Suchergebnisse

International audience ; During the 18th century, catechisms used to teach Christian dogma were progressively secularized. These elementary books can be seen as practical books easy to spread among the lower classes (or the children) in order to popularize a science. French Revolution led to a politicization of the catechetical pedagogy. Political catechisms, defined as the summaries of a political doctrine main principles, were widely used in 19th century France for political education. These books inherited traditional Christian catechesis the word "catechism" as a title and the fact that this literature is generally found in the form of questions and answers. In this article we will try to understand the choice of a traditional pedagogy to spread a revolutionary political message. The use of a classical pedagogy in order to regenerate the People, as wanted the elites since 1789, could be considered as an apparent contradiction. We will see, in particular, that catechism became an official pedagogy during the "Directoire". Transmitted by 1830's republican societies, memory of revolutionary catechisms appeared again in 1848, when political education of the men from the lower classes became an emergency. They were indeed new electors in the context of the common suffrage. ; Pendant le XVIIIe siècle, la production des catéchismes destinés à transmettre le dogme chrétien a connu une progressive laïcisation. Ces ouvrages élémentaires sont considérés comme des livres pratiques de vulgarisation destinés à un public enfantin et / ou populaire. La période révolutionnaire conduit à une politisation de la pédagogie catéchistique. Se développent alors rapidement des ouvrages où sont résumés les éléments fondamentaux d'une doctrine politique. Ils empruntent à la catéchèse chrétienne le titre de catéchisme et la forme d'une succession de questions et de réponses. Nous nous interrogerons dans cet article sur le choix de cette pédagogie traditionnelle pour faire passer un message politique révolutionnaire. Il existe une ...

International audience ; During the 18th century, catechisms used to teach Christian dogma were progressively secularized. These elementary books can be seen as practical books easy to spread among the lower classes (or the children) in order to popularize a science. French Revolution led to a politicization of the catechetical pedagogy. Political catechisms, defined as the summaries of a political doctrine main principles, were widely used in 19th century France for political education. These books inherited traditional Christian catechesis the word "catechism" as a title and the fact that this literature is generally found in the form of questions and answers. In this article we will try to understand the choice of a traditional pedagogy to spread a revolutionary political message. The use of a classical pedagogy in order to regenerate the People, as wanted the elites since 1789, could be considered as an apparent contradiction. We will see, in particular, that catechism became an official pedagogy during the "Directoire". Transmitted by 1830's republican societies, memory of revolutionary catechisms appeared again in 1848, when political education of the men from the lower classes became an emergency. They were indeed new electors in the context of the common suffrage. ; Pendant le XVIIIe siècle, la production des catéchismes destinés à transmettre le dogme chrétien a connu une progressive laïcisation. Ces ouvrages élémentaires sont considérés comme des livres pratiques de vulgarisation destinés à un public enfantin et / ou populaire. La période révolutionnaire conduit à une politisation de la pédagogie catéchistique. Se développent alors rapidement des ouvrages où sont résumés les éléments fondamentaux d'une doctrine politique. Ils empruntent à la catéchèse chrétienne le titre de catéchisme et la forme d'une succession de questions et de réponses. Nous nous interrogerons dans cet article sur le choix de cette pédagogie traditionnelle pour faire passer un message politique révolutionnaire. Il existe une apparente contradiction entre l'utilisation d'une forme pédagogique traditionnelle et la diffusion d'un contenu nouveau qui participe de l'œuvre de régénération politique voulue par les élites dès 1789. Nous verrons particulièrement que la pédagogie catéchistique a reçu une caution officielle sous le Directoire. Transmise par les milieux républicains des années 1830, la mémoire des catéchismes révolutionnaire ressurgit ensuite en 1848 alors que la question de l'éducation politique du peuple devenu électeur (du moins pour sa moitié masculine) acquiert un caractère d'urgence.

In the late 1980s, at a time when secularism is becoming a less and less mobilizing concept and "democratization" seems to have reached a deadlock, the minister of Education, Lionel Jospin, launches the renewal of the curriculum. The National Council for Curriculum which was created in 1990 is intended to be the kingpin of this reforming undertaking. By means of interviews and by using the results of a survey into records, the present article analyzes the territory struggles in the bureaucratic field between the National Council for Curriculum, the General Inspectorate of the Ministry of Education, the Directorate for Secondary Education; that is to say the three institutions which were in conflict at that time to take absolute power in the field of pedagogy. It shows how the progressive codification of an institutional modus vivendi makes it possible for a thorough reform of the secondary school curriculum to be initiated, the ending of which is the establishment of a the "common base of knowledge and skills". Adapted from the source document.

The monitorial system is a way of teaching which uses monitors who are the more educated pupils of the school. At the very end of the XVIIIe century, two english pedagogues, Bell and Lancaster, establish this system of education for the poor children. Its founders want it to be both efficient and economic. So the usual pedagogy changes radically. Not only, in these schools, pupils teach pupils but they learn how to read and write simultaneously which is new at that time. Moreover, there are, in each matter, progressive series of lessons, rising step by step. Pupils are taught in different classes according to their proficiencies. Cheap school materials as slates and cardboards are also used. In France, this new way of teaching appears in 1815. In Brittany, between 1817 and 1822, more than fourty schools are established, especially in towns and big villages. But the catholic clergy don't appreciate these rival institutions. According to the Church, the education of the poor should be totally in its own hands. It's worth analysing the consequences of that innovation in Brittany where people are less educated than in the rest of France, very religious and dominated by the rich worthies. Apart from the religious, social and political sides, the pedagogy and the situation of the teachers are also interesting matters. In order to make this study more realistic, these pioneers of primary education are observed through a collection of pen portraits. Actually, considering these two aspects, not much studied by historians until now, changes brought by the monitorial system are notable ; L'enseignement mutuel consiste à utiliser des élèves plus instruits pour enseigner aux autres. A la fin du XVIIIe siècle, deux pédagogues anglais, Bell et Lancaster, élaborent ce système d'instruction en direction des enfants pauvres. Celui se voulant à la fois efficace et économique, on aboutit à une sorte de révolution pédagogique. Non seulement l'enseignement est confié à des enfants mais les élèves apprennent à lire et à écrire en même ...

The monitorial system is a way of teaching which uses monitors who are the more educated pupils of the school. At the very end of the XVIIIe century, two english pedagogues, Bell and Lancaster, establish this system of education for the poor children. Its founders want it to be both efficient and economic. So the usual pedagogy changes radically. Not only, in these schools, pupils teach pupils but they learn how to read and write simultaneously which is new at that time. Moreover, there are, in each matter, progressive series of lessons, rising step by step. Pupils are taught in different classes according to their proficiencies. Cheap school materials as slates and cardboards are also used. In France, this new way of teaching appears in 1815. In Brittany, between 1817 and 1822, more than fourty schools are established, especially in towns and big villages. But the catholic clergy don't appreciate these rival institutions. According to the Church, the education of the poor should be totally in its own hands. It's worth analysing the consequences of that innovation in Brittany where people are less educated than in the rest of France, very religious and dominated by the rich worthies. Apart from the religious, social and political sides, the pedagogy and the situation of the teachers are also interesting matters. In order to make this study more realistic, these pioneers of primary education are observed through a collection of pen portraits. Actually, considering these two aspects, not much studied by historians until now, changes brought by the monitorial system are notable ; L'enseignement mutuel consiste à utiliser des élèves plus instruits pour enseigner aux autres. A la fin du XVIIIe siècle, deux pédagogues anglais, Bell et Lancaster, élaborent ce système d'instruction en direction des enfants pauvres. Celui se voulant à la fois efficace et économique, on aboutit à une sorte de révolution pédagogique. Non seulement l'enseignement est confié à des enfants mais les élèves apprennent à lire et à écrire en même ...

The monitorial system is a way of teaching which uses monitors who are the more educated pupils of the school. At the very end of the XVIIIe century, two english pedagogues, Bell and Lancaster, establish this system of education for the poor children. Its founders want it to be both efficient and economic. So the usual pedagogy changes radically. Not only, in these schools, pupils teach pupils but they learn how to read and write simultaneously which is new at that time. Moreover, there are, in each matter, progressive series of lessons, rising step by step. Pupils are taught in different classes according to their proficiencies. Cheap school materials as slates and cardboards are also used. In France, this new way of teaching appears in 1815. In Brittany, between 1817 and 1822, more than fourty schools are established, especially in towns and big villages. But the catholic clergy don't appreciate these rival institutions. According to the Church, the education of the poor should be totally in its own hands. It's worth analysing the consequences of that innovation in Brittany where people are less educated than in the rest of France, very religious and dominated by the rich worthies. Apart from the religious, social and political sides, the pedagogy and the situation of the teachers are also interesting matters. In order to make this study more realistic, these pioneers of primary education are observed through a collection of pen portraits. Actually, considering these two aspects, not much studied by historians until now, changes brought by the monitorial system are notable ; L'enseignement mutuel consiste à utiliser des élèves plus instruits pour enseigner aux autres. A la fin du XVIIIe siècle, deux pédagogues anglais, Bell et Lancaster, élaborent ce système d'instruction en direction des enfants pauvres. Celui se voulant à la fois efficace et économique, on aboutit à une sorte de révolution pédagogique. Non seulement l'enseignement est confié à des enfants mais les élèves apprennent à lire et à écrire en même ...

The "crisis in education" has been a recurrent theme in discussions about the American school system. In the United States, it was after WWII that the notion gained momentum and a new meaning. Until then, the term "crisis" had been merely used to evoke the dire material and financial state of education. The expression took another turn with the emergence of a debate between proponents of modern education (a model derived from the principles of progressive education) and partisans of liberal education who denounced an intellectual degradation in the school system. This dissertation analyzes this debate and its consequences on the dynamics of education in the United States. This strife between two conceptions of education is set apart by its significant influence and pervasion of society. Indeed, not only did it involve the circle of professional educators but it also touched lay men, so much so that it was integrated by popular culture. Confronted with a confidence crisis in the aftermath of the successful launch of satellite Sputnik, the U.S. government pinpointed the school system as the weak link of the American nation, taking advantage of the wave of criticisms against modern education that had dominated the 1950s. The combination of the debate on education with the logics of the Cold War paved the way for an unprecedented federal intervention in the field of education with the 1958 National Defense Education Act. ; De nos jours, le motif de la « crise de l'éducation » est récurrent dans les discussions publiques sur le système éducatif, et ce des deux côtés de l'Atlantique. Aux Etats-Unis, c'est au lendemain de la seconde guerre mondiale qu'il prend une tournure nouvelle. Jusqu'alors on avait parlé de « crise » pour désigner les difficultés matérielles et financières du système, mais l'expression prend une autre signification après 1945, tandis que s'installe un débat entre les partisans de l'éducation moderne, modèle inspiré par les principes de l'éducation progressiste, et les défenseurs d'une éducation ...

The monitorial system is a way of teaching which uses monitors who are the more educated pupils of the school. At the very end of the XVIIIe century, two english pedagogues, Bell and Lancaster, establish this system of education for the poor children. Its founders want it to be both efficient and economic. So the usual pedagogy changes radically. Not only, in these schools, pupils teach pupils but they learn how to read and write simultaneously which is new at that time. Moreover, there are, in each matter, progressive series of lessons, rising step by step. Pupils are taught in different classes according to their proficiencies. Cheap school materials as slates and cardboards are also used. In France, this new way of teaching appears in 1815. In Brittany, between 1817 and 1822, more than fourty schools are established, especially in towns and big villages. But the catholic clergy don't appreciate these rival institutions. According to the Church, the education of the poor should be totally in its own hands. It's worth analysing the consequences of that innovation in Brittany where people are less educated than in the rest of France, very religious and dominated by the rich worthies. Apart from the religious, social and political sides, the pedagogy and the situation of the teachers are also interesting matters. In order to make this study more realistic, these pioneers of primary education are observed through a collection of pen portraits. Actually, considering these two aspects, not much studied by historians until now, changes brought by the monitorial system are notable ; L'enseignement mutuel consiste à utiliser des élèves plus instruits pour enseigner aux autres. A la fin du XVIIIe siècle, deux pédagogues anglais, Bell et Lancaster, élaborent ce système d'instruction en direction des enfants pauvres. Celui se voulant à la fois efficace et économique, on aboutit à une sorte de révolution pédagogique. Non seulement l'enseignement est confié à des enfants mais les élèves apprennent à lire et à écrire en même temps, ce qui est une nouveauté pour l'époque. En outre, une progression rigoureuse est introduite et les élèves sont groupés selon leurs compétences. Enfin, l'emploi d'un matériel peu onéreux, ardoises et tableaux, est généralisé. La nouvelle méthode est introduite en France en 1815. En Bretagne, entre 1817 et 1822, une quarantaine d'écoles sont fondées, essentiellement dans les villes et les gros bourgs. Mais, l'Eglise y voit bientôt un système concurrent menaçant sa volonté hégémonique dans le domaine de l'instruction populaire. Il est intéressant d'observer les conséquences d'une telle innovation en Bretagne, région qui se distingue, à l'époque, par un des plus faibles niveaux d'instruction de France, une culture dominée par la religion et une vie sociale sous l'emprise des notables. Hormis les aspects religieux, sociaux et politiques, ce qui retient également l'attention, c'est la pédagogie et la condition des maîtres. Ces pionniers de l'instruction primaire font d'ailleurs l'objet d'une prosopographie permettant une approche plus sensible de cette réalité. En effet, dans ces deux domaines, peu abordés dans les études historiques, les changements apportés par l'enseignement mutuel sont loin d'être négligeables

International audience ; Die Französische Revolution zeichnete sich durch den Wunsch aus, den Bürgerinnen und Bürgern ihren Status durch einen entsprechenden Unterricht bewusst zu machen, indem insbesondere ihre republikanische Gesinnung geschult wurde. Das Unterrichten dieser Moral geriet jedoch in eine teleologische Schieflage, die darin bestand, in dieser Moral die Wurzeln der bürgerlichen Instruktion zu sehen, welche unter der Dritten Republik eingesetzt hatte. Die Analyse der "politischen Katechismen" und ihrer Natur – auf den ersten Blick ein Oxymoron – ist von Nutzen, denn es sind gerade sie, seit den Jahren 1870-1880 durch republikanische Historiker erarbeitet, die von der Genealogie der zivilen Unterweisung, ausgeschlossen worden sind. Diese elementaren Werke sind das Erbe der christlichen Pädagogik und zeigen, dass es keine moralische Tabula rasa gab. Hier vollzog sich eine Verschmelzung der Traditionen. Das führte besonders in den Jahren 1830-1848 zum Versuch einer synkretistischen Moral. Die Untersuchung dieser politisch-pädagogischen Literaturgattung erlaubt es, die Geschichte bis in die 1880er Jahre zu rekonstruieren, als Versuche gemacht wurden, eine laizistische Moral zu erfinden: Es wird dargelegt, wie sich zunächst eine Moral etablierte, die auf die Revolution zurückgeführt wurde, dann eine Moral, die republikanisch war und die sich an verschiedene Traditionen anlehnte. Dabei fokussiert der Beitrag insbesondere auf die Gründe der Niederlage des politisch-religiösen Synkretismus, der unter der Ersten und Zweiten Republik angestrebt wurde. ; The French Revolution was marked by a determination to regenerate the citizens through the educational system, in particular by instilling a Republican morality. The study of this morality encounters a teleological bias which sees it as the starting point of the moral and civic instruction set up under the Third Republic. Analysis of political catechisms and of their at first sight oxymoron-ic nature is useful because they were precisely excluded from this genealogy of civic instruction built up by republican historians from the 1870s and 1880s. As heirs to Christian pedagogy, these elementary works illustrate the absence of a moral tabula rasa. There is a fusion of traditions, leading to an attempt at moral syn-cretism, especially in the years 1830-1848. Study of this genre of politico-pedagogic literature makes it possible to reveal the history of the attempts made before the 1880s to invent a secular morality. While showing the progressive development of a revolutionary and then republican morality drawing on many traditions, this article more especially emphasises the reasons for the failure of the politico-religious syncretism attempted under the First and Second Republics. ; La Révolution française a été marquée par la volonté de régénérer les citoyen·ne·s par l'École en instituant notamment une morale républicaine. L'étude de celle-ci se heurte à un biais téléologique consistant à y voir les prémisses de l'instruction morale et civique mise en place sous la Troisième République. L'analyse des catéchismes politiques et de leur nature, à première vue oxymorique, est utile car ils ont précisément été exclus de cette généalogie de l'instruction civique élaborée par les historiens républicains dès les années 1870-1880. Héritiers de la pédagogie chrétienne, ces ouvrages élémentaires illustrent l'absence de table rase morale. Une fusion des traditions s'opère et aboutit à une tentative de syncrétisme moral notamment dans les années 1830-1848. L'étude de ce genre de la littérature politico-pédagogique permet de faire l'histoire des tentatives antérieures aux années 1880 pour inventer une morale laïcisée. Tout en montrant l'élaboration progressive d'une morale révolutionnaire puis républicaine puisant à de multiples traditions, cet article insistera plus particulièrement sur les raisons de l'échec du syncrétisme politico-religieux tenté sous la Première et la Seconde République.

Tax tool enables states to mobilise resources to invest in health, education, housing, social protection, water and electricity supply or transport infrastructure, all policies essential to the realisation of the rights recognised in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It also allows states to redistribute wealth from the richest sections of the population to the poorest. Finally, tax policy-making is at the heart of democratic self-determination, making the principles of participation and accountability fully relevant. For all these reasons, tax policies can be described as human rights policies and must be assessed as such. This article seeks to define the normative framework which could guide the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in its examination of the tax policies of the States Parties to the Covenant. It submits in that regard that four key standards can be considered. First, it is necessary to broaden the tax base to ensure that taxation, in addition to other sources of public revenue, is able to finance public policies supporting the realisation of economic, social and cultural rights — including access to healthcare, education and housing, but also social security. Secondly, in order to accelerate the reduction of poverty and to guarantee the effective enjoyment of economic and social rights for each individual, fiscal policies need to be sufficiently progressive, bearing in mind that there are different ways of defining and assessing this need for progressivity. Thirdly, there is a need to step up efforts to combat tax evasion, which deprives the State of revenue that is essential to the financing of public policies aimed at the realisation of human rights. Fourth, the requirements of democratic participation and accountability need to be strengthened in the area of taxation. This article examines in turn these elements of a tax policy in line with human rights, in order to identify their potential implications. ; L'outil fiscal permet aux États de ...