percent of GDP), which finance half of all regional expenditures (10.2 percent of GDP). The purpose of this paper is to describe the budget process reform implemented in Medellin, and to analyze its actual performance and evaluate its success. The reform is changing the way public resources are allocated and executed, while gradually institutionalizing supply and demand-side practices beyond the government's political cycles. This paper describes and analyzes how the Results-oriented budgeting (RoB) was designed and implemented, and the achievements of the system to date, in terms of resource allocation and the policy-making process.
En la actualidad, la industria alimentaria está apostando por la incorporación de sustancias naturales a envases alimentarios con el fin de incrementar la perdurabilidad de los alimentos en el mercado. Con estas prácticas se intentan satisfacer las necesidades de los consumidores de tal modo que su uso suponga ventajas tecnológicas y beneficios para el consumidor. Sin embargo, para que una sustancia sea admitida como aditivo debe estar bien caracterizada químicamente y debe superar los controles toxicológicos establecidos por parte de los correspondientes organismos sanitarios debido al desconocimiento del uso de estos componentes y sus posibles consecuencias. Entre las sustancias naturales que se emplean con este fin destacan los AEs, los cuales han sido tradicionalmente utilizados por sus propiedades farmacológicas. En nuestro caso, tanto un extracto del género Allium, denominado comercialmente PROALLIUM AP®, como alguno de sus componentes (PTSO y su análogo PTS) pretenden ser utilizados como antimicrobianos en la industria alimentaria formando parte de envases activos. Como paso previo al estudio de su seguridad se realizó una revisión bibliográfica de los datos de toxicidad disponibles hasta el momento en la literatura científica, tras la cual se puso de manifiesto la ausencia de estudios requeridos en diferentes compuestos con interés en la conservación de alimentos y la disparidad de los resultados disponibles. La evaluación toxicológica realizada en la presente tesis doctoral comenzó con una batería de ensayos tanto in vitro, con células que estarían en contacto con estas sustancias al ser ingeridas, como in vivo, en ratas tras un consumo agudo y crónico, para investigar los posibles efectos tóxicos, destacando los estudios de genotoxicidad, que pueden desencadenarse tras la exposición a PROALLIUM AP®, PTSO y PTS. La relevancia de la información toxicológica de estas sustancias resulta fundamental para su futuro uso ya que constituye un requisito reglamentario por parte de las autoridades competentes antes de su comercialización. Todos estos experimentos dieron lugar a las siguientes publicaciones: GENOTOXICITY ASSESSMENT OF PROPYL THIOSULFINATE OXIDE, AN ORGANOSULFUR COMPOUND FROM ALLIUM EXTRACT, INTENDED TO FOODACTIVE PACKAGING. (Mellado-García y cols., 2015), Food and Chemical Toxicology 86, 365-373. La vía de exposición más importante en el contexto que nos engloba es la vía oral ya que una vez el extracto de PROALLIUM AP® sea incorporado en films en envases activos, PTSO podría ser ingerido por los consumidores. En este trabajo, las células Caco-2 (adenocarcinoma de colon), fueron expuestas a diferentes concentraciones en función de la concentración máxima que migraría del film al consumidor en el peor escenario posible. Los experimentos llevados a cabo incluyen la evaluación de la mutagenicidad de PTSO en diferentes cepas de S. typhimurium (0-20 μM) cada una con características diferentes alteradas genéticamente para presentar mutaciones en los genes implicados en la síntesis de histidina para abarcar un amplio rango de posibles mutaciones. También se estudió la mutagenicidad en las células L5178Y TK+/- de mamíferos (ensayo de MLA), tras la realización de un estudio de citotoxicidad previo, en el que se determinaron las concentraciones de exposición a 4h (0-30 μM) y a 24h (0-20 μM). En el caso del test de Ames, no hubo diferencias significativas en ninguna de las cepas estudiadas en ausencia ni en presencia de S9. Sin embargo, a las 24 h de exposición en el ensayo de MLA se observaron diferencias significativas en el recuento de colonias en el rango de 2,5-20 μM. Por otro lado, PTSO no indujo incrementos en el porcentaje de MN (0-40 μM) en ausencia de S9 a ninguna de las concentraciones ensayadas, pero sí en presencia de la fracción microsómica S9 a partir de 15 μM, indicando la genotoxicidad de su metabolito. Por último, el ensayo cometa (0-50 μM) no mostró rotura ni daño oxidativo en el ADN de las células Caco-2 tratadas. Posteriormente, teniendo en cuenta los resultados contradictorios de genotoxicidad de PTSO in vitro, siguiendo las recomendaciones de la EFSA (EFSA 2011), se procedió al estudio de la genotoxicidad in vivo de PTSO en ratas Wistar, mediante el siguiente trabajo: GENOTOXICITY OF A THIOSULFONATE COMPOUND DERIVED FROM ALLIUM sp.• INTENDED TO BE USED IN ACTIVE FOOD PACKAGING: IN VIVO COMET ASSAYAND MICRONUCLEUS TEST. (Mellado-García y cols., 2016), Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 800-801, 1-11. Se procedió al estudio de la genotoxicidad mediante el ensayo de MN en la sangre de la médula ósea de las ratas Wistar, así como el ensayo cometa en estómago e hígado de las mismas, por ser el primer órgano de contacto en la ingestión de PTSO y el principal órgano de metabolismo de xenobióticos, respectivamente. Este estudio fue realizado administrando a las ratas dosis de 55; 17,4; 5,5 mg/kg p.c. de PTSO. Tras la necropsia, se realizó un estudio histopatológico de ambos órganos, no observándose indicios de genotoxicidad al microscopio óptico ni al microscopio electrónico en las ratas expuestas respecto del control. Solamente, a la concentración más alta ensayada se observó un incremento del almacenamiento de glucógeno en hígado y procesos degenerativos en estómago con vacuolización de las membranas celulares. El estudio se completó con un análisis para determinar la presencia de PTSO mediante cromatografía UHPLC-MS/MS Orbitrap en la sangre de las ratas tratadas, no detectándose PTSO en ningún caso. Por último, para corroborar la ausencia de genotoxicidad en los órganos estudiados previamente, se decidió evaluar la presencia de PTSO en los tejidos empleando la técnica de pirólisis analítica mediante cromatografía gaseosa combinada con un detector de masas (Py-GC-MS). Se demostró la existencia en hígado de derivados del componente principal y dos posibles metabolitos, lo que confirmó el fenómeno de metabolismo de PTSO en el organismo. Tras el estudio de toxicidad aguda de PTSO en ratas, de nuevo siguiendo las recomendaciones de la EFSA (EFSA, 2011), con el fin de completar los resultados de genotoxicidad obtenidos, y dada la escasez de información in vivo, se realizó un ensayo de toxicidad crónica durante 90 días con PROALLIUM AP®. TOXICOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF AN ALLIUM-BASED COMMERCIAL• PRODUCT IN A 90-DAY FEEDING STUDY IN SPRAGUE-DAWLEY RATS. (Mellado-García y cols., 2015), Food and Chemical Toxicology 90, 18-29. El PROALLIUM AP® es un extracto de diferentes componentes presentes en Allium sp. que será incorporado en los films anteriormente mencionados por su actividad antimicrobiana. En este sentido, tras la realización de los ensayos anteriores, debido a la falta de información de este componente y siguiendo las recomendaciones del Comité Científico en alimentación de la Unión Europea, el cual requiere la evaluación de las sustancias usadas en materiales en contacto con alimentos, se realizó un estudio de toxicidad subcrónica oral en ratas Sprague-Dawley por un periodo de exposición por vía oral de 90 días. Para ello se emplearon dosis de 0, 25, 100 y 400 mg/kg/día PROALLIUM AP®. Las ratas fueron sacrificadas y se extrajeron sus órganos (hígado, riñón, intestino, cerebro, timo, epidídimo, glándula adrenal, corazón, testículos/ovarios, pulmones y bazo) y sangre por punción cardíaca. Adicionalmente, las ratas fueron controladas cada semana midiendo el peso, el consumo de agua y comida, y se añadió un estudio histopatológico, bioquímico clínico y hematológico de las ratas expuestas. Las ratas no mostraron signos clínicos de mortalidad dosis-relacionados. Los resultados no mostraron diferencias significativas a ninguna de las concentraciones expuestas respecto del control, en ninguno de los parámetros estudiados. De esta forma, se determinó el NOAEL de PROALLIUM AP® en 400 mg/kg/día, un valor 500 veces superior al de la exposición derivada de su potencial uso en envase activo. Además con el fin de estudiar otro componente OS con potencial aplicación en la industria alimentaria, PTS, al cual se le atribuyen también propiedades antimicrobianas, se realizó la evaluación de la citotoxicidad, mutagenicidad y genotoxicidad in vitro del mismo, en la siguiente publicación: IN VITRO TOXICOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF AN ORGANOSULFUR COMPOUND FROM ALLIUM EXTRACT: CYTOTOXICITY, MUTAGENICITY AND GENOTOXICITY STUDIES. (Mellado-García y cols., 2017), Food and Chemical Toxicology 90, 231–240. El objetivo de este estudio fue la realización por primera vez del estudio de la citotoxicidad de PTS en células Caco-2 a 24 y a 48h, determinando su CE50 (280 μM) a través de distintos biomarcadores de viabilidad (RN, MTS, CP). Además se realizó una evaluación de la mutagenicidad en el test de Ames (0-280 μM), en el cual se utilizaron 5 cepas de S. typhimurium. En este ensayo, no se observaron diferencias significativas a ninguna de las concentraciones ensayadas, en presencia o en ausencia de S9. Por otro lado, en el ensayo de MLA, no se observaron diferencias significativas en el ensayo ni tras 4 ni 24h de exposición, demostrando así la ausencia de mutagenicidad. Además de estos ensayos, se realizó una evaluación de la genotoxicidad mediante el test de MN en las células L5178Y TK+/- tanto en ausencia (0-17,25 μM) como en presencia (0-25 μM) de S9. En este ensayo, se detectó un aumento de la frecuencia de células binucleadas con MN a la concentración más elevada ensayada sin S9 (17,25 μM), y a las dos concentraciones más altas con S9 (20-25 μM), mostrando que tanto los metabolitos como el componente original producen genotoxicidad. Por último, se estudió la genotoxicidad mediante el ensayo cometa estándar (0-280 μM) y modificado con enzimas de restricción en células Caco-2. En este caso, solamente se observaron daños en el ADN a la concentración más alta ensayada en el ensayo cometa estándar, mientras que no se observaron daños oxidativos en el ensayo cometa modificado a ninguna concentración. Para concluir, para la realización de esta tesis doctoral, la doctoranda realizó una estancia internacional en el departamento de "SEBIO, Stress Environnementaux et Biosurveillance de milieux aquatiques" en la Universidad de Reims, Champagne-Ardennes, (Francia). Esta estancia se realizó bajo la dirección del Doctor Stéphane Bettoulle, el Doctor Alain Geffard como director del departamento y con la colaboración y supervisión del doctorando Hakim Samai. Tras los resultados obtenidos previamente in vitro, sobre distintos tipos celulares, unidos a los ya realizados anteriormente por nuestro laboratorio sobre PTSO, se decidió aprovechar esta estancia internacional para estudiar la mortalidad celular de las células THP-1 (leucemia monocítica aguda), en estado macrófago, así como el estrés oxidativo y la fagocitosis en la exposición de diferentes concentraciones de PTSOdurante 24h mediante citometría de flujo. Los resultados obtenidos de este experimento dieron lugar a la siguiente publicación: • "DETERMINACIÓN DE LA MORTALIDAD CELULAR, ESTRÉS OXIDATIVO Y FAGOCITOSIS EN MACRÓFAGOS DE CÉLULAS THP-1 MEDIANTE CITOMETRÍA DE FLUJO", Revista Española de Toxicología (pendiente de publicación). En este ensayo se estudió el comportamiento de PTSO en las células THP-1, células de leucemia monocítica humana midiendo la mortalidad celular, el estrés oxidativo y la fagocitosis mediante citometría de flujo. Para ello, las células THP-1 fueron activadas a estado macrófago, obteniéndose un aumento significativo de la mortalidad celular a partir de 60 μM de PTSO. Por otro lado, no se observaron aumentos significativos de la producción de especies reactivas de oxígeno a ninguna de las concentraciones de exposición. Por último, se estudió la fagocitosis utilizando microesferas fluorescentes de látex, que mostraron diferencias significativas a 60 μM de PTSO y a la concentración más alta ensayada (150 μM de PTSO). Además, se estudió la actividad fagocitaria de THP-1 dando como resultados diferencias significativas a 60 μM y a 150 μM. Por último, se determinó el número medio de microesferas fagocitadas por célula, obteniéndose diferencias significativas a las dos concentraciones más altas ensayadas respecto del control negativo (100 y 150 μM) siendo un total de 6 microesferas/célula. Teniendo en cuenta estos resultados, podríamos decir que las concentraciones que pueden llegar a producir efectos tóxicos in vitro son inferiores a las que se esperan puedan llegar al consumidor en el peor escenario posible (37.5 µM de PTSO). ; Currently, the food industry is betting on the incorporation of natural substances into food packaging in order to increase the durability of food in the market. These practices are intended to satisfy the needs of consumers so that their use entails technological advantages and benefits for the consumer. However, in order to admit a substance as an additive, it must be well characterized chemically and must overcome the toxicological assessment established by the corresponding health agencies, due to the lack of knowledge of the use of these components and their possible consequences. Among the natural substances used for this purpose are Essential Oils (EOs), which have traditionally been used for their pharmacological properties. In our case, both an extract of the genus Allium, commercially known as PROALLIUM AP®, as well as some of its components (PTSO and its analog PTS) are intended to be used as antimicrobials in the food industry as part of active packaging. As a preliminary step to the study of its safety, a bibliographical review of the toxicity data available so far was made in the scientific literature. Afterwards, the lack of studies required in different compounds with interest in food preservation and the disparity of available results have been evidenced. The toxicological evaluation carried our in the present Thesis started with a battery of tests both in vitro, with cells that would be in contact with these substances when ingested, and in vivo, in rats after acute and chronic consumption, in order to investigate possible toxic effects, mainly genotoxicity, which may be triggered upon exposure to PROALLIUM AP®, PTSO and PTS. Tre relevance of the toxicological information of these substances is essential for their future use since it is a regulatory requirement by the competent authorities prior to their commercialization. All these experiments has led to the following publications: GENOTOXICITY ASSESSMENT OF PROPYL THIOSULFINATE OXIDE, AN ORGANOSULFUR• COMPOUND FROM ALLIUM EXTRACT, INTENDED TO FOOD ACTIVE PACKAGING. (Mellado-García y cols., 2015), Food and Chemical Toxicology 86, 365-373. The most important route of exposure in our context is the oral route because once the PROALLIUM AP® extract is incorporated into films in active packaging, PTSO could be ingested by consumers. In this work, Caco-2 cells (colon adenocarcinoma) were exposed to different concentrations depending on the maximum concentration that would migrate from the film to the consumer in the worst possible scenario. Experiments carried out in our laboratory included the evaluation of the mutagenicity of PTSO in different strains of S. typhimurium (0-20 μM) each one with different genetically altered characteristics to present mutations in genes involved in histidine synthesis to cover a wide range of possible mutations. Mutagenicity in mammalian L5178Y TK +/- cells (MLA assay) was also studied following a previous cytotoxicity study, in which the exposure concentrations were determined at 4h (0-30 μM) and at 24h ( 0-20 μM). In the case of the Ames test, there were no significant differences in any of the strains studied in the absence or presence of S9. However, at 24 h of exposure in the MLA assay, significant differences were observed in the revertant colonies in the range of 2.5-20 μM. On the other hand, PTSO did not induce increases in the percentage of MN (0-40 μM) in the absence of S9 at any of the concentrations tested, but it did in the presence of the microsomal fraction S9 from 15 μM, indicating the genotoxicity of its metabolite. Finally, the comet assay (0-50 μM) showed that PTSO did not induce DNA strand breaks or oxidative damage in the DNA of Caco-2 cells exposed. Afterwards, considering the contradictory results of PTSO obtained in genotoxicity in vitro, following the recommendations of the EFSA (EFSA 2011), the in vivo genotoxicity of PTSO in Wistar rats was studied in the following work: GENOTOXICITY OF A THIOSULFONATE COMPOUND DERIVED FROM ALLIUM sp.• INTENDED TO BE USED IN ACTIVE FOOD PACKAGING: IN VIVO COMET ASSAY AND MICRONUCLEUS TEST. (Mellado-García y cols., 2016), Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 800-801, 1-11. Genotoxicity was studied by the MN test in the bone marrow in Wistar rats, and with the comet assay in stomach and liver of rats, being the first contact organ in the ingestion of PTSO and the main metabolism organ of xenobiotics, respectively. This study was performed by administering to the rats doses of 55; 17.4; 5.5 mg/kg b.w. of PTSO. After necropsy, a histopathological study of both organs was performed, with no evidence of genotoxicity under optical microscopy or electron microscopy in rats exposed to the control. Only at the highest concentration tested an increase in glycogen storage in liver and degenerative processes in the stomach with vacuolization of cell membranes were observed. The study was completed with an analysis to determine the presence of PTSO by UHPLC-MS/MS Orbitrap chromatography in the blood of treated rats, with no PTSO detected. Finally, in order to corroborate the absence of genotoxicity in the organs previously studied, the evaluation of the presence of PTSO in the tissues using the analytical pyrolysis technique by gas chromatography combined with a mass detector (Py-GC-MS) was carried out. It was demonstrated the existence in liver of derivatives of the main component and two possible metabolites, which confirmed the phenomenon of metabolism of PTSO in the organism. Following the acute toxicity study of PTSO in rats, and again following the recommendations of the EFSA (EFSA, 2011), in order to complete the results of genotoxicity obtained, and given the lack of in vivo information, a test of chronic toxicity for 90 days with PROALLIUM AP® was carried out. TOXICOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF AN ALLIUM-BASED COMMERCIAL PRODUCT IN• A 90-DAY FEEDING STUDY IN SPRAGUE-DAWLEY RATS. (Mellado-García y cols., 2015), Food and Chemical Toxicology 90, 18-29. PROALLIUM AP® is an extract of different components present in Allium sp. This extract will be incorporated into the films mentioned above for their antimicrobial activity. In this regard, following the previous tests, due to the lack of information on this component and following the recommendations of the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Union, which requires the evaluation of substances used in food contact materials. An oral subchronic toxicity study was performed on Sprague-Dawley rats for a 90-day oral exposure period. The doses: 0, 25, 100 and 400 mg/kg/day PROALLIUM AP® were used. Rats were sacrificed and their organs (liver, kidney, intestine, brain, thymus, epididymis, adrenal gland, heart, testicles/ovaries, lungs and spleen) and blood by cardiac puncture were extracted. In addition, rats were monitored weekly for weight, water and food consumption, and a histopathological, clinical and hematological study of the exposed rats was added. Rats showed no clinical signs of dose-related mortality. The results did not show significant differences at any of the concentrations exposed to the control, in any of the parameters studied. In this way, PROALLIUM AP® NOAEL was determined at 400 mg/kg/day, a value 500 times higher than exposure derived from its potential use in active packaging. In addition, in order to study another OS component with potential application in the food industry, PTS, to which antimicrobial properties are also attributed, its in vitro cytotoxicity, mutagenicity and genotoxicity evaluation were performed in the following publication: IN VITRO TOXICOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF AN ORGANOSULFUR COMPOUND• FROM ALLIUM EXTRACT: CYTOTOXICITY, MUTAGENICITY AND GENOTOXICITY STUDIES. (Mellado-García y cols., 2016), Food and Chemical Toxicology (in press) The objective of this study was to study for the first of cytotoxicity of PTS in Caco-2 cells at 24 and 48h, determining its CE50 (280 μM) through different biomarkers of viability (RN, MTS, CP). Moreover, an evaluation of the mutagenicity in the Ames test (0-280 μM) was carried out, in which 5 strains of S. typhimurium were used. In this test, no significant differences were observed at any of the concentrations tested, in the presence or absence of S9. On the other hand, in the MLA assay, no significant differences were observed in the assay either after 4 or 24 hours of exposure, thus demonstrating the absence of mutagenicity. In addition to these assays, an assessment of genotoxicity was performed by the MN test on L5178Y TK+/- cells both in the absence (0-17.25 μM) and in the presence (0-25 μM) of S9. In this assay, an increase in the frequency of binucleated cells with MN at the highest concentration tested without S9 (17.25 μM) was detected, and at the two highest concentrations with S9 (20-25 μM), showing that the metabolites as well as the original component produce genotoxicity. Finally, genotoxicity was studied using the standard comet assay (0-280 μM) and modified with restriction enzymes in Caco-2 cells. In this case, only DNA damage at the highest concentration tested in the standard comet assay was observed, whereas no oxidative damage was observed in the modified comet assay at any concentration. For the accomplishment of this doctoral thesis, the Phd student realized an international stay in the department of "SEBIO, Stress Environnementaux et Biosurveillance de milieux aquatiques" in the University of Reims, Champagne-Ardennes, (France). This stay was conducted under the direction of Dr. Stéphane Bettoulle and Alain Geffard (department director) and with the collaboration and supervision of Dr. Hakim Samai. • "DETERMINATION OF CELL MORTALITY, OXIDATIVE STRESS AND PHAGOCYTOSIS IN THP-1 CELL MACROPHAGES BY FLOW CYTOMETRY", Revista Española de Toxicología (pending publication). In this work, the behavior of PTSO in THP-1 cells, human monocytic leukemia cells, was studied by means of cell death, oxidative stress and phagocytosis activity by flow cytometry. For this purpose, THP-1 cells were activated into a macrophage state, resulting in a significant increase in cell death from 60 μM PTSO. On the other hand, no significant production of reactive oxygen species was observed at any concentration. Finally, phagocytosis activity was studied using fluorescent latex microspheres, which showed significant differences at 60 μM of PTSO and the highest concentration tested (150 μM PTSO). The mean number of microspheres phagocytosed per cell was determined, with significant differences obtained at the two highest concentrations tested against the negative control (100 and 150 μM) for a total of 6 microspheres/cell. Taking into account these results, we could say that the concentrations that can produce toxic effects in vitro in lymphocytic cells are lower than those expected to reach the consumer in the worst case scenario (37.5 μM PTSO).
Publisher's version (útgefin grein) ; Background Achieving universal health coverage (UHC) involves all people receiving the health services they need, of high quality, without experiencing financial hardship. Making progress towards UHC is a policy priority for both countries and global institutions, as highlighted by the agenda of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and WHO's Thirteenth General Programme of Work (GPW13). Measuring effective coverage at the health-system level is important for understanding whether health services are aligned with countries' health profiles and are of sufficient quality to produce health gains for populations of all ages. Methods Based on the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2019, we assessed UHC effective coverage for 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2019. Drawing from a measurement framework developed through WHO's GPW13 consultation, we mapped 23 effective coverage indicators to a matrix representing health service types (eg, promotion, prevention, and treatment) and five population-age groups spanning from reproductive and newborn to older adults (>= 65 years). Effective coverage indicators were based on intervention coverage or outcome-based measures such as mortality-to-incidence ratios to approximate access to quality care; outcome-based measures were transformed to values on a scale of 0-100 based on the 2.5th and 97.5th percentile of location-year values. We constructed the UHC effective coverage index by weighting each effective coverage indicator relative to its associated potential health gains, as measured by disability-adjusted life-years for each location-year and population-age group. For three tests of validity (content, known-groups, and convergent), UHC effective coverage index performance was generally better than that of other UHC service coverage indices from WHO (ie, the current metric for SDG indicator 3.8.1 on UHC service coverage), the World Bank, and GBD 2017. We quantified frontiers of UHC effective coverage performance on the basis of pooled health spending per capita, representing UHC effective coverage index levels achieved in 2019 relative to country-level government health spending, prepaid private expenditures, and development assistance for health. To assess current trajectories towards the GPW13 UHC billion target-1 billion more people benefiting from UHC by 2023-we estimated additional population equivalents with UHC effective coverage from 2018 to 2023. Findings Globally, performance on the UHC effective coverage index improved from 45.8 (95% uncertainty interval 44.2-47.5) in 1990 to 60.3 (58.7-61.9) in 2019, yet country-level UHC effective coverage in 2019 still spanned from 95 or higher in Japan and Iceland to lower than 25 in Somalia and the Central African Republic. Since 2010, sub-Saharan Africa showed accelerated gains on the UHC effective coverage index (at an average increase of 2.6% [1.9-3.3] per year up to 2019); by contrast, most other GBD super-regions had slowed rates of progress in 2010-2019 relative to 1990-2010. Many countries showed lagging performance on effective coverage indicators for non-communicable diseases relative to those for communicable diseases and maternal and child health, despite non-communicable diseases accounting for a greater proportion of potential health gains in 2019, suggesting that many health systems are not keeping pace with the rising non-communicable disease burden and associated population health needs. In 2019, the UHC effective coverage index was associated with pooled health spending per capita (r=0.79), although countries across the development spectrum had much lower UHC effective coverage than is potentially achievable relative to their health spending. Under maximum efficiency of translating health spending into UHC effective coverage performance, countries would need to reach $1398 pooled health spending per capita (US$ adjusted for purchasing power parity) in order to achieve 80 on the UHC effective coverage index. From 2018 to 2023, an estimated 388.9 million (358.6-421.3) more population equivalents would have UHC effective coverage, falling well short of the GPW13 target of 1 billion more people benefiting from UHC during this time. Current projections point to an estimated 3.1 billion (3.0-3.2) population equivalents still lacking UHC effective coverage in 2023, with nearly a third (968.1 million [903.5-1040.3]) residing in south Asia. Interpretation The present study demonstrates the utility of measuring effective coverage and its role in supporting improved health outcomes for all people-the ultimate goal of UHC and its achievement. Global ambitions to accelerate progress on UHC service coverage are increasingly unlikely unless concerted action on non-communicable diseases occurs and countries can better translate health spending into improved performance. Focusing on effective coverage and accounting for the world's evolving health needs lays the groundwork for better understanding how close-or how far-all populations are in benefiting from UHC. ; Lucas Guimaraes Abreu acknowledges support from Coordenacao de Aperfeicoamento de Pessoal de Nivel Superior -Brasil (Capes) -Finance Code 001, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico (CNPq) and Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG). Olatunji O Adetokunboh acknowledges South African Department of Science & Innovation, and National Research Foundation. Anurag Agrawal acknowledges support from the Wellcome Trust DBT India Alliance Senior Fellowship IA/CPHS/14/1/501489. Rufus Olusola Akinyemi acknowledges Grant U01HG010273 from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) as part of the H3Africa Consortium. Rufus Olusola Akinyemi is further supported by the FLAIR fellowship funded by the UK Royal Society and the African Academy of Sciences. Syed Mohamed Aljunid acknowledges the Department of Health Policy and Management, Faculty of Public Health, Kuwait University and International Centre for Casemix and Clinical Coding, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Malaysia for the approval and support to participate in this research project. Marcel Ausloos, Claudiu Herteliu, and Adrian Pana acknowledge partial support by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research and Innovation, CNDSUEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P4-ID-PCCF-2016-0084. Till Winfried Barnighausen acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation through the Alexander von Humboldt Professor award, funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. Juan J Carrero was supported by the Swedish Research Council (2019-01059). Felix Carvalho acknowledges UID/MULTI/04378/2019 and UID/QUI/50006/2019 support with funding from FCT/MCTES through national funds. Vera Marisa Costa acknowledges support from grant (SFRH/BHD/110001/2015), received by Portuguese national funds through Fundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia (FCT), IP, under the Norma TransitA3ria DL57/2016/CP1334/CT0006. Jan-Walter De Neve acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. Kebede Deribe acknowledges support by Wellcome Trust grant number 201900/Z/16/Z as part of his International Intermediate Fellowship. Claudiu Herteliu acknowledges partial support by a grant co-funded by European Fund for Regional Development through Operational Program for Competitiveness, Project ID P_40_382. Praveen Hoogar acknowledges the Centre for Bio Cultural Studies (CBiCS), Manipal Academy of Higher Education(MAHE), Manipal and Centre for Holistic Development and Research (CHDR), Kalghatgi. Bing-Fang Hwang acknowledges support from China Medical University (CMU108-MF-95), Taichung, Taiwan. Mihajlo Jakovljevic acknowledges the Serbian part of this GBD contribution was co-funded through the Grant OI175014 of the Ministry of Education Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. Aruna M Kamath acknowledges funding from the National Institutes of Health T32 grant (T32GM086270). Srinivasa Vittal Katikireddi acknowledges funding from the Medical Research Council (MC_UU_12017/13 & MC_UU_12017/15), Scottish Government Chief Scientist Office (SPHSU13 & SPHSU15) and an NRS Senior Clinical Fellowship (SCAF/15/02). Yun Jin Kim acknowledges support from the Research Management Centre, Xiamen University Malaysia (XMUMRF/2018-C2/ITCM/0001). Kewal Krishan acknowledges support from the DST PURSE grant and UGC Center of Advanced Study (CAS II) awarded to the Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. Manasi Kumar acknowledges support from K43 TW010716 Fogarty International Center/NIMH. Ben Lacey acknowledges support from the NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre and the BHF Centre of Research Excellence, Oxford. Ivan Landires is a member of the Sistema Nacional de InvestigaciA3n (SNI), which is supported by the Secretaria Nacional de Ciencia Tecnologia e Innovacion (SENACYT), Panama. Jeffrey V Lazarus acknowledges support by a Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities Miguel Servet grant (Instituto de Salud Carlos III/ESF, European Union [CP18/00074]). Peter T N Memiah acknowledges CODESRIA; HISTP. Subas Neupane acknowledges partial support from the Competitive State Research Financing of the Expert Responsibility area of Tampere University Hospital. Shuhei Nomura acknowledges support from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan (18K10082). Alberto Ortiz acknowledges support by ISCIII PI19/00815, DTS18/00032, ISCIII-RETIC REDinREN RD016/0009 Fondos FEDER, FRIAT, Comunidad de Madrid B2017/BMD-3686 CIFRA2-CM. These funding sources had no role in the writing of the manuscript or the decision to submit it for publication. George C Patton acknowledges support from a National Health & Medical Research Council Fellowship. Marina Pinheiro acknowledges support from FCT for funding through program DL 57/2016 -Norma transitA3ria. Alberto Raggi, David Sattin, and Silvia Schiavolin acknowledge support by a grant from the Italian Ministry of Health (Ricerca Corrente, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico C Besta, Linea 4 -Outcome Research: dagli Indicatori alle Raccomandazioni Cliniche). Daniel Cury Ribeiro acknowledges support from the Sir Charles Hercus Health Research Fellowship -Health Research Council of New Zealand (18/111). Perminder S Sachdev acknowledges funding from the NHMRC Australia. Abdallah M Samy acknowledges support from a fellowship from the Egyptian Fulbright Mission Program. Milena M Santric-Milicevic acknowledges support from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (Contract No. 175087). Rodrigo Sarmiento-Suarez acknowledges institutional support from University of Applied and Environmental Sciences in Bogota, Colombia, and Carlos III Institute of Health in Madrid, Spain. Maria Ines Schmidt acknowledges grants from the Foundation for the Support of Research of the State of Rio Grande do Sul (IATS and PrInt) and the Brazilian Ministry of Health. Sheikh Mohammed Shariful Islam acknowledges a fellowship from the National Heart Foundation of Australia and Deakin University. Aziz Sheikh acknowledges support from Health Data Research UK. Kenji Shibuya acknowledges Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Joan B Soriano acknowledges support by Centro de Investigacion en Red de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain. Rafael Tabares-Seisdedos acknowledges partial support from grant PI17/00719 from ISCIII-FEDER. Santosh Kumar Tadakamadla acknowledges support from the National Health and Medical Research Council Early Career Fellowship, Australia. Marcello Tonelli acknowledges the David Freeze Chair in Health Services Research at the University of Calgary, AB, Canada. ; "Peer Reviewed"
ilustraciones, diagramas ; Desde la creación del primer hospital en Santa María la Antigua del Darién, el Hospital San Pedro en la fundación de Bogotá por Gonzalo Jiménez de Quezada a nuestros días, han transcurrido más de 500 años de esta institución, creadas para salvaguardar la salud, almas y cuerpos; inicialmente como caridad cristiana hasta nuestros días como derecho fundamental de los ciudadanos. Los hospitales de caridad desaparecieron con la independencia, se conformaron los hospitales de guerra, el montepío militar, hospitales de pueblos, que con la Constitución Política de 1991 y la Ley 10 de 1990 se reorganizaron y luego se trasformaron por la Ley 100 de 1993 en Empresas Sociales del Estado (ESE), instituciones prestadoras de servidos de salud (IPS) en un mercado de competencia regulada por el ejecutivo nacional. Con la expedición de la Ley 1438 del 2011 y la reforma de la seguridad social mediante la ley 1122 de 2007, la calidad paso a ser un factor importante, en todas las IPS. Todas, para sobrevivir al mercado, además de indicadores financieros deberían mostrar resultados en salud, por eso nace la idea de crear PG para los directores o gerentes de las ESE, con indicadores uniformes que no solo permite ver la evolución de la gestión sino hacer la evaluación de los gerentes por parte de las juntas directivas. Nace entonces el Decreto 357 y la Resolución 473 de 2008, los cuales fijaron los compromisos que el director o Gerente establece ante la Junta Directiva, parlo lo cual deberían incluir como mínimo las metas y actividades en las áreas de gestión gerencial y estratégica, gestión de la prestación de servicios de salud y gestión administrativa. Los gerentes elegidos por concurso de méritos en la última década y luego por designación directa a partir de 2016, entre sus compromisos, además de la formulación del Plan de Gestión (PG) de la ESE, debían cada año lectivo realizar por lo menos 2 informes, uno por semestre y así mismo las juntas directivas hacer evaluaciones y calificar a los gerentes, sin embargo, este mandato ha tenido bajo cumplimento en especial en las ESE del departamento de Boyacá. El Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social (MSyPS), creo una plataforma que permite hacer seguimiento a algunos indicadores de gestión de los planes de los gerentes de las ESE por niveles de complejidad, Esta plataforma disponible desde el 2029 presenta los datos del último año del periodo de designación de los gerentes de ESE del país, a través de la web se pueden consultar en detalle por cada una de las ESE. El compromiso político de la gestión se materializa en estos planes y hay factores que se deben explorara a partir de la administración pública, por ejemplo, si el género del gerente influye en los resultados, o si el apoyo electoral del mandatario que designa al gerente influye en los indicadores o tal vez en el modelo descentralizado de salud la gestión de las ESE es independiente de la gestión pública local. De esta manera la Tesis aborda el impacto de los planes de gestión y evaluación de gerentes ESE territoriales sobre indicadores de salud e inequidad en las ESE de primer nivel de atención en Boyacá para el año 2019. A partir de fuentes secundarias del MSyPS y del Departamento Nacional de Planeación (DNP) se tomaron indicadores de gestión de la ESE, indicadores de desarrollo municipal y de salud e inequidad para hacer un análisis ecológico mediante métodos cuantitativos Toda la información se digito en una hoja Excel y se analizó en SPSS-V19® Se encontró diferencias entre la gestión de la ESE y la gestión del territorio hay independencia entre la gerencia de los hospitales ESE y la administración territorial de los alcaldes; no se encontró diferencias entre el género de los gerentes y mandatarios, pero si mejores indicadores sociales para el sexo femenino, se destaca que los indicadores positivos de gestión de las EES influyen en indicadores oficiales que incluyen natalidad, mortalidad, NBI, cobertura de régimen subsidiado en los habitantes de la zona de influencia de las ESE de Boyacá. Se hace necesario la evaluación continua de los PG e indicadores tanto de las ESE como de la administración municipal, ya que deben ser sinérgicos para el lograr desarrollo reflejado en indicadores positivos de gestión. La planeación logra ser garante de las políticas de salud en el territorio local, la gestión de la admiración pública y la participación ciudadana como elemento de la cultura política indispensable para lograr mejor desarrollo social, económico y de salud. (Texto tomado de la fuente) ; Since the creation of the first hospital in Santa María la Antigua del Darién, the San Pedro Hospital in the founding of Bogotá by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quezada to our days, more than 500 years have passed since this institution created to safeguard souls and bodies; initially as a Christian charity until today as a fundamental right of citizens. Charity hospitals disappeared with independence, war hospitals, military "montepío", village hospitals were formed, which with the 1991 constitution and Law 10 of 1990 were reorganized and later transformed by Law 100 of 1993 into Companies Social State (ESE), institutions that provide health services (IPS) in a market of competition regulated by the national executive. With the issuance of Law 1438 of 2011 and the reform of social security through Law 1122 of 2007, quality became an important factor in all IPS. All of them, to survive in the market, in addition to financial indicators, should show results in health, that is why the idea of creating management plans for the directors or managers of the ESEs was born, with uniform indicators that not only allow to see the evolution of the management but also make the evaluation of managers by the boards of directors. Decree 357 and Resolution 473 of 2008 were born then, which is constituted in the document that reflects the commitments that the Director or Manager establishes before the Board of Directors of the entity, which must include at least the goals and activities in the areas of managerial and strategic management, management of the provision of health services and administrative management. Managers elected by merit contest in the last decade and then by direct appointment as of 2016 between their commitments in addition to the formulation of the management plan, each school year had to make at least 3 reports and also the boards of directors make evaluations and qualify the managers, however this mandate has been poorly fulfilled, especially in Boyacá. The Ministry of Health as the governing body of the health system in Colombia, created a platform that allows monitoring of some management indicators of the ESE managers' plans by levels of complexity. This platform has been available since 2029 presents the data for the last year of the appointment period of the country's ESE managers, through the website they can be consulted in detail for each of the ESE. The political commitment of the management is materialized in these plans and there are factors that should be explored from the public administration, for example if the gender of the manager influences the results, or if the electoral support of the president who appoints the manager influences the indicators or perhaps in the decentralized health model the management of the ESE is independent of the local public management. In this way, the thesis addresses the impact of the management and evaluation plans of managers of territorial state social companies on health indicators and inequity in the first level of care in Boyacá for the year 2019, From secondary sources from the Ministry of Health and the National Planning Department (DNP), ESE management indicators, municipal development and health indicators and inequity were taken to make an ecological analysis using quantitative methods. All information was entered in an Excel sheet and was analyzed in SPSS-V19® Differences were found between the management of the ESE and the management of the territory. There is independence between the management of the ESE hospitals and the territorial administration of the mayors; No differences were found between the gender of managers and leaders, but there were better social indicators for the female sex, it is highlighted that the positive indicators of management of the HEI influence official indicators that include birth, mortality, NBI, coverage of the subsidized regime in the inhabitants of the zone of influence of the ESE of Boyacá. The continuous evaluation of the management plans and indicators of both the ESEs and the municipal administration is necessary, since they must be synergistic to achieve development reflected in positive management indicators. Planning manages to be the guarantor of health policies in the local territory, the management of public admiration and citizen participation as an essential element of the political culture to achieve better social, economic and health development. (Text taken from source) ; Maestría ; Magíster en Estudios Políticos ; Investigación ex post facto evaluativa, realizada posterior a la revisión documental de artículos, normas y jurisprudencia relacionada con la creación de Empresas Sociales del Estado (ESE), la elección de gerentes, la presentación y evaluación de planes de gestión y su relación con la mortalidad, la gestión, pobreza y seguimiento, para ello, se realizó consulta de las siguientes fuentes de información: 1. Se solicitó a la Secretaria de Salud del departamento de Boyacá, copia de los planes de gestión para la vigencia 2016-2019 y los informes de evaluación de la gestión cuatrimestrales que la junta directiva debió hacer. 2. Se consultó en la web del MSyPS el sistema de alerta y seguimiento a Hospitales públicos Ai-Hospital. Para cada municipio y se elaboró una base de datos en Microsoft Excel. 3. Para los datos poblacionales se consultó en la página oficial del DANE, proyecciones censales del censo 2018. 4. Los indicadores de NBI, Miseria, hacinamiento, dependencia, servicios, escolaridad, gestión del alcalde se consultó la herramienta del Departamento nacional de planeación para elaborar planes de desarrollo territorial en las que presentan indicadores de la vigencia 2016-2019. 5. Para el aseguramiento se consultó la herramienta SISPRO del MSyPS y protección social. 6. Los datos de mandatarios locales, se construyó con el género de los gerentes y partidos políticos en la elección, se recolectó de la página de la Registradora Nacional del Estado Civil y de la Gobernación de Boyacá, oficina de participación y democracia. Todos los datos fueron digitados en una base de datos Excel, con estos, se exploró un indicador sintético de 10 variables que se denominó "índice de gestión hospitalaria 10 tesis" mediante el software Epidat 3.1®, que corresponde a 10 indicadores del Índice del MSyPS para el programa Ai-Hospital que podían ser obtenidos con fidelidad en cada ESE para el cierre de 2019, siguiendo metodologías definidas por el MSyPS de Colombia. Se realizó análisis en el software SPSS versión 19 y en Microsoft Excel 2010, se presentan datos descriptivos y análisis gráficos de dispersión, ANOVA de un factor. La significancia establecida para el análisis bivariado fue de p>0.05. ; Cultura Política y Salud
Pocs incendis grans i destructius representen els impactes més negatius en els valors socioeconòmics i naturals de les zones mediterrànies. Com a conseqüència de l'augment de l'acumulació de biomassa en els paisatges culturals prèviament elaborats, aquests esdeveniments no característics que es produeixen en condicions meteorològiques extremes són resistents als esforços de supressió a causa de les brases massives de dutxa, les intensitats de foc aclaparadores i les taxes d'expansió molt elevades. D'altra banda, l'augment de les àrees d'interfície de zones silvestres-urbanes representa un factor condicionant que exigeix protecció i augmenta substancialment la complexitat de la gestió d'emergències. Les polítiques de prevenció d'ignició i de supressió d'incendis només resulten ineficaces per mitigar les pèrdues dels focs contemporanis. En aquesta tesi he implementat un marc analític a escala múltiple per informar sobre la presa de decisions d'una estratègia de gestió de riscos d'incendis forestals amb l'objectiu de crear paisatges resistents al foc, restaurar el règim de foc cultural, donar suport a la supressió d'incendis segura i eficient i crear comunitats adaptades al foc. En descompondre el risc d'incendis forestals en els principals factors causals a les escales relacionades amb les capacitats de gestió dels diferents agents, des dels propietaris individuals fins als governs regionals, aquesta tesi intenta proporcionar una solució integral per aconseguir aquests objectius bàsics a mig termini a la Unió Europea del sud regions. Es va implementar un model de simulació contra incendis per obtenir els factors causals de risc requerits o els indicadors d'exposició. La propagació del foc i el comportament en grans àrees es van modelar tenint en compte els règims de bombers variables en termes d'estacionalitat, gran nombre de focs i distribució espacial. Les relacions de susceptibilitat definides per experts o models de mortalitat es van utilitzar per avaluar els efectes de foc com a possibles pèrdues econòmiques en valors de risc. A més, vam utilitzar una anàlisi de transmissió per definir els incendis de la comunitat i avaluar l'intercanvi de foc entre els municipis veïns. La gestió de combustibles és la principal estratègia de mitigació de riscos d'incendis forestals a escala paisatgística i s'han utilitzat models d'optimització espacial per ajudar en el disseny del tractament del paisatge estratègic i explorar les oportunitats de col·locació sota restriccions pressupostàries. Els resultats es van proporcionar a les escales operatives adequades per informar de diferents estratègies de gestió d'incendis forestals. Els perfils d'exposició i l'avaluació de riscos a escales finals per a les estructures d'habitatges individuals i els valors dels boscos de fustes intenten promoure la participació dels propietaris i exigir les bones pràctiques dels gestors forestals amb l'objectiu de mitigar les pèrdues derivades dels incendis en el mateix lloc (unitats de tractament) i les terres veïnes. Els esforços de gestió dins de les àrees de planificació articulats com a projectes de planificació col·laborativa entre diversos agents socioeconòmics inclouen tractaments sobre el combustible del paisatge en llocs estratègics que redueixen la probabilitat general d'incendis forestals i la intensitat del foc, la planificació del paisatge per excloure àrees perilloses per al desenvolupament urbà, la preparació de la comunitat reduint la vulnerabilitat social i les ordenances del municipi a reduir la vulnerabilitat de l'habitatge. La producció conjunta de tractaments representa una oportunitat en ecosistemes forestals mediterranis multifuncionals per organitzar solucions complexes. La formulació de polítiques a escala regional dóna prioritat a nivell municipal a les diferents estratègies de gestió, com ara programes de prevenció d'ignició, pre-posicionament de recursos, assignació de subvencions per a tractaments de combustible i aplicació de la llei per a la gestió de combustibles en comunitats d'interfície de zones silvestres-urbanes amb major risc. Els diferents treballs es van desenvolupar en diverses àrees mediterrànies per ressaltar l'aplicabilitat del marc en altres llocs. ; Pocos incendios grandes y destructivos representan la mayoría de los impactos negativos sobre los valores socioeconómicos y naturales en las áreas mediterráneas. Como resultado de la creciente acumulación de biomasa en los paisajes culturales que antes eran de grano fino, estos eventos no característicos que ocurren en condiciones climáticas extremas son resistentes a los esfuerzos de supresión debidos a las brasas de lluvia masiva, las intensidades de fuego abrumadoras y las tasas de propagación muy altas. Además, el aumento de las áreas de interfaz urbano-forestal representa un factor de condicionamiento que exige protección y aumenta sustancialmente la complejidad de la gestión de emergencias. Las políticas de prevención de ignición y extinción de incendios por sí solas resultan ineficaces para mitigar las pérdidas de incendios contemporáneos. En esta Tesis, implementé un marco analítico de múltiples escalas para informar la toma de decisiones de una estrategia de gestión de riesgos de incendios forestales con el objetivo de crear paisajes resistentes a incendios, restaurar el régimen cultural de incendios, apoyar la supresión segura y eficiente de incendios y crear comunidades adaptadas a incendios. Al disolver el riesgo de incendios forestales en los principales factores causales en escalas relacionadas con las capacidades de gestión de los diferentes agentes, desde los propietarios individuales hasta los gobiernos regionales, esta tesis intenta ofrecer una solución integral para lograr esos objetivos centrales a medio plazo en el sur de la Unión Europea regiones. Se implementó un enfoque de modelado de simulación de incendios para obtener los factores causales de riesgo requeridos o las métricas de exposición. La propagación y el comportamiento de los incendios en grandes áreas se modelaron teniendo en cuenta los regímenes de incendios variables en términos de estacionalidad, gran número de incendios y distribución espacial. Las relaciones de susceptibilidad definidas por los expertos o los modelos de mortalidad se utilizaron para evaluar los efectos del fuego como posibles pérdidas económicas a valores en riesgo. Además, utilizamos un análisis de transmisión para delimitar las cuencas comunitarias y evaluar el intercambio de incendios entre los municipios vecinos. La gestión de combustibles es la principal estrategia de mitigación del riesgo de incendios forestales a escala del paisaje, y se utilizaron modelos de optimización espacial para ayudar en el diseño estratégico del tratamiento del paisaje y explorar oportunidades de colocación bajo restricciones presupuestarias. Los resultados se proporcionaron en escalas operativas apropiadas para informar diferentes estrategias de manejo de incendios forestales. Los perfiles de exposición y la evaluación del riesgo a escalas finas para las estructuras de viviendas individuales y los valores forestales de los bosques de madera intentan promover la participación de los propietarios y demandan las buenas prácticas de los administradores forestales con el objetivo de mitigar las pérdidas por incendios encendidos en el mismo sitio (unidades de tratamiento) y las tierras vecinas. Los esfuerzos de gestión dentro de las áreas de planificación articulados como proyectos de planificación colaborativa entre diversos agentes socioeconómicos incluyen tratamientos de combustible de paisaje en lugares estratégicos que reducen la probabilidad general de incendios forestales y la intensidad de incendios, la planificación del paisaje para excluir áreas peligrosas para el desarrollo urbano, la preparación de la comunidad para reducir la vulnerabilidad social y las ordenanzas municipales para reducir la vulnerabilidad de la vivienda. El tratamiento conjunto de la producción representa una oportunidad en los ecosistemas forestales mediterráneos multifuncionales para organizar soluciones complejas. La formulación de políticas a escala regional prioriza a nivel municipal las diferentes estrategias de manejo, como los programas de prevención de ignición, el posicionamiento previo de recursos de supresión, la asignación de subsidios para tratamientos de combustible y la aplicación de la ley para el manejo de combustibles en comunidades de interfaz urbano-forestal en mayor riesgo. Los diferentes documentos se desarrollaron en varias áreas mediterráneas para resaltar la aplicabilidad del marco en otros lugares. ; Few large and destructive fires account for most negative impacts on socioeconomic and natural values in Mediterranean areas. As a result of an increasing amount of biomass accumulation on the previously fine-grained cultural landscapes, these uncharacteristic events occurring under extreme weather conditions are resistant to suppression efforts due to massive showering embers, overwhelming fire intensities, and very high spread rates. Moreover, increasing wildland-urban interface areas represent a conditioning factor demanding protection and substantially increasing emergency management complexity. Ignition prevention and fire suppression policies alone result ineffective to mitigate losses from contemporary fires. In this Thesis I implemented a multiple-scale analytical framework to inform the decision-making of a wildfire risk management strategy aiming at creating fire resilient landscapes, restoring the cultural fire regime, supporting safe and efficient fire suppression, and creating fire-adapted communities. By decomposing wildfire risk into the main causative factors at scales related to management capabilities for the different agents, from the individual homeowners to Regional Governments, this dissertation attempts to provide a comprehensive solution to achieve those core goals on the mid-term in southern European Union regions. A fire simulation modeling approach was implemented to obtain the required risk causative factors or exposure metrics. Fire spread and behavior in large areas were modeled accounting for variable fire regimes in terms of seasonality, large fire number, and spatial distribution. Expert-defined susceptibility relations or mortality models were then used to assess fire effects as potential economic losses to values at risk. Moreover, we used a transmission analysis to delineate community firesheds and assess fire exchange among neighboring municipalities. Fuels management is the main wildfire risk mitigation strategy at the landscape scale, and spatial optimization models were used to help in strategic landscape treatment design and explore collocation opportunities under budgetary restrictions. Results were provided at appropriate operational scales to inform different wildfire management strategies. Exposure profiles and risk assessment at fine scales for individual housing structures and timber stand forest values attempt to promote homeowners' involvement and demand forest managers' good practices aiming at mitigating losses from fires ignited on the same site (treatment units) and the neighboring lands. Management efforts within Planning Areas articulated as collaborative planning projects among various socioeconomic agents include landscape fuel treatments on strategic locations reducing overall wildfire likelihood and fire intensity, landscape planning to exclude hazardous areas for the urban development, community preparedness reducing social vulnerability, and municipality ordinances to reduce housing vulnerability. Treatment joint-production represents an opportunity in multi-functional Mediterranean forest ecosystems to arrange complex solutions. Regional scale policy-making prioritizes at municipality level the different management strategies such as ignition prevention programs, suppression resource pre-positioning, assignation of subsidies for fuel treatments, and law enforcement for managing fuels in wildland-urban interface communities at highest risk. The different papers were developed in various Mediterranean areas to highlight the applicability of the framework elsewhere.
Las evaluaciones ecotoxicológicas son herramientas fundamentales en las estimaciones de riesgo ambiental y la toma de decisiones de políticas de control y prevención de daños ecológicos. A nivel regional la caracterización ecotoxicológica de sedimentos se determina principalmente evaluando en ellos niveles de contaminantes considerados como prioritarios, sin tener en cuenta factores tales como biodisponibilidad, resuspensión posibles interacciones o impacto sobre estructura y funcionamiento de las comunidades asociadas a sedimentos. En ese sentido los bioensayos son herramientas esenciales para evaluar la calidad del ambiente porque responden de manera integrada a los efectos adversos de mezclas químicas complejas con las que están en contacto y cuya ecotoxicidad interesa conocer. Los bioensayos con anfípodos tienen considerable relevancia en la evaluación toxicológica de agua dulce, siendo Hyalella azteca, de amplia distribución en el hemisferio norte, la especie más utilizada. Los protocolos para bioensayos estandarizados fueron diseñados en el hemisferio norte en función de los requerimientos y biología de esta especie. Además, estos protocolos se centran primordialmente en la evaluación de parámetros tradicionales (mortalidad y crecimiento) sobre los anfípodos, asumiendo que la ausencia de efecto indica que el medio de ensayo es ecotoxicológicamente aceptable. Sin embargo, hay una tendencia mundial a evaluar el impacto de los contaminantes en un sistema acuático particular a través del monitoreo ecotoxicológico con especies nativas. La necesidad de utilizar especies locales se hace evidente, entre otras razones, porque el uso de las mismas adaptadas a las características del ambiente, pueden proporcionar resultados mucho más cercanos a la realidad que los obtenidos con una especie exótica. Por lo tanto, debido a que las especies propuestas en los protocolos internacionales no son las mismas que encontramos en nuestros ecosistemas acuáticos, es muy importante evaluar el efecto de los contaminantes sobre especies autóctonas sobre la base del conocimiento biológico, ya que estas pueden mostrar requerimientos y características diferentes a las de las especies estandarizadas en dichos protocolos. Es recomendable que cada región geográfica tenga protocolizado diversos métodos de ensayo donde las especies autóctonas estén representadas. Este trabajo presenta resultados obtenidos a partir de la evaluación de efectos de matriz acuosa y sedimentos contaminados sobre dos especies de anfípodos dulceacuícolas presentes en la región: Hyalella curvispina y Hyalella pseudoazteca, por medio de bioensayos de toxicidad en condiciones controladas de laboratorio. Utilizando organismos de dos estadios de vida, se realizaron ensayos de exposición aguda y subcrónica a dos metales pesados, tóxicos referentes (cobre y cadmio) en matriz acuosa, sedimento procesado y agua de poro extraída del mismo, adaptando una metodología estandarizada para H. azteca. Los puntos finales fueron concentración de metal en tejidos, sobrevivencia y crecimiento, siendo los dos últimos parámetros tradicionales para estos protocolos experimentales. A su vez, se investigó la utilidad del Índice de Masa Corporal (IMC) como nuevo parámetro evaluador de efecto subletal. Con el objetivo de utilizar nuevos puntos finales de evaluación de efecto temprano por exposición a metales en H. curvispina, se determinaron efectos sobre el contenido de glucógeno, proteínas totales, lípidos totales, triglicéridos, arginina fosfato, niveles de peroxidación lipídica (TBARS) y actividad de catalasa (CAT), superóxido dismutasa (SOD) y Na+/K+ ATPasa, en matriz sólida y acuosa. Además se ajustó e implementó para esta especie la técnica de sistema de transporte de electrones (ETS) como biomarcador de estado metabólico. Se llevó a cabo la evaluación de la ecotoxicidad de sedimentos ambientales realizando ensayos con sedimento completo y agua de poro, utilizando a H. curvispina como organismo prueba, evaluando como puntos finales parámetros tradicionales de efecto. A su vez, sobre muestras de sedimento completo se investigó la utilidad de biomarcadores de efecto temprano (niveles de lipoperoxidación y actividad de SOD, CAT y ETS). En relación al efecto del cadmio y cobre en solución H. curvispina probó ser sensible a concentraciones ecológicamente relevantes de ambos metales. Los resultados reafirman su importancia como una especie adecuada para ensayos de evaluación ecotoxicológica en cuerpos de agua dentro de su área de distribución. Con respecto a la toxicidad de ambos metales en bioensayos en matriz sólida, se demostró que ambas especies sufren efectos negativos sobre el crecimiento a concentraciones de Cd y Cu cercanas a los Niveles Guía de Calidad de Sedimentos (SQGs), desarrollados para el hemisferio norte, siendo el IMC el mejor parámetro discriminador de efecto. En cuanto al desarrollo de nuevos puntos finales de efecto temprano para ensayos con anfípodos se confirmó que la exposición a Cu ó Cd, tanto en solución como en sedimento, afectó de manera significativa a la mayoría de los parámetros metabólicos y bioquímicos evaluados. Se postula al ETS como nuevo biomarcador de efecto en bioensayos ecotoxicológicos con H. curvispina. El protocolo aplicado, los parámetros determinados y la especie test elegida, resultaron ser aptos para monitorear la calidad toxicológica de sedimentos ambientales. El uso de biomarcadores demostró una mayor sensibilidad y un más preciso ajuste de evaluación de efectos que el obtenido por el ensayo estándar de sobrevivencia y crecimiento, y se revelan más contundentes en relación a la evaluación de efectos proponiéndose su implementación en estudios de biomonitoreo de sedimentos. Por último, se estableció una línea de base como contribución al incremento del conocimiento biológico de las especies de ensayo, utilizando como criterio el IMC y parámetros del metabolismo energético, comparando el estado general de los animales en medio acuoso y sedimento en situaciones control. Se concluyó que H. curvispina puede ser empleada en bioensayos tanto en matriz sólida como acuosa, pero la especie resulta más apropiada para la realización de bioensayos en presencia de sedimentos. Con respecto a H. pseudoazteca resulta una especie apropiada para su uso en bioensayos en matriz sólida, pero no es recomendada para su utilización en ensayos en matriz acuosa. ; Ecotoxicology assays are fundamental tools for assessing environmental risks and making political to control and prevent environmental damage. At a regional level, ecotoxicological characterization of sediments is determined mostly by analysing the toxic levels present in them that are prioritized, not taking into account variables such as bioavailability, resuspension, possible interactions or impact on the structure and functioning of the communities associated to the sediments. In this sense, bioassays are essential tools for assessing environmental quality because they respond in an integral way to adverse effects of complex chemical mixtures with which they come in contact and of which there is an interest in knowing their ecotoxicity. Bioassays with amphipods are of remarkable relevance for toxicological assessment in freshwater, being Hyalella azteca, widely distributed across the northern hemisphere, the most employed species. Standardized bioassay protocols were designed in the northern hemisphere based on the requirements and biology of this species. Moreover, these protocols are focused mainly on the assessment of traditional parameters (growth and mortality) of amphipods, assuming the absence of an effect implies that the assay medium is ecotoxicologically acceptable. However, there is a worldwide trend to assess toxic impact in a particular aquatic system through ecotoxicological monitoring with native species. The need to use local species becomes evident, among other reasons, because using these adapted to the environmental characteristics can give results which are much closer to reality than those obtained using an exotic species. Therefore, considering the species proposed by international protocols are not the ones we find in our aquatic ecosystems, it is extremely important to assess the effect of pollutants on native species on the basis of biological knowledge, since native species may present requirements and characteristic that are different to those of the standardized species in said protocols. It is advisable that each geographic region have a diversity of standardized assay protocols where native species are represented. This work presents results obtained from the assessment of the effects of polluted sediments and liquid matrix on two freshwater amphipod species present in the region: Hyalella curvispina and Hyalella pseudoazteca, through toxicity bioassays in controlled laboratory conditions. Acute and subchronic exposure to two heavy metals, reference toxics (copper and cadmium) in liquid matrix, processed sediment and groundwater assays were performed, adapting a methodology standardized for H. azteca, using organisms at different life stages. Endpoints were metal tissue concentration, survival and growth, being these last two the traditional parameters for these experimental protocols. At the same time, utility of the body mass index (IMC) as a new parameter to evaluate sublethal effects was assessed. Aiming to use new endpoints to evaluate early effects of metal exposure in H. curvispina, the effects on glycogen, total proteins, total lipids, triglycerides, phosphate arginine, lipids peroxidation levels (TBARS) and catalase activity (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and Na+/K+ ATPase were determined in both solid and liquid matrix. In this work, the electron transportation system (ETS) technique was adjusted and implemented for this species as a metabolic state biomarker. Environmental sediment ecotoxicity assessment was carried out with complete sediment and pore water assays using H. curvispina as test organism, taking as endpoint the traditional effect parameters. Utility of early effect biomarkers (lipoperoxidation levels and SOD, CAT and ETS activity) was also assessed using complete sediment samples. With regard to the effect over cadmium and copper in solution, H. curvispina showed sensitivity to concentrations of both ecologically relevant metals. The results reasserted its significance as an adequate species for ecotoxicological assessment assays in water bodies inside their area of distribution. As for the toxicity of both metals in bioassays with solid matrix, it showed that both species suffer negative effects on growth when using concentrations of Cd and Cu close to the Sediment Quality Guideline (SQG) levels (developed for the North hemisphere), with the IMC being the best parameter for effect discrimination. With regard to developing new early effect endpoints for assays with amphipods, it was confirmed that the exposition to both metals significantly affected most of the intermediary metabolism parameters and biochemical oxidative damage evaluated, both in solution and in sediment. ETS is presented as a biomarker of effect in ecotoxicological bioassays with H. curvispina. The applied protocol, the determined parameters and the test species chosen were adequate for monitoring the toxicological quality of environmental sediments. The use of biomarkers showed a higher sensitivity and a more precise effect evaluation adjustment than the one obtained through the use of the standard survival and growth assay. Since they are also more telling in regards to the effects evaluation, its implementation in sediment biomonitoring studies is proposed. Finally, a baseline was established as contribution to the increment of biological knowledge of the test species, using the IMC and parameters from the energetic metabolism as criteria, comparing the general state of the animals in water and sediment media in control situations. It is concluded that H. curvispina can be used in bioassays with both solid and water matrix, but the species is more adequate for carrying out bioassays in presence of sediments. With regard to the H. pseudoazteca, it is an adequate species to be used in solid matrix bioassays, but it is not recommended for its use in water matrix trials. ; Fil:Giusto, Anabella. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales; Argentina.
In poultry farming, the intestinal microbiota and the "gut health" are topical subjects, especially since the EU has banned the use of auxinic antibiotics to avoid the onset of antibiotic resistance and safeguard the consumer health. As a consequence of their prohibition, a higher incidence of enteric diseases is observed in poultry farming with loss of productivity and increased mortality. In the post-antibiotics era, probiotics and prebiotics are proposed as a solution to the intestinal problems of poultry. Studies carried on these bioactives, administered in feed or water, show conflicting results due to the different environmental conditions (experimental and field conditions) and the way of use. The "in ovo" injection of pre-/pro-biotics and their combination (synbiotic), an emergent and original technique, shows promising results similar to those of auxinic antibiotics. The work aimed to evaluate the effects of these substances, "in ovo" administered, on growth performance, meat quality traits (cholesterol content, intramuscular collagen properties, fiber measurements), and the presence of histopathological changes in the pectoral muscle (PS) of Ross 308 broiler chickens. On d 12 of incubation, 480 eggs were randomly divided into five experimental groups treated with different bioactives, in ovo injected: C, control with physiological saline solution; T1 with 1.9 mg of Raffinose Family Oligosaccharides (RFOs); T2 and T3 with 1.9 mg of RFOs enriched with two different homemade probiotic bacteria (from Microbiological Bank of Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Warsaw, Poland), specifically 1,000 cfu of Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis SL1 and Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris IBB SC1, respectively; T4 with commercially available synbiotic Duolac, containing 500 cfu of both Lactobacillus acidophilus and Streptococcus faecium with the addition of lactose (0.001 mg/embryo). Among the hatched chickens, sixty males were randomly chosen (12 birds for each group) andreared according to the animal welfare recommendations of European Union directive 86/609/EEC in an experimental poultry house that provided good husbandry conditions. Birds were grown up to 42 d in collective cages (n = 3 birds in each 4 cages: replications for experimental groups). Broilers were fed ad libitum commercial diets according to their age and water was provided ad libitum. Amounts of feed offered to each cage were recorded, and uneaten feed in each cage was weighed daily (from 1 to 42 d). Cumulative feed intake and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated on a cage basis. At 42 d of age, broilers were weighed individually (after a fasting period of 12 h) and then were electrically stunned and slaughtered at a commercial poultry slaughterhouse. At slaughter, hot carcass weight was recorded, and carcass yield percentage was calculated. Abdominal fat was removed, measured and its percentage was calculated based on hot carcass weight. The pectoral muscle was removed from all carcasses (n = 60) and its percentage was calculated based on hot carcass weight. In addition, pectoral muscle pH was recorded at 45 min (pH45), 12 h (pH12), and 24 h (pH24) postmortem. Samples of the right pectoral muscle of 40 animals, 8 birds from each experimental group, were taken and frozen in liquid nitrogen (-196ºC) for histological and histopathological analyses. The left pectoral muscle was vacuum packaged and stored frozen (-40°C) until intramuscular collagen (IMC) and cholesterol analyses. To verify significant differences in relation to the treatments, the data were evaluated by using 1-way ANOVA and means were separated by Scheffe's battery of pairwise tests (SPSS Inc., 2010). In ovo prebiotic and synbiotics administration had a low effect on investigated traits, but depend on the kind of bioactives administered. Commercial synbiotic treatment (T4) reduced carcass yield percentage, and the feed conversion ratio was higher in T3 and T4 groups compared with other groups. The abdominal fat, the ultimate pH, and cholesterol of the PS were not affected by treatment. Broiler chickens of treated groups with both slightly greater PS and fiber diameter had a significantly lower amount of collagen. The greater thickness of muscle fibers (not significant) and the lower fiber density (statistically significant), observed in treated birds in comparison with those of C group, are not associated with histopathological changes in the PS of broilers. The incidence of histopathological changes in broiler chickens from examined groups was low, which did not affect the deterioration of meat quality obtained from these birds. Overall, the results obtained at the end of this work have asserted how the in ovo administration, in showing greater effectiveness in terms of uniformity of application, dose used and duration of treatment, as well as homogeneity of the study population (age, weight), may represent a valid alternative to the traditional and well-established methods of post-hatching administration (feed and water) in order to minimize all those variables that could affect the effectiveness of bioactive. Moreover, the study has provided information for an effective application of these natural agents to be used in the future in breeding industry, with significant and positive impact on animal welfare and public health. ; Nel pollame, il microbiota intestinale e la "gut health" sono temi di attualità, soprattutto da quando l'UE ha vietato l'uso di antibiotici auxinici per evitare l'insorgenza dell'antibiotico-resistenza e salvaguardare, così, la salute del consumatore. Come conseguenza della loro proibizione, in avicoltura si è osservata una maggiore incidenza di malattie enteriche che hanno determinato sia perdite in termini di produttività che un aumento della mortalità. Nell'era post-antibiotici, i probiotici ed i prebiotici sono proposti come soluzione dei problemi intestinali dei polli. Gli studi condotti su questi composti bioattivi, somministrati direttamente nel cibo o nell'acqua, mostrano risultati contrastanti a causa delle diverse condizioni ambientali (condizioni sperimentali e di campo) e del modo di utilizzo. L'iniezione in ovo di pre-/pro-biotici e loro combinazione (simbiotici), tecnica emergente ed innovativa, mostra risultati promettenti simili a quelli degli antibiotici auxinici. Il presente lavoro ha avuto come scopo quello di valutare gli effetti di prebiotici, utilizzati da soli od in combinazione con batteri probiotici rigorosamente selezionati e caratterizzati (simbiotici; Bardowski e Kozak, 1981;. Boguslawska et al, 2009), somministrati "in ovo", sulle performance di crescita, sulla qualità della carne (contenuto di colesterolo, proprietà del collagene intramuscolare, misure delle fibre muscolari), nonché sull'incidenza di alterazioni istopatologiche a carico del muscolo pettorale di polli da carne linea Ross 308. Al 12° giorno di incubazione, 480 uova sono state divise a random in cinque gruppi sperimentali, cui sono stati somministrati, mediante tecnica di iniezione in ovo, differenti bioattivi: C, gruppo controllo iniettato con soluzione fisiologica; gruppo T1 iniettato con 1,9 mg di prebiotico (oligosaccaride della famiglia del raffinosio, RFO's); gruppi T2 e T3 iniettati condue formulazioni simbiotiche contenenti 1,9 mg di RFO's arricchiti con due diversi batteri probiotici appartenenti alla banca microbiologica dell'Istituto di Ricerca "Biochemistry and Biophysics" (IBB) di Varsavia (Polonia), nello specifico 1,000 ufc di Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis SL1 e Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris IBB SC1, rispettivamente; gruppo T4 iniettato con un probiotico disponibile in commercio quale Duolac, contenente 500 ufc di Lactobacillus acidophilus e 500 ufc di Streptococcus faecium con aggiunta di lattosio (0.001 mg/embrione). Dopo la schiusa, sessanta pulcini maschi sono stati scelti a random (12 pulcini per ogni gruppo) e allevati in azienda sperimentale in buone condizioni di allevamento secondo le raccomandazioni previste dall'Unione europea in materia di benessere animale (direttiva 86/609/CEE). I polli sono stati allevati fino a 42 giorni di età in gabbie collettive (n = 3 uccelli per gabbia: 4 repliche per ciascun gruppo sperimentale), sono stati alimentati ad libitum con diete commerciali formulate in funzione della loro età e hanno potuto usufruire di acqua ad libitum. E' stata registrata la quantità di mangime offerto per gabbia, ed il cibo non consumato è stato pesato giornalmente per ciascuna gabbia (1-42 giorni). L'assunzione di cibo e l'indice di conversione alimentare (FCR) sono stati calcolati per gabbia. A 42 giorni di età, i polli da carne sono stati pesati individualmente (dopo un periodo di digiuno di 12 ore) e sono stati, successivamente, storditi elettricamente e macellati presso un macello commerciale. Al momento della macellazione, è stato registrato il peso della carcassa e calcolata la resa. Il grasso addominale ed il muscolo pettorale sono stati rimossi da tutte le carcasse (n = 60), pesati e le rispettive percentuali sono state calcolate in funzione del peso della carcassa. Inoltre, è stato registrato il pH del muscolo pettorale a 45 min (pH45), 12 ore (pH12), e 24 h (pH24) post-mortem. I campioni di muscolo pettorale destro di 40 animali, 8 volatili per ciascun gruppo sperimentale, sono stati prelevati e congelati in azoto liquido (-196°C) per le analisi istologiche ed istopatologiche. Il muscolo pettorale sinistro è stato imballato sottovuoto e congelato (-40°C) fino al momento delle analisi del collagene intramuscolare (IMC) e del contenuto di colesterolo. Al fine di verificare le differenze significative rispetto al trattamento applicato, i dati sono stati valutati utilizzando 1'ANOVA ad una via. Le differenze tra le medie sono state valutate mediante il test di Scheffé (SPSS Inc., 2010). La somministrazione in ovo di prebiotico e simbiotico ha avuto un impatto limitato sulle caratteristiche prese in esame, ciò in dipendenza del tipo di bioattivo impiegato. Il trattamento con simbiotico commerciale (T4) ha determinato una riduzione della resa alla macellazione, e l'indice di conversione alimentare è risultato maggiore nei gruppi T3 e T4 rispetto agli altri gruppi. Il grasso addominale, il pH24, ed il contenuto di colesterolo del muscolo pettorale non sono stati influenzati dal trattamento. I polli da carne dei gruppi trattati, con un'incidenza lievemente maggiore del muscolo pettorale ed un diametro delle fibre leggermente più grande, presentavano una quantità di collagene intramuscolare significativamente inferiore. Il maggiore spessore delle fibre muscolari (non significativa) e la minore densità delle fibre (statisticamente significativa), osservata nei polli trattati rispetto a quelli del gruppo controllo, non sono stati associati alle alterazioni istopatologiche del muscolo pettorale. L'incidenza delle istopatologie nei polli da carne dei gruppi esaminati è risultata bassa e non ha influenzato il deterioramento, in termini di qualità, della carne ottenuta da questi polli. Nel complesso, i risultati ottenuti da questo lavoro hanno consentito di affermare come la somministrazione in ovo, presentando maggiore efficacia in termini di uniformità di applicazione, di dose impiegata e di durata del trattamento nonché di omogeneità della popolazione di studio (età, peso), può rappresentare una valida alternativa ai tradizionali e già consolidati metodi di somministrazione post-schiusa (mangime e acqua) per ridurre tutte quelle variabili che possono inficiare l'efficacia dei bioattivi. Inoltre, hanno fornito informazioni per un uso efficace di questi agenti naturali da impiegare, in futuro, in allevamento industriale, con importanti e positive ricadute sulla salute animale e pubblica. ; Dottorato di ricerca internazionale in Welfare, biotechnology and quality of animal production (XXIV ciclo)
Tropische Entwaldung und Waldschädigung (Degradation) trägt zu mehr als 20% zu den global emittierten Treibhausgasen bei. Entwaldung und ihre Auswirkungen können leichter mit Satellitenbildern abgeschätzt werden. Was Waldschädigung anbelangt, ist es schwierig, mit den aktuellen Satellitenbild-Auflösungen Abholzung und Biomasse-Schäden, die daraus resultieren, genau zu evaluieren, obwohl Waldschädigung wesentlich zu den Kohlenstoff-Emissionen in den Tropen beiträgt. Mit zunehmendem CO2-Gehalt in der Atmosphäre besteht ein dringender Bedarf an zuverlässigen Schätzungen von Biomasse und Kohlenstoff-vorräten in den tropischen Wäldern, ganz besonders in Afrika, wo der Datenmangel erheblich ist. Feuchte Tropenwälder speichern große Mengen an Kohlenstoff und benötigen genaue allometrischen Regressionen für deren Schätzungen. In Afrika hat die Abwesenheit von artspezifischen oder artübergreifenden allometrischen Gleichungen zum breiten Einsatz der pan-feucht-tropischen Gleichungen zur Baum-Biomasse Abschätzung geführt. Dieser Mangel an Informationen hat viele Diskussionen über die Richtigkeit dieser Daten angestoßen, da die Gleichungen aus Biomasse, die außerhalb Afrikas gesammelt wurde, abgeleitet wurden. Die Entwicklung von ortsspezifischen Gleichungen und pan-feucht-tropischen Gleichungen, unter Einschluß von Daten aus Afrika, wird für die meisten Ökologen immer wichtiger, um die genaue Schätzung dieses Beitrags zu erweitern, der für Anpassung und Klimaschutz-Strategien notwendig ist. Allometrische Gleichungen sind Schlüssel-Werkzeuge für die Szenarien des Klimawandels, da sie für die Abschätzung von Biomasse und Kohlenstoff-Pool auf lokaler, regionaler und globaler Ebene verwendet werden. Informationen zur Netto-Primärproduktion (NPP), die sich aus direkten Biomasse Feldmessungen ergeben, sind in diesem Zusammenhang von entscheidender Bedeutung, um zu wissen, wie die Waldökosysteme durch den Klimawandel betroffen sein werden und auch um Eddy-Kovarianz-Messungen zu kalibrieren. Das übergeordnete Ziel dieser Studie war es, einen wissenschaftlichen Beitrag zur Anpassung oder Schadenseindämmung von feuchten tropischen Wäldern auf die Auswirkungen des Klimawandels zu erstellen. Die spezifischen Ziele waren: (1) Analyse der Bestandesentwicklung eines Waldes im östlichen Kamerun und Diskussion einer Methodik zur Schätzung der potenziellen Kohlendioxidemissionen oder zur Eindämmung von Waldschäden. (2) Entwicklung allometrischer Gleichungen für die genaue Schätzung der Biomassen und Kohlenstoffvorräte in feuchten Wäldern in Kamerun und auch in Afrika. (3) Schätzung der Kohlenstoffspeicher und der Netto-Primärproduktion (NPP) und ihre räumliche Verteilung auf verschiedene Schichten und Landnutzungstypen des Campo-Ma'an Bereichwaldes in Kamerun. Diese Dissertation präsentiert Ergebnisse aus zwei Feldstudien, durchgeführt in der Nachbarschaft von Yokadouma im östlichen Kamerun und auch in der Campo-Ma'an Wald im südlichen Kamerun. Die vorliegende, in Yokadouma durchgeführte Studie resultierte in einer Veröffentlichung, die Waldschädigung nach selektivem Holzeinschlag und deren Implikationen für REDD und die Kohlenstoff-Schätzungen ansprach. Um diese Situation anzugehen wurde die Post-logging-Bestandsentwicklung eines semi-natürlichen Laubwaldes in Kamerun für einen Einschlagszyklus (30 Jahre) nach selektivem Holzeinschlag modelliert. Um zu simulieren wie verschiedene Management-Praktiken Einfluss auf die Post-logging-Bestandsdynamik haben, modelliert man, wie Änderungen des Mindest-Einschlags-durchmessers (MFD) Stammzahlen, Dichte, Grundfläche und die damit verbundene Kohlenstoff-Biomasse am Ende des Einschlagszyklus beeinflussen. Die in Campo-Ma'an durchgeführte Studie resultierte in zwei weiteren Artikeln. Der erste Artikel behandelt ortsspezifische und auch pan-feucht-tropische allometrische Gleichungen, die auch an anderen Standorten in feuchten tropischen Wäldern, wo es keine spezifischen allometrischen Gleichungen gibt, benutzt werden können. Diese Studie verwendet 91 destruktive Probebäume, um damit artübergreifende allometrische Gleichungen zu entwickeln, und zwar unter Anwendung verschiedener Eingangsgrößen wie Durchmesser, Durchmesser und Höhe, ein Produkt von Durchmesser und Höhe, und Holzdichte. Unsere Biomassedaten wurden zu 372 Biomassedaten aus verschiedenen feuchten tropischen Wälder in Asien und Südamerika hinzugefügt, um damit neue pan-feucht-tropische allometrische Regressionen zu entwickeln. Artspezifische- und artübergreifende Höhen-Durchmesser- Regressionsmodelle wurden auch entwickelt, um Höhen von 3833 Bäumen abzuschätzen. Der zweite Aufsatz verwendet unsere ortsspezifischen allometrischen Gleichungen, um oberirdische und unterirdische Biomasse- und Kohlenstoffvorräte zu schätzen. Die NPP wurde anhand der Wachstumsraten aus Baumringanalysen ermittelt. Eine Kohlenstoff-Biomasse-Karte wurde auch in dieser letzten Arbeit mit GIS-Technologie entwickelt, um Verteilungen der verschiedenen Nutzungen und Vegetationstypen darzustellen. Die wichtigsten Ergebnisse waren folgende: Waldschädigungs-Studien: Mit diesen geschätzten MFDs ermittelten wir bei 7% Fällungsschadensraten, dass sich die Stamm-Dichte von erntereifen Bäume von 12,3 (50,4 MgC ha-1) auf 6,7 (32,5 MgC ha-1) Bäume pro Hektar reduziert und sich die Zahl der bleibenden Bäume von 80 (18,9 MgC ha-1) auf 85,7 (36,8 MgC ha-1) Bäume pro Hektar erhöht. Dies entspricht einem vermiedenen Schaden von geschätzten 17,9 MgC ha-1. Wir fanden auch heraus, dass eine Erhöhung der Mortalität und Schadensintensität auch die Schädigung der Kohlenstoff-Biomasse erhöht in 30 Jahre, und zwar schätzungsweise auf 8,9 MgC ha-1 bei 10% oder auf 17,4 MgC ha-1 bei 15% Fällschaden. Diese Studie zeigt, dass die korrekte Bestimmung des MFD der gefällten Arten (unter Berücksichtigung ihrer Fähigkeit zur Rekonstitution am Ende des Fällungszyklus im Zusammenhang mit Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)) die Freisetzung von bis zu 35 MgC ha-1 vermeiden kann. Diese Schätzungen könnten erreicht werden, wenn eine Kombination von Politik und Maßnahmen erfolgt, die die Überwachung der Waldentwicklung nach dem Einschlag beinhaltet. Allometrische Gleichungen Mit nur dem Durchmesser als Eingangsgröße schätzt das artenübergreifende Regressionsmodell die oberirdische Biomasse des untersuchten Ortes mit einem mittleren Fehler von 7,4%. Hinzufügung von Höhe oder Holzdichte trug nicht wesentlich zur Verbesserung der Schätzungen bei. Mit den drei Variablen zusammen verbesserte sich die Genauigkeit auf einen mittleren Fehler von 3,4%. Für allgemeine allometrische Gleichungen war die Baumhöhe eine gute Prädiktor-Variable. Die beste pan-feucht-tropische Gleichung erhielt man, wenn die drei Variablen hinzugefügt wurden, gefolgt durch jene, die Durchmesser und Höhe umfasste. Diese Studie liefert Höhen-Durchmesser-Beziehungen und Holz dichten von 31 Arten. Die pan-feucht-tropische Gleichung durch Chave et al. (2005) schätzt die gesamte oberirdische Biomasse von verschiedenen Standorte mit einem mittleren Fehler von 20,3%, gefolgt von den in der vorliegenden Studie entwickelten Gleichungen mit einem mittleren Fehler von 29,5%. Biomasse, Kohle, NPP Die Kohlenstoff-Biomasse betrug im Durchschnitt 264 Mg ha-1. Diese Schätzung beinhaltet oberirdischen Kohlenstoff und wurzel-organischen Kohlenstoff des Bodens bis zu 30 cm Tiefe. Dieser Wert variiert von 231 Mg ha-1 an Kohlenstoff in Agroforstwäldern bis zu 283 Mg ha-1 an Kohlenstoff in bewirtschafteten Wäldern und bis zu 278 Mg ha-1 an Kohlenstoff in einem Nationalpark. Die Kohlenstoff-NPP variierte pro Jahr von 2542 kg ha-1 in Agroforstwäldern bis zu 2787 kg ha-1 in bewirtschafteten Wäldern und bis zu 2849 kg ha-1 Jahr-1 im Nationalpark. Unsere NPP Werte beinhalten keine Fein-Streu, Kohlenstoffverluste durch Verbraucher und Emissionen von flüchtigen organischen Verbindungen. Wir glauben, dass unsere Studie nicht nur die entsprechenden Schätzungen von Biomasse, Kohlenstoff-Pools und NPP liefert, sondern auch eine geeignete Methode darstellt, um für diese Komponenten und die damit verbundenen Unsicherheiten generell Schätzungen zu liefern. ; Tropical deforestation and forest degradation contributes to more than 20% of the global greenhouse gases emitted. Deforestation and its impacts can be more easily estimated with satellite images. Concerning forest degradation, it is difficult with the actual satellite image resolutions to evaluate accurately logging and biomass damage resulting from this activity though it contributes substantially to carbon emissions in the tropics. With increasing CO2 in the atmosphere, there is an urgent need of reliable biomass estimates and carbon pools in tropical forests, most especially in Africa where there is a serious lack of data. Moist tropical forests store large amounts of carbon and need accurate allometric regressions for their estimation. In Africa the absence of species-specific or mixed-species allometric equations has lead to a broad use of pan moist tropical equations to estimate tree biomass. This lack of information has raised many discussions on the accuracy of these data, since equations were derived from biomass collected outside Africa. Developing site-specific equations and pan-moist tropical equations including data from Africa is becoming very important for most ecologists for accurate estimations of this contribution extend, necessary for adaptation and mitigation strategies on climate change impacts. Allometric equations are key tools for climate change scenarios since they are used for estimating biomass and carbon pool at local, regional and world level. Information on net primary production (NPP) resulting from direct biomass field measurements of annual tree ring width is crucial in this context, to know how forest ecosystems will grow in the future with their possible impacts on carbon pools and fluxes and also to calibrate eddy covariance measurements. The overall objective of this study was to provide a scientific contribution for adaptation or mitigation of moist tropical forests on climate change impacts. The specific objectives were to (1) analyze the stand development of a forest in the eastern Cameroon and discuss a methodology for estimating the potential carbon emissions or reductions from forest degradation, (2) develop allometric equations for accurate estimations of biomass and carbon pools in moist forests in Cameroon and also in Africa, (3) estimate carbon pools and Net Primary Productivity (NPP) and their spatial distribution on different strata and land use types of the Campo-Ma an area forest in Cameroon. This dissertation presents results from two field studies conducted at the neighbourhood of Yokadouma in the eastern Cameroon and also in the Campo-Ma an forest in the southern Cameroon. The study conducted at Yokadouma resulted in a paper addressing forest degradation after selective logging and its implications for REDD and carbon pools and flux estimations. To address this situation, a post-logging stand development of a semi-deciduous natural forest in Cameroon was modelled for one felling cycle (30 years) after selective logging. To simulate how different management practices influence post-logging forest dynamics, we modelled how changes in the minimum felling diameter (MFD) affect stem density, basal area and the related carbon biomass at the end of the felling cycle. The study conducted in Campo-Ma an resulted in two other projected articles. The first article addressed site-specific allometric equations and also pan-moist tropical equations which can be used at other locations in moist tropical forests where there are no specific allometric equations. We used for this study 91 destructive sample trees to develop mixed-species allometric equations applying different input variables such as diameter, diameter and height, product of diameter and height, and wood density. Our biomass data were added to 372 biomass data collected across different moist tropical forests in Asia and South America to develop new pan moist tropical allometric regressions. Species-specific and mixed-species height diameter regression equations were also developed to estimate heights using 3833 trees. The second projected article used our site-specific allometric equations to estimate aboveground and belowground biomass and carbon pools. The NPP was estimated using the growth rates obtained from tree ring analysis. A carbon biomass map was also developed in this last paper using GIS technology to show the distribution in the different land uses and vegetation types. The main findings were the following: Forest degradation studies: With these MFDs estimated, at 7% logging damage rate, we found that the stem density of harvestable trees reduces from 12.3 (50.4 MgC ha-1) to 6.7 (32.5 MgC ha-1) trees per ha and the number of residual trees increases from 80 (18.9 MgC ha-1) to 85.7 (36.8 MgC ha-1) trees per ha. This corresponds to an avoided damage estimated at 17.9 MgC ha-1. We also found that increasing mortality and damage intensity also increases the damage on carbon biomass estimated after a felling cycle of 30 years to be 8.9 MgC ha-1 at 10% or to be 17.4 MgC ha-1 at 15% logging damage. This study shows that proper determination of MFD of logged species taking into consideration their capacity of reconstitution at the end of the felling cycle associated with Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) can avoid up to 35 MgC ha-1. These estimations could be achieved if there is a combination of Policy and Measures allowing monitoring of forest development after logging. Allomeric equations Using only tree diameter as input variable, the mixed-species regression equation estimates the aboveground biomass of the study site with an average error of ±7.4%. Adding height or wood density did not improve significantly the estimations. Using the three variables together improved the precision with an average error of ±3.4%. For general allometric equations tree height was a good predictor variable. The best pan moist tropical equation was obtained when the three variables were added together followed by the one which includes diameter and height. This study provides height-diameter relationships and wood density of 31 species. The pan moist tropical equation developed by Chave et al. (2005), estimates total aboveground biomass across different sites with an average error of ±20.3% followed by equations developed in the present study with an average error of ±29.5%. Biomass, carbon, NPP The carbon biomass of Campo-Ma an forest was on average 264 Mg ha 1. This estimate includes aboveground carbon, root carbon and soil organic carbon down to 30 cm depth. This value varied from 231 Mg ha 1 of carbon in Agro-Forests to 283 Mg ha 1 of carbon in Managed Forests and to 278 Mg ha 1 of carbon in National Park. The carbon NPP varied from 2542 kg ha 1 year 1 in Agro-Forests to 2787 kg ha 1 year 1 in Managed Forests and to 2849 kg ha 1 year 1 in National Park. Our NPP values do not include fine litterfall, carbon losses to consumers and emission of volatile organic compounds. We believe that our study provides not only appropriate estimate of biomass, carbon pools and NPP, but also an appropriate methodology to estimate these components and the related uncertainty.
Objetivo. Determinar la prevalencia de hipertensión arterial, proporción de las personas que lo desconocen, y algunos posibles factores de riesgo asociados en el municipio de Santo Tomás, Atlántico (Colombia) entre noviembre de 2008 y enero de 2009. Métodos. Estudio de corte transversal, de base poblacional encuestando a una muestra aleatoria de 244 personas mayores de 18 años para obtener información sociodemográfica, estado de aseguramiento, antecedentes familiares dentro del primer y segundo grado de consanguinidad, antecedentes de hipertensión arterial, diabetes o dislipidemia y tratamiento utilizado. De igual manera, se exploraron hábitos como el consumo de tabaco, alcohol, consumo de anticonceptivos orales o sal adicional en las comidas y la actividad física. Además a cada participante se le realizó medición estandarizada de: tensión arterial en dos días diferentes, peso, talla, perímetro abdominal, glicemia y lípidos séricos. Resultados. El 19,26% de los mayores de 18 años padecen HTA. No se encontró el padecimiento antes de los 38 años en hombres ni antes de los 44 años en mujeres. La prevalencia es de 9,02% antes de los 60 años predominando en el sexo masculino, aumenta a partir de la quinta década alcanzando cifras de 53,57% en mayores de 60 años, edad a partir de la cual es más frecuente en mujeres alcanzando prevalencia de 100% en las mayores de 80 años. sólo el 10,64% de los hipertensos están controlados. La falta de control del 89,36 % obedece a que 46, 81% desconocen estar enfermos, 12,77 % no acepta el tratamiento y en el resto el tratamiento no es efectivo. Dentro de los factores de riesgo no modificables con significancia estadística se encontraron la edad por encima de los 60 años y antecedente de hipertensión entre los hermanos naturales. Entre los factores de riesgo modificables con significancia estadística se encontraron el analfabetismo, la diabetes y el síndrome metabólico. La hipertensión arterial prevalece más, sin alcanzar significancia estadística, entre los negros que entre los mestizos o blancos, más entre los que residen en el área urbana que en los que habitan en el área rural, donde todos reconocen su condición de enfermos, pero ninguno está controlado, presentando los estadios más graves de la enfermedad. Igualmente prevalece más entre los que han realizado estudios de primaria, amas de casa, pensionados, desocupados, en los que habitan en estratos 2, 3, 4 y en los afiliados al régimen contributivo y entre los militares y docentes. La hipertensión arterial esencial es más frecuente entre quienes tienen antecedentes familiares de hipertensión arterial entre sus padres y abuelos. La prevalencia de Hipertensión arterial es más alta en las personas con los siguientes hábitos: tabaquismo: 22,86%, alcoholismo: 20,83%, consumo de sal adicional en las comidas: 25,93%. No se halló hipertensión arterial entre las que consumían anticonceptivos orales y se encontró que los hipertensos realizaban más actividad física que los normotensos, posiblemente como parte del tratamiento no farmacológico. Así mismo, quienes presentan trastornos metabólicos como: obesidad, sobrepeso, trastorno en el metabolismo de los carbohidratos, hipercolesterolemia e hipertrigliceridemia o dislipidemia tienen mayor prevalencia de hipertensión que aquellos casos incluidos dentro de los menores de 60 años, han realizado estudios técnicos, laboren como empleado u obrero, carezcan de antecedentes dentro del primer o segundo grado de consanguinidad y tengan peso y cifras de glicemia dentro de lo normal. Conclusiones. La hipertensión arterial es un importante problema de salud pública para la población Tomasina, el cual afecta más a la población mayor de 60 años. Muy a pesar de existir las guías de atención emitidas por el ministerio de la protección Social en Colombia y hacer parte de las actividades de demanda inducida (Resolución 0412 de 2000) a que están obligadas las instituciones prestadoras de servicios tanto públicas como privadas que son contratadas por las EPS del régimen subsidiado y contributivo y entes territoriales solo el 10,64% están controlados. El 89,36% están a merced de las consecuencias de la hipertensión arterial, un porcentaje parecido padece dislipidemias lo que explica que sean las enfermedades cardiovasculares unas de las primeras causas de morbimortalidad de la población. El presente estudio devela que el 46,81% desconocen estar enfermos lo que refleja una ineficaz política de detección de la hipertensión arterial en el municipio. De igual manera un porcentaje mayor del 10% no acepta el tratamiento lo que hace manifiesto una debilidad en las políticas de promoción de la salud que debe concientizar al 100% de la población para que reciba el tratamiento. Llama la atención que en el 30% de los casos el tratamiento no sea efectivo, lo que requiere de una evaluación individual en cada caso y hacer los ajustes necesarios hasta lograr el objetivo de mantener las cifras de tensión controladas. El estudio muestra los factores de riesgo modificables (diabetes, trastorno en el metabolismo de carbohidratos, sobrepeso u obesidad, dislipidemias, sedentarismo, tabaquismo, alcoholismo) que acompañan a la hipertensión arterial de tal manera que puedan trazarse políticas públicas que hagan posible su reducción lo que redundaría en una menor incidencia en el futuro o reducir el aumento que es la tendencia que se aprecia en los países en desarrollo; además permite conocer los grupos de edad más afectados de la población adonde hay que centrar más la atención para detectar oportunamente a los hipertensos a través de tomas masivas de tensión arterial y concientizarlos de la ausencia de síntomas en ésta enfermedad y de lo grave de las consecuencias buscando así mayor adherencia a los tratamientos los cuales deben ser evaluados individualmente en cada caso. / Abstract: Objective. Determine the prevalence of high blood pressure, percentage of the people who have no knowledge of it, and some associated factors of risk in the municipality of Santo Tomás, Atlántico (Colombia) between November of 2008 and January of 2009. Methods. A transversal cut study , of base population with a random sample of 244 habitants 18 years old or more of age in order to obtain social demographic information, risks, family history within first and second degrees of consanguinity, high blood pressure in the family, diabetes or dislipidemia and treatment used. At the same time, tobacco and alcohol habits, contraceptives use, salt consuming and physical exercising are investigated. Additionally, each person for two days went through measuring and testing of blood pressure, height, abdominal perimeter, glicemia and liquids. Results. 19,26% of those older than 18 years of age suffer HTA. HTA was not found in men under 38 and in women under 44.There is a 9,02% occurrence for those under 60 years of age , especially in men when reaching 50 years old, and a 53,57% in men above 60, age at which it is more frequent to find it in women, with an 100 % occurrence in women with 80 years old or more. Only 10,64% of the people with blood pressure problems are controlled. The lack of control of the 89,36 % obeys to the fact that 46, 81% do not know they have it, 12,77 % do not want to be treated for the remaining percentage, the treatment does not work. Age above 60 and high blood pressure in the family as non changeable risk factors were found. Illiteracy, diabetes and metabolic syndrome are among the changeable risks. Blood pressure problems excelled from other risks, but not significantly, among black, mestizos or white people habitants. It is more frequent among those that live in the cities than in the rural areas, where they know they have problems of blood pressure but they are not treated and therefore these cases show a greater advancement. It is more common in the population that has an elementary education, mothers that do not work, retired people, those without a job, or with a low income, among the military and teachers. Definitely it is more common among people who have a family history of high blood pressure. Essential high blood pressure is seeing more among people whose parents or grandparents have suffered it. Blood pressure problems is more frequent in people with habits such as: smoking: 22,86%, alcoholism: 20,83%, consumption of additional salt in foods: 25,93%. High blood pressure was not found among people consuming birth control pills, and it was found that those with high blood pressure had more physical activity than those that did not, probably as part of their treatment. Also, those with metabolic problems such as: obesity, overweight, metabolic problems with carbohydrates, hypercholesterolemia and hipertrigliceridemy or dislipidemy have a tendency to blood pressure problems, finding less of it in those cases mentioned among people under 60, those who have done technical studies, work as employees there is no history of the illness in their first and second generations and their weight and sugar measures are considered normal. Conclusions. High blood pressure is an important public health problem in Santo Tomas' population being more common among those 60 years of age or more, in spite of the existing guides of attention issued by the Ministry of Social Protection in Colombia and as part of the services (Resolution 0412 of 2000) to which all private and public institutions hired by the EPS are obliged. Only 10, 64% of this population is controlled. The other 89,36% are suffering the consequences of high blood pressure, a similar percentage suffers from dislipidemy which shows that cardiovascular deficiencies are one of the first causes of mortality. This study shows that 46,81% of the population does not know they have high blood pressure, which shows the lack of a program to detect the illness in the municipality. At the same time more than 10% of the populations do not want to be treated for this illness, manifesting a weakness in the promotion politics through which 100% of the population should be encouraged to submit to a treatment. It calls the attention that in 30% of the cases the treatment was not effective. These require an individual evaluation of each case and make the necessary adjustments to obtain the objective of controlling high blood pressure. The study shows the changing factors of risk (diabetes, metabolic problems with carbohydrates, overweight or obesity, dislipidemy, sedentarism, smoking, alcoholism) that go with high blood pressure so public measures can be taken to reduce its occurrence as it is happening in developed countries . It will also show ages that are more affected by the illness, where do we have to concentrate in order to detect on time those with high blood pressure by constant measurement of the population, letting them know of the absence of symptoms, the dangerous consequences of it and trying to make them follow a medical treatment which should be evaluated individually in each case. ; Maestría
�쓽�븰怨�/諛뺤궗 ; [�븳湲�] [�쁺臾�] In 1962 the Korean economic growth rate was 2.6%, as compared to an estimated 3% population increase. In recognition of this fact that gains in improving our standard of living were being offset by concrrent gains in population growth, the national government included family planning in its Five Year Plan, and set the goals of reducing the rate of population growth to 2.5% by 1966 and to 2.0% by 1971. Along with such a national family planning program, the Department of Preventive Medicine, Yonsei University, College of Medicine initiated a pilot study of family planning in rural Korea, Koyang in order to demonstrate the possibilities of reducing the community birth rate by introducing simple and feasible contraceptive methods into a predominantly rural population The experiences and findings gained in this Koyang study, which were reported elsewhere by Yang, Bang and Kim, provideda guideline to help determine the basic factors on which to develop the national family planning program. However, in spite of the rapid and far reaching spread of the national family planning program and the considerable amount of budget and personnel resources used in 1962-1964, there had been no baseline data to assess the efficiency and effectiveness of the program. In order to obtain such essential data, a nationwide sample survey was conducted as a joint and cooperative effort of the Yonsei University, Planned Parenthood Federation of Korea, Ministry of Health and Social Affairs and Economic Planning Board in April 1964 by which to assess the current status of family planning and to provide some basic data to measure its effectiveness for the on-going program in family planning. Purpose of the Study In the present paper, utilizing the survey data from the national sample, the author has undertaken a study to measure what extent the family planning program has spread in Korea in terms of know-ledge, attitude, and practice of the family planning and to analyze how such family planning variables are related to socio-cultural backgrounds of Korean couples. The Data and Method of Analysis All our data are from interviews with Korean married women in the child bearing years (15-50) and interviewed in 1964. In sampling design, multiple stratified random sampling with l/l,000 sampling fraction was applied, and 4,867 households (equivalent to 1% of inhabitants in Korea in 1964) were sampled. From among those sampled households, 4,008 wives and 3,966 husbands were interviewed. Only 3,805 households were considered to be eligible for the purpose of our study as we limited the study to the households in which one or more married women under 50 years of age are currently living with their husbands. Thus, in this survey 4,708 wives and 3,966 husbands were interviewed from April 15 to 23, 1964,by 180 enumerators of Economic Planning Board to whom a two-day training was given by the Yonsei University. The questionnaires designed by the Department includes 19 questions relevant to knowledge, attitude and practice in family planning, fertility and socio-cultural background of the respondents as shown in the attached. In analysis, we deal with two groups of variables-one related to family planning, and the other to the socio-cultural background of the respondents. Family planning variables (as dependent variables)include; knowledge of contraceptive methods, attitude toward family planning and number of children, and practice of contraception, Socio-cultural variables (as independent variables)are limited to age, education and occupation, residence, and number of living children. In the tabulation, both dependent and independent variables were first tabulated, then, we cross tabulated both variables in order to see how the dependent variables are affected by each class of the independent variables. Findings A. Knowledge of family planning 1. 71% of wives and 97% of husbands had heard of the word "family planning" and the rate were higher among young couples aged under 39 than that aged over 40. 2. 51% of wives and 62% of husbands knew of contraceptive methods such as condom, sterilization, foam tablet, rhythm method and coitus interruptus. This contraceptive knowledge was known t?67% of city and 46% of women in the rural county. 3. The media through which they had heard of contraceptive method were acquaintances, magazines, health centers, lecture meetings, National Reconstruction Movement workers, physicians and drug-stores in that order But there were remarkable differences between urban and rural areas. In the counties, the order of media from which they had heard of contraceptive method was health center, radio, acquaintances, magazines, lectures, National Reconstruction Movement workers, physicians and drugstores while in cities this knowledge was through acquaintances, radio, magazines, newspapers, physicians, health centers, lectures, National Reconstruction Movement workers and drug-stores. B. Attitude toward family Planning 1. Ideal number of children Their ideal number of children (I.N.C.) averaged 4.1 (2.5 sons and 1.6 daughters) and there was little difference between husband and wife, excluding those who had never thought of such an ideal number of children. But the number differed largely by the age of respondents. Wives under 34 and husbands under39 wished 2 sons and 1 daughter as their ideal number of children while those over 35 in wive sand in husbands over 40 were 3.2 as their I.N.C. The ideal number of children varied noticeably by the occupation of the respondent. The rural respondents wanted 4.2 children (2.6 sons and 1.6 daughters) while in the city respondents wanted 3.7 (2.3 sons and 1.4 daughters). 2. Attitude toward contraception 44.4% of wives and 45.1% of husbands wanted to practice contraception. Among those who disagreed to practice contraception, 60% of them wanted more children,24% disagreed due to their old age, 2% had had sterilizing operations. Less than 1% of the respondents were' against contraception due to religious and ethical reasons. Wives in the age group 30-39 wanted to practice contraception in the highest percentage(61%). Only 42% of wives residing in rural areas wanted to practice contraception while in cities 53% wanted to. The women who had 4 or 5 children wanted most to practice contraception. It was found that approval of contraception for spacing of children was considered good by 11% of women who had no children, 23% of women who had 1 child, 35% of women who had 2 children and 45% of women who had 3 children. C. Practice of contraception 1. Rate of practicing contraception Among 4,008 respondents (wife), 9% or 364 women were practicing contraception, 3% or 115 women had ever practiced contraception and 39% or 1,951 women had never practiced even though they knew of one or more contraceptive methods. The responses of husbands were about the same as those of the wives. The percentage of current users by age was highest in the 30-35 (13.5%) and next in the 20-29 age group (8%). In urban areas 19% of the interviewed women were practicing contraception while in rural area only 6% were practicing. 2. Kind of method practicing The common contraceptive methods used were foam tablet (2i%), rhythm method (23%), condom (22%). Other methods were jelly (9%), douche (6%), coitus interruptus (5%),sterilization operation (2%), diaphragm (2%), and others (3%). There was small difference by age and by residence. D. Fertility 1. Number of live-births The average number of live-births of the Questioned women so far delivered was 4.15 (4.06 in urban, 4.18 in rural). The average number of live-births by age was 4.24 in the 30-34 age group and 6.46 in the 45-49 age group. And those by duration of marriage were 3.8 children in the 10-14years group, 5.0 in 15-19 years group, 6.1 in 20-24, 6.8 in 25-29, 7.0 in the group of 30 years or older respectively. 2. Current pregnancy The number of women who were definitely pregnant at the time of the survey was 354 or8.8% and those who were doubtful of pregnancy was 151 or 3.8%. 3. Induced abortion 93% of women had never had an induced abortion. The average number of induced abortions in those who had had an induced abortion was 1.6 per woman. Among those who were 30-39age group, 9.7% had had an induced abortion as the highest percentage. Of those who had had 15-19 years of marital life, 10.6% had had one or more induced abortion, indicating the highest percentage. 15.5% of the women residing in urban areas have ever had an abortion, and the rate was higher than that of the rural woman which was 4.1%. 4. Sterility 7.2% of total number of respondents (wife) were sterile. Among those 1.3% had primary sterility and 5.9% had secondary sterility. Summary In order to evaluate the national family planning program in Korea, 4,008 wives and 3,956 husbands were interviewed from April 15 to 23, 1964. In the present paper, the author has analyzed such a survey data to measure what extent the family planning program has spread in Korea in terms of knowledge, attitude and practice of the family planning and to analyze how such family planning variables are related to socio-cultural backgrounds7f Korean couples. A brief summary of findings are follows: 1. This survey proved that a large number of people has been exposed to the information and education services of the family planning program, and high proportion of couples has been informed about the word of family planning as well as the methods of contraception. 2. A strong consensus existed in all strata of the society that a moderate number of children is desirable. The husbands and wives wanted three, four, or five children-preferably with at least two sons. There was little indication of desire for the very large family 3. Under current mortality conditions, however, most couples were having the children they wanted by the time they were in their thirties. 4. An overwhelming majority approved the idea of family planning and favored some type of family limitation. The major objection to family planning lies in the age old affection for large families, and not necessarily due to religion or a cede of ethics 5. Therefore, to control the excess births, same were having induced abortion but a sizable minority had tried some form of family planning. 6. As might be expected, this analysis proved that the modern strata with lowest ideal number of children and most practice of family planning were identified as the most literate and educated, those with the least farm background, those employed in the modern economic sector. 7. It was also clear that the demand for and interest in family planning were not limited to an elite modern group. The farmers and the illiterates, for example, wanted about the same thing with respect to family size, but they seemed to need information and services to move them to action. Thus, these findings helped to shape the form and scope of the national family planning program in giving the first priority to help those who wanted to limit family size and to reach the less advanced strata. Finally, this analysis of the survey data should help not only in evaluating the ongoing national family planning program but also in making plans for target populations in the next stages of the program in family planning. ; restriction
Este documento de política hace parte de los resultados del Proyecto "Construtores de Paz: estrategias de jóvenes y mujeres afrodescendiente para la paz sostenible en Colombia urbana", financiada por la Universidad Icesi y el International Development Research Centre de Canadá. ; The International Development Research Centre de Canada (IDRC)
In Latin America, labor markets have been the main channel through which growth has reduced poverty, with higher labor income accounting for 49 percent of the reduction in poverty in 2008–13. Understanding labor markets is critical to designing policies and programs aimed at reducing poverty. With close to 70 percent of the population under age 30 years, labor markets are bound to be central to defining Haiti's future. Yet, labor analysis in Haiti has been constrained by the dearth of data and the focus on measuring the impact of the 2010 earthquake. This present paper contributes to filling this gap by providing an overview of Haiti's labor markets and the determinants of labor income over a decade, focusing on growing urban areas. The paper also contributes to the research on Haiti in general, as well as labor markets in fragile countries such as Haiti, in particular through an unprecedented effort to harmonize three household surveys conducted between 2001 and 2012. Building on this exercise, the study provides new insights into the development of labor markets in a particularly turbulent decade for Haiti, one that was marked by the political crisis of 2004 and the earthquake of 2010. In spite of the earthquake, the analysis shows that Haiti's labor markets are characterized by continuity over the period. Somewhat surprisingly, the defining features remain overall unchanged in spite of the shock, pointing to heavy forces shaping economic and labor dynamics.